essay on jainism in india

The History of Jainism in India Essay

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Introduction

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Jainism is a religious system based on the insights of twenty-four enlightened ‘conquerors’ who taught the way to salvation. The twenty-four are more commonly known as tirthankaras for they crossed the turbulent ocean of the material world to reach the safe shore of enlightenment and perfect bliss. Jains hold that other men and women can achieve enlightenment, but the twenty-four tirthankaras are revered for their special qualities and attributes, most notably their ability to instruct their contemporaries and help them to achieve emancipation. Jainism is a system of practices for enlightenment; all other aspects (temples, idols, rituals, clothing and food customs, the extensive cosmology) are subsidiary.

In India, Jainism appeared several thousand years ago, but the exact date tracked back to life and teaching of Parshvanatha. The major division within Jainism that between the Shvetambars and Digambars–was firmly established by the fifth century; and according to Jain tradition this was not the first but the eighth major schism to have occurred within the fold. Schisms have occurred with impressive regularity, and new groups continue to appear, so that today there is quite a range of contending traditions practising and preaching subtly different versions of Jainism (Sanghivi 54).

Temple worship has always been controversial in Shvetambar Jainism, and there is a fairly continuous tradition of organized opposition. which goes back at least to the fifteenth century, when the Gujarati layman Lonka Shah claimed to have discovered in ancient texts that the practice was illegitimate. He founded a new sect, the Lonka Gacch, from which the Sthanakvasis and Terapanthis of today are descended. These traditions are influential, although they have fewer followers than the Mandir Margi traditions (Sanghivi 58). The Terapanth especially is skilful at projecting itself as a modern movement, and as representative of Jainism as a whole in national and international religious fora.

So the Mandir Margi schools, such as the Tapa Gacch and Khartar Gacch, maintain their practice of temple worship against the opposition from these traditions, as a deliberate and sustained choice. The renouncers, although they are restricted by their monastic vows in the role they may play in temple ritual, are none the less vociferous in providing, in print and in their sermons, powerful intellectual justifications for the practice, and replies to the arguments of rival schools (Cort23, 31).

The Shvetambar Terapanth was founded in the eighteenth century in western Rajasthan, by a disillusioned Sthanakvasi renouncer who is now known to his followers as Acarya Bhikshu. Like the tradition he came from, Bhikshu was opposed to the worship of temple idols, but he also objected to the way Sthanakvasi renouncers lived in halls built specially for their use, and prescribed instead that his disciples should sleep in the homes of lay followers.

He had some distinctive teachings about non-violence, and the relation of Jainism to social ethics, which will be discussed below (Sanghivi 61). The Terapanth has come to have a distinctive organization too. Whereas in all other Shvetambar traditions renouncers live under the authority of their own guru, and small travelling groups have day-to-day autonomy from the most senior renouncers (acaryas) of the tradition, the Terapanth is a single, tightly-run sect, in which all renouncers are answerable to a single acarya. The present leader, Acarya Tulsi, has been particularly effective in using the modern mass-media to raise the public profile of this sect in India (Cort23, 33).

The Kanji Swami Panth, though formally Digambar, pursues a vigorous proselytizing campaign whose targets include Shvetambars and also non-Jains. Although it does give formal recognition to Digambar monks, this sect does not have renouncers of its own and is led instead by lay pandits, who give lectures and conduct study sessions to promote its views (Sanghivi 51). It was founded in the mid-1930s by a Shvetambar monk from southern Gujarat, who switched allegiance, declaring himself a Digambar layman. It is now influential in Jaipur through its alliance with a local Digambar group there, the followers of the eighteenth-century Jaipur layman, Pandit Todarmal.

Like Kanji Swami (and like Banarsidas, another lay reformer of a century before him Todarmal was influenced by the mystical doctrines attributed to the second-century Digambar saint Kunda Kunda (Dundas 101). This movement does not oppose temple ritual–its followers worship in Digambar temples–but its teachers concentrate on the dissemination of the Kanji Swami version of Jainism, which differs distinctly from that taught by the Mandir Margi traditions. This they do in Jaipur from a well-organized, entirely lay organization running an extensive publishing and teaching programme in Todarmal’s name.

The Khartars opposed the so-called temple-dwellers, and argued that laxity in this area led to attachment to material possessions, and so to disregard for other rules on non-violence and receiving alms (Sanghivi 84). In 1024, it is said, king Durlabha arranged a public debate at Anahillawara Patan, between the itinerant renouncer Jineshvar Suri, and Sura, a prominent temple-dwelling monk. Not only did Jineshvar defeat his opponent, but the king bestowed on him the epithet ‘Khartar’–sharp-witted and fierce–and from this the present order takes its name (Cort 41).

At a little over three million, they make up less than a half of one per cent of the population of India (see appendix 3). They are to be found in very small numbers in all parts of the country, but are concentrated in three large home territories. Jains living elsewhere tend to think of themselves as coming originally from one of these areas, and often look there for marriage partners. The first of these regions is in the Deccan, where the greatest concentration of Digambars lives. There are, it seems, whole districts in this region where the majority of Jains are farmers, and where Jain farmers make up the majority of the population (Dundas 101).

The second area concerned with, is a wide band stretching across north- western India, encompassing the cities of Delhi and Bombay, the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the contiguous areas of the Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh. This is where the main concentration of Shvetambars is to be found, although even here the population is unevenly spread. Certain villages and small towns are predominantly Jain, but no whole District has a Jain population which exceeds 7 per cent of the total (Cort 39). The third region covers Delhi, the eastern parts of Rajasthan, and the neighbouring parts of Madhya Pradesh, so it overlaps with the eastern end of the Shvetambar block. Jainism drew its first supporters from among urban peoples, largely traders and merchants–from the same milieux, in fact, as did Buddhism.

The social homogeneity of the lay Jain community in subsequent millennia has sometimes been exaggerated, but the extent to which Shvetambar Jainism especially has remained a religion of the commercial élite is by any standards remarkable. Such references as there are to lay Jains in the Shvetambar canon simply presume that those who are not kings will be wealthy merchants (Sanghivi 97).

Jains can be described as men and women who have left their families and given away all their material possessions to lead a wandering life of asceticism and religious teaching. There are several different Jain traditions, and the rules which renouncers follow vary between them, but in all cases the life they prescribe is one of justly famed severity. Jains make a distinction between soul and non-soul, between living and dead.

All souls are eternal and uncreated, simply existing, like the universe they inhabit (Sanghivi 87). This universe is a physical structure, composed of non-living (ajiva) matter and of finite, though immense, size. It is shaped roughly like a man, his legs astride, his hands on his hips. In the centre, at about the ‘waist’, lies our layer of the universe. In the centre is Mount Meru, and surrounding it are seas and continents arranged in concentric circles. Part of one of these continents is the land we inhabit, Bharata, the land that was home to the Jain cosmologists and into which the twenty-four tirthankaras were born.

Other tirthankaras are born in other continents in such a way that there is always a tirthankara preaching in the realms men inhabit: emancipation is possible, and correct action in Bharata can lead to rebirth in such a place (Dundas 104).

Some parts of the continents, including Bharata, are subject to fluctuations in the time cycle of the universe, such that the possibility of the birth of a tirthankara and the emancipation of men is possible at a time in which happiness and unhappiness are present in more or less equal proportion: too much of one or the other and the human race is not capable of producing those giants who are able to appreciate both the transience of worldly happiness and the possibility of unalloyed bliss. Other continents, however, perpetually bask in the right balance, and there is always a tirthankara there, preaching liberation (Cort 49). The main symbols of Jainism are swastikas and The hand with a wheel on the palm (see appendix 1,2).

Gods inhabit the heavens and the first of the hells, while demons inhabit the other six hells. Good or bad actions in this world can lead to rebirth in these realms. Above the highest heaven, at the very top of the universe, lies a crescent-shaped beliefs, the resting place of emancipated souls. When the soul is freed from karma it rises through the universe to inhabit this region (Shah 77). In this way Jainism differs from, for example, Hindu schools of thought which either do not view all souls (of men, gods, animals, demons) as interchangeable (one soul can exist in all states serially), or else perceive the universe as an expression of some higher being (Sanghivi 99).

That is to say, in doctrinal Jainism there is no distinction made between the mundane and the transcendental: the universe, and everything in it, is knowable and classifiable; even the experience of omniscience and emancipation is described and documented. This is the source and centre of Jain ‘atheism’–there is for the Jains no supreme transcendent being in the universe, nor any means of divinely assisted salvation. The tirthankaras (and other liberated souls) once emancipated, are unable to intervene in the affairs of men and the universe, for this would involve action and re-entanglement with karma. Larger local Jain communities maintain buildings called upashrayas, often attached to temples, for renouncers to lodge in (Shah 82).

In sum, Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India based on century old traditions and unique beliefs. Jainism is at its most distinctive on two counts: in its conceptions of the universe and of the soul. Souls for the Jain philosophers are discrete, pure entities, without weight or size but conforming to the shape of the body they inhabit, and are fundamentally immutable. They are all, however, barring those that have achieved emancipation, contaminated by non-soul matter (karma) which ties them to the world, to the cycle of life and death.

Cort, J. E. Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India . Oxford University Press, USA, 2001.

Dundas, P. The Jains (Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices). Routledge; 2 edition, 2002.

Sanghivi, J. S. A Treatise On Jainism . Forgotten Books, 2008.

Shah, N. Jainism : The World of Conquerors . Sussex Academic Press, 1998.

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6 facts about Jains in India

Jainism is one of the world’s oldest religions , originating in India at least 2,500 years ago. The spiritual goal of Jainism is to become liberated from the endless cycle of rebirth and to achieve an all-knowing state called moksha . This can be attained by living a nonviolent life, or ahimsa, with as little negative impact on other life forms as possible.   

The traditions of Jainism were largely carried forward by a succession of 24 tirthankaras, or teachers, most notably Vardhamana Mahavira, the last of the tirthankaras and likely a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Both Mahavira and Buddha emphasized the importance of self-discipline, meditation and ascetic life as the key to salvation. Their teachings often stood in contrast to those of Vedic priests of the time who emphasized ritual practices and their own role as intermediaries between humanity and the gods. 

Today, a sliver of India’s population (0.4%) identifies as Jain, making it the smallest of the country’s six major religious groups after Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Buddhism. Indians overall know very little about this ancient religion and its practices, according to a June 2021 Pew Research Center report based on a survey of nearly 30,000 Indians. Here are six facts about Jains in India, from the report.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to take a closer look at the Jain population in India. It is based on the June 2021 report “ Religion in India: Tolerance and Segregation ,” the Center’s most comprehensive, in-depth exploration of Indian public opinion to date. For this report, we completed  29,999 face-to-face interviews in 17 languages  with adults ages 18 and older living in 26 Indian states and three union territories. The sample included interviews with 22,975 Hindus, 3,336 Muslims, 1,782 Sikhs, 1,011 Christians, 719 Buddhists and 109 Jains. An additional 67 respondents belong to other religions or are religiously unaffiliated. Interviews for this nationally representative survey were conducted from Nov. 17, 2019, to March 23, 2020.

Respondents were selected using a probability-based sample design that would allow for robust analysis of all major religious groups in India, as well as all major regional zones. Six groups were targeted for oversampling as part of the survey design: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and those living in the Northeast region. Data was weighted to account for the different probabilities of selection among respondents and to align with demographic benchmarks for the Indian adult population from the 2011 census.

Here are  the questions used  for this report, along with responses, and  its methodology .

Jains are concentrated in India’s West , largely in Maharashtra. Despite Jainism’s historic origins in India’s Eastern region , few Jains remain in the East. The changes in the regional concentration of Jains are believed to have started around 300 B.C.E. when Jains began migrating to the West , possibly in search of more favorable kingdoms. Today, 4% of the population of Mumbai – the capital of Maharashtra and the commercial and business center of India – identifies as Jain.

Jains are more highly educated and wealthier than Indians overall, and few identify as lower caste. Roughly a third (34%) of Jain adults have at least a college degree, compared with 9% of the general public, according to India’s 2011 census. Moreover, the vast majority of Jains fall into India’s top wealth quintiles , according to India’s National Family and Health Survey.

Wealth and education in India are inextricably linked with caste. Jains are the only religious group in India where a majority say they are members of a higher General Category caste . Most Indians (68%) are members of lower castes (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes or Other Backwards Classes), compared with 20% of Jains who identify with these communities.

Almost all Jains are vegetarian, in line with guidance to pursue ahimsa (not harming other life). Roughly nine-in-ten Indian Jains (92%) identify as vegetarian, and two-thirds of Jains (67%) go further by abstaining from root vegetables such as garlic and onion. Eating root vegetables is seen as a form of violence in Jain teachings because consuming the root of a plant destroys the plant in its entirety. These dietary practices extend outside the home; more than eight-in-ten Jain vegetarians also say they would not eat food in the home of a friend or neighbor who was non-vegetarian (84%) or in a restaurant that served non-vegetarian food (91%).

Jains feel they have a lot in common with Indian Hindus. Despite theological differences between Jain and Hindu teachings – for instance, Hinduism teaches that the universe was created, but Jainism does not – the two religions share many similarities in their teachings and practices. For example, both religions teach about karma, and roughly three-quarters of both Jains (75%) and Hindus (77%) say they believe in karma. (Karma is often understood as the idea that humans will eventually reap the benefits of their good deeds and pay the price for their bad deeds, often in their next life, though survey respondents were not offered a definition.)

Moreover, when asked whether Jains and Hindus in India have a lot in common or are very different, about two-thirds of Jains (66%) say that the two communities have a lot in common.

However, that feeling is not fully reciprocated. Just 19% of Hindus see a lot of commonality with Jains. One reason for this mismatch may be that Jains tend to know more about Hindus – who make up 81% of the Indian population – than vice versa. Three-in-ten Jains say they know “a great deal” about the Hindu religion and its practices, while just 3% of Hindus say they know a lot about Jainism.

Like many Indians, Jains tend to prefer living separately from other religious and caste groups. While nearly all Jains (92%) say they would be willing to accept a Hindu neighbor, significantly fewer say they would be willing to accept a Muslim (38%), Christian (46%), Sikh (55%) or Buddhist (58%) in the area where they live. Moreover, large majorities of Indian Jains say it is important to stop both women (82%) and men (81%) from marrying into other religious groups. And despite making up a small share of the national population, nearly three-quarters of Jains say that all or most of their close friends are also Jain (72%).

These attitudes are not uncommon in India – majorities of Hindus also oppose religious intermarriage – and may in part be tied to Jains’ particular demographic makeup. For example, while a majority of Jains identify as members of the higher General Category castes, Buddhists in India overwhelmingly identify as Dalits, or members of the lower Scheduled Castes. In fact, Jains are much more likely than other Indians to say that they would not accept a member of a Scheduled Caste as a neighbor (41% vs. 21% nationally). Moreover, large majorities of Jains say it is important to stop both women (79%) and men (74%) in their community from marrying into other castes.

Dietary preferences may also play a role in Jain attitudes about other groups; unlike Jains, most Muslims and Christians in India, for example, say they are not vegetarian.

Politically, Jains lean toward the country’s ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Seven-in-ten Jains say they feel closest to the BJP, while just 8% say they feel closest to the Indian National Congress (INC), the main opposition party. In fact, Jains are more likely than other religious communities in India, including Hindus, to feel political affinity with the BJP: Fewer than half of Hindus (44%) say they feel closest to the BJP, a party that some say promotes a Hindu nationalist agenda .

Jains’ political preference for the BJP may in part be tied to their views on religion and national identity, which in some ways reflect Hindu nationalist sentiments more akin to their Hindu compatriots than other minority communities in India. A significant share of Jains (44%) say being Hindu is very important to truly being Indian, as do a majority of Hindus (64%). Among other religious groups, far fewer people share this view, including just 21% of Sikhs. A slim majority of Jains (54%) also tie authentic Indian identity with speaking the Hindi language, one of the dozens of languages spoken in India. Among Hindus, these sentiments are closely associated with support for the BJP.

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Kelsey Jo Starr is a research analyst focusing on religion at Pew Research Center .

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Jainism: A Religion of Compassion and Non-violence

• First Online: 01 August 2023

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• Kirti Tyagi 3 &
• Kamlesh Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4256-7809 4  

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Jainism is the sixth-largest religion in India and is referred to as the religion of non-violence. The present chapter focuses on understanding the application of Jain practices and principles in the context of positive psychology, mental health, and other psychological outcomes. First, we begin by briefly discussing Jain philosophy, its historical roots, divisional sects, and the demographic distribution of the community. Then we highlight some fundamental teachings and principles of Jainism and their contribution to spirituality, well-being, virtues, and perspective-taking. We then proceed to describe primary practices and principles of Jainism that contribute to positive psychology, emphasizing specifically on virtues and character strengths; and on well-being, peace education, pro-environmental attitudes, positive interpersonal relationships, positive mental health, and empirical evidence for Jain prekshā meditation. The chapter concludes by discussing the implications and significance of Jain practices and principles and the need for more empirical research.

“ Ahimsā Paramō Dharmā ( Non-violence is the Greatest Dharma )” Lord Mahāvīra ( Jain , 2007 , p. 13 )

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Tattvārthasūtra is a famous Jain holy text which elaborate on the principles of existence and karma philosophy (Jainpedia: The Jain Universe Online, n.d.).

The five Yamas are the first step of eightfold step of Patanjali’s Yogasūtra . These are the code of conducts which helps in the journey of self-realization (Dhand, 2002 , p. 355).

Kalpa Sūtra is Śvetāmbara Text and Tattvāratha is Digamabar Text.

Ten virtues: chastity, gentleness, non-possession, purity, forbearance, austerity, gentleness, truth, uprightness, restraint, and renunciation.

Tapa : six external and six internal austerities (for detail see Gada, 2015 , pp. 73–74).

Jains, like everyone else in India, celebrate Diwali. Except for the section where they also celebrated it as the day Mahāvīra attained mōksha , all other rituals are similar. In Hinduism, Diwali, commonly known as the “Festival of Lights”, is a significant holiday. The celebration commemorates the return of Lord Rāmā to Ayodhya.

Ten virtues (for details refer to Gada, 2015 , pp. 76–77),

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Tyagi, K., Singh, K. (2023). Jainism: A Religion of Compassion and Non-violence. In: Singh, K., Saxena, G. (eds) Religious and Spiritual Practices in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2397-7_9

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CONTRIBUTIONS OF JAINISM TO INDIAN CULTURE

Chapter xvii.

A brief historical survey of Jainism attempted here gives an idea of the gradual spread of Jainism in different parts of India. The period between the ninth and the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden period in the history of Jainism because Jainism made the striking progress. At this time, it enriched the Indian culture in many spheres. The life of the Jaina monks with lofty ideals was inspiring, and the Jaina  Srävakas  were highly devoted to their religion. Jainism flourished along with other religions such as Buddhism, Vaishanavism and Áaivism. Jainism has certain distinguishing features, and its distinct contributions to the Indian culture are as follows.

(1) ETHICAL SPHERE

Jainism made contributions to Indian culture in different spheres, but they are very significant in ethical sphere. This religion seems to have remained a moral code for the uplift of the masses, because Jaina teachers preached ethics but not the religious dogmas. Mahavira preached the five vows, non-violence  Ahimsä , truthfulness  satya , avoidance of theft  asteya  and non-possession  (Aparigraha ) and celibacy  (Brahamacarya ). After Mahävïra, the subsequent Jaina teachers Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Haribhadra, Akalanka, Jineávarasüri, Hemachandra and Hïravijayasüri propagated ethical principles among the people irrespective of caste and creed. Their objective was not to convert these people to Jainism, but to bring about moral uplift in the society.

(A) AHIÃSÄ :  The substantial contribution of Jainism to Indian culture is the doctrine of  Ahiãsä  or non-violence. Thought this doctrine has been accepted in most of the Indian religions from time to time in different degrees, it was preached by Jainism in minute form. From the edicts of Aáoka, it is known that he prohibited the slaughter of animals. In Jainism, this doctrine was understood in the sense of thought, word and action. Live and let live others. All the creatures want to live but not to die. Kindness to creatures is Kindness to oneself. Before Mahävïra, there was too much slaughter of animals and injury to creatures. This practice of violence polluted the whole atmosphere of the society. This principle of non-violence was responsible for reducing the element of violence in Vedic sacrifices and rituals. It is due to the influence of  Ahimsä  that large number of people in India gradually became vegetarian. Some ruling chiefs of India ordered strict observance of non-violence on certain days in their kingdoms. Mahäräja Älhaîadeva Chauhäna, ruler of Näâol, issued injunctions to his subjects in 1152 A.D. forbidding the slaughter of animals on certain days in his kingdom 1 . Encouraged by Devendra Süri, Samarasiãha, the Guhila ruler of Mewar, issued an ordinance prohibiting the slaughter of animals in his kingdom 2 . Impressed by the preaching of Devasüri, Mahäräîä Jagatsiãha issued an ordinance for the stoppage of catching of fish or other living creatures from certain lakes and destruction of animals on certain days. 3  Even the great Mughal emperor Akbar forbade the slaughter of animals at the persuasion of the Jaina saints Hïravïjayasüri and Jinachandra Süri. 4  The practice of feeding and sustaining the insects, birds and animals followed in ancient times was the result of the doctrine of  Ahiãsä . An inscription of 1715 A.D. engraved in the Jaina temple at Deoli 5  in the former Pratapgarh State in Rajasthan records that the oilmen of the town agreed to stop working their mills for 44 days in a year at the request of Säraiyä and Jïvaräja of the  Mahäjana  community in the reign of Mahärävala Pôithvïsiãha.

Ahiãsä  does not mean that Jainism does not sanction fighting on the battle-field for the right cause. In the history of India, there are instances where numerous Jaina warriors such as Chämuîâaräi, Áäntinätha, Gaõga, Bappa Vastupd Tezpale Kalkacarya did not lag behind the followers of other faiths in battle-fields for the cause of mother-land, self-respect and family honour.

(B) APARIGRAHA :  Another great ethical contribution of Jainism to Indian culture is the doctrine of  Aparigraha  or non-possession. Jaina teachers owned nothing and wanted nothing. They were free from fear and want. It was natural that those who came into contact with them were influenced by their example of renunciation. As a result, several kings, ministers and wealthy merchants led simple lives thinking wealth and power to be used for the welfare of all living beings. Their personal needs became highly limited. They spent for themselves only to the extent of their minimum needs, and the surplus was spent on the welfare activities like learning, food, medicine and shelter. These are the most practical needs which the Jainas adopted to win for themselves allegiance and devotion of masses. As a result, Jainism made a striking progress specially from the ninth to the twelfth century A.D.

(C) BRAHMACHARYA :  Jainism considers the vow of celibacy  (Brahmacharya)  to be the highest austerity, and Jaina teachers in all ages propagated it among the masses.

As a result, Jainas, in spite of being rich merchants and occupying high official posts, did not indulge generally in polygamy. Not only Jainas, but others also like kings, Ministers and ordinary men observed the vow of celibacy in one form or other because of the influence of Jainism. The observance of this doctrine by the people in some form protected them from committing many crimes and evils. It created healthy atmosphere in society, and made the people virtuous.

(D) THEORY OF KARMA :  The theory of Karma is also a notable contribution of Jainism. According to it, pleasure and pain, happiness and misery of the individual depend upon karmas. Karmas are produced by mind body and speech. Eternal peace and infinite bliss are to be attained through annihilating the old karmas by the practice of austerities, and by stopping the influx of new karmas by the practice of self-restraint. Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct are the three essential points which lead to perfection by the destruction of karma. This theory does not believe in God or Creator, but emphasizes that man is the architect of his own destiny. By propagating such ideas of the theory of Karma, Jaina, monks made the people responsible for their actions.

(E) DOCTRINE OF NAYA :  The doctrine of  Naya , as propounded by Mahävïra, in opposition to the agnosticism of Sañjaya is an out-standing and important contribution to Indian culture.  Nayas  were actually the ways of expressing the nature of things from different points of view. It also began to be called  Anekäntaväda , which is true from last scepticism  saõsayaväda  and dognatism. It does not mean compromise or doubt or uncertainty, but it means that truth is many-sided and it can also be realized piecemeal, and one must be tolerant enough to understand the viewpoints of others.

There were many religious sects and philosophical views prevalent in ancient India. Mahävïra and the subsequent teachers of Jainism were tolerant in religious matters and this doctrine laid stress on the fact that there should be room for the consideration of teachings and views of all religious sects which avoided sqnabbles and quarrels among religious exponents. This attitude in religious matters produced an atmosphere of mutual harmony among the followers of different sects who began to appreciate the views of their opponents as well. This doctrine produced an atmosphere of mutual harmony and made the Jainas broad-minded. Throughout the history whenever the Jaina rulers were in power, there is not a single instance of tyranny on the followers of other religions. Because of the broad-mindedness of the Jainas, there are several instances when rulers became patrons of Jainism by giving liberal grants to them though they did not adopt it

(2) JAINA SAMGHA :  Another contribution of the Jainas is that they possessed a unique power of organization. Strict discipline was established in the Jaina  Saãgha  (church) by laying certain rules of conduct both for ascetics and  Árävakas  (laymen). There are four orders of the Jaina  Saãgha  – monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. The noble conduct of the monk is regarded as an ideal example to be followed by the people. He is actually the guide, the guardian and the leader of the society.

Jainism made laity as also monks participants in the Jaina  Saãgha  by imposing certain rules of conduct. The laymen were householders and as such they could not actually renounce the world but they could, at least, observe the five samall vows called  Aîuvrata . The similarity of their religious duties differing not in kind but in degree, brought about the close union of laymen and monks. Most of these regulations meant to govern the conduct of laymen were apparently intended to make them participate in a measure and for sometime, in merits and benefits of monastic life, without obliging them to renounce the world altogether. As a consequence, laymen became greatly conscious, disciplined and enlightened. This type of organization gave the Jaina a deep roof in India, and that roof firmly planted among the laity enabled Jainism to withstand the storm that drove Buddhism out of India. Besides, by occupying the influential posts of administration and by becoming leaders of society, these laymen gave proper guidance to the society, from time to time.

• POLITICAL SPHERE : The contribution of the Jainas in the political sphere is noteworthy. By playing the part of king-makers, Jaina sages had secured for generations royal patronage. They also acted as political instructors of the kings. The first historical emperor Chandragupta Maurya, who was the disciple of Jaina teacher Bhadrabähu, established an efficient administration. During the reign of Khäravela, Jaina missionaries used to preach the gospels of Jainism in his kingdom. The Ganga kingdom was the creation of Jaina sage Siãhanandi. The Gaõga ruler Kongunivarma secured his kingdom from the Jaina preceptor Siãhanandi. The great Räshûraküta ruler Amoghavarsha, who became the follower of Jainism under Chief preceptor Jinasena, governed his subjects well. Kumärapala, who adopted Jainism by the influence of the powerful Saint Hemachandra, made his State a model Jaina State.

Winning over the feudal lords and great commanders, the Jaina teachers assured them of success in various provincial seats over which these officials were placed. The Jaina sages produced not merely devout followers who could perform orthodox duties, but mighty leaders of armies who liberated their country from the enemies. Jaina ministers administered the kingdoms efficiently. The Jainas gave practical expression to the ideal of human brotherhood in the shape of four well known gifts of food, shelter, medicines and learning.

Jainism contributed to the material welfare of the country. In addition to the kingdom, it had founded or helped to stabilize, it had substantially added to the commercial development of the land. As a result of the influence of Jainism, people abstained from taking wine and meat along with other abition (Vyasanes) and followed  rules of justice and religion in their respective Kingdoms.

(3) SOCIAL SPHERES

(A) CASTE SYSTEM :  The great contribution of Jainism in social sphere is that it observed no distinction of caste and creed. According to it, religious salvation is birthright of every one, and it is assured if one follows the prescribed rules of conduct. According to it, birth is nothing, caste is nothing but action is everything. The doctrine of  Karma  made the individual conscious of his responsibility for all actions. One becomes a Brähmaîa or a Kshatriya or a Vaiáya or a Áüdra by one’s actions. Though Mahävïra was a Kshatriya, he himself was styled ‘ Mahaîa ‘ or  Mahämahana  (Great Brähmaîa). His religion was accepted by a large number of men and women belonging to different castes and classes. The contemporary kings, queens, princes and ministers became his followers. Among the kings, Árenika, Kunika and Ceûaka are prominent. His chief eleven disciples known as Gaîadharas were  Brähmanas  who helped the Master to spread his faith. Besides, he attracted a large number of rich bankers and merchants. He also tried his best for improving the lot of the oppressed of Vajrabhümi and Ávabhrabhümi by his teaching Harikeshi, born in the family of Chaîâälas, became a  monk  possessing some of the highest virtues. Several contemporary clans such as the Lichchhavïs, the Vajjis, the Jñätrikas, the Mallas, the Ugras and the Bhogas came under the influence of Mahävïra.

Even after Mahävïra, Jainism observed no distinction of caste and creed based on birth. The Nanda ruler and Chandragupta Maurya, who are said to be the Jainas, were of humble caste. According to traditions, the Áaka ruler Nahapäna, after his defeat at the hands of Gautamïputra Sätakarîi, abdicated the throne and became a Jaina monks, called Bhütabali. From the Kushäîa inscriptions of Mathura, it is known that Jainism was followed by the people irrespective of castes and creeds. Rämagupta is known to have installed Jaina images at Vidisha. Harigupta was the spiritual preceptor of the Hüna ruler Toramäîa. The early medieval period was the most flourishing time for Jainism in India. Most of the ruling dynasties in one way or other came under the influence of Jainism. A.S. ALTEKAR 6  holds the view that probably one-third of the Deccan was the follower of Jainism. The Vïra Banajigas of the south practised Jainism. Even in Northern India, a large number of people accepted Jainism and formed the castes of Osavälas, Khaîâelavälas, Agravälas, Poravälas, etc. Some agricultural sections of the south were also devoted to Jainism.

(B) POSITION OF WOMAN :  Another notable contribution of Jainism in social sphere is that it made no distinction of sex by admitting women into the Jaina  Saãgha . They used to lead a life of celibacy with the aim of understanding and following the eternal truths of religion and philosophy. Ajita, Chandanä, Jayantï etc. were the famous nun-disciples of Mahävïra. These nuns were permitted to study Jaina scriptures. Some of them were learned scholars. Haribhadrasüri, a notable scholar of Jainism of the eighth century A.D., was deeply inspired by a Jaina nun called Yäkinï. 7

From the inscriptions of South India, it is known that Jainism was liberal towards women. A large number of lay-women and nuns have been mentioned as devotees of Jainism. They were drawn from all sections – royalty, nobility, Ministers and generals. 8  Jakkiyabbe appointed in husband’s place after his death was skilled in ability for good government. She was faithful to  Jinendra Áäsana . The ladies of the Kadamba, Gaõga and Hoysala families and wives of feudatories, commanders and other officials played the distinguished role in the propagation of Jainism. Kanti, orator and poet, along with Abhinava Pampa, was one of the gems that adorned the court of the Hoysala King Balläla I. There were not only lay women disciples but also preceptors. There were two different categories of women in Jaina monastic organization in the South – Ordinary women who renounced the world, and took the life of asceticism. The ?? were higher in status. 9

(4) ECONOMIC SPHERE

The Jainas made remarkable contributions in the economic sphere from time to time, and it led to the prosperity of the country. The followers of Jainism were mostly bankers and merchants. Even in the time of Mahävïra, the rich householders such as Änanda, Kämadeva, Sardalaputra and Upäli became prosperous by trade and industries.  Pottery  was the favourable profession. The Áramaîa Sädalaputta of Potäsapura had five hundred shops outside the city. The Näyädhammakahä describes how people became rich by inland and foreign trade. It gives realistic description of sea trade. Merchants used to travel in a caravan. Trade and industries were organized into guilds. There were merchant guilds under the chiefs called  Seûhïs . Because of their wealth, they got special status in society. They visited the royal courts as representatives of business community. These merchants contributed to the origin of the coined money which facilitated trade and commerce. The urban centres such as Caãpä, Räjagôiha, Väräîasï, Árävastï, Mathura, Vaiáälï and Ujjayinï, where merchants settled, became prosperous.

Several Jaina Inscriptions of the Kushäîa period found at Mathura point out how people engaged in different industries contributed to the progress of Jainism. The  Aõgavijä , a Jaina text of the Kushäîa period, informs about the development of trade, and mentions different varieties of coins. There was sound money economy. The trade and commerce led to the growth of cities and towns.

The  Kuvalayamälä  and the  Upamitibhavaprapancakahä  give an interesting account of ancient cities and towns. The  Särthaväha  (caravan) took with him a large number of soldiers and weapons in order to ensure safety. From the  Tilakamañzjarï , it is known that some of the rich merchants might have gone by ships to the neighbouring countries of Siãhaladvïpa and Suvarîabhümi. The commence of Rajasthan – Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh was controlled by the Jaina traders. They became prosperous by this trade and commerce. People formed several merchant Jaina castes such as the Osavälas, Khaîâelavälas, Sagheravälas, Poravälas and Agravalas. In the south, the followers of Jainism were Baîajiga merchants. They became prosperous and contributed to the growth of cities. There was a phenomenal increase in inland and overseas trade in Vijayanagara empire during the middle of the 14th century A.D. It led to the consequential increase in the number, importance and affluence of trade guilds.

The Jaina merchants Pethaâa Áäha and Läâäáhäha became prosperous because of trade and commerce. These Jaina traders like Bhämäáäha were great financiers to their monarchs in the time of difficulties. They gained great favours from their masters for Jainism. These Jaina merchants were highly devoted to Jainism, and made the best use of thier wealth. They used to give four gifts learning, food, medicine and shelter. They constructed temples and installed images in them. They got the copies of the manuscripts written and founded  Granthabhaîâäras . They led Saãghas to the holy places for pilgrimage.

(5) SPHERES OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE :  Though most of the objects of Jaina art and architecture have been destroyed by the levelling hand of time and iconoclastic seal of the foreigners, those surviving ones give an idea of contribution that Jainism made to Indian Culture, Jaina objects of art and architecture of very early period have been found. Further, significant Jaina art objects of different periods, and also of separate regions of India are available. From this, it is evident that Jainism made valuable contribution at every stage in the evolution and growth of Indian culture in the sphere of art and architecture. The period between the ninth and the twelfth century A.D. is considered to be the golden age in the history of Jaina art and architecture because its contributions to Indian culture during this period are remarkable.

(A) ARCHITECTURE

(i) STÜPAS AND MONASTERIES :  Jaina architecture is concerned with  Stüpas , monasteries, caves, temples and  Mänastambhas . The  Ävaáyaka Chürîi  of Jinadäsa (C. 676 A.D.) mentons the  Stüpa  dedcated to the 20th Tïrthaõkara Munisuvrata at Vaiáälï, but its remains have not yet been discovered. The  Stüpa  of Mathura dedicated to the seventh Tïrthaõkara, Supärávanätha is known to have been built by the gods  Devanirmita 10 . This shows that it was very old, and its origin was forgotten. Some ascribed it to the third century B.D. while others to the sixth century B.C. In two votive tablets, the figure of this  Stüpa  is found engraved. Another Jaina Stüpa of Mathura is of Kushäîa period. From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. ‘ Nigaûasa Vihära Dïpe 11  inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The excavations 12  conducted at a site called Vaââamanu, named after  Vardhamäna in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of  Jinonavihära  and  Samprativihära  are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name  Samprati-Vihära  proves tha Samprati was a historical figure. At Paharpur in Bengal was found a copper plate inscription of the fifth century A.D. which mentions the name of the Äcärya Guhanandi of  Pañchastüpänvaya  and Jaina  Vihära  (monastery) of Vaûa Gohäli. In excavation also, the remains of the monastery were discovered.

(ii) CAVES :  There are caves and caverns associated with Jainism in the southern Districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the third or second century B.C. engraved on them record mostly the dedication of abodes for Jaina monks. The caves on the Udaigiri and the Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa belong to the second or the first century B.C. as known from the inscription of Khäravela. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. The Son-Bhaîâära cave at Räjgôha in Bihar is assigned to the first century B.C. At Pale in Poona District of Maharashtra, there is a cave with an inscription of the first century B.C. At Pabhosa, near Allahabad, there are two caves with an inscription of the second century B.C. which records their dedication by Ashädhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kaáyapïya Arhats. At Junagarh, (Saurashtra) near Bava Phyära Maûha are a group of Jaina caves of the second century A.D. The Udayagiri cave No. 25 in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the fifth century A.D. The Bhadrabähu cave on Chandragiri hill at Áravaîa Belagolä is noteworthy in the south. The Sittanaväsala cave in Tamilnadu belongs to the third century A.D. The Badami cave of the seventh century A.D. is also worth mentioning. There are the Jaina caves at Ahihole also. The Jaina caves namely Chotä Kailäsa Indra Säbhä and Jagannätha Sabhä are the finest from the artistic point of view. The pillars and walls are exquisitely carved. The Jaina caves at Gwalior or the 15th century belong to the Tomara period.

(iii) TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE :  The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8′ 10″ C 8′ 10″) of the Mauryan period i.e. third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushäîa period, i.e. the second century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the  Nägara , the  Drävida , and the  Väsara  are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nägara style are cruciform plan and curvilinear Áikhara and it was prevalent in the region between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dräviâa style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower, and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed.

Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage of the ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gaõgas, the Chälukyas, the Räshûrakütas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Áantaras in the South. “The Meghuti Jaina temple built in 634 A.D. during the reign of Pulakeáin II by Ravikïrti is said to be the oldest temple of Dräviâa style in the south. The important temple of this style is in Paûûakäla. The Jaina temples at Huvancha and Gudau near Tirthahalli, Lakundi in Dharwad District, Jinanathapura, Halebid, Ganigitti, Tirumalalai, Tiruparuli, Kundarama, Tiruppanayura, “Mudabidri, etc. are noteworthy. Jaina temples built in Kerala region 13  between ninth and eleventh centuries were of two main types – rock-cut and structural temples. Temples were also built in the Vijayanagara empire. These temples give an idea of the Dräviâa style of Jaina architecture of the south.

The Jaina temples of the Nägara style were built in large number in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Jaina temples of Devagarh, Gyaraspur, Badoh and Büâhï Chanderi  in Madhya Pradesh belong to the Pratïhära period. The pillars, gateways and the walls of the temples are finely carved.The Mälädevï temple of Gyäraspur, which is partly rock-cut and partly structural, consists of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. The Jaina temple of Badoh with twenty-five cells was built between the ninth and twelfth century A.D. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Chandella period. These are lofty edifices without any enclosure and erected on a high platform terrace. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples specially doorways, pillar architraves and ceilings are richly carved with figures and intricate geometrical and floral designs. During the Paramära period,  Bhümija  style became popular. The two Jaina temples of 11-12th century A.D. at Un are of this style. The carvings of these temples are of high order. At Bhojapur, near Bhopal, there are remains of the Jaina temple. The Jaina temples of Sonagiri, Muktagiri, Kundalpur and Mandu were built during the Muslim period.

In Rajasthan, the Jaina temple built in the eighth century A.D. at Osia during the reign of Vatsaräja is the oldest, and it consists of a sanctum,  a closed hall and an open porch. it is famous for its carvings. The Jaina shrines at Kumbharia are noteworthy as some of them contain beautiful ceiling slabs. The two celebrated Jaina temples of Abu are the best examples not only of Jaina but Indian architecture. One dedicated to Ädinätha was built by a minister named Vimala in 1031 A.D. while the other was constructed by Tejapäla in 1230 A.D. These temples are famous for the minutely carved decoration of the ceilings, pillars, doorways and niches. The  Dhai din kä Jhoãpra  seems to be originally a Jaina temple constructed by the Chauhäna ruler. Vigraharäja. The  Singhïjï Kä Mandira  at Sanganer belongs to the tenth century A.D. because there is an inscription of 954 A.D. on the  bandaraväla  of the main shrine in the second hall of the temple. The Jaina temple of Áäntinätha at Jhalarapatan was built in 1046 A.D. by Säha Pïpä. The shrine and  Áikhara  of this temple are old. The Jaina temple of Lodorva near Jaisalmer is of the eleventh century A.D., and it’s  toraîadvära  is elaborately carved and richly decorated. The Jaina temple of Räîakapur built in 1440 A.D. is the most complicated and extensive temple. There are twenty domes supported by about 1420 pillars and no two pillars are alike. Besides twelve in the central  Áikhara , there are eighty-six cells of very varied form and size surrounding the interior, and all their facades more or less adorned with sculptures. The great Jaina temples of Chintamani Pärávanätha, Ôishabha, Áantinätha, Sambhavanätha and Mahävïra in Jaisalmer constructed one after another in a period between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries are excellent. Profuse ornamentations in the shape of foliage, flowers birds and human figures were used in decorating every part of the pillar, arch, lintel or bracket of these temples. There are several old temples at Áatrunjaya and Girnar which throw significant light on the gradual development of art.

(iv) MÄNASTHAMBHAS :  The exquisite Jaina  Mänastambhas  are found at Áravaîa Belagolä Muâubidre and Kärkala. The  Mänastambha  of Devagadh is artistic. The Jaina tower known as Kïrtistambha of the 15th century ar Chitor is 80 feet in height, and is composed of eight storeys. It is full of decorations.

(B) JAINA SCULPTURES

The earliest evidence for the worship of image is found among the Jainas. The Häthigumphä inscription of the second or first century B.C. mentions that king Khäravela brought back the image of Kalinga Jina which was taken away by Nandaräja. This proves that Jaina image was worshipped in the fourth century B.C. The earliest known Jaina image is from the Jaina temple of Lohanipura, near Patna, from which two torsos of Jina image were found. These belong to Mauryan period as they are of highly polished stone. A very old bronze of Pärávanätha standing in  Käyotsarga  in Prince of Wale’s Museum, Bombay, seems to be of the first century B.C. However the spot of discovery is not known. A unique bronze image of standing Pärávanätha in the Paddhottai Museum, Tamil Nadu, appears to be of the first century A.D. and it was carried from the North to the South. 14  A bronze image of Ädinätha and a few other Jaina bronze images from Chausa, near Buxar now in Patna Museum, are ascribed to the second or first century B.C.

A large nmber of Jaina images of the Kushäîa period have been discovered at Mathura. The images of the Jaina Tïrthaõkaras are in  Käyotsarga  (standing) and  Padmäsana  (cross-legged) postures. They are made without distinctive symbols except in case of Ädinätha who has a couple of loose locks falling on shoulder and  Supärávanätha  marked by a canopy of a serpent hoods. The Tïrthaõkara images are distinguished by the Árïvatsa symbol on the centre of the chest and haloes round their head. There is an image of Mahävïra seated in  Padmäsana , and one of  Sarvatobhadrikä  (four-fold images). The images of Sarasvatï is the earliest. There was prevalent the worship of the auspicious symbols such a  Stüpa dharmachakra, ratnatriya, Nandipada, Árïvatsa, Kevalavrïksha, Svastika  and double fish as engraved on pillars,  süchis  (cross slabs),  Ushniáas  (coping slabs and the  toraîa  (Gate-way) as found in the excavations conducted at Mathura and Vaââamanu. These auspicious symbols are without any reference to the Tïrthaõkaras in the human form.

Some Jaina images of the Gupta period are also known.  There is a seated figure of Neminätha of the reign of Candragupta  II at Rajagôha. This is the earliest specimen showing the introduction of recognizing symbols of Tïrthaõkaras. Two images of Pushpadanta and one of Candragupta found at Vidiáä were installed by  Mahäräjädhiräja  Rämagupta. A beautiful standing bronze figure of Ôishabha of the Gupta period, and the inscribed bronze image of Jïvantasvämï (550-600 A.D.) were found at Akota. The Vasantagarh hoard contains two joint standing bronze images of Jinas of the seventh century A.D.

In the period between the eighth and the twelfth century A.D., numerous images of Jaina Tïrthankaras and deities were made. “Their design and execution is perfect. Numerous exquisite Jaina images of this period were unearthed at Devagadha. Such beautiful Jaina images were aso discovered at Badanawar, Ujjain, Un. Gandharwal, Vidisha etc. in Madhya Pradesh. As Jaina Áäntinätha, Arahanätha and Kunthanätha were the Chakravarti kings among the Tïrthaõkaras, their images are sometimes found in combination. The image of  Bävan-gazä  (Adinatha) at Badwani appears to be or the 13th century A.D, and it is the tallest in India. In Rajasthan, the Jaina images of this period at Abu, Sanganor, Naraina, Paranagar, Maroth, Baghera etc. are also fine. The Sarasvatï of Pallu is an excellent specimen of Indian sculpture. The colossal Jaina sculpture of Gomateávara carved under the orders of Chämuîdaräya in about 983 A.D. is one of the largest free standing images in the world. A large number of Jaina Yakshï and Gomaûeávara images of the medieval period are found in the south. There are large variety in style and composition of Jaina bronzes of medieval period from Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The Jaian images installed by Jïvaräja Päpaâiväla in V.S. 1548 are found throughout India. The rock-cut sculptures of the medieval period found at Gwalior are unique in Northern India a well for their number as for their giagantic size. Their number is 1500. The standing image of Ädinätha is 17.84 mts. in height and a huge seated image of Sapärsvanäma 10.67 mts. in height and 9.27 mt. broad found here is not noticed any where.

(C) JAINA PAINTING :  The traces of Jaina paintings have been marked in the caves of Udaigiri and Khandagiri belonging to the first century B.C. The wall and roof paintings of Sïttanaväsala in Tamil Nadu are assigned to the reign of Pallava ruler Mahendravarman I (600-625 A.D). In the Jaina temple of Tirumalai and the Jaina monastery of Áravaîa Belagola, Jaina paintings of the eleventh century are found.

The oldest illustrated Jaina palm manuscripts are found in the Jaina  Bhaîâäras  of Mudabidri and Patan. At Mudabidri, five illustrated pages of a copy of the  Shatkhanâägama  were written in 1113 A.D. The illustrated copy of the palm manuscript of  Niáïthachürîi  was written during the reign of the Solankï ruler Jayasiãha (1094-1143 A.D.) The illustrated copy of  Jñätädharmasütra  in the Jaina temple of Áäntinätha is noteworthy. In the Jaina  Bhaîâäras  of Jaisalmer, palm leaf illustrated  Paûûikas  illustrating the previous lives of Neminätha, Pärávanätha and Mahävïra have been found. The  Árävaka   Bratikramaîachürîi  now in the museum of the Fine Arts, Boston, containing six pictures is dated 1260 A.D.

The use of the paper as painting material started on a considerable scale from about the 14th century A.D. The earliest illustrated Jaina paper manuscript is a copy of the  Kalpasütra  written in 1427 A.D. preserved in the India Office Library, London. The illustrated copies  of the  Kalpasütra ,  Kälakächärya Kathä .  Yaáodharacharita, Mahäpuräîa, Ädipuräîa, Bhaktämara  etc. have been discovered in the Jaina Bhaîâäras of Patan, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jaipur and Nagaur. Paintings on cloth have been found. The Chintamaniyantra dated V.S. 1411 (1354 A.D.) in the Nahata Kala Bhawan, Bikaner is important. Among the wooden painted covers of the  bhaîâäras  of Jaisalmer, two belonging to the 12th century are important. While the one illustrated the mutual discussion between Jinadatta Suri and his  Árävakas  while the other illustrated the defeat of Kumudachandra by Devasüri in the religious discussion in the royal court of Siddharäja  Jayasiãha in 1124 A.D. The  Vijñaptipatras  sent from Sirohi, Udaipur, Jodhpur and Mandu in medieval period to the Jaina monks as letters of invitations usually give us a pictoial form the description of the concerned localities. These  Vijñaptipatras  are important from the artistic point of view.

(6) EDUCATION

The contribution of Jainism to the cause of education is also noteworthy. The Jaina religious preachers, who wandered from place to place propagating their doctrines, proved to be potential media of mass education. The permission granted by Jainism for the admission of women into the order provided an impetus to the spread of education and philosophy among the ladies. The salutation to the different classes of sadhus in  Namokäramantra  in Jainism indicates that the teacher was held in high reverence.

In ancient times, the Jaina monasteries and temples became the seats of learning.  Teachers  used to impart education in these institutions to the people irrespective of caste and creed. The Pahärapur copper plates of 478 A.D. record that there was a Jaina Vihära at Vaûa Gohälï, which was presided over by the pupils of the Nirgrantha  teacher  Guhanandin of the  Pañchastüpanikäya  of Banaras. It is worth noting that the founder of the  Vihära  was a monk who migrated from Banaras to the east. The Jaina temple built by the great poet Ravikïrti at Meghuti 15  (Ahihole) in 637 A.D. seems to have been a great centre of learning.

From the Dubkund stone inscription 16  dated 1188 A.D., it is known that there was Jaina monastery at Dubkunda, 114 km south-west of Gwalior at this time. The Jaina teachers used to reside here. The teachers belonging to the Läûavägaûa Gaîa were known such as Devasana, his disciple was Kulabhüshaîa and his disciple again was Durlabhasenasüri. From him sprang the  Guru  Áäntisheîa who defeated the disputants in discussion. His disciple was Vijayakïrti. The Jaina temple of Un, Chabutarä Deorä, was used as a school for children. 17  This is clear from the inscriptions found on the walls of the temple. One inscription consists of certain rules of sanskrit grammar, while another is inscribed on the folds of the body of a snake and consists of various letters, both vowels and consonants of the Indian alphabet, as well as the affixes used in the conjuction of Sanskrit verbs.

The  Pärávanätha-Jina-Vihära  at Dhära and the  Nemichaityälaya  of Nalachhä also served as seats of learning. The Chauhäna ruler Vigraharäja built the  Sarasvatïmandira  which is famous by the name of  Adhai-din-kä-Jhoãprä  at Ajmer. It was probably a Jaina college building meant for higher education and students from the neighbouring places flocked to it for learning. 18  In the thirteenth century A.D., there was a Jaina monastery at Ujjain. 19  Devadhara, Vidyänandasüri and Dharmakïrti Upädhyäya (Dharnaghosha) became head of it one after another.

During the medieval period, Jaina Bhaûûärakas and Árïpüjyas rendered great service to the cause of education. The seats of the Bhaûûärakas became the centres of learning. The seats of the Mülasaãgha were respectively Bhaddalpura, Ujjain, Baran, Gwalior, Chitor, Baghera, Delhi, Ajmer, Nagaur and Amber. The monasteries  and temples were constructed at these places, and these developed gradually into educational institutions. There were libraries attached to the educational institutions. A large number of people were employed for copying the manuscripts which were required for study and learning.  Ächäryas  and  paîâits  were appointed by the Bhaûûäräkas for imparting education to the people irrespective of castes and creeds. The Árïpüjyas established institutions known as  Upäsaräs  for the cultivation and propagation of religious and secular learning.

The Jaina holy places such as Abu, Ujjain, Un (Pävägiri), Sonagiri and Áravaîabelagolä became the seats of learning, because of the frequent visit of the Jaina saints and the Árävakas. Temples and monasteries were built at these places. These gradually developed into great educational institutions. Manuscripts were presented to these institutions for study.

(7) LITERATURE

Jaina literature occupies a prominent place in Indian literature, and considerable contributions have been made by the Jaina scholars to the different branches. Jaina teachers have written literature marked by moral and religious sentiments. because they wanted to bring about the moral uplift of the people. Jaina saints generally wrote their works in simple and popular languages such as Prakrit, Apabhraãáa and the  Deáabhäshäs  for the masses. Their works in Sanskrit are available. They enriched the Kannaâa literature with classics. The Jaina literature is valuable from the point of view of philology and history as the Jaina scholars have made their contributions at every stage in the growth of Indian literature.

(A) CANONICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE :  Originally, there were two kinds of Jaina sacred books – the fourteen  Pürvas  and the eleven  Aõgas . The fourteen  Pürvas  are said to be coming down from the time of Päráva. The fourteen  Pürvas  were reckoned to make up a twelfth  Aõga  called the  Dôisûiväda . The language of the available canon, however, shows a great influence of Mahäräshûrï Prakrit. The  Ägama  or canonical literature, according to the Ávetämbara Jainas consists of eleven  Aõgas , twelve  Upäõgas , ten  Paiîîas  (Prakïrîas) six,  Chhedasütras ,  Nändï  and  Anuyogadvära  and four  mülasütras . Among these different  Aõgas , only the  Ächäraõga , the  Sütrakôitäõga  and the  Uttarädhyayana  contain the old part of the canon from linguistic and literary point of view.

On the other hand, according to the Digambara tradition, some portion of  Dôishûiväda  is saved. But all the eleven  Aõgas  were lost by degrees in course of time. With the loss of their canonical books, the Digambaras keenly felt the need of some authoritive works taking the place of the canon, and this was not by the composition of independent treatises on Jaina religion and philosophy. Kundakunda  (??) the most celebrated of the Digambara author,  who lived in the early centuries of the Christian era , has several books to his credit, among which  Pañchästikäya, Pravacanasära, Samayasära  and  Ÿaûprabhôtas  may be mentioned. Other early Digambara Jaina writers, who wrote in Prakrit, are Vaûûakara ( 2 v  ?), the author of  Mülächära  dealing with the rules of conduct of Jaina monks and  Svämkärtikeyänuprekshä , (2v A.D.) which treats of the twelve reflections on the glaring shortcomings of the worldly life. Bhütabali, disciple of Dharasena, completed the  Shatakhandägama  in C. 75 A.D. Yati Vôishabha is known to have been the author of important works – the  Chürîi-sütras  on the  Kashäyapähuâa  of Guîadhara and the  Karmasütras .

There are also early Digambara Jaina scholars who wrote in Sanskrit. Samantabhadra (2.A.D) is one of the greatest masters of Jaina literature. His known and available works, all in chaste Sanskrit are Äptamïãäsä or Devägama Stotra, Yuktyänuáäsana, Svayambhustotra, Jinastutiáataka or Stuti-Vidyä and Ratnakaraîâa  Árävakachära. Umäsvämin’s or Umäsavati’s 2 A.D.)  Tattavarthä sütra  (also called the Mokshaáästra) occupies an honourable place in Jainism. The earliest available Digamabara commentary on the  Mokshaáästra  is the  Särvärthasiddhi  of Püjyapäda (C. 450 A.D.). Akalaõka was a great logician, whose famous works are Räjavärttika  and Ashûasati. Mänatuõga is the author of the celebrated  Bhaktämara  or  Ädinätha stotra . A tradition associates him with king Árï Harsha (606-647 A.D.) Vidyänandi was a great logician, commentator and exponent of Akalaõka school. He is the author of a number of important philosophicological works.

‘Siddhasena Diväkara is the author of the famous philosophical treatise called  Sanmati-sütra . Mallavädi, author of  Dväda-áäranaya chakra , a work on Logic and perhaps of a  Tïkä  on Siddhasena’s  Sanmati , also belongs to C. 600 A.D. Haribhadrasüri (700-770 A.D.) is the outstanding writer and wrote a large number of books both in Sanskrit and Prakrit. He is the earliest Sanskrit commentator of the canon, and his contributions to Jaina logic area a outstanding. He inaugurated a new era in Yoga literature by writing the  Yogabindu  and  Yogadrishûisamuchchaya . In his  Shad-daráana samuchchaya , he gives a brilliant exposition of the different systems of philosophy-Jinabhadra Kshamäáramaîa is, one of the earliest commentators of the Ávetämbara  Ägamasütras  and is generally known as the  Bhäshyakära  Vïrasena learnt the  Shaûakhaîâägama  and the  Kashäyapräbhôita   from Elächärya at Chitor, and after that, he wrote the  Dhavalä   and portion of the  Jayadhavalä  in the south, in the ninth century. Vidyänanda, Mäîikyanandi and Prabhächandra were famous logicians. They were probably all contemporaries, and lived in about 800 A.D. Amritachandra was a brilliant commentator who expounded Kundakunda’s works and also wrote the  Tattvärthasära ,  Purushärthasiddhupäya , etc. Towards the close of the tenth century A.D., Nemichanda produced a number of philosophic compendiums of considerable importance.

The study of the Jaina Ardha Mägadhï canon was carried a step further by Abhayadeva (1064 A.D.), who wrote commentaries on the nine  Aõgas , and by Áäntisüri and Devendragaîi (eleventh century), both of whom wrote exhaustive commentaries on the important and popular canonical work, the  Uttarädhyana . Amitagati of Malwa composed a compendium of Jaina philosophy called  Pañchasaãgraha . Vädiräja, who lived at the court of the Western Chälukya king Jayasiãha, wrote two works on logic  Pramäîa-Nirîaya  and  Nyäyaviniáchaya vivaraîa . Jinadatta Süri is known to be the author of several books. Hemachandrasüri,  Guru  of Kumärapäla, was the celebrated writer who wrote on different branches of learning. He became famous as  Kalikälasarvajña . He wrote the  Pramanamïmäãsä  with a commentary of his own. His other philosophical works known to us are  Anyayogavyavachchhedikä  and  Yogaáästraáaûïka . Jinapatisuri composed the  Prabodhyavädasthala  and Jineávarasüri wrote the  Dharmavidhi-prakaraîa . Äáadhara is the author of more than twenty works, the  Sägara-Dharmämôita  and Anägära-Dharmamôita being the most famous and popular.

Even after the thirteenth century A.D., literary activities continued among the Jainas. Numerous works were written but most of them were stereotyped, imitative and artificial. They were not spontaneous and natural as they were in early times. Padmanandi, Sakalakïrti and Áubhachandra, Bhaûûärakas of the Mülasaãghas, are known to have written several works, Samayasundra was the profound scholar of Jainism in medieval times and has written several works in Sanskrit. In the 17th century, the poet Räjamalla composed the  Läûisaãhitä, Adhyätmakamalamärtaîâa  and  Pañchädhyäyï . Meghavijaya is the author of  Mätrikäprasäda ,  Brahmäbodha ,  Yuktiprabodhasaûïka  and  Dharmamañjusha .

From the sixteenth century A.D., Philosophical and canonical works began to be written in Hindi 20  when it became the language of the masses. Paîâita Ûodarmala was the reputed author of Hindi prose in the eighteenth century. He prepared commentaries on the hard and obstruse works such as the  Gommaûasära ,  Jïvakarmakäîâa ,  Labdhisära, Khapanasära  and Trilokasära. His  Mokshamärga prakäsa  is an original and independent work which shines like a jewel in Indian literature.  Paîâita  Áivajï Lälä and  Paîâita  Dïpachanda Áäha are known to have written several works in Hindi, Khusäla Chanda Käla, Paîâita Daulataräma and Pärasadesa Nigotyä wrote  Vachanikäs  in Hidni. Jayachandra Chhäbarä, author of the nineteenth century, had good command over both Sanskrit and Prakrit. He made translations of several Sanskrit and Prakrit works in Hindi between 1804 and 1813 A.D.

Canonical and philosophical works were written in Rajasthani language. 21  Samayasündara, Jinaharsha, Jinasamudrasüri and Jitamala of Teräpanthï sect were well-known authors who wrote several works. The most important is the  Bhagavatïsütra  of Jitamala written in sixty thousand  álokas .

(B) RICH NARRATIVE LITERATURE :  Jina literature is full of popular stories, tales and narrative. Jaina scholars were good story-tellers themselves, and therefore, they have left for us numerous Indian tales which otherwise, would have been lost, These tales are found in  kathäs kathäkoáa , epics,  charitra  and the  Puränas . These are found written in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhraãáa, Gujarätï, Räjasthänï and Hindi. These include parables and fables, folk tales and moral anecdotes, tales of romance and adventure and of animal life and supernatural beings, satires and allegories, novels and dramas, even political and historical tales.

(i) KATHÄS, KATHÄNAKAS AND KATHÄKOÁAS :  The Jainas began writing story books from about the beginning of the Christian era. The  Paiîîas  (miscellanea part of the canon) and the Bhagavatï-ärädhanä of Áivärya (1st century A.D.) are the Bhagavatï-arädhanä of Áivärya (1st century A.D.) are believed to have been the ultimate sources for the bulk of independent stories. Svämï Kumära is the author of the  Kärttikeyänuprekshä , a fine and popular didactic work in Prakrit. There is a large number of independent works of fiction as well, more important are the  Dhürtäkhyäna, Samaraichchakathä  and  Kathäkoáa  of Haribhadra (eigth century A.D.) written in Prakrit the  Kuvalayamälä  of Uddyotanasüri (778 A.D.) written in Prakrit. The  Upamitibhavaprapañchakathä  of Siddharshi (905 A.D.)  Tilakamañjarï  of Dhanapäla (970 A.D.), Kathäkoáa of Jineávara,  Dharmaparïkshäs  of Harisheîa (998 A.D.) Amitagati (993 A.D.) and Nayasena (1125 A.D.) respectively.

Sakalakirti, Áubhachandra, Surendrakïrti and Devendrakïrti, Bhaûûärakas of the Mülasäãgha and Somakïrti of Käshaûäsaãgha wrote the  Kathäs . Meghavijaya also wrote the  Kathäs .

There is quite a large story literature in Hindi created by Jaina authors. Brahma Räyamala, Jinadäsa, Khuáäla Chanda Kälä, Bhaûûäraka Devendrakïrti,  Paîâita  Bakhataräma and  Paîâita  Daulataräma wrote the  kathäs .

(ii) EPICS, CHARITRAS, PURAÎAS AND DRAMAS :  The earliest is the Prakrit epic  Paumchariya  by the poet Vimalasüri. It seems to have been written in the first century A.D. The  Väsudevahiîâi  written in the fourth century A.D. by Sanghadäsagaîi is the first available Jaina version of the  Mahäbhärata . King Parameávara seems to be the most important of early  Mahäpuräîa  writers. 22  His  Vägärtha-Saãgraha , probably in Sanskrit prose and poetry mixed, appears to have formed the basis for almost all the later writers of Jaina  Puräîas . Jinasena’s  Harivaãáapuräîa  is one of the earliest Jaina version of the Päîâava tale. Another Jinasena wrote the  Ädipuräîa  which was completed by his disciple Guîabhadra. Ravisheîa is the author of the  Padmacharita , the earliest available Jaina  Puräîa  in the Sanskrit giving the story of  Rämäyaîa . Pushpadanta is the author of the  Mahäpuräna  written in Apabhraãáa. Svayambhu, the greatest poet of Apabhraãáa, is known to have written the  Rämäyaîa .

 Narrative literature also consists of  charitras  and  Puräîas , which are the lengthy biographies of the Tïrthaõkaras,  Chakravartïs , and  Ôishis  of the past. The  Munipaticharitra ,  Yaáodhara charitra  and  Neminäthachariu  are the works written in the eighth century by Haribhadrasüri. Other such works are the  Mahävïracharitra  of Asaga (853 A.D.), the  Jïvandhara-champü  of Vädisiãha (C. 1050 A.D.), the  Karakaîâu-chariu  of Kanakämara (10th century), the Sudaráana-charita of Nayanandi (1042 A.D.), the Jambucharita of Vïra (1019 A.D.) and of Sägaradatta (1020 A.D.) and  Áreîikacharita  of Jinadeva and the  Bhadrabähu-charita  of Ratnanandi.

Áantinätha charita  was written both by Devasüri and Mäîikya Chandra,  Neminäthacharita  by Surächärya as well as Malädhärï Hemachandra, and  Pärávanätha charita  by Vädiräja, Bhavadeva and  Mäîikyachandra. Mahäsena wrote the  Pradyumana-charita  under Sindhuräja who died in about 1000 A.D. The  Môigävatï-charitra  of Maladhärï Devaprabha (thirteenth century) contains interesting legends about Udayana, Väsavadattä and Padmävatï, reminiscent of Bhäsa’s dramas. Devendrasüri wrote the  Áäntinäthacharita  in 1103 A.D. in Prakrit. His disciple the great Hemachandra is the author of the  Trishashûhiáaläkäpurushacharita  which describes the lives of sixty three persons. Rämachandra (1110-1173 A.D.), a pupil of Hemachandra in Gujrat, has written no less than eleven dramas, and Hastimalla is the author of four plays of considerable value. Padmanandi, Sakalakïrti and his disciple Brahma Jinadäsa, Áubhachandra, Bhaûûärakas of Mülasaãgha and Bhaûûäraka Somakïrti of Käshtäsaãgha wrote the  charitra  works. 23

In medieval times,  Puränas  and  Charitras  of the Prakrit and Sanskrit languages were translated into Hindi language and even some fresh were also written. Brahma Jinadäsa composed the  Ädipuräîa ,  Jambüsvämïcharitra  and  Yaáodharacharitra  in mixed Gujarati and Rajasthani. Khuáälachanda Kälä, Nathamala Bilälä,  Paîâita  Daulataräma and others translated several  Puräîas  and  Charitras  into Hindi. 24

(C) KÄVYAS, MAHÄKÄVYAS AND OTHER SMALL POEMST:  Jaina teachers cultivated the art of poetry not so much for its own sake as to carry the message of the Tïrthaõkaras to the people in a form they liked the best. They composed a number of  stotras  in praise of the Tïrthaõkaras and  Ächäryas .

Ravikïrti, the celebrated composer and donee of the famous Ahihole inscription dated 634 A.D. of pulakeáin II, was a great Jaina poet. Joindu (Yogindu), who wrote in Apabhraãáa, was a great mystic poet. His well known works are  Parmappapaysa  ( Paramätma Prakäáa ) and  Jayasära . Svayambhü is regarded as the greatest poet of Apabhraãáa, language. He is known to have written the  Rämäyaîa ,  Harivaãáa ,  Nägakumära   charita  and  Svayambhü-Chhanda  (prosody). Pushpadanta is also another great Apabhraãáa poet. Mallinätha Süri Kolächala is known to be the celebrated commentator of Kälidäsa’s works. He was one of the Judicial officers of Emperor Vïra Pratäpa Prauâha Deva Räya of Vijayanagara (1419-1446 A.D.) 25

Dhanapala is the poet of tenth century A.D. and he has written the  Ôishabhapäñchäáikä  and  Mahävïrastava . Dhaneávarasüri, pupil of Jineávara Shrï, composed the  Áatruñjayamähätmya . Another disciple of Jineávarasüri named Jinachandrasüri is the author of  Saãvegaraõgaáälä . Jinavallabhasüri is the author of the  Sôingäraáataka ,  Svapnäshûakavichära ,  Chitrakävya  and several  stotras . His  Srävaka  padmananda was also a poet who wrote the  Vairäjñaáataka  in Sanskrit. To Vägbhaûa is assigned  Neminirvälna  dealing with the life of Neminätha. The  Praáasti  of Bijaulia (Rajasthan) inscription dated 1170 A.D. has been written in the refined Sanskrit language by Guîabhadra. The  Chaityavandanakulaka   and  Avasthäkulaka  are the poetical works of Jinadattasüri. Hemachandrasüri was also a notable poet who wrote the  Dvayäáraya  in Sanskrit and  Kumärapälacharita  in Prakrit. Äáädhara is also the well known poet who wrote the  Bharateávarabhyudaya Mahäkävya  and  Räjïmativipralambha  and some other works.  Hammïramahäkävya  written in the fourteenth century A.D. by Nayachandra describes the heroic deeds of Hammïra who bravely fought with the Muslims at Ranthambhor.

Padmanandi, Áubhachandra, Jinachandra, Sakalakïrti and Jñänabhüshaîa, Bhaûûärakas of Mülasaãgha, are known to have composed their respective poetical works. 26  The name of Samayasundara ranks high among the Jaina poets of the sixteenth century. He utilised his poetic power composing the  Räsa ,  Chaupäï   Gïta  etc. He has has written the  Bhävaáataka  in 1584 A.D. He also wrote the  Ashûalakshï   in which he gave eight lakhs of interpretations of the sentence containing eight letters ‘ Räjño Dadate Sankhya ‘. It was presented in the royal court of the emperor Akbar who was surprised to hear. He was also writer of  Jinasiãhapadotsava Kävya  and  Raghuvaãáavôitti . Though Sahajakïrti wrote in the language of the masses, his poetical works are also available. Meghavijaya of Tapägachchha is also the notable poet who wrote the  Devänandäbhyudaya  Mahäkavya in 1670 A.D. His other poetical works are also known. Numerous  püjäs  are attributed to  Bhaûûäraka  Devendrakïrti, Bhaûûäraka Surendrakïrti and Bhaûûäraka Vijayakïrti.

In medieval times, Jaina literature to be created in Hindi, Rajasthani and Gujarati languages. In the fifteenth century, Sakalakïrti composed the  Ärädhanäpratibodhasära ,  Nemiávaragïta  and  Muktävalïgïta , and his younger brother Brahma Jinadäsa wrote several  püjas  and  gïtas . Banärsïdasa, who lived during the 17th century in Agra, was the great scholar and reformer. He has written the  Samayasära  drama,  Banärsï-viläsa  and  Ardhakathänaka  Khuáälachanda Kälä, Pandita Daulataräma Käáaliväla, Paîâita Jayachanda Chhäbarä and Pandita Sadäsukha Käáaliväla are known to be the authors of several poetical works. The poet Budhajana is known to have written four poetical works such as  Budhajanasatasai ,  Tattvärthabodha Budhajanaviläsa  and  Pañchästikäya .

Samayasundra is the distinguished poet of Rajasthani language.  Sïtäräna Chaupäï  is the Jaina  Rämäyaîa  written by him in Rajasthani language. His other poetical works are also available. Jinaharsha composed several  stavanas  and  räsas .  Nandabattïsï   Chaupäï  was also written by him. Jinasamudra composed various  räsas  and  stavanas  containing about fifty or sixty thousand stanzas. Jitamala was a great poet of the Rajasthani language and composed about one lakh  álokas . Dalapatavijaya is the author of  Kumänaräso ,  Goräbädala  and  Padmävatï Äkhyäna  were written respectively by Hemaratna and Labdhodaya. Other poetical works written in Rajasthani language are also found. 27

(D) GAMMAR, POETICS AND LEXICOGRAPHY :  Knowledge of grammar, poetics and Lexicograohy is necessary to have mastery over literature. With this object in view, works on grammar were written by Jaina scholars from time to time.  Püjyapäda is said to have written the Áabdävatäranyäsa  on Päîini. Saktayana Palyakïrti wrote the  Áabdänuáäsana  in 870 A.D. along with its commentary known as  Amoghavôiûûi  named as such in honour of his patron Amoghavarshat  Budhisagarasüri wrote a comprehensive Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, the  Pañchagranthï  in 1023 A.D. Hemachandra Süri was the great grammarian. His grammar  Siddhahemavyäkaraîa  is a well known work on the subject. Paîâita Äáädhara is the author of  Kriyäkalpa . In the sixteenth century, a Prakrit grammar known as  Chintämaîi  was written by Bhaûûäraka Áubhachandra. Árïvällabha wrote commentaries on old grammars and his independent works are also available. Sahajakïrti was also a great grammarian who wrote the  Särasvatavôitti  in 1624 A.D. and  Áabdärîavavyäkaraîa  and  Nämakoáa . The poet Räyamalla wrote the  Chhandaáästra  and  Piõgala  in Hindi. The works on grammar such as  Chhandraprabhä ,  Hemaáabdachandrikä  and  Hemaáabdaprakriyä  were composed by Meghavijaya. Chandrakïrti and his disciple also wrote works on grammar. Kuáalaläbha and Räjasoma wrote the  Piñgalaáiromaîi  and  Dohächandrikä  respectively in Rajasthani language. Other works written in this language are also available. 28

Closely connected with Grammar is lexicography. Hemachandra is also the author of the lexicographical works which he compiled as supplements to his grammar. Jinabhadrasüri, pupil of Jinavallabhasüri, composed the  Apavarganämamäläkoáa .  Amarakoáaûïka  was written by  Paîâita  Äáädhara, but it is not available. In 1597 A.D., Jñañatilaka made a commentary on the  Sabdaprabhakoáa  and his disciple named Árïvallabha also wrote works on lexcography.

As the Jaina poets wrote numerous works on poetry in high flown   Kävya  style, it was natural for them to write the  Alaõkäraáästras . Hemachandra wrote the  Kävyanuáäsana  with his own commentary called the  Alaõkära -Chüâämaîi.  Paîâita  Äáädhara wrote a treatise on the  Kävyalaõkära  of the famous  Ächärya  Rudrata but it is not available. Vägbhaûa wrote the  Kävyänuáasanasütra  with a commentary of his own called  Kävyamälä . Vädiräja  composed the  Kavichandrikä  a treatise on the  Vägbhaûälañkära  works. On poetics were written also in Rajasthani language. 29

(E) JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL, TELAGU AND KANNAÂA LANGUAGES :  The Jaina writers also contributed to the Tamil Literature. The history of Tamil literature commences with the Saõgham Age (500 B.C. – 500 A.D.) of Madura. The influence of Jaina thought and philosophy is traced in  Tolkäppiyam , the earliest work on Tamil grammar. The authors of the earlier compositions such as  Kural ,  Áilppadikäram , Näladiyar etc. were Jaina by persuasion. Of the five major epic poems in Tamil literature,  Áilappadikäram ,  Valaiyäpati  and  Chintamani  are attributed to the authorship of Jaina writers. Some minor  Kävyas  like  Nïlakeáï ,  Perukathai  (or  Brihadkathä ),  Nagakumara  Kävya,  Chülämaîi  were composed by Jaina poets. The credit of enriching Tamil literature by composing various works on didactics, grammar, prosody and lexicography and commentaries goes to the Jaina authors. 30

The Jainas gave the  Champu Kävyas  (poems) to Ändhradesa and Karîätaka, Nannaya is the author of the famous Telugu Mahäbhärata. Pampa is the author of the  Ädipuräîa , and  Bharata  (941 A.D.) As the author of these two Kannaâa master pieces in the Champu style, Panpa’s services for the cause of Indian culture are noteworthy. Pampa was primarily responsible for Nannaya Bhaûûa’s great work Bhärata (1053 A.D.) Nannaya Bhaûûa, the Telugu scholar, was Brähmana but expoused the cause of Jainism. Kanti, the Jaina woman, completed the unfinished poems of Abhinava Pampa. 31

The Jainas added quite a good to the wealth of the Kannada literature and they also enriched it with classics. 32  Bähubali Paîâita wrote the  Dharmanäthapuräîa  in 1352 A.D. Keáavarîi wrote a Kannaâa  vôitti  to the  Gommatasära  in 1359 A.D. He likewise wrote a  Vritti  in Kannaâa to  Amitavatiárävakächära  and a commentary in the same language to  Säratreya . Abhinava Áruta Muni is credited with writing a Kannaâa commentary on Mallisen’s  Sajjanachitta vallabha . Madhura (1365 A.D.) was the author of  Dharmanäthapurän  and a  ashûaka  praising Gommaûa.

Bhäshkara wrote the  Jïvandharacharita  in 1424 A.D. Kalyäîakïrti is the author of same works. Jinadevaîîa wrote the  Áreîikacharite  in 1444 A.D. and Vijayaîîa wrote  Dvädaáänuprekshe . Their contemporary was Vidyänanda who was the author of a Kannaâa commentary on his own Sanskrit work called  Präyaáchitta . Terakaîämbi Bommarasa is the author of the  Sanatakumäracharita  and  Jïvandhara charita  (1485 A.D.) Kotiávara composed the  Jïvandharaáatpadi . Yaáahkïrti wrote a commentary of  Dharmäáarmä   bhyudaya  and Áubhachandra wrote  Narapiõgali . Devappa himself was credited with proficiency in the exposition of the  Jaina-Puräîa . Panditamuni’s work  was  Chandraprabhacharita .

Ratnakaraîâï is known by his great work  Trilokaáataka  comprising 10,000 verses which he finished in 1557 A.D. His other works were –  Bharateávara charite  and analogy of poems known as  Padajäti . Another prominent writer connected with Muâu bidre was Nemaîîa who wrote the  Jñänabhäskaracharite . Bähubali wrote the  Nägakumäracharite  in 1560 A.D. Doââanätha wrote the  Chandraprabha – Áaûpadi  in 1576 A.D. Padmarasa wrote the Áriõgärakathe in 1599 A.D. Brahmakavi is remembered only because of his  Vajrakumära charita . Päya Muni wrote the  Sanatakumära charite  in about 1606 A.D. The most famous among the writers of the 17th century was Pañchabäîa. In the  Bhujabalacharita  (1614 A.D.), he tells that the famous head anointing ceremony of Gomaûanätha was performed in 1612 A.D. Devarasa (1650 A.D.) was the author of the  Gurudattacharita .

Kannada Jainas have written not only on purely literary works but also on grammar. Towards the middle of the twelfth century A.D. lived Nägavarmä II who wrote the three well-known works on Kannaâa grammar –  Kävyavalokana   Karnaûakabhäshäbhüshaîa  and Vatukoáa. In about 1260 A.D., appeared Keáräja with his  Áabdamaîidarpaîa  in Kannaâa. A Grammarian and a lexicographer Devottama wrote the  Nänärtharatnäkara  assigned to 1600 A.D. Another lexicographer was his contemporary Áriõgärakavi, the author of the Karîäûaka  Sañjïvana . Pärávavarni’s work is styled  Samyaktvakaumudï .

(F) HISTORICAL, POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL WORKS :  There are some ancient historical writings from which we may draw certain conclusions after their critical examination. The  Dvyäáraya  and the  Trishashûiáaläkäpurusha-charita  of Hemachandra are useful for the history of Jainism under the Chäulukyas. The  Prabhävakacharita  of Prabhächandra Süri written in V.S. 1361 and the  Purätanaprabandhasaãgraha  of Räjaáekhara written in V.S. 1405 contain numerous interesting anecdotes about several Jaina monarchs and saints. The  Tïrthamäläs  such as  Vividhatïrthakalpa  of Jinaprabhasüri give a brief history of the holy places. The  Paûûävalïs  of Kharataragachchha, Tapägachchha and Mülasaãgha are useful for political and religious history. The  Vaãáavälïs  give information about particular persons born in the communities. The  Praáastis  are as important as the inscriptions. The  Nïtiväkyämôita  of Somadeva (959 A.D.) is an excellent regular treatise on the science and art of Politics. Several geographical works like  Tiloyapaîîati  of Yati Vôishabha,  Lokavibhäga ,  Jambudvïpa-Prajñapti  and  Trilokasära  deal with cosmology from the Jaina point of view.

(G) SCIENTIFIC WORKS :  Jaina authors have written not only on literary works but also works on medicines, Mathematics and Astrology.

(i) MEDIECINES :  Püjyapäda was well-versed in the Science of Medicines. King Áivamära I was the author of the science of elephants. Äáädhara wrote a commentary named  Ashûäõgahôidayadyotinï   ûïkä  on the famous work of Vägbhaûa. but it is not available. The great work of Maõgaräja I (C. 1360 A.D.) was called  Khajendramaîidarpaîa  which deals with poisons. The  Vaidyämôita  (C. 1500 A.D.) was written by Árïdharadeva. Bächarasa was the author of  Aávavaidya  which deals with all details concerning horses and their ailments. Sälva is noted for his work called  Vaidyasängatya . Padmarasa wrote  hayasärasamuchchaya  dealing minutely with the forms, kinds, ailments etc. of horses. Ugräditya is the author of  Kayäîakäraka , a complete and original a treatise on the science of medicine (770-840 A.D.) 33 . Dïpachanda wrote a work on medicine named  Langhanapathyanirîaya  in 1735 A.D., and it deals with treatment by fasting. Some works on medicines were written in Rajasthani language. 34

(ii) MATHEMATICS :  Jainas have written some works on Mathematics also. Mahävïrächärya is the author of the  Gaîitasärasaãgraha , a valuable and complete treatise on Mathematics. He belonged to a later part of the  Räshûraküûa  Amoghavarsha’s reign. On Mathematics we have Räjäditya’s Kshetragaîita Lïlavati Vyavahäraratn  Vyavaharaganita Chitrahasuge   Jainagaîita Sütra   Ûikodarana  and other works. 35  The  Uttarachhatïsï   was written in Sanskrit by Sumatikïrti, pupil of  Jñänabhüshana . The  Arthasandôishûadhikära  or Pandita Todarmala is a work of high merit in Mathematics. 36   Pandita  Mannläla Sängäkä was well versed in this science. The  Lïlävatïkhäsä chaupäï  and  Ganitachaupäï  written in Rajasthani language are credited to him. 37

(iii) ASTRONOMY :  Astronomical works were written by Jaina authors from time to time. Haribhadra wrote the  Lagnaáuddhi . 38  Durgadeva, who flourished in the eleventh century, was an astronomer of note. He wrote the  Ardhakäîâa  in Prakrit. 39  Hïrakalaáa composed an important work named  Jyotishasära  in Prakrit.  Dikshäpratishûhädi áuddhi  was written in in 1628 A.D. by Samayasära. Harshakïrti wrote the  Jyotishasä rodhära . Meghavijaya was well versed in the science of astronomy and wrote several works. Árïdharächärya of Naigunda composed the first Kannaâa work on astrology called  Jätakatilaka . 40  Several astronomical works were written in Rajasthani.

(8) JAINA ÁÄSTRA BHAÎÂÄRAS :  The Jainas made valuable contribution to Indian culture by founding  Áästrabhaîâäras  during the medieval period for preservation of manuscripts. The Jaina monks, who were great scholars, founded them, realizing their great educational value. It is said that Jinabhadrasüri spent the best of his life in establishing the store-houses of knowledge for the posterity at the places such as Jaisalmer, Nagaur and Jalor during the fifteenth century A.D. The great Jaina kings and their ministers encouraged writing of the manuscripts for their spiritual welfare. Kumärapäla established twentyone  Áästrabhaîâäras , in every one of which he placed the copy of the  Kalpasütra  in golden ink. Among the great ministers of the States, who founded  Áästrabhaîâäras  may be maintained the names of Vastupäla, Pethaâaáäha, Maîâana and others. Actuated by the desire of service to their religion, merchants and bankers got prepared numerous copies of important manuscripts. In 1394 A.D., Sangräma Sonï, a Jaina house-holder, spent  lacs  of gold  moharas  in preparation of  Kalpasütra  and  Kälakächärya Kathä . Dharaîäáäha got many copies of palm-leaf manuscripts written for presentation to the  Áästrabhaîâäras .

In medieval times. Jaina temples were the centres of learning and were also used for imparting education to the students. It was therefore necessary to collect books. The important Jaina  Áastrabhaîâäras  are found at Patan, Jaisalmer, Idar, Nagaur, Bikaner, Jaipur, Agra, Delhi, Karanja, Poona, Moodabidri, Hunch Värangal and Kärkala. In these  Áästrabhaîâäras , not only Jaina books relating to various faiths but also those of secular subjects such as astronomy, medicine, Mathematics, Grammar and  Kävya  were kept for study and reference. This indiacates that the Jainas in the middle ages were not narrow minded but understood the important of an all-comprehensive library.

Important works of non-Jaina authors such as Kälidäsa, Bhäravï, Mägha, Tuläsïdäsa, Bihärï and Keáava are available in these collections. The illustrated manuscripts.  Vijñaptipatras  and old pictures found in these  granthabhaîâäras  are important from the artistic point of view. There collections are also of literary importance. Works of different periods written in various languages such as Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhraãáa, Rajasthani and Hindi are preserved in them. Works written in Apabhraãáa language are especially found in abundance in these Bhandäras. Sometimes more than one copies of the manuscripts written at different times are noticed in some other  Bhaîâära . These are useful for the purpose of editing them. Most of these libraties have not been classified and catalogued. It this work is done, it will illumine the dark and unexplored corners of ancient and modern Indian languages and literature.

(9) TANTRA VIDYÄ AND MANTRA VIDYÄ :  The Jainas also contributed to the  Tantravidyä  and  Mantravidyä . A beginning in this direction was made in the form of Yakshï cult which developed into ceremonial worship of the deities like Jvälämälinï and Padmävatï beyond their natural set-up and culminated in their ritualistic invocation under mystical formularies. Besides Padmävatï and Jvälämälinï, a few more Yakshiîïs also seem to have been involved occasionally by Jaina followers of Tantric traditions though such instances are rare. One notable instance is that of Akalaõka who is alleged to have vanquished the Buddhist opponents with the aid of Kushmäîâini. Küshmäîâi or Küshmäîâinï is the alternative name of Ambikä, the Yakshîï of Neminätha.

Tantravidyä  and  Mantravidyä  became very popular during the Medieval period in Jainism thought it is against principles. Some of the Jaina preceptors, even of higher status took to the study and practice of occult lores connected with  Mantravidyä  and  Tantravidyä . Mastery of occult powers and control over the evil spirits appear to have been considered as important attributes that distinguished the Jaina monks from others and went to establish their supremacy. The preceptors of the Yäpanïya sect seems to have played a substantial role in the spread of Jvälinï cult.

The Jaina preceptors and monks appear to have indulged in claiming proficiency in this craft from the times of Elächarya or Helächärya onwards. This cult seems to have been stabilised by the influential teachers like Indranandi, Yogindra and Mallisenas Mallisnenasüri, who lived in the 11th century, was the outstanding Jaina saint. He belonged to the spiritual lineage of the eminent teacher Ajitasena, the  guru  of the great Chämuîâa Räya. He was also a renowned scholars and author, and the head of a monastery at Malgund in Dharwar District, of the three works in Sanskrit composed by him, relating to the occult lore, one named Bhairava –  Padmävatï Kalpa  deals with the spells and mystical formularies calculated to bestow superhuman powers with the aid of the goddess Padmävatï. His other work  Jvälinï-kalpa  is on similar lines centring round the deity Jvälïnï.

There are inscriptions 1  which refer to Jaina Acaryas who took pride in styling themselves Mantravädins. No. 66 inscription of Áravaîaâ Belagolä contains a description of the Acaryas Árïdharadeva who was well-versed in the  Mantric  lore. The same epigraph speaks of another Acaryas named Padmanandi who was expert in the sceince of spells ( Mantravädiávara ) No. 67 refers to the Acarya Kalyäîakïrti who was unrivalled in the art of exercising the evil spirits like Áäkinï. The Jaina Bhaûûärakas, Árïpüjyas and Yatis of Northern India were also well-versed in  Mantravidyä  and  Tantravidyä . As a result, they exercised great influence on the masses by their miracles. They were given great honour and respect.

REASONS FOR THE PROGRESS

• EFFICIENT ORGANIZATION OF SAÃGHA : Perhaps, the most important reason which contributed to the progress of Jainism was that Mahävïra possessed the great ability of efficiently organising of the Saãgha.  The  Saãgha  was divided into four groups, namely  Sädhus  (Male ascetics),  Sädhvïs  (Female ascetics)  Árävakas  (Male laity) and  Árävikäs  (Female laity), and these groups have been bound together by very close relations. The same  vratas  or religions vows are prescribed for ascetics and laity with only difference that the ascetics have to observe them more scrupulously while the laity are allowed to follow them in a less severe manner. The ascetics controlled the religious life of the lay disciples and the lay disciples used to keep a strict watch control over the character of the ascetics. The ascetics were required to keep themselves entirely aloof from worldly matters, and vigorously maintained their high standard of aseetic life. If they fell short of their required standards, they were likely to be removed from their positions. The close union between laymen and monks brought about by the similarity of their religious duties, differing not in kind, but in degreee, had enabled Jainism to avoid fundamental changes within, and to reject dangers from without for more than two thousand years.
• CONSERVATISM : Another important reason for the progress of Jainism is its inflexible conservatism in holding fast to its original institutions and doctrines for the last so many centuries. The most important doctrines of the Jaina religions have remained practically unaltered and although a number of the less vital rules concerning the life and practices of monks and laymen may have fallen into disuse or oblivion, there is no reason to doubt that the religious life of the Jaina community is now substantially the same as it was two thousand years ago. This strict adherence to religious prescription is also eivdent from Jaina architecture and especially from Jaina sculpture, for the style of Jaina images has remained the same to such an extent that the Jaina images differing in age by a thousand years are almost indistinguishable in style.
• ROYAL PATRONAGE TO JAINISM : The royal patronage which Jainism had received during the ancient and medieval periods in different parts of the country has undoubtedly helped its progress Karîätak, Gujarat and Rajasthan continued to remain as strongholds of Jainism from ancient times because many rulers, Ministers and Generals of renouned merit were Jainas. Apart from Jaina rulers, many non-Jaina rulers also showed sympathetic attitude towards Jaina religion. From some inscriptions of Rajasthan, it is known that in compliance with the doctrines of Jainism, orders were issued in some towns to stop the slaying of animals throughout the year and to suspend the revolutions of oil-mill and potter’s wheel during the four months of the rainy season every year. Several inscriptions from the South reveal the keen interest taken by non-Jaina rulers in facilitating the Jainas to observe their religion. Among these, the most outstanding is the stone inscription dated 1368 A.D. of the Vijayanagara monarch Bukka Räya-I When the Jainas of all Districts appealed in a body for protection against their persecution by the Vaishîavas, the king after, summoning the leaders of both sects before him declared that no difference could be made between them and ordained that they should each pursue their own religious practices with equal freedom.
• HIGH IDEALS OF JAINA SAINTS : A large number of eminent Jaina saints contributed to the progress of Jainism by their varied activities. They were responsible for the spread of Jainism all over India. The learned Jaina ascetics preached the ethics through the medium of their sacred literature composed in the various vernaculars of the country. The literary and missionary activities of the Jaina saints ultimately helped the Jainas in South India to strengthen their position for a long time. The important Jaina saints and writers from the South were Kundakunda, Umäsvatï, Samantabhadra, Püjyapäda, Akalaõka, Vidyänandin, Mäîikyanandin, Prabhächandra, Jinasena-I, Guîabhadra, Somadeva, Pampa and Ranna. Of these illustrious persons, Ächärya Samantabhadra, and  Ächärya  Akalaõka were the foremost in their zeal of spreading Jainism. Samantabhadra in the second century A.D. toured all over India and defeated his opponents in the public discussion at Känchï in the seventh or eighth century A.D. Even in political matters, the Jaina saints were taking keen interest and guiding the people whenever required. The Gaõgas and the Hoysalas were inspired to establish new kingdoms by the Jaina  Ächäryas . The Jaina  Ächäryas  tried to excel in their personal accomplishments also. In a work called  Püjyapädacharita , the names of 37 arts and sciences mastered by  Äcärya  Püjyapäda are given. In the seventh century A.D., the famous pilgrim Yuanchwang had heard that the Nirgranthas (the Jaina ascetics) of old times were skilled in divination. Naturally, kings and people had a great regard for the Jaina saints in different parts of the country. Even the Muslim emperors of Delhi honoured and showed reverence to the learned Jaina saints of North and South India. In Rajasthan, the kings used to invite the Jaina  Äcäryas  and offered them royal reception in their capitals. It is no wonder that the character and activities of such influential Jaina saints created an atmosphere for the progress of Jainism.

GOODWILL OF MASSES :  Jainism for its progress always depended on the goodwill of the followers of other religions. The Jainas followed the path of attaining the goodwill of all people by various means like educating the masses and alleviating the pain and misery of people by conducting several types of charitable  institutions. From the beginning, the Jainas made it one of their cardinal principles to give the four gifts of food, protection, medicine and learning to the needy irrespective of caste and creed. According to some, this was by for the most potent factor in the propagation of the Jaina religion. For this, they established alm-houses, rest-houses, dispensaries and schools wherever they were concentrated in good numbers. The credit goes to the Jainas that they took a leading part in the education of the masses. Various relics show that formerly Jaina ascetics took a great share in teaching children in the Southern countries, viz. Andhra, Tamil, Karîaûaka and Maharashtra, Before the beginning of the alphabet proper to the children in Deccan, it should be followed by the Jaina formula “ On Namah Siddham ” shows that the Jaina Acaryas of medieval age had so completely controlled the mass education that the Hindus continued to teach their children this Jaina formula for many years is come.

INTIMATE RELATIONS WITH THE FOLLOWERS OF THE BRÄHMANICAL-RELIGION :  Another important factor which led to the progress of Jainism is the cordial and intimate relations maintained by the Jainas with the followers of the Brähmanical religion. Jainism, Brahmanical religion and Buddhism, the three important ancient religions of India flourished side by side for the last so many centuries, it is natural that they have influenced one another in many respects. In matters like theories of rebirth and salvation, descriptions of heaven, earth and hell, and belief in the fact that the prophets of religion take birth according to prescribed rule, we find similarities in the three religions. Since the disappearance of Buddhism from India, the Jainas and the followers of Brahmanical religion came more close to each other and that is why in social and religious life, the Jainas on the whole did not appear to be much different from the followers of Brahmanical religion. In matters like religious festivals and fasts, occupations and professions, dress and ornaments,  Sansäkaräs  or sacraments and language and general outlook on life, there are various common things between the Jainas and vegetarian followers of Brahmanical religion. There are certain castes whose members were found as followers in both the religions and to some extent marital relations were maintained between the followers of Jainism and Brahmanical religion.

It was impossible for Jainism to remain unaffected by influences of local customs, beliefs and cults. As a small number of Jainas had to live amidst the non-Jainas, it was but natural for them to adopt Brahmanical practices.

Somadeva in his  Yaáastilaka-champü  observes that the religion of Jaina householders is of two varieties,  Laukika  i.e. this worldly, and  Paralaukika  namely the other world; the former is based upon popular usage, and the later on the scriptures. The Jainas followed any custom or practice sanctioned by popular usage so long as it does not come into conflict with the fundamental priciples of Jainism. Thus, by following the local customs, the Jainas made wise adjustment which ultimately created cordial and ultimate relations with the followers of Brahmanism. By this adjustment the Jainas could make progress for the last so many centuries. The Jainas maintained good realtions not only with the members of Brahmanical religion but with others also. When the Jainas were in power for a long time, they hardly indulged in mistreating  the non-Jainas. Thus, the Jainas made progress in spite of many difficultes exists for time to time.

•        EI., XI, pp. 43-46.
•        ARRMA , Yr. 1922-23, Nos. 8 and 9.
•        Digvijaya Mahäkavya  (Singhi Jaina Series, Vol. XIV (Introduction).
•        JAIN, K.C. :  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 210.
•        ARRMA, 1934-35, No. 17.
•        ALTEKAR, A.S.;  Räshtrakütas and their times,  p. 313.
•        DESAI, P.B.; Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, p. 76
•        SALETORE, B.A.;  Medieval Jainism with Special reference to Vijayanagara Kingdom ,  pp. 154-171.
•        DESAI, P.B., ;  Jainism in South India and Some Jaina epigraphs . p. 168.
•        VINCENT A. SMITH, :  The Jaina Stüpa and other antiquities of Mathura , p. 22.
•        JHQ , XXV, pp.1 ff.
•        Arhat Vaichana , Vol. 5, II, pp. 49-59.
•        SHAH, U.P. AND DHAKY, M.A.;  Aspects of Jaina art and architecture,  pp. 215-221.
•        SHAH, U.P. and DHAKY, M.A. ed.  Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture , p. 274.
•        EI , XX, p. 61.
•        Ibid , II, pp. 232-240.
•        ASI , 1918-19, p. 17.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan , pp. 306-307.
•        IA, XI, p. 255.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 158.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 160.
•        JAIN, J.P.;  The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India,  p. 150.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 164.
•        Ibid , pp. 165-166.
•        SALETORE, B.A. ;  Medieval Jainism with special reference to the Vijayanagara Empire , p. 377.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , pp. 167-168.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 172.
•        Ibid , pp. 173-174.
•        DESAI, P.B.;  Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs , p. 84.

                SALETORE, B.E.;  Medieval Jainism with special reference to the Vijayanagara Empire , p. 263.

•        SALETORE, B.A.;  Medieval Jainism with special reference to the Vijayanagara Empire , p. 263.
•       Ibid , pp. 265-267; pp. 375-387.
•        SALETORE, B.A.;  Medieval Jainism , p. 267.
•        JAIN, K.C.;  Jainism in Rajasthan , p. 175.
•        SALETORE, B.A.;  Medieval Jainism , p. 266.
•        Ibid , p. 175.
•        Jaina Sähityano Saãkshipta Itihäsa,  p. 172.
•        Singi Jaina Series , XXI (Int.)
•        SALETORE, B.A.;  Medieval Jainism with special reference to the Vijayanagara Empire , p. 267.
•        Banärasïviläsa.

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Jains in India

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The Jain community in India, though small in number, is very important in the economic and social life of the country. Jain history becomes more important when we find that the community anticipated new commercial practices adopted by European trading countries from the sixteenth century onwards. Two Jain names stand out in history; they are Veerji Vora, in the seventeenth century and Jagat Seth of Bengal in the eighteenth century. A succession of Jagat Seths interacted with high government officials and were very influential in their time as this volume brings out.This volume contributes significantly to the study of merchant communities and colonial history in South Asia.

Please note: Taylor & Francis does not sell or distribute the Hardback in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter chapter 1 | 35  pages, the social life of the jain community in medieval times, chapter chapter 2 | 27  pages, economic life of jains in medieval times, chapter chapter 3 | 5  pages, a note on the sources for a study of the social life of the jains in the seventeenth century, chapter chapter 4 | 8  pages, the sociological and historical background of literary activities of jains in the seventeenth century, chapter chapter 5 | 4  pages, vijnapatipatra: a source for the social history of the jains in the nineteenth century, chapter chapter 6 | 11  pages, caste among the jains*, chapter chapter 7 | 7  pages, jains in agra in the seventeenth century: a study of some sources, chapter chapter 8 | 13  pages, jain merchants in eastern india under the great mughals, chapter chapter 9 | 6  pages, jains in bihar in the seventeenth century, chapter chapter 10 | 7  pages, social attitudes of indian trading communities in the seventeenth century, chapter chapter 11 | 11  pages, the jain community and akbar*, chapter chapter 12 | 8  pages, chapter chapter 13 | 7  pages.

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A Hospital for Birds

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Tirthankaras: “Ford-Makers”

Jiva: The Souls of All Beings

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Karma: Clouding of the Soul

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Ahimsa: Reverence for Life

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Anekantavada: The Relativity of Views

Jain Renouncers: Sky Clad and White Clad

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Mendicants and Laity

Temples and Images

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The Jain Symbol

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V.R. Gandhi at the World’s Parliament of Religions

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Building Temples and Networks

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Jain Teachers in the New World

Namaskara Mantra: Beginning with Praise

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The Temple and Image

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“Gateway to Luck”

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Unity: The American Context

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Jainism Timeline

6323dddaff85d27ed6f05d9690e4cb70, jainism in the world (text), c. 850 bce parshvanath, twenty-third tirthankara.

In Jainism, a Tirthankara is a spiritual teacher who has overcome the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). The first Tirthankara is said to have founded Jainism millions of years ago. Historians date the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parshvanath, to the eighth or ninth century BCE.

599 – 527 BCE Mahavira

The twenty-fourth Tirthankara, Mahavira, was born in the 6th century BCE near Patna in what is now the state of Bihar in India. He is said to have been a kshatriya, a prince or warrior, and to have renounced the world to seek self-realization. He attained kaivalya, luminous knowledge, at age 42 and taught for thirty years until his death.

360 BCE Beginning of Digambar/Shvetambar Split

It is said that at a time of famine in the 4th century BCE, part of the Jain community migrated south. When they returned, they found the monks of the north had compiled a version of the scripture with which they did not wholly agree and had taken to wearing simple white clothing rather than maintaining the “sky-clad” traditions. Thus the Shvetambar (“White-clad”) and Digambar (“Sky-clad”) schism constitutes the major sectarian split in the Jain tradition.

400s CE Formation of the Shvetambar Siddhanta

By the fifth century CE, Shvetambar Jains had compiled a canon, commonly called the Siddhanta. The canon includes 45 texts subsumed under six categories, the oldest and most venerated of which are the 12 angas, including the Acharanga.

400s CE Development of Jain Lay Community

By the early centuries of the common era, the Jain tradition had small communities throughout the Indian peninsula. Shvetambars were concentrated in north and west India, the Digambars were principally in south and central India. Although the monastic order remained the core of both Jain communities, in each case a growing number of lay practitioners associated themselves with the tradition. Beginning in the fifth century, Jain literature increasingly concerned itself with regulating non-monastic life, including proper etiquette toward monks and nuns, temple worship, and life-cycle rites.

1000s CE Digambar Community Concentrates in Maharashtra

The Digambar Jain community, which had previously enjoyed royal patronage in south and east India, fell into disfavor as Hindu theism gained popularity in the 11th century CE. Digambars migrated north and westward, settling in Karnataka and Maharashtra, where their descendants have continued to make their homes.

1100s CE Shvetambar Community Concentrates in Gujarat

The tide of Hindu theism that precipitated the emigration of Digambar Jains from southern India swept over northern India as well in the 1100s CE. This shift, coupled with the rise of Islam, resulted in a contraction of the Shvetambar community, which has been concentrated in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh ever since.

1400s CE Sthanakvasi Reform Movement Develops

Beginning around the 10th century CE, there developed a class of monks who lived full-time in temples and exerted increasing control over temple resources. Charges of corruption and spiritual degeneration occurred with increasing frequency, culminating in 1451, when a Shvetambar layman named Lonka Saha launched the Sthanakvasi reform movement. Unlike most Jain groups, Sthanakvasis, or “dwellers in halls” (as opposed to temples), object to the veneration of images, claiming that such activity too easily degenerates into idol-worship. Monks of this movement are recognized by their practice of donning a cloth or mask over the mouth and nose to avoid inadvertently inhaling and thus harming minute life forms.

1500s CE Taranapantha Reform Movement Emerges

Apparently influenced by the Sthanakvasi movement, a small group of Digambars under the leadership of a man by the name of Taranasvami emerged in the 16th century CE. This group became known as the Taranapantha Reform Movement, and like the Sthanakvasis, also banned the worship of images.

1700s CE Birth of Terapantha Reform Movement

Followers of Jainism agree that a person should eschew any action that would harm a living being. But in the eighteenth century CE, a Sthanakvasi monk named Bhikhanji also asserted that a person should avoid any action that would directly affect another sentient being, including saving its life. Bhikhanji believed that to give aid to another not only indicates that one has failed to practice total renunciation, but makes one responsible for any harm that that being may cause in the future. It is said that Bhikhanji’s reform movement is called Terapantha, “the path of the thirteen,” because he could only gather twelve disciples to follow his radical ideas. Today, the Terapantha movement continues as a small but vocal minority of the Shvetambar tradition.

1869 – 1948 CE Friendship of Mohandas Gandhi and Raychandbhai Mehta

Mohandas Gandhi was arguably the greatest champion of nonviolence in the 20th century. Although a Hindu, his appreciation for the profound spiritual significance of ahimsa derived principally from the conversations and correspondence he had with Raychandbhai Mehta, a prominent Jain layman. According to Gandhi, the three men who most deeply influenced his thought were Tolstoy, Ruskin, and Raychandbhai.

1970 CE Shri Chitrabhanu Travels to Geneva

In 1970, Shri Chitrabhanu became the first Jain monk to break the injunction against traveling by airplane when he flew to Geneva to attend the second Spiritual Summit Conference. He arrived in the United States one year later to establish the Jain International Meditation Center in New York and to found and inspire many other Jain centers across the U.S. and the world.

1990 CE “Jain Declaration on Nature”

The “Jain Declaration on Nature'' was a statement on the Jain philosophy of non-violence and its relevance to the ecological crisis. The declaration was presented in 1990 by an international group of Jain leaders to H.R.H. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.

2010 CE Jain Temple Opened in Belgium

In 2010, the largest Jain temple outside of India opened its doors in a suburb of Antwerp to serve the thousands of Jains in the area, many of whom are involved in the diamond trade. The community’s spiritual leader, Ramesh Mehta, was also a member of the Belgian Council of Religious Leaders, illustrating the strengthening relationship between the Jain community and other European faith groups.

Jainism in America (text)

1893 ce v.r. gandhi at world’s parliament of religions.

Virchand R. Gandhi (1864-1901), a Bombay lawyer, was the sole Jain at the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Following the Parliament, V.R. Gandhi stayed in the U.S. for two years to give some 535 lectures on such topics as Jainism, Yoga, Hindu culture, and Indian philosophy.

1893 CE Shri Lalan Comes to the U.S.

A Jain scholar named Shri Lalan came to the U.S. in 1893 and stayed for over four years. Inspired by the Jain teachings of Shri Lalan, an American woman, Mrs. Howard, became a disciple and a vegetarian.

1896-97 CE V.R. Gandhi Helps Organize Famine Relief

On a second trip to the U.S. and England in 1896-1897, V.R. Gandhi joined with Charles C. Bonney, who had been President of the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions, to organize a Famine Relief Committee for India. This committee sent about $10,000 and a steamer full of corn to India.

1904-05 CE Jain Temple Replica at St. Louis World’s Fair

A replica of the Jain temple at Palitana in Gujarat was sent by the British government of India to the St. Louis World’s Fair Exposition in 1904. After being in storage for several decades, the temple replica was purchased by the Summa Corporation, which placed it in their Castaways Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada. In 1995, the hotel donated the temple replica to the Jain Center of Southern California.

1919 CE Life and Stories of Parsvanatha Published

In 1919, Maurice Bloomfield, Professor of Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins University, published Life and Stories of the Jaina Savior Parsvanatha, one of the first Jain texts published in the U.S.

1933 CE Jain at World Fellowship of Faiths in Chicago

Champatrai Jain, a lawyer from India, presented a talk on “Ahimsa as the Key to World Peace” at the 1933 World Fellowship of Faiths meeting in Chicago.

1959 CE Formation of Jain Groups in the U.S.

In 1959, Jains in New York City organized an informal society. A second group was formed in Michigan soon after.

1966 CE First American Jain Center Established

The first Jain Center in the U.S. was established in New York City in 1966 by a small group of Jain immigrants. Three years later, another Jain center was established in Chicago.

1971 CE Gurudev Chitrabhanu First Visits U.S.

Gurudev Chitrabhanu visited the U.S. in 1971 to spread the message of Jainism and non-violence. His trip made him the first Jain monk to part with the monastic tradition of travel restriction. Later, having left the traditional monkhood, he returned to the United States and became one of the most important religious leaders of the American Jain community. Chitrabhanu established the Jain Meditation International Center in New York City in 1974.

1973 CE Jain Center of Greater Boston Established

Since its founding in 1973, the Jain Center of Greater Boston has made a significant contribution to Jainism in the U.S., promoting Jain philosophy and community. In 1979, the Center began publishing the Jain Study Circular, which has developed nationwide circulation. That same year, the Center’s “Directory of Jains in North America” first appeared, and today is regularly updated. In 1981, the Center became one of the first Jain Centers in North America to have its own temple.

1975 CE Acharya Sushil Kumar First Visits U.S.

Sushil Kumar became a monk in the Shvetambar Sthanakvasi sect of Jainism at the age of 15. He first came to the U.S. in 1975, and was the first Jain monk to travel abroad regularly while remaining a monk — a controversial move. He traveled extensively throughout the world and was an active participant at world conferences on peace and interreligious cooperation. Acharya Sushil Kumar passed away in 1994, at the age of 68.

1975 CE Jain Society of Greater Detroit

The Jain Society of Greater Detroit began in 1975 with about 50 families, but grew to over 250 families by the early 1990s. The Society operates a Jain study class for 100 children, hosts a summer camp, sponsors visiting lectures, and celebrates the Jain festivals. It has designated Thanksgiving Day as Ahimsa Day, a day of non-violence. In 1991, construction began on a million-dollar temple in Farmington Hills, a Detroit suburb.

1980 CE Sushil Kumar Founds International Mahavir Jain Mission

The International Mahavir Jain Mission (IMJM) was founded in Cleveland, Ohio in 1980 by Acharya Sushil Kumar. The purposes of the IMJM include promoting understanding of Jain scriptures, teachings, and practices, and cultivating academic and cultural exchange among Jains. Until his death in 1994, Kumar was the chairperson of IMJM. The society headquarters later moved to Siddhachalam in New Jersey.

1981 CE April 26 Proclaimed as a Day of Ahimsa in Cleveland

In 1981, the mayor of Cleveland and the city’s Jain Society proclaimed April 26, 1981 as a Day of Ahimsa (non-violence) in Cleveland, Ohio.

1981 CE Federation of JAINA Organized

In 1980, the Jain Center of Southern California voted to host a conference that would bring together representatives of all the Jain centers in North America. The conference took place over Memorial Day weekend of the following year. During this three-day meeting, the Federation of Jain Associations in North America (JAINA) was created, and a constitution for the new organization was drafted. JAINA continues to hold national conventions every other year, having convened in New York City (1983); Detroit (1985); Chicago (1987 and 1995); Toronto (1989); Stanford, California (1991); and Pittsburgh (1993).

1983 CE Siddhachalam Established in New Jersey

Siddhachalam was founded in New Jersey in 1983. This rural ashram and temple complex, established by Acharya Sushil Kumar on 108 acres in the foothills of the Pocono Mountains, was created as the first Jain tirtha or pilgrimage place outside of India. The rural center is a residential community for Jain monks and nuns and a retreat center for laity.

1985 CE Jain Digest Begins Publication

Jain Digest, a quarterly publication of the Jain Associations in North America (JAINA), was launched in 1985. The digest contains news from Jain societies throughout the U.S. and Canada. Jain Digest today has readers around the world.

1986 CE First Public Exhibit of Jain Paintings

In 1986 the New York Public Library organized “The World of Jainism,” the first public exhibition of Jain paintings in the U.S. Paintings from the manuscript Kalpa Sutra and other scriptures from the 15th to 19th centuries were featured. The exhibition of Jain paintings was part of the library’s participation in the Festival of India, a two-year-long celebration of Indian culture in the U.S.

1986 CE Indo-American Jain Conference

The Indo-American Jain Conference of the World Jain Congress was convened at Siddhachalam on September 26-28, 1986. The theme of the conference was Jain unity. Twelve hundred participants came from India, Europe, the U.S., Canada, and Africa. The construction of temples, literature, and world peace were among the topics discussed at the conference.

1987 CE Jain Study Circle Established

The Jain Study Circle was established in 1987 to promote study and understanding of the Jain tradition. The Circle organized study groups and took over responsibility for publishing the Jain Study Circular, which had been instituted by the Jain Center of Boston.

1988 CE Jain Temple Opens in Los Angeles

Members of the Jain Center of Southern California initially held their meetings in various community spaces. But in 1988, the JCSC opened their first temple, Jain Bhavan, in Los Angeles.

1991 CE Images Installed at Siddhachalam

From August 2-11, 1991, several thousand Jains came to the hilly countryside near Blairstown, New Jersey, to witness the installation of images of the Tirthankaras in the newly completed temple at Siddhachalam, the first Jain ashram and tirtha in the U.S. The event, called a Pratishta Mahotsav, was overseen by the founder of Siddhachalam, Acharya Sushil Kumar.

1992 CE American Jains at UN Earth Summit

Sushil Kumar represented American Jains in several interreligious events held in conjunction with the U.N. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

1992 CE First Chaturmas in California

In 1992, the Jain Center of Northern California organized a four-month stay of two Jain monks called Samans, from an order of monks and nuns created by Acharya Tulsi in India specially to be able to travel and teach abroad. During their visit, the two gave lectures in Gujarati, Hindi, and English and provided instruction in Preksha meditation.

1993 CE Dedication of the Jain Temple in Chicago

In 1993, the Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago dedicated a new temple in Bartlett, Illinois, a western suburb of Chicago. The temple was the largest Jain temple in the U.S. and contains both Shvetambar and Digambar images.

1993 CE Jainism Online

The Jain Bulletin Board System was launched on the Internet in 1993 to provide online information about Jainism. Jain presence online only continued to expand during the following decades, connecting Jains around the world as well as providing a platform for American Jains to engage with one another and with the wider American community.

2001 CE 9/11 Attacks Cause Hateful Backlash

While perpetrators of post-9/11 hate crimes targeted Muslims, many individuals of South Asian and Arab descent were also victims. Along with many communities whose members fit a similar racial profile, Jains collaborated to clarify their religious and cultural traditions to an American audience.

2010 CE Growth and Expansion of Jain Communities

The Jain community of Boston, among others throughout the U.S., experienced so much growth in the early 2000s that a larger building was required for the Jain Center of Greater Boston (JCGB). In 2010, community members moved to a new site in Norwood, a former synagogue that now houses classrooms for Jain education, a large event space, and a remodeled temple. The growth and formalized establishment of Jains in the U.S. is visible in communities across the country, especially apparent in such national groups as JAINA and the many conferences, youth programs, scholarships, and events they oversee.

Selected Publications & Links

Seeling, Holly . “ Authority and Transmission in the 'American' Jain Tradition .” The Pluralism Project , 1991.

Jain, Neelu . “ From Religion to Ethnicity: The Identity of Immigrant and Second Generation Indian Jains in the United States .” National Identities 6, no. 3 (2004): 277.

Bose, Subhindra . “ Indians Barred from American Citizenship .” Modern Review (Calcutta) , 1923, 33 , 691-695.

Jain Quantum

E-jain digest, young jains of america, young jain professionals, explore jainism in greater boston.

Jains first came from India to America in the late 1960s, establishing the Jain Center of Greater Boston (JCGB) in 1973. From 1981 until 2010, members of the JCGB gathered in a former Swedish Lutheran church in Norwood. Since 2010, JCGB have gathered in their own, purpose-built derasar (temple) in Norwood. A second local organization, the Jain Sangh of New England (JSNE), formed in 2000.

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Indian History

Make Your Note

• 03 Feb 2022
• 15 min read
• Ancient Indian History
• GS Paper - 1

Introduction

Jainism is an ancient religion that is rooted in the philosophy that teaches the way to liberation and a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined nonviolence to all living creatures.

When did Jainism Originate?

• Jainism came to prominence in the 6 th century B.C. , when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
• These twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras -people who had attained all knowledge (Moksha) while living and preached it to the people.
• The first Tirthankara was Rishabnatha.
• The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24 th Tirthankara, was born in 540 B.C. in a village called Kundagrama near Vaishali.
• He belonged to Jnatrika clan and was connected to the royal family of Magadha.
• His father Siddharta was the head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan and his mother Trishala was a sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali.
• At the age of 30 years , he renounced his home and become an ascetic.
• He practised austerity for 12 years and attained highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya (i.e conquered misery and happiness) at the age of 42 years.
• He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
• A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s symbol was a lion .
• His missions took him Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc
• He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at the Pavapuri in Bihar.

Cause of Origin?

• Hinduism had become rigid and orthodox with complex rituals and dominance of Brahmins.
• The Varna system divided the society into 4 classes based on birth, where the two higher classes enjoyed several privileges.
• Kshatriya's reaction against the domination of the brahmanas.
• Spread of the new agricultural economy in the north-eastern India due to the use of iron tools.

What are the Tenets of Jainism?

• Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
• Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
• Right Action (Samyakcharita)
• Ahimsa : Non-injury to living being
• Satya : Do not speak a lie
• Asteya : Do not steal
• Aparigraha : Do not acquire property
• Brahmacharya : Observe continence

The Concept of God in Jainism

• Jainism believes that the universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. It has no beginning or end with respect to time. Universe runs on its own accord by its own cosmic laws.
• There is no need for someone to create or manage the affairs of the universe.
• Hence Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the universe.
• When a person destroys all his karmas, he becomes a liberated soul. He lives in a perfect blissful state in Moksha forever.
• The liberated soul possesses infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss. This living being is a God of Jain religion.
• Every living being has a potential to become God.
• Hence Jains do not have one God, but Jain Gods are innumerable and their number is continuously increasing as more living beings attain liberation.

Anekantavada

• Anekantavada in Jainism is the ontological assumption that any entity is at once enduring but also undergoing change that is both constant and inevitable.
• Dravya serves as a substratum for multiple gunas, each of which is itself constantly undergoing transformation or modification.
• Thus, any entity has both an abiding continuous nature and qualities that are in a state of constant flux.
• Syadvada , in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syat (“may be”).
• The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number.
• Syadavada literally means the ‘method of examining different probabilities’.

Difference between Anekantavada and Syadvada

• The basic difference between them is that Anekantavada is the knowledge of all differing but opposite attributes whereas Syadvada is a process of the relative description of a particular attribute of an object or an event.

What are the Sects/ School of Jainism?

• The division occurred mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India .
• During the 12 years famine, the group in South India stick to the strict practices while the group in Magadha adopted a more lax attitude and started wearing white clothes.
• After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the changed practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects.
• Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
• Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
• Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
• Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
• Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha
• Gumanapantha
• Monks wear white clothes.
• Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
• Believe women can achieve liberation.
• Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
• Murtipujaka
• Sthanakvasi

Reason for the Spread of Jainism?

• Mahavira organised an order of his followers which admitted both men and women.
• Jainism didn’t very clearly mark itself out from the brahmanical religion, therefore it spread gradually into West and South India where brahmanical order was weak.
• The great Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, during his last years, became a Jain ascetic and promoted Jainism in Karnataka.
• The famine lasted for 12 years, and in order to protect themselves many Jains went to South India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
• In Odisha, it enjoyed the patronage of Kalinga King of Kharavela.

What is Jain Literature?

• Lord Mahavir's immediate disciples were known as Ganadhara.
• All Ganadharas possessed perfect knowledge (keval-gyan).
• They orally compiled the direct preaching of Lord Mahavir into twelve main texts (sutras). These texts are known as Ang-agams.
• Monks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Shrutakevalin.
• The twelfth Ang-agam is called Drastivad. The Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva texts, also known as Purvas or Purva-agams. Among Ang-agams, Purvas were the oldest sacred texts.
• They are written in the Prakrit language.
• They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Old Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

What is Jain Architecture?

• Jain architecture cannot be accredited with a style of its own, it was almost an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles.
• Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra
• Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
• Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra
• Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
• Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
• Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
• Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
• Statue of Ahimsa(Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
• Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan
• Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
• Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra
• Manastambha: It is found in the front side of the temple, having religious importance with an ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.
• Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.

Jain Council

• Held at Patliputra in 3 rd Century B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.
• Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D . and was presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
• Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

How is Jainism different from Buddhism?

• Jainism recognised the existence of god while Buddhism did not.
• Jainism does not condemn the varna system while Buddhism does.
• Jainism believed in transmigration of soul i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
• Buddha prescribed the middle path while Jainism advocates his followers to even completely discard the clothes i.e. life of austerity.

What is the Relevance of Jain Ideology in Today’s World?

• Attempts to reform the evils of varna order.
• Growth of Prakrit and Kannada.
• Contributed to architecture and literature immensely.
• Absence of dogmatism or fanaticism
• Honouring the freedom of others
• Peaceful coexistence and cooperation
• It brings the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance.
• The concept of Ahimsa can also help to counter growing violence and terrorism.
• Global warming also can be healed with this thought by doing away with unwanted luxuries, which produce carbon emissions.

Multiple Choice Questions

Q. With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to (2018)

A. Buddhism

C. Vaishnavism

D. Shaivism

Q. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine?

• The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
• Every object, even the smallest particle, has a soul.
• Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

B. 2 and 3 only

C. 1 and 3 only

D. 1, 2 and 3

Q. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism?

• Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
• Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
• Denial of efficacy of rituals

Q . Anekantavada is a core theory and philosophy of which one of the following?

D. Vaishnavism

Mains Question

Q. Discuss the reasons for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India and their impact. (150 words)

Q. Explain how the basic philosophy of Jainism can help to tackle various social and environmental problems. (150 words)

Visiting Sleeping Beauties: Reawakening Fashion?

You must join the virtual exhibition queue when you arrive. If capacity has been reached for the day, the queue will close early.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Jain sculpture.

Jain Siddha Bahubali, Entwined with Forest Vines

Enthroned Jina, Probably Neminatha

Jain Svetambara Tirthankara in Meditation

Jain Digambara Tirthanhara Standing in Kayotsarga Meditation Posture

Svetambara Enthroned Jina, with Attendant Yaksha and Yakshi

Ten Elements for East Window of an Architectural Ensemble from a Jain Meeting Hall

John Guy Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

January 2012

Jainism is the least well known of India’s traditional religions even though it has an ancestry that antedates Buddhism and rivals Hinduism in its claim to be India’s oldest continuously practiced faith. Its modern historical founder is Mahavira, a near contemporary of the Buddha Shakyamuni. Yet Mahavira is claimed as but the most recent of twenty-four tirthankaras, literally “ford-crossers” whose pure and indestructible souls ( jiva ) have journeyed from the realm of the phenomenal world ( samsara ) to a place of spiritual liberation ( moksha ), free of perpetual reincarnation. The Jain faith is based on the worship of these twenty-four liberated souls, venerated as the jinas, those perfected beings who have achieved victory over samsara and who serve as role models to guide the faithful on the proper path to liberation.

In devotional practice, Jainism mirrored more closely the rites and rituals of Hinduism than did Buddhism, though it remained wedded to the shared vision of a faith premised on moksha . The conceptual basis for the jina’s image is the pan-Indian ideal of the yogic ascetic ( 1992.131 ). This image informs many religious icons in early Indian art, and respect for the wandering meditative mendicant is the oldest stream running through religious practice in the subcontinent. This ancient practice, celebrated in the Vedas, equates the acquisition of superior knowledge ([spiritual] “wisdom”) with the pursuit of advanced forms of meditation, austerities, and a withdrawal from the material comforts of the life of a householder. Those who attain such a state are respected and revered.

For the Jains, meditation in a seated yogic posture was the predominant form assumed by the jinas. A secondary and uniquely Jain form, and undoubtedly also of great antiquity, is the standing posture of “body abandonment” ( kayotsarga ), in which the mendicant stands erect with his arms pendant but unsupported by the body. This physically exacting pose is the most extreme expression of Jainism’s central premise, the concept of ahimsa , “nonviolence” to all living creatures. To maintain complete immobility was to ensure no harm to any creature, however small.

The pantheon of deities worshipped in Jainism consists of a hierarchy descending from the twenty-four perfected beings to a galaxy of secondary gods and goddesses, the most important of whom is Indra (Shakra) in whose heaven the jinas reside, and Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and learning. The nature-spirit deities, the yakshas (male) and yakshis (female), who peopled the early landscape of the subcontinent before the coming of the new religions, serve as protective presences and guardians. Most prominent among these are Dharanendra, the nagaraja  who protects Jina Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara, and Ambika, the embodiment of maternity and fecundity. A vast cast of knowledge goddesses, vidyadevis , oversee the enactment of ritual, and an array of celestial musicians ( gandharvas ) and dancers ( apsaras ) celebrate the jinas in their heavens.

This cast is somewhat limited when compared to mainstream Hinduism and has generated a similarly constricted repertoire of imagery, sculpted, painted, and woven. Within these conceptual constraints, however, Jain religious imagery tracks the mainstream stylistic and technical innovations of Indian art.

Jainism had an established place in the art of early India from the beginnings of the appearance of figurative religious imagery. At the outset of Jain image making, it may be assumed that male Jain mendicants renounced all material encumbrances, including clothing. From its origins in Bihar, eastern India, Jainism spread along the Gangetic basin and became an important presence at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, the southern capital of the Kushans. Certainly the numerous sandstone sculptures of jinas from the early centuries A.D. found in this region are, without exception, naked. The total absence of garments distinguishes the jinas from the otherwise similar images of Buddhas, as does the prevalent use in this formative period of the shrivatsa  symbol on the chest, a lakshana (auspicious mark) denoting the jina’s status as a mahapurusha (“great man”). Similarly, the famous bronze Jina Rishabhantha of the third century A.D., from the Chausa hoard, Patna, is among the earliest known Jain bronzes and represents the jina standing naked in the kayotsarga posture of immobility, the predominant theme in early Jain metal imagery.

The oldest Jain image in the Museum’s collection also happens to be the earliest known representation of the subject in Jain art, that of Bahubali, a perfected being ( siddha ) who attained jina-like status in the Jain canon while never being claimed as a tirthankara ( 1987.142.339 ). This diminutive icon—only 11 centimeters high—is part of a tradition that inspired the largest rock-cut icon in the subcontinent, the 18-meter Bahubali at Shravana Belgola, in Karnataka, which is ritually lustrated in the Mahamastakabhisheka festival, celebrated on a twelve-year cycle, most recently in 2006.

The Deccan was the stronghold of the Digambara (“sky-clad,” i.e., naked) sect of Jainism, and further south, in Tamil country, Jainism prospered, attracting patronage from Pandyan and other rulers throughout the first millennium. Most images from that region depict jinas as fully committed renunciants, the “sky-clad.” A tirthankara standing in body-abandonment meditation typifies the style of the late first millennium ( 1995.423 ). The figure is austere in its plainness, completely lacking in “adornment” ( alamkara ), a virtue in Hindu sculpture but seen by Digambara Jains as counter to the vows of renunciation so core to advanced practitioners. The slightly attenuated arms are an allusion to the protracted observance of body-abandonment penance. The short hair curls are an anomaly, as they mimic the Buddhist convention (of the curls left after cutting off the hair with a sword) rather than the required Jain practice of plucking out one’s own hair. The extended earlobes share a common ancestry, denoting a personage who once wore heavy jewelry, implying that all jinas were of high birth. Images of tirthankaras standing in body-abandonment are among the most understated and beautiful of the period, and so successfully embody the essence of the doctrine of renunciation of the material world.

Jainism had progressively spread from its birthplace in Bihar westward to its future heartland in Gujarat and Rajasthan. One of the clearest demonstrations of the success of this transplanting of Jainism from eastern to western India is demonstrated by the so-called Akota hoard of Jain bronzes. Spanning from the late fifth to the tenth century, this large cache of sixty-eight copper-alloy images was secreted away for safety and lost from memory until its chance discovery prior to 1951 at the ancient city Ankottaka (present-day Akota) in Gujarat. This hoard provided the earliest coherent group of Jain icons of this period, chronicling the rise of Jainism in western India. The enthroned jina, probably Neminatha ( 2008.279 ), is clearly related to this “Akota school” and may be accepted as belonging to the same cultural milieu and style group.

Guy, John. “Jain Sculpture.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jais/hd_jais.htm (January 2012)

Further Reading

Shah, Umakant P. Jaina-rupa = Jaina Iconography , 3 vols. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1987.

Additional Essays by John Guy

• Guy, John. “ Arts of the Greater Himalayas: Kashmir, Tibet, and Nepal .” (May 2021)
• Guy, John. “ Jain Manuscript Painting .” (January 2012)

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• Development of the notion of transmigration
• Origin of the concept of brahman and atman
• The principles underlying macrocosm and microcosm
• The Four Noble Truths and the nature of suffering
• The path of liberation: methods of the Eightfold Path
• The concepts of anatta and nibbana
• Proto-Samkhyan texts
• Non-Samkhyan texts
• Early theories of kingship and state
• The Bhagavadgita
• Doctrines and ideas of the Buddhist Tipitaka
• The history of the sutra style
• The Purva-mimamsa-sutra s and Shabara’s commentary
• Relation to the Mimamsa-sutra s
• Contents and organization of the four books
• Variations in views
• Relation to orthodoxy
• The nature of the self ( purusha )
• The nature, origin, and structure of the world ( prakriti )
• The concept of the three qualities ( guna s)
• Epistemology
• Relation to Samkhya
• God, self, and body
• Theories and techniques of self-control and meditation
• Organization and contents
• Structure of the world
• Content and organization
• Theory of causation and metaphysics
• The syllogism and its predecessors
• Other characteristic philosophic matters
• Contributions of the Mahasangikas
• Contributions of the Sarvastivadins
• Contributions of the Sautrantikas
• Theories of kingship and statecraft
• Concepts of the public good
• Relations between states
• The formation and implementation of policy
• The Ajivikas
• The Charvakas
• Nagarjuna and Shunyavada
• Contributions of Vasubandhu and Asanga
• Contributions of Dignaga and Dharmakirti
• Principal texts and relation to Shabara
• Metaphysics and epistemology
• Hermeneutics and semantics
• Religious consequences
• The linguistic philosophies: Bhartrihari and Mandana-Mishra
• The old school
• The new school
• Texts and commentaries until Vachaspati and the “Samkhya-sutras”
• Raja Yoga and Hatha Yoga
• Fragments from the Mandukya-karika until Shankara
• Varieties of Vedanta schools
• The concepts of nondualism
• Shankara’s theory of error and religious and ethical concerns
• Concepts of bhedabheda
• Vaishnava schools
• Shaiva-siddhanta
• Kashmiri Shaivism

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Jainism , founded about the 6th century bce by Vardhamana Mahavira , the 24th in a succession of religious leaders known either as Tirthankaras (Saviors) or as Jinas (Conquerors), rejects the idea of God as the creator of the world but teaches the perfectibility of humanity, to be accomplished through the strictly moral and ascetic life. Central to the moral code of Jainism is the doctrine of ahimsa —noninjury to all living beings, an idea that may have arisen in reaction to Vedic sacrifice ritual. There is also a great emphasis on vows ( vrata s) of various orders.

Although earlier scriptures, such as the Bhagavati-sutra , contained assorted ideas on logic and epistemology , the 2nd-century- ce philosopher Kundakunda was the first to develop Jaina logic. The Tattvarthadhigama-sutra of Umasvatis, however, is the first systematic work, and Siddhasena (7th century ce ) the first great logician. Other important figures are Akalanka (8th century), Manikyanandi, Vadideva, Hemchandra (12th century), Prabhachandra (11th century), and Yasovijaya (17th century).

The principal ingredients of Jaina metaphysics are: an ultimate distinction between “living substance” or “soul” ( jiva ) and “nonliving substance” ( ajiva ); the doctrine of anekantavada , or nonabsolutism (the thesis that things have infinite aspects that no determination can exhaust); the doctrine of naya (the thesis that there are many partial perspectives from which reality can be determined, none of which is, taken by itself, wholly true but each of which is partially so); and the doctrine of karma , in Jainism a substance , rather than a process, that links all phenomena in a chain of cause and effect .

As a consequence of their metaphysical liberalism, the Jaina logicians developed a unique theory of seven-valued logic , according to which the three primary truth values are “true,” “false,” and “indefinite” and the other four values are “true and false,” “true and indefinite,” “false and indefinite,” and “true, false, and indefinite.” Every statement is regarded as having these seven values, considered from different standpoints.

Knowledge is defined as that which reveals both itself and another ( svaparabhasi ). It is eternal, as an essential quality of the self; it is noneternal, as the perishable empirical knowledge. Whereas most Hindu epistemologists regarded pramana as the cause of knowledge, the Jainas identified pramana with valid knowledge. Knowledge is either perceptual or nonperceptual. Perception is either empirical or nonempirical. Empirical perception is either sensuous or nonsensuous. The latter arises directly in the self, not through the sense organs but only when the covering ignorance is removed. With the complete extinction of all karmas, a person attains omniscience ( kevala-jnana ).

Reference has been made earlier to the Sufi (Islamic mystics), who found a resemblance between the ontological monism of Ibn al-ʿArabi and that of Vedanta . The Shattari order among the Indian Sufis practiced Yogic austerities and even physical postures. Various minor syncretistic religious sects attempted to harmonize Hindu and Muslim religious traditions at different levels and with varying degrees of success. Of these, the most famous are Ramananda , Kabir , and Guru Nanak . Kabir harmonized the two religions in such a manner that, to an inquiry about whether he was a Hindu or a Muslim, the answer given by a contemporary was, “It is a secret difficult to comprehend. One should try to understand.” Guru Nanak rejected the authority of both Hindu and Muslim scriptures alike and founded his religion, Sikhism , on a rigorously moralistic, monotheistic basis.

Among the great Mughals, Akbar attempted in 1581 to promulgate a new religion, Dīn-e Ilāhī , which was to be based on reason and ethical teachings common to all religions and which was to be free from priestcraft. This effort, however, was short-lived, and a reaction of Muslim orthodoxy was led by Shaykh Aḥmed Sirhindī , who rejected ontological monism in favor of orthodox unitarianism and sought to channel mystical enthusiasm along Qurʾānic lines. By the middle of the 17th century, the tragic figure of Dārā Shikōh , the Mughal emperor Shāh Jahān’s son and disciple of the Qādirī Sufis, translated Hindu scriptures, such as the Bhagavadgita and the Upanishads, into Persian and in his translation of the latter closely followed Shankara ’s commentaries. In his Majmaʿ al-baḥrayn (“The Mingling of the Two Oceans”) he worked out correlations between Sufi and Upanishadic cosmologies, beliefs, and practices. During this time, the Muslim elite of India virtually identified Vedanta with Sufism. Later, Shāh Walī Allāh’s son, Shāh ʿAbd-ul-ʿAzīz, regarded Krishna among the awliyāʾ (saints).

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Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology

Jainism Introduction

Religions of the World and Ecology Series

Jainism and ecology volume.

Christopher Key Chapple, ed.

“ Introduction” Christopher Key Chapple

The Jain Faith in History The Jain religion originated more than twenty-five hundred years ago in India. It developed a path of renunciation and purification designed to liberate one from the shackles of karma, allowing one to enter into a state of eternal liberation from rebirth, or kevala, which is roughly equivalent to the Buddhist concept of nirvana. The primary method of attaining this ultimate state requires a careful observance of nonviolent behavior. Jainism emphasizes nonviolence, or ahimsa, as the only true path that leads to liberation and prescribes following scrupulous rules for the protection of life in all forms. 1

The origins of Jainism are somewhat difficult to trace. The tradition holds that twenty-four great teachers, or Tirthankaras, established the foundations of the Jain faith. The most recent of these teachers, Vardhamana Mahavira (also known as the Jina) most probably lived during the time of the Buddha. Recent scholarship suggests that the Buddha lived in the fourth century BCE. However, the traditional stories of Mahavira indicate that he was born into a family that followed the religious teachings of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, who possibly taught during the eighth century BCE. Because virtually no archaeological ruins can be found in India for the period from 1500 to 300 BCE, exact dates cannot be determined. However, the first excavations of northern India during the Hellenistic era (ca. 300 BCE) include statues of Jain images. Furthermore, the earliest Buddhist texts discuss Jainism in some detail, suggesting that it was a well-established tradition even before the time of the Buddha.

The records of Strabo (64 BCE to 23 CE), the Greek geographer, describe two prevailing styles of religiosity in India at the time of Alexander (ca. 330 BCE), as recorded by Megasthenes (350–290 BCE): the Brahmanical traditions, later described by the Persians as “Hindu,” and the Sramanical traditions, which include Buddhism and Jainism. 2 The Brahmanical traditions emphasize the Vedas, ritual, and the authority of a priestly caste. The Sramanical traditions do not accept the Vedas, advocate meditation rather than ritual, and look to monks and nuns for religious authority. Buddhism sent out missionaries from India who established Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia, and Vajrayana Buddhism in Central Asia. Buddhism flourished in India until the tenth century, when its influence waned.

Jainism did not establish a missionary tradition but cultivated a strong laity. Like Buddhism, it began in Northeast India but, possibly because of drought in the third century BCE, many Jains moved to the southern kingdoms of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, as well to the western parts of India now known as Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. Eventually, two sects of Jainism arose: the Digambaras, primarily found in central and southern India, and the Svetambaras, who live primarily in western India. The two groups agree on the foundational Jain principles of karma and nonviolence. However, they differ on their biographical accounts of Mahavira, accept different texts as authentically canonical, and hold divergent views on renouncing clothing and on the potential spiritual status of women. The Svetambaras, whose name means “white clad,” contend that monks and nuns can achieve the highest levels of spirituality without renouncing their clothing. They also believe that women hold the potential to achieve the state of liberation, or kevala . The Digambaras, whose name means “sky clad,” hold that all clothing must ultimately be renounced and that, because only men are allowed to take this ultimate vow of renunciation, a woman must be reborn as a man to achieve kevala. These traditions arose in geographic isolation from one another and developed into distinct schools by the early centuries of the common era.

The Acaranga Sutra (ca. 400 BCE), a text used extensively by the Svetambaras, is the oldest surviving Jain manual, describing the rules proclaimed by Mahavira to be followed by his monks and nuns. One thinker, Umasvati, who probably lived in the fourth century CE, developed a philosophical approach to Jainism that both Svetambaras and Digambaras accept. In a text known as the Tattvartha Sutra, or Aphorisms on the Meaning of Reality, he succinctly outlines the Jain world-view, describing karma, cosmology, ethics, and the levels of spiritual attainment (gunasthana). Later philosophers, including Haribhadra (ca. 750 CE) and Hemacandra (ca. 1150 CE) of the Svetambara tradition and Jinasena (ca. 820 CE) and Virasena (ca. 800 CE) of the Digambara tradition, developed an extensive literary corpus that includes stories, epics, philosophical treatises, and poetry. During the Mogal period, Jinacandrasuri II (1541–1613), the leader of the Kharatara Gaccha (a subdivision of the Svetambara sect) achieved great influence at the court of Akbar, convincing the emperor to protect Jain pilgrimage places. Akbar even prohibited animal slaughter for one week per year under Jinacandrasuri’s urging. In contemporary times, Jain have become very influential in the areas of publishing, law, and business. They continue to work at integrating their philosophy of nonviolence into the daily life of India.

The Jain community has also participated in an extensive diaspora, with several tens of thousands living in various parts of the world. Jain business families settled in East Africa several decades ago. After Indian independence, some Jains settled in Great Britain, with a great influx from East Africa during the expulsion of all South Asians from Uganda under the rule of Idi Amin. In Kobe, Japan, Jains participate in the diamond trade. Jains began migrating to North America after the changes in immigration law in 1965, inspired by the Civil Rights movement. These new immigrants have built temples and organized several networks and organizations for maintaining Jain identity, including the Jaina Associations in North America (JAINA), which sponsors semiyearly conventions. These gatherings have included presentations pertaining to current issues, such as environmentalism. 3  

Jainism and Environmentalism The common concerns between Jainism and environmentalism can be found in a mutual sensitivity toward living things, a recognition of the inter-connectedness of life-forms, and support of programs that educate others to respect and protect living systems. For the Jains, this approach is anchored in a cosmology that views the world in terms of a cosmic woman whose body contains countless life souls ( jiva ) that reincarnate repeatedly until the rare attainment of spiritual liberation ( kevala ). The primary means to attain freedom requires the active nonharming of living beings, which disperses the karmas that keep one bound. Jains adhere to the vows of nonviolence to purify their karma and advance toward the higher states of spiritual attainment ( gunasthana ). For Jain laypeople, this generally means keeping to a vegetarian diet and pursuing livelihoods deemed to inflict a minimum of harm. For Jain monks and nuns, this means the need to avoid doing harm to all forms of life, including bugs and microorganisms ( nigoda ).

Contemporary environmental thinkers in the developed world, particularly within the last decade of the twentieth century, have come to emphasize the interconnectedness of life as the foundation for developing an environmental ethic. On the policy level, the Endangered Species Act of the United States extends protection to even the smallest aspect of life, emphasizing the microphase as the key to ecosystem protection. Taking a different approach, Norway has developed a comprehensive approach to assess the impact of one action on the broader network of relationships within a given biome. 4 Both approaches grapple with the age-old problem of how to balance the needs of the one and the many when working toward the highest good.

Drawing from her own relationships with trees, ecologist Stephanie Kaza has proposed an approach to the natural world that engenders feelings of tenderness, respect, and protection. She writes:

The relationship between person and tree, arising over and over again in many different contexts and with various individuals, is one subset of all human-nonhuman relationships… . I want to know, What does it actually mean to be in a relationship with a tree? Acknowledgment of and participation in relationships with trees, coyotes, mountains, and rivers is central to the philosophy of deep ecology… . In the course of studying mountains and rivers in depth, one sees them explode into all the phenomena that support their existence—clouds, stones, people walking, animals crawling, the earth shaking. 5

By participating in the close observation of individual life processes, in this case using the tree as a starting point, one begins to see the network of relationships that enlivens all forms of consciousness. By gaining intimacy with a small part of the whole, concern for the larger ecosystem arises. Each piece, no matter how small, contributes to the whole. To disrupt the chain of life at any link can result in dire consequences, as seen in the release of radioactivity in Chernobyl, the great industrial accident in Bhopal, the depletion of the ozone layer over the polar caps, and the extinction of various species of plants and animals.

As seen in the above example from Stephanie Kaza, an important impetus for environmental activism comes from the close observance and consequent appreciation of the external world. As our ecosystem becomes impoverished, humans take notice and respond. Ultimately, this concern for nature can be seen as a form of self-preservation, as the earth is the only context for human flourishing. Similarly, according to the Acaranga Sutra, Mahavira was moved when he observed nature at close range, noticing that even the simplest piece of a meadow teems with life:

Thoroughly knowing the earth-bodies and water-bodies and fire-bodies and wind-bodies, the lichens, seeds, and sprouts, he comprehended that they are, if narrowly inspected, imbued with life… . 6

In a contemporary echo of this realization, James Laidlaw records the conversion moment of a woman who subsequently decided to become a Jain nun:

the decision came one morning when she walked into the kitchen. There was a cockroach in the middle of the floor, “and I just looked at it and suddenly I thought, ‘Why should I stay in this world where there is just suffering and death and rebirth?”’ 7

Seeing the life and spirit of a lowly insect inspired this woman to pursue a lifelong commitment of harmlessness to all beings. Benevolence to souls other than one’s own leads to self-purification and the transcendence of worldly entanglements. The ethics of nonviolence as developed by the Jains looks simultaneously inward and outward. The only path for saving one’s own soul requires the protection of all other possible souls.

Jainism offers a worldview that in many ways seems readily compatible with core values associated with environmental activism. While both uphold the protection of life, the underlying motives governing the Jain faith and those governing environmental activism do differ. First, as various authors in this book will point out, the telos or goal of Jainism lies beyond all worldly concerns. The Jain observances of nonviolence, for instance, are not ultimately performed for the sake of protecting the individual uniqueness of any given life-form for its own sake. The reason for the protection of life is for self-benefit, stemming from a desire to avoid accruing a karmic debt that will result in later retribution against oneself. The result may be the same; a life might be spared. However, this is a by-product of a desire to protect and purify oneself through the avoidance of doing harm. In the case of some environmental activists, aggressive, direct action might be undertaken to interfere with and stop the destruction of a natural habitat in a way that might be seen as violent, such as the monkey-wrenching techniques used by EarthFirst! 8 This would not be acceptable to a Jain.

In this volume the following questions will be posed: How does traditional Jain cosmology, and its consequent ethics, view the natural world? Is this worldview compatible with contemporary ecological theory? How might a Jain ethical system respond to the challenges of making decisions regarding such issues as the development of dams, the proliferation of automobiles, overcrowding due to overpopulation, and the protection of individual animal species? Can there be a Jain environmental activism that stems from a traditional concern for self-purification that simultaneously responds to the contemporary dilemma of ecosystem degradation?

In the chapters that follow, this topic will be pursued from a variety of perspectives. The voices included in this volume reflect a wide spectrum of approaches. Several scholars born and trained in the West take a critical look at the real prospects for Jain advocacy of environmental protection. Jain scholars from India, on the other hand, see actual solutions in Jain philosophy for correcting ecological imbalances through a reconsideration of lifestyle and active application of ahimsa. Perhaps the closest analogue to environmental activism within historical Jainism can be found in the tradition of animal protection, as found in the many hundreds, if not thousands, of shelters, or pinjrapoles, located in and near Jain communities in western India. 9 Modern initiatives, some of which are mentioned in this book, include tree-planting prgrams at pilgrimage sites. Dr. Michael Fox of the Humane Society and the Center for Respect of Life and Environment has re-energized an animal shelter inspired by Jain values in South India. 10 By combining the ancient practice of animal protection with considered reflections on how traditional Jain observances of non-violence might counter the excesses of the modern, industrialized, consumer-oriented lifestyle, the Jain faith might provide a new voice for the development of ecofriendly behaviors.

Overview of the Volume The book has been divided into four sections, followed by an appendix and a bibliography. The first section examines Jain theories about the nature of the universe, which then provide the context for developing an ecological interpretation of the tradition. The second section raises some challenges to the possibility of developing an ecofriendly Jain ethic. The third section, written by Jain practitioners, asserts that Jainism, with its emphasis on nonviolence ( ahimsa ), is inherently sensitive to and practically responsive to environmental needs. The fourth section discusses the adaptation of ecological ideas among select members of the contemporary Jain community, largely among its diaspora adherents.

In the first chapter, Nathmal Tatia, who passed away shortly after the conference on Jainism and ecology took place in the summer of 1998, suggests that virtually all the religious traditions of the world “contain aspects that are not anthropocentric” and then introduces key aspects of Jain philosophy. Noting that neither Jainism nor Buddhism contains a creating or controlling God, he emphasizes compassion as the key for the protection of life. Tatia suggests that the Jain advocacy of vegetarianism and protection of animals provide a possible remedy for the current ecological crisis. He provides a synoptic view of how the application of traditional Jain ethics can help one enact environmentalist values.

Philosopher John Koller probes the Jain theory of many-sidedness ( anekanta ) as an antidote to the one-theory approach that drives the development machine and has led to environmental degradation. Jains traditionally seek to understand any situation from as many angles as possible, as exemplified in the famous story of the six blind men and the elephant. One feels the tail and “sees” a snake. Another feels the ear and “sees” a fan, and so forth. Each can claim a “truth,” but no one, at least before the experience of kevala, can claim to see totality. By utilizing a multiple-perspective approach to environmental issues, Koller suggests that Jains will be better equipped to cope with such ethical dilemmas as the use and abuse of trees and oceans.

Kristi Wiley begins her chapter with an assessment of the discipline of environmental ethics as it has evolved in Western academia. Noting the shift from anthropocentrism to biocentrism, Wiley sees some commonalities between the moral considerations of Jainism and systems ecologists. Her careful interpretation of indigenous Jain biology and elemental theory lists in detail the karmic effects of negative interactions with one’s environment. She makes the important distinction between beings with consciousness ( samjni ) and those without consciousness ( asamjni ), which provides some basis for using plants and the elements as resources for human sustenance. Wiley also emphasizes the central role played by the nuns and monks who serve as the conscience of the Jain tradition, advocating protection for even those beings who lack awareness, such as plants and the living bodies contained within earth, water, fire, and air.

The second section poses challenges to the conventional assumption that Jainism by its very nature contains all the precepts of environmentalism. It begins with an essay by John Cort, who suggests that a great deal of work needs to be accomplished before the Jain tradition can honestly claim to be ecofriendly. Noting that the environmental crisis is a recent development, he suggests that environmental thought and activism might help inform how Jains define and realize their commitment to ahimsa. In particular, he discusses the Jain “value of wellbeing” as providing a counterbalance to the Jain emphasis on liberation, noting that “Jain ethics … are highly context-sensitive” and hence adaptable according to time and place. He compares and contrasts ecofeminism and the role of women in Jainism, and suggests that social ecology must be taken into consideration, noting that the project to reforest Jain pilgrimage sites has had a negative effect on low-caste herders whose livestock have become restricted from foraging. Acknowledging the long history of Jainism as a social catalyst, Cort looks forward to the development of a “distinctive Jain environmental ethic.”

Paul Dundas suggests that in the history of Jainism some attitudes toward nature may have been less than ecofriendly. He describes the dualistic and pluralistic nature of Jain philosophy, which divides the world into living and nonliving entities, with each living entity ( jiva ) responsible for its own fate. Dundas states that within this worldview nature in and of itself has no “autonomous value.” Value lies in the human application of nonviolence to attain, as noted earlier in this introduction, the release of all karma and the eventual severance from all materiality, including “nature.” To apply purely monastic values to the issue of ecological degradation simply does not work, argues Dundas, citing various ethical tales about elephant-eating ascetics, brutal horse tamers, and well diggers, each of which seems to contain, at best, an ambiguous environmental ethic. He cautions that one must exert care in attempting to match a “traditional soteriological path” to “fit the requirements of a modern, ultimately secular, Western-driven agenda.”

My own chapter suggests that the Jain community could benefit from examining its worldview and ethics in light of some contemporary theorists in the area of religion and ecology, specifically Brian Swimme, Thomas Berry, and David Abram. Each of these three has highlighted the dynamic aspects of living processes, displaying a sen-sitivity to life somewhat similar to that found in Jainism. David Abram has emphasized in particular the role of the senses in determining and defining reality, taking an approach comparable to the empiricism emphasized in Umasvati’s Tattvartha Sutra, the Buddhist Abhidharma schools, and the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Yoga. The Jain worldview that sees the universe, from earth-bodies to human beings, as suffused with life accords with the thought of Thomas Berry, who has stated that the world is a “communion of subjects, not a collection of objects.” Furthermore, the Jain assertion that even the earth itself feels our presence is strikingly resonant with the observations of Brian Swimme. The pan-psychic vision of Jainism is compared and contrasted with contemporary Western scientific and philosophical insights, with the suggestion that these two fields be brought into closer dialogue with one another.

Padmanabh S. Jaini, one of the world’s leading scholars of Jainism, summarizes fundamental Jain teachings and then seeks to explore how Jainism might respond to key issues of development and economics. The current drive toward industrialization and consumerism in India violates many essential Jain precepts, particularly non-possession ( aparigraha ). By examining traditional lifestyles and occupations, as well as Jain attitudes toward wealth in general, Jaini suggests that a balanced approach to development can be pursued.

In the third section of the book, Jain practitioners suggest that Jainism already has developed a working environmental ethics. As such, this section represents an emic, or insider’s, view of Jainism. It includes three essays that might fit more within the genre of a sermon than an academic paper, but which nonetheless make an important contribution to this emerging discourse. These chapters point to new directions to be taken within the practice of Jainism, grounded in the earlier tradition.

Sadhvi Shilapi, a prominent Jain nun, raises up the voice of Mahavira, the great Jain Tirthankara of twenty-five hundred years ago, to suggest how Jains can and should respond to the problems of industrialization, population growth, and human exploitation of nonhuman life-forms. Quoting from the Acaranga Sutra, the oldest text of the Svetambara Jain tradition, she suggests that Mahavira’s sensitivity to plants and the elements themselves can serve to inform the Jain response to resource limitations. She also emphasizes the need for tree planting in rural areas of India, an initiative taken by her own religious community, Veerayatan, in Bihar.

Bhagchandra Jain consults a wide range of Jain literature from both the Svetambara and Digambara schools to compile a masterful argument for the respect of all life-forms. He notes the extensive literature within Jainism devoted to forest protection and emphasizes the ecological aspects of behavior recommended for Jain laypersons.

Satish Kumar, founder and educational director of Schumacher College in England, relates the concept of ecology to the simple lifestyle observed by his own mother, which included strict vegetarianism, pilgrimages to sacred mountains, constant observance of barefootedness, minimalization of possessions, conservation of water, and close adherence to an ethical code grounded in nonviolence.

In the concluding section, Anne Vallely examines the tensions between traditional and contemporary Jainism, particularly in its current globalized form. She notes the trend by some Jains to identify themselves as ecofriendly. She then examines what she terms to be a newly emerging sociocentric ecological worldview within the Jain community. Diaspora Jains, particularly in North America, have brought about a distinctive form of Jainism that emphasizes “the values of vegetarianism, animal welfare, meditation, and active promotion of interfaith activities.” Though the inspiration of each of these can be seen as having its roots in Jain thought and practice, they are being played out in a far more public arena than that traditionally observed by the inward Jain ascetics.

The volume concludes with an appendix, The Jain Declaration on Nature, prepared by L. M. Singhvi, a member of the Indian Parliament and former high commissioner from India to the United Kingdom. This was originally published as a small booklet in 1992. This document has helped stimulate the discussion of environmental values in the Jain community worldwide and serves as an example of what Anne Vallely refers to as the newly emerging sociocentric expression of Jainism.

Contemporary Theorists of Jain Ecology The interface between Jainism and ecology remains a complex issue, and it is important to recognize some of the pioneers in this emerging discussion. Though he was not able to participate in the Harvard conference, the work and commitment of Michael Tobias must be acknowledged. Tobias, who received his doctorate in the history of consciousness, has worked for several decades as a writer and filmmaker dedicated to environmental causes. In 1988 he released the film “Ahimsa,” which elegantly portrays several Jain leaders and extols the religion as the great champion of animal rights and nonviolent living. He wrote a book titled Life Force: The World of Jainism that serves as a written companion to the film, and he contributed the chapter on Jainism to Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim’s Worldviews and Ecology. 11 Though not trained as a scholar of Jainism, Tobias nonetheless recognized a commonality between his own environmental interests and the Jain worldview. He remains a sought-after speaker within the extensive network of Jain conferences and proclaims himself to be a Jain.

The work of Satish Kumar, both with his journal Resurgence and the curriculum that he has developed at Schumacher College, indicates his willingness to blend together social activism and a Jain-inspired commitment to nonviolence. Kumar left the life of a traditional Jain monk to join the land redistribution movement of Vinobha Bhave (1895–1982), and later journeyed as a peace activist on foot from Delhi to Moscow to Paris in an attempt to stop nuclear proliferation in the 1960s. 12 He has most recently joined forces with Dr. Atul K. Shah to produce the journal Jain Spirit: Advancing Jainism into the Future, which is published six times each year and distributed internationally. Each issue includes articles and photo essays that reinforce an eco-friendly view. Most of the articles in the “Environment” section of the magazine are by environmental activists such as David Ehrenfield, Joyce D’Silva, and Donella Meadows and serve more to educate Jains about contemporary trends in the field of ecology than to articulate a distinctly Jain vision of environmentalism. Kumar has attempted a synthesis of spirituality and activism, inspired in part by his childhood and young adult years as a monk in Acarya Tulsi’s Svetambaras Terapanthi movement, which includes ten special vows that were formulated in 1949, including “I will always be alert to keeping the environment pollution-free.”

The Advent of Jain Environmentalism As Anne Vallely notes in her chapter, some modern Jains, particularly in North America, see involvement with environmental causes and animal rights activism as a logical extension of their faith. However, how authentic is this tradition? Is it, as Vallely suggests, a revision of asceticism? Can the observance and advocacy of vegetarianism and ecological sensitivity substitute as a new form of asceticism? Can Jainism truly survive without the living presence of monks and nuns to chide and inspire the more worldly lay community?

In the modern diaspora context, traditional monasticism, rigorously practiced by monks and nuns in India, has not taken root, nor does it seem to be a likely option, given the relatively small numbers of Jains living outside India and the logistical difficulties of providing the donor support sanctioned by the Jain lay community. However, some Jain monastics (and former Jain monastics), such as Muni Sri Chitrabhanu, Acharya Sushil Kumar, Sadhvi Shilapi, and Satish Kumar, have helped promulgate Jain teachings outside of India, and many nuns in training ( samanis ) from the Terapanthi community have lectured throughout the world. Numerous lay Jains participate in regular practices of fasting and other austerities, particularly the Paryusana fast observed in late August. The many Jain centers and temples throughout North America and the United Kingdom have developed extensive weekend educational programs for children ( patsalas ), camps, retreats, and web sites to educate their members (and others) about the faith. Many of these activities include mention of the environment from a Jain perspective.

This volume points to the dynamic nature of the Jain faith and its willingness to engage in discussion on this modern social issue. Not unlike nearly any other religious tradition, it remains to be seen if the Jain worldview and ethic can inspire an effective ecological vision. Can Jainism adopt a sociocentric environmental point of view without compromising its core values? Hopefully, this collection of essays will help advance this discussion.

Endnotes 1 For information on the history, philosophy, and practice of Jainism, see Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979); Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Routledge, 1992); Alan Babb, Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in Jain Ritual Culture (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1996); and John E. Cort, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). Return to text

2 The Geography of Strabo , trans. Horace Leonard Jones (New York: Putnam, 1930) 101. Return to text

3 See Marcus Banks, Organizing Jainism in India and England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992). See also Peace through Non-Violence: Eighth Biennial Jaina Convention Souvenir Volume (Chicago, Ill.: Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 1995); and Bhuvanendra Kumar, Jainism in America (Mississauga, Ontario: Jain Humanities Press, 1996). Return to text

4 See David Rothenberg, “Individual or Community? Two Approaches to Ecophilosophy in Practice,” in Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives , ed. Christopher Key Chapple (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York, 1994) 83–92. Return to text

5 Stephanie Kaza, The Attentive Heart: Conversations with Trees (New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1993) 10–11. Return to text

6 Acaranga Sutra 1.8.1.11–12; from Jaina Sutras, Part 1, The Akaranga Sutra. The Kalpa Sutra, trans. Hermann Jacobi (1884; New York: Dover, 1968). Return to text

7 James Laidlaw, Riches and Renunciation: Religion, Economy, and Society among the Jains (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 157. Return to text

8 See “Earth First! And Global Narratives of Popular Ecological Resistance,” in Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism , ed. Bron Raymond Taylor (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995) 11–34. Return to text

9 Deryck O. Lodrick, Sacred Cows, Sacred Places: Origins and Survivals of Animal Homes in India (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1981). Return to text

10 See the web site for the India Project for Animals and Nature . Return to text

11 Worldviews and Ecology , ed. Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1994). Return to text

12 See Satish Kumar’s autobiography, Path without Destination (New York: William Morrow, 1999). Return to text

    Copyright © 2002 Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School. Reprinted with permission.   

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14 Jainism and Buddhism

• Published: January 2007
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Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements. Post-Vedic society was clearly divided into brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras. Each varna was assigned well-defined functions. The Jainas believed that Vardhamana Mahavira had twenty-three predecessors who were called tirthankaras . Jainism taught to not commit violence, not tell a lie, not steal, not hoard and observe continence. Mahavira organized an order of his followers in order to spread the teachings of Jainism. He preached his teachings in Prakrit. Gautama Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavira. He undertook long journeys and carried his message far and wide. He recommended an eightfold path ( ashtangika marga ) for the elimination of human misery. The rules and teachings of Buddha took full account of the new changes in the material life of the time and strengthened them ideologically. Buddhism created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture.

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• Learn Jainism

• Manuscripts

Article: Studying Jainism

Early contact between Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains and Western visitors to India in the early 16th century gradually led to a more scholarly approach to the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain faith on the part of many Westerners. The academic study of Jainism was born at the end of the 19th century. Since then it has developed in many different ways in several places, both in India and outside. More and more scholars in India and the West are joining this relatively new field of academic research. Beginning with textual and linguistic approaches to Jain holy writings , the study of Jainism in Western universities has branched out more recently into fields such as art, sociology and anthropology.

Research into and study of Jainism in India has also grown, with the establishment of research centres and universities dedicated to Jain studies. The attitudes of the various sects differ regarding education in religious studies but both lay and mendicant Jains are increasingly undertaking formal study of Jainism within the university system.

Seminars and conferences discussing Jain studies – for which some people use the term ‘Jainology’ – are becoming more frequent. Books and online resources on Jain studies are also on the rise. In Western countries where significant Jain communities live, there is ever-greater interest in the study of Jainism, resulting in various activities. The JAINpedia website and project is one outcome of this trend. Jain studies may be represented by a handful of scholars in each country outside India, but they form an active minority.

Western discovery of the Jains

Meetings in India between Western visitors and Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains were recorded from the early 16th century. Europeans who visited the subcontinent to carry out business or to evangelise Christianity sometimes met Jains, whom they initially found almost impossible to understand. A fascination with the most visible differences from their own customs is the hallmark of European records of these encounters.

As Europeans became more familiar with India over the following centuries, they often documented in great detail what they noticed about the people and places they met. They were strongly struck by the holy places of Jainism and centres of pilgrimage , especially the colossal statue of Bāhubali at Shravana Belgola and the huge temple-city of Shatrunjaya . However, close contact with Jains, their scriptures and their religious practices took place chiefly in the context of the European colonisation of India, especially British India. Western merchants, missionaries, scholars, soldiers and civil servants built up their knowledge of what they found in India in large part from their encounters with local people. This was probably the most decisive factor in the Europeans’ dawning recognition of the unique nature of the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain faith.

First encounters with Jains – intriguing people

Three Śvetāmbara Sthānaka-vāsin Monk A man who has taken a public vow to withdraw from ordinary life to formally enter religious life and advance spiritually. Frequently, monks perform physical austerities or undergo physical hardships in order to progress spiritually. " >monks Image by R. V. Russell and Rai Bahadur Hira Lāl © public domain

The first meetings between Jains and European visitors to India produced deep cultural shock in the latter. The visible signs of the Jain faith – people and places – struck foreigners very strongly but at that time there was still no place for something called ‘Jainism’ – a doctrine and tradition, a set of principles.

The main early evidence of Europeans coming into contact with Jains in India dates back to the 16th to 17th centuries. The Europeans were Portuguese, Dutch, British, Italians or French who travelled to the western Indian coast or to southern India for trading or missionary purposes. Those travelling in western India came face to face with people whom they often called ‘Baniyans’ or merchants. In their parlance, this means Jains.

Occasionally the Europeans came across people they called ‘Vartia’ or ‘Vertea’. This term is an approximate rendering of the Indian word vratya – roughly ‘those who take vows ’ – and refers to Jain monks . These travellers often mentioned that the Jains wore mouth-masks or mouth-cloths and carried cotton brooms to avoid killing insects. Recurring features in the travellers’ accounts are the muṃhpatti and the rajoharaṇa , along with the plucking out of the hair , prohibition on eating at night and Fast Giving up or limiting food or specified foods for a period of time, usually as part of a religious practice. Fasting is a key part of Jainism, chiefly because it is believed to:<br /><ul><li> help destroy karmas that bind to the soul</li><li>gain merit – <strong>puṇya</strong>.</li></ul> " >fasting unto death . Records of these encounters show that the travellers were rather puzzled and embarrassed.

In some cases, they went into more detail about what they observed. For example, a Scots sea captain named Alexander Hamilton described the monastic equipment of Śvetāmbara ascetics rather precisely. Henry Lord, an Anglican chaplain, is the first to name some Jain monastic groups , the Tapā-gaccha and the Kharatara-gaccha , as well as the festival of Paryuṣaṇ – ‘Putcheson’ as he called it. The Anglican clergyman John Ovington wrote A Journey to Surat in the year 1689 . Here he went a step further than his fellow British travellers, supplementing his descriptions of Jain behaviour with explanations he must have got from oral informants.

In south India, the Jesuit Father Roberto de Nobili, the founder of the Madurai mission in 1606, gave an account of the troubled relations between Jains and Śaivas in the Tamil country. This is based on a Jain text, although he uses the label ‘ Buddhist tradition’. In the 18th century the Jesuit Beschi and the Protestant Ziegenbalg intuited the important place held by Jains in the religious history and culture of south India. Jesuit missionaries coming from France in the 18th century, such as Father Coeurdoux or Abbé Dubois, also drew on Jain accounts of their own history. See Williams 1977 and Orr 2009 for more about these and other early contacts between Jains and Western Europeans.

Most observers, especially in western India, were struck by the appearance of Jain ascetics and by behaviours showing such profound respect for life – ahiṃsā – that they found it beyond understanding. The utter foreignness of what they observed meant they did not know how to assess what they saw or what to think about it. This is why they largely remained at the surface, describing only the visible signs of practices that were totally alien to their intellectual framework. To some extent, the part played by Jains in south India seems to have been realised in a better way and earlier.

Encounters with places and monuments – uncommon artistic achievements

Buchanan’s sketch of Bāhubali Image by  © Heidelberg University Library

During the British control of India, imperial civil servants frequently travelled and conducted investigations of Indian life, mainly for administrative purposes. These led them to discover visible traces of Indian culture, to which the Jain tradition belongs, whether or not they were able to identify them as Jain.

The colossal Digambara statues of Bāhubali at Shravana Belgola and Karkala were among those which struck Colin Mackenzie (1753–1821) and Francis Buchanan (1762–1829). These two men were among the first and most significant Europeans to discover the rich heritage of Jainism in south India, especially Karnataka (Orr 2009 and Howes 2010).

On the other hand, Jain monuments in western India were deliberately reviewed and described by British archaeologists, such as James Burgess and Henry Cousens . Regional branches of the Archaeological Survey of India carried out systematic tours cataloguing items of interest during the 19th century, including the famous temple -city of Mount Shatrunjaya .

The English botanical artist Marianne North is one of several widely travelled individuals who produced sketches or paintings of Jain monuments without necessarily knowing exactly what they were.

Encounters with people – a decisive factor

Captain James Tod mounted on an elephant Image by San Diego Museum of Art © public domain; Edwin Binney 3rd Collection

Encounters with living Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains , who had direct access to their tradition, have been decisive factors in helping Europeans understand that there is a specific Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain identity. These encounters mostly took place within an official context. British officers posted in India from the 18th century onwards had Indian informants and assistants for the various tasks they had to fulfil. Scholars of south Asian cultures also met Jains while researching their work.

The 18th-century French Jesuit Abbé Dubois is considered ‘the first missionary who came into personal contact with a member of South India’s Jain community ’ (Orr 2009: 267).

Posted to south India, Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was in direct contact with the chief guru of Shravana Belgola in Karnataka .

In Calcutta at the beginning of the 19th century, Henry Thomas Colebrooke was in close contact with a member of the prominent Jagatseth family, Jains who later turned Vaiṣṇavas . The Jagatseth connection was the main source of the Jain manuscripts that later formed the Colebroke collection at the India Office Library , now part of the British Library.

In 1802 the Scottish soldier Alexander Walker was appointed the first political resident at the court of Baroda in Gujarat and wrote Narratives of the Mahrattah History and an Account of the Jeyn or Shravacca Religion . In this book he refers to information from members of the Śvetāmbara monastic community. He shows sympathy towards the Jains and a rather intimate knowledge of the Gujarati Jains of his time. In his still unpublished work (see Luithle-Hardenberg, forthcoming), he also rightly insists on differentiating the Jain religion from the ‘Hindoo faith’.

European scholars who travelled in western India during the 19th century refer to various Śvetāmbara mendicants as having introduced them to temple -libraries or having informed them about the past and present of Jains in the region. An example is James Tod , who travelled in Gujarat and Rajasthan between 1819 and 1823 and mentions Yati Jñānacandra from the Kharatara-gaccha monastic order .

In this period individual Jains were important contacts for Westerners in India, either as assistants to scholars and administrators, or as sources of information.

Among the assistants in South India to Colin Mackenzie, Surveyor General of India from 1784 to 1821, was a Jain physician called Durmiah and, later, his son. They were instrumental in deciphering inscriptions, providing information about their faith’s past and present and introducing the right people.

When the search for Jain manuscripts was organised systematically in western India in the 19th century, Jain individuals played an important role. One such case is that of Bhagavandas Kevaldas (1850–1900). He was employed by the Department of Education of the Bombay Presidency for tours undertaken in search of Jain manuscripts all over Gujarat and Rajasthan during the 1880s. As a learned Jain from Surat, he had several helpful connections with local owners. Not only did he work officially for the Bombay Presidency, but he also helped individual scholars and libraries in Europe to buy manuscripts.

‘Jainism’ established as a specific tradition

Colin Mackenzie and his assistants Image by anonymous copy of Thomas Hickey’s oil © public domain

Discovery of texts and monuments, encounters with people and manuscripts slowly paved the way to the recognition of Jainism as a tradition distinct both from Hinduism and Buddhism . The 1809 contributions by Mackenzie and Colebrooke to Asiatick Researches are still hesitant in this respect. To some extent, they recognise the differences from Hinduism, but Buddhism is more problematic. Jainism and Buddhism were clearly distinguished by Hermann Jacobi seventy years later.

 In the 1879 introduction to his edition of the Kalpa-sūtra , Jacobi shows that, though Jainism shares features with Buddhism, it is neither identical nor an offshoot. Instead, it is a tradition that evolved independently in the same geographical area of eastern India at around the same period, in the 6th to 5th centuries BCE.

The distinction between these two religions had been prepared and was continued by the works of another master of Indology and Jain studies, Albrecht Weber, who:

• in 1865 to 1866 published part of the Bhagavatī- sūtra , which forms the fifth Aṅga of the Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures , and is one of the richest in content
• in 1883 to 1885 published a detailed description of the sacred works of the Jains, which was entirely based on the manuscripts collected for the Berlin Royal Library in the 1870s.

The Jainism that Western scholars discovered belongs to the Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaka tradition rather than to the other main Sect An organised group of believers in a religion, often distinguished from other groups within the same religious faith who have differences of doctrine or practice. " >sect of the Digambaras . This is explained partly by the fact that Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaka Jains were more visible in the Indian society of that time. Digambaras , especially, were rather a suppressed minority during British rule. A notable exception to this concentration on Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaka sects was the first Surveyor General of India, Colin Mackenzie. He focused on south India and collected a lot of material, as yet partly unexplored, on the Tamil tradition of Jainism.

Trends in Jain studies

Dreams of an expectant mother Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

At the end of the 19th century the Jain tradition’s distinctive nature was established by textual study. Transmitted through manuscripts, holy texts demonstrated Jain uniqueness to researchers more than investigations of contemporary Jains. Jains did not figure prominently in Indian society at the time, although observations of contemporary Jain practices did exist. The wealth of written matter and the low profile of Jains in 19th-century India explain, at least partly, why textual studies were the focus of scholarly efforts for a long time. It is an exaggeration to state that the philologists of the 19th and 20th centuries concentrated only on the past, ignoring living Jainism. It is true that the first Western studies dealt with the early scriptures , especially those of the Śvetāmbaras . However, the languages of these scriptures are varieties of Prakrits that had to be explored at the same time as the contents of the texts, as both were equally unknown in the West. Hence editions, translations and linguistic analyses were academics’ main activities.

It has often been remarked that serious work on Jain scriptures in the West did not necessarily go with sympathy for their contents or liking of their style. Indeed, judgmental comments minimising or disparaging the contribution of Jainism to world faiths, especially when compared to Buddhism , have been made quite frequently. Today they are shocking or simply out of place. But this was not the attitude of all scholars. Those who had contact with living Jains and observed them carefully often realised the originality and intellectual interest of their views on the world.

Today, textual studies have diversified, concentrating as much on later scriptures as on the early tradition and including literature in vernacular languages. This has led to scholarly activities in the following areas:

• Jain philosophical works, in Sanskrit
• dialogue between Jain and Buddhist thought
• inter-sectarian debates
• Jain narrative literature.

Coming from religious traditions that share features of origin and early development, Jain and Buddhist thinkers have had a sometimes uneasy relationship. The differences and similarities of the two faiths were particularly explored in the 5th to 12th centuries CE <b>Common Era</b><br> The period of time starting with the year when Jesus Christ was traditionally believed to have been born. Using CE is a more secular way of dating events in a multinational, multi-religious world. " >CE in texts written by leading mendicants of both religions.

Studies of different sects ’ approaches to certain issues have shown that Jainism is not a monolithic block. Like any developing and living faith, it has given birth to various currents and groups, who differ over matters of ideas and practices. The position of women and the practice of nudity are examples of divisive issues that have been the subject of centuries-old debates.

The importance of Jain stories had been recognised by the scholars of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Stories are a fundamental component of Jain teaching. Jain mendicants have written many and have contributed to the pan-Indian repertoire.

Since the 1980s ethnographic and anthropological studies have developed extensively and given a new angle to the scholarly examination of Jainism. The study of Jain art is a more recent trend, with more significant exhibitions held, especially outside India. Examples include major shows in Los Angeles and London during 1994 and 1995, Antwerp in 2000 and New York in 2009.

In general more work has been done on the Śvetāmbara tradition than on the Digambara . This deficit on the Digambara side is being remedied as more scholars these days turn to this rather neglected area.

Investigations of a rather technical character and handbooks or collections that aim at a wider audience can be easily distinguished. The latter aim to make Jains and Jainism accessible to as many people as possible.

Textual studies

Scholarly examination of Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain texts can be divided into several groups, according to the approach taken.

Language studies

A. N. Upadhye Image by unknown © unknown

Many Jain scriptures , especially those dating back to the early period, are written in various forms of Prakrits , not in Sanskrit . The foundation study for these languages is Richard Pischel’s 1900 Grammatik der Prakrit Sprachen ( Grammar of the Prakrit Languages ), later translated into English and Hindi .

Texts produced by the Digambara sect are associated with the later form of Prakrit called Apabhraṃśa . Some Apabhraṃśa Prakrit works were edited in Europe between 1918 and 1937 by Hermann Jacobi and Ludwig Alsdorf. But later on, all the editions and tools were produced in India, especially by A. N. Upadhye and Hiralal Jain. Beginning in the 1970s, Western academics in France and Belgium – at the University of Ghent – have again turned to this rewarding area of study. They have worked on Digambara authors such as Yogīndu and on the Apabhraṃśa versions of the Rāmāyaṇa .

Although overwhelming in quantity, the rich Śvetāmbara Jain literature in Old Gujarati has almost exclusively been the focus of interest of Indian scholars, whether Monk A man who has taken a public vow to withdraw from ordinary life to formally enter religious life and advance spiritually. Frequently, monks perform physical austerities or undergo physical hardships in order to progress spiritually. " >monks or lay people . They are usually native to the region and have first-hand knowledge of the language. Western scholars are exceptions in this area thus far.

Studies of Jain art

Carvings of Jina A 'victor' in Sanskrit, a <strong>Jina</strong> is an enlightened human being who has triumphed over karma and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A synonym for <strong>Tīrthaṃkara</strong>, which means 'ford-maker' or one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience through asceticism. The most famous 24 – Ṛṣabha to Mahāvīra – were born in the Bharata-kṣetra of the middle world, but more are found in other continents. There have been Jinas in the past and there will be some in the future. " >Jinas Image by Jennifer Howes © CC BY-NC 3.0

The scholarly study of Jain art is a relatively new field and mainly falls into the two areas of:

• temple architecture
• manuscript painting of western and central India.

There are hundreds of Jain temples in India and they are often distinctively Jain in terms of their style and architecture. However, Jain temples display enormous variation too, demonstrating technical development over the centuries and incorporating local styles and materials. Significant examples of Jain temples that have inspired academic exploration include:

• cave temples , with famous examples at Ellora and Badami
• the important temple complexes of central India such as Khajuraho and Deogarh
• the temple-cities of Shatrunjaya and Girnar
• the impressive temples at Mount Abu and Ranakpur.

Paintings in manuscripts have always been one of the main ways of transmitting religious knowledge among Jain communities. Prominent work in this field of study has been completed by Indian scholars who had direct access to the material preserved in temple-libraries, such as Muni Puṇya-vijaya , U. P. Shah, Moti Chandra and Saryu Doshi. But the three books published in the 1930s by the American scholar W. Norman Brown remain the essential reference works on manuscript illustrations of the three major texts of the:

• Kalpa-sūtra
• Story of Kālaka
• Uttarādhyayana-sūtra .

Development of this trend in Jain studies has been favoured by important events among the Jain community . Examples include the celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the final liberation of Mahāvīra , the 24th Jina in 1974 and the thousandth anniversary of the consecration of the colossal Bāhubali statue at Shravana Belgola in 1981. These events have created an increased awareness of the richness of Jain heritage, and have been the starting point of art books published in India.

Initially, there tended to be many more studies of the Jain art of western and northern India than of south India. More recently, this has been balanced by various projects such as:

• Jain Art in Karnataka – J.A.B. Hegewald, 2010
• Jaina temples of Tamil Nadu – a project of the French Institute of Pondicherry led by N. Balbir, K. Ladrech, N. Murugesan and Ramesh Kumar – which will be published as a CD-ROM.

Sociological, ethnographic and anthropological studies

Celebrating the installation of an idol Image by Chandu Shah © Chandu Shah

This trend in Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain studies has developed considerably since the late 1970s under the impulse of scholars working in the United Kingdom and North America. Though ethnographic studies of the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains produced in continental Europe do exist and are valuable, they are rarer. This is changing these days, as the overall focus of Jain studies shifts from philological and classical studies to modern studies in the general academic context.

Handbooks published outside India

The first two significant syntheses on Jainism were written in German in 1925 and in French the following year. Naturally, they have to be read against more recent works, but they still contain valuable material and information, giving an overview of what was known at that time.

Since the late 1970s key reference books have been published in English, namely:

• Jaini – The Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jaina Path of Purification in 1979
• Dundas – The Jains in 1992, the second edition in 2002
• Wiley – Historical Dictionary of Jainism in 2004.

It is often said that Padmanabh S. Jaini’s The Jaina Path of Purification marked a turning point in the field, so that scholars talk of a pre-Jaini and post-Jaini period of Jain studies. In particular, Jaini’s book gives much more attention to Digambara sources and viewpoints than ever before in general syntheses on Jainism.

Story collections

Jain story literature has been written in all the languages Jains have used, from Prakrit and Sanskrit and vernacular languages. The rich heritage of the traditional tales is a path often considered more accessible to a wider audience than the doctrinal scriptures themselves. Indeed, stories are a means of teaching that has always been believed essential by Jains themselves, as they provide examples to follow or not to imitate.

Major anthologies of Jain stories have been published since the 1960s, including:

• Granoff – The Clever Adulteress 1991 and The Forest Thieves 1998
• Mette – Die Erlösungslehre der Jaina – Legenden, Parabeln, Erzählungen , 2010 ( Jaina Soteriology: Legends, Parables and Narratives )

Full details

This Wikipedia entry profiles Francis Buchanan (1762–1829), who carried out extensive surveys of southern and north-eastern India during the British East India company's expansion into India.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Buchanan

This Wikipedia article on Colin Mackenzie (1753–1821) summarises his career. As the first Surveyor General of India under early British colonial rule, he supervised detailed investigations into Indian architecture, especially in southern India.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Mackenzie

An officer in the British East India Company, James Tod (1782–1835) published extensive accounts of the history and geography of India, including details of his travels in Gujarat and Rajasthan between 1819 and 1823. This entry from volume 56 of the Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900) appears in Wikisource.

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tod,_James_%28DNB00%29

The Digital South Asia Library at the University of Chicago provides detailed information about some of the trips made from 1889 to 1895 by Henry Cousens (1854–1933) in British India. Accompanied by other members of the Archaeological Survey Department and Indian assistants, Cousens took photographs for survey purposes.

http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/DS416.A3/photographer.html

Wikisource provides a profile of Abbé Dubois (1765–1848) from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia . Dubois preached Christianity in India for over thirty years and wrote extensively about his experiences.

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_%281913%29/Jean-Antoine_Dubois fr

A civil servant in the East India Company during the early colonisation of India by the British, Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) became a well-known scholar in the Tamil and Sanskrit languages. This entry from volume 17 of the Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900) appears in Wikisource.

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ellis,_Francis_Whyte_%28DNB00%29

The life and career of Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1765—1837), a British administrator in India, is summed up in volume 11 of the Dictionary of National Biography , 1885—1900. An accomplished scholar of Sanskrit and of Hindu literature, Colebrooke was one of the founders of the Royal Asiatic Society. His intellectual interests were extremely wide, covering mathematics, science, law, languages and religion.

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Colebrooke,_Henry_Thomas_%28DNB00%29

A Scots-born soldier and administrator in the East India Company, Alexander Walker (1764–1831) was one of the first Westerners to distinguish between Jains and Hindus. His son donated his collection of Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit manuscripts to the Bodleian Library in Oxford. This entry from volume 59 of the Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900) appears in Wikisource.

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Walker,_Alexander_%28DNB00%29

The records of the defunct India Office are in the collections of the British Library. The India Office held the official archives of the:

• East India Company (1600–1858)
• Board of Control or Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India (1784–1858)
• the India Office (1937–1947)
• and the Burma Office (1937–1948).

There is also material from other parts of Asia, the Middle East and parts of Africa, plus personal papers from British India.

http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indiaofficerecords/indiaofficehub/

The Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology in New Delhi focuses on scholarly research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. With a library of manuscripts for research, it organises academic seminars and publishes scholarly books.

http://blinstitute.org/

The French Institute of Pondicherry is a research centre of the French Ministry of Foreigh Affairs. Founded in 1955, it undertakes scholarly research and training in South and South-East Asia. The website is in English.

https://www.ifpindia.org

A scholarly project researching the Jain temples of Tamil Nadu, investigating worship rituals and celebrations in addition to the architecture, art and inscriptions of the buildings. Led by the French Institute of Pondicherry, the project will be published as a CD-ROM.

http://ifpindia.org/Jaina-Temples-of-Tamil-Nadu.html

The Archaeological Survey of India was set up in 1784 by Sir William Jones in Calcutta. It began publishing the Asiatick Researches journal in 1788, which publicised the results of surveys of historical sites and monuments in India. 

https://asi.nic.in/about-us/history/

Jainworld provides a list of Indian universities that have departments with researchers in or courses investigating aspects of Jainism.

https://jainworld.com/education/universitiesfoundations/

Jainworld provides a list of research institutions in India that focus on various aspects of Jainism. 

https://jainworld.com/education/research-institutions/

Based around the pilgrimage site of Mahaviralaya – a temple dedicated to Mahāvīra, the last Jina – Mahavir Aradhana Kendra is a manuscript library and research institute, which publishes academic books, chiefly on Śvetāmbara Jainism. There is also a museum that includes the monastic equipment used by Gacchādhipati Ācārya Śrī Kailāsaāgara-sūrīśvara Mahārāj.

http://kobatirth.org/default.aspx

This page on Answers.com gives detailed information about the life and career of Marianne North (1830–1890). A British painter famous for lifelike paintings of plants and flowers, North also painted landscapes during 13 years of global travel, spending 1877 to 1878 in India.

http://www.answers.com/topic/marianne-north

Entitled Jain Tower and Temple at Chittore , India this landscape captures a scene that caught the eye of the English artist Marianne North during her journey through India in 1877 to 1878. It is available as part of the Marianne North Online Gallery at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew in the United Kingdom.

http://www.kew.org/mng/gallery/272.html

This painting, called Kattiawar from the road up to Pallitana, Western India , is one of the views produced by English artist Marianne North, who travelled in India in 1877 to 1878. It forms part of the Marianne North Online Gallery at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew in the United Kingdom.

http://www.kew.org/mng/gallery/796.html

Based in London, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland dates back to 1823, when it was founded to assist scholarly investigation into the history, cultures, religions and languages of Asia. The society has a large library, including an extensive manuscript collection, organises seminars and lectures, and publishes a journal three times a year.

https://royalasiaticsociety.org

A slideshow from the New York Times highlighting some of the artefacts in the two exhibitions in New York on Jain art that opened in the autumn of 2009. One was at the Metropolitan Museum of Art while the other was staged at the Rubin Museum of Art.

http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/11/13/arts/20091113-jain_index.html

The Rubin Museum of Art in New York provides information about the major exhibition called Victorious Ones: Jain Images of Perfection' it staged from 18 September 2009 to 15 February 2010.

https://rubinmuseum.org/events/exhibitions/victorious-ones

The Centre of Jaina Studies in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), at the University of London, publishes an annual newsletter, which is available to download as a PDF. The newsletter features:

• summaries of research
• academic news
• book reviews
• reports of exhibitions
• otifications and reports of conferences and symposia.

You will need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader on your computer to open PDF files.

http://www.soas.ac.uk/jainastudies/newsletter/

Based in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology is a national centre affiliated to the National Mission for Manuscripts. With a library of manuscripts, it has a specific section for manuscript preservation and cataloguing. In addition to holding seminars for researchers into Śvetāmbara Jainism, the L. D. Institute publishes books and the  Sambodhi  journal in English, Hindi and Gujarati. The L. D. Museum, on the same site, holds an important collection of Jain artefacts – statues, manuscripts, the N. C. Mehta Collection of paintings and a gallery of monastic equipment that belonged to Muni Puṇyavijaya.

http://www.ldmuseum.co.in/

The Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute focuses on research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. Based in Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh, it has a manuscript library and publishes books and the Śramaṇ journal in Hindi and English.

http://parshwanathvidyapeeth.org/

The Bodleian Library is part of the University of Oxford, the official university library with various specialist libraries. It boasts extremely extensive collections of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, maps, musical scores, and official and personal papers, both ancient and modern. With large Jain holdings, the Bodleian is a JAINpedia partner.

http://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/home

One of the JAINpedia partners, the British Library is the national library of the UK. Based in London, it holds millions of historical and contemporary documents of all kinds, including books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, musical scores and political and personal papers and letters. It also has a large collection of sound recordings and illustrations. Its collection of Jain manuscripts is one of the biggest outside India.

http://www.bl.uk/

The Centre of Jaina Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in the University of London, is the only academic centre specialising in Jain research outside India. Established in 2004, the centre hosts an annual conference for scholars of Jainism and publishes an annual newsletter and the International Journal of Jaina Studies (Online) . It also runs undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in Jain studies.

http://www.soas.ac.uk/jainastudies

Based in St Petersburg, the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts holds 150 Jain manuscripts. The website gives full information in English about the history and work of this research institute, part of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

http://www.orientalstudies.ru/eng/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46&Itemid=82

The V&A in London specialises in art and design. Its enormous collections include historical and contemporary sculptures, textiles, furniture, jewellery, photographs, drawings, books, prints, ceramics, glass- and metalwork, theatre and performance artefacts. It has extensive Asian holdings, including many illustrated Jain manuscripts, and is one of the JAINpedia partners.

http://www.vam.ac.uk/

Part of the Wellcome Institute, the Wellcome Collection is one of the JAINpedia partners. Its extensive collections include historical and contemporary books, manuscripts, prints, paintings, photographs and films, with a bias towards science and medicine. The Wellcome holdings of Jain materials are small but valuable and interesting.

http://www.wellcomecollection.org/

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JAIN AVENUE Magazine

Jainism and Nonviolence – From Mahavira to Modern Times

Today, Jainism has about five million followers, the majority located in India although some have migrated to the United States and Africa (Johnson, 2009, Number of Adherents Worldwide section). Wherever it is practiced, most would agree that Jainism has some of the most stringent and demanding religious practices centered around the principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence. In a religion that entails a strict vegetarian diet, daily meditation, and taking vows that most would see as impossible to uphold, it may prove difficult to see how Jainism can relate to the modern concept of nonviolence. On the contrary, though, Jainism has come to be identified as one of the main influences for nonviolent practices and theory, and has even been cited as the principle philosophical structure for more modern movements, like environmentalism, in the Western world (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p. 36). Jain ideals have gone on to inspire such prominent thinkers and pioneers of nonviolence as Thoreau, Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. In addition, the newer generations of Jains, who are striving to make Jainism fit better with 21st century values, are making it easier to recognize how one can integrate the principles of Jainism into daily life. Finally, Jainism has been considered one of the oldest and most enduring religions in the world, although in the past Western scholars often confused it with Buddhism and Hinduism (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p. 138). In more recent times, however, Jainism has received attention for its distinct practices, and has become more prevalent than ever in a world where equality and nonviolence movements have sprung up around the world.

A key point in the long history of the Jain religion is that no one person or being has ever been credited with founding Jainism; in fact, Jains do not believe in a single, all-knowing, and all-powerful god. Instead, there are twenty-four figures, known as jinas or tirthankaras (ford-makers) who are revered as the originators of the religion for having reached the highest realm of knowledge and understanding. The major founder is considered to be Mahavira, who lived in Bihar from 599 to 527 BCE. A contemporary of Gautama Buddha, Mahavira started his journey as a spiritual leader out of respect for his parents after they died. For the next forty years, he wandered around India as a naked monk, preaching peace. It is claimed that Mahavira was finally reborn as the twenty-fourth jina after starving to death in his previous life as a lion, because he refused to eat another living being (Tucker and Grim, 1994, pp. 141, 147). After Mahavira’s death, two sects emerged among Jains. The Digambaras, or the “sky-clad,” believe that clothing shows too much attachment to the material world, and thus choose to wear nothing: Svetambaras (the “white-clad”), on the other hand, hold the belief that true purity exists in the mind. Svetambaras are the biggest sect and consist of both men and women. The Digambara sect consists of monks only; they believe that a soul cannot be freed from a woman’s body, which would defeat the purpose of striving for greater purity (Johnson, 2009, History and Geography section, para. 2). Despite this split, all Jains adhere to the five anuvratas, which are vows that one must take in the path to renunciation. They are ahimsa (nonviolence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), aparigraha (non-possession), and Brahmacharya (sexual abstinence). There are also eleven stages of spiritual progress, known as pratimas and eight basic restraints, or mulagunas (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p.142). Another element essential to the practices of Jainism is karma. Jains see karma as a negative matter that, bit by bit, covers the soul and inhibits one’s ability to reach moksha, the highest stage of purity in which one is finally released from the cycle of death and rebirth. As Tobias points out in his essay in Worldviews and Ecology, karma may include things like “material goods, passions, ill-will toward others, complexity, haste, narcissism, [and] ego in all its phases” (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p. 142). In order to avoid this, Jains have adopted a very strict way of living that strives to eliminate as much violence, ill-will, and selfishness as possible. This includes a strict vegetarian diet that prohibits the consumption of root vegetables, like onions, potatoes and garlic, as uprooting them kills the whole plant. Other rituals include meditating 48 minutes a day and giving offerings to the twenty-four jinas (Flaccus, 2013). Flaccus (2013) commented that many of these rituals are so intricate that “some Jains carry a small booklet with illustrated instructions” to ensure that they execute the process properly (para. 13). While Jains attempt to uphold all these vows, it is clear that the majority of the energy is given to complying with the most complex vow of all: ahimsa.

Ahimsa, or nonviolence, has proven to be a difficult concept to grasp as Jains understand it because it does not just refer to nonviolence in the physical or social sense, but also to a number of mental processes which tie into the elimination of karma, breaking out of samsara, and entering moksha. The basic structure of ahimsa is formed around the idea that every living thing has a soul that is stuck in a state of samsara, which refers to the cycle of death and rebirth through reincarnation. Each living being’s goal is to break out of this cycle to enter moksha, or liberation. Jains do not consider this an enjoyable journey, and the process is often described as one of suffering and himsa, or violence (Evans, 2014, p. 204). In this view, ahimsa is interpreted as a process of withdrawal and renunciation in which Jains shelter themselves from the violence of the world outside in order to prevent the build-up of karma. James Laid low, the author of Riches and Renunciation: Religion, Economy, and Society, referred to this traditional sense of ahimsa as the “ethic of quarantine.” He has said that “one cannot stop the constant cycle of death and rebirth. All one can do is temporarily keep it at bay…These practices, which are central pillars of non-violence in Jainism, function neither to minimize deaths, nor, in the normal sense, to save life” (as cited in Evans, 1994, p. 207). In other words, the traditional Jain concept of nonviolence is not necessarily used to make the world a better place, but as a reminder that the outside world is a cruel place and one must refrain from engaging in it. Even sacred Jain texts, such as the Acaranga Sutra, written between the fifth and fourth century BCE and based on Mahavira’s teachings, condone the practice of withdrawing from the world and not interfering in the inevitable cycle of himsa (Evans, 2014, p. 208). In recent times however, the meaning of ahimsa in the Jain religion has evolved to reveal a more cooperative sense of nonviolence that focuses on helping others. There are still orthodox Jains who lead their lives according to the ancient meaning of ahimsa, but others, especially younger people in the Jain faith, have chosen to redefine this principle for the changing times. These people argue that there is another side to ahimsa that is more positive and open, and that endows Jains with the duty to love, protect, and support others in order to conquer violence. This relatively new view on ahimsa is most evident in the environmental movements that have emerged in India, especially where animal cruelty is concerned. Generally, Jains renounce professions that would cause any harm to nature or animals, but they have also taken this a step further through philanthropy and activism. For example, the Jains have become very well known for their panjarapols, or animal welfare centres, located throughout India. Many Jains even go to markets and buy animals that otherwise would have been slaughtered, and care for them at these shelters. Unfortunately, sometimes believers can pay with their lives for advocating ahimsa (Evans, 2014, p. 141). Evans (2014), who wrote an interesting piece on Jains and social nonviolence, tells the story of Akash and his family. His mother was a well-known animal rights activist who became the victim of a gruesome murder, perpetrated during a raid on animal smugglers. The killers wanted the murder of Akash’s mother to serve as a warning to other animal activists who dared to do what she had done (pp. 202-3). Despite the threats, not many have been deterred, as this more open definition of ahimsa also involves stopping violence in its tracks, even at the cost of one’s own life. Another part of ahimsa that finds itself changing is the role of Jain lay people and Jain monastics, and the passage of karma. Sadhvi Shilapiji, the first female leader of a monastic order in Jainism’s history, created a movement known as Veerayatan, which aims to “empower people through seva (service), shiksha (education) and sadhana (inner development)” (Evans, 2014, p.211). In the traditional sense of social ahimsa, the monks and nuns serve by teaching lay people about Jainism, while the lay people go out into the community to spread this message through kind acts that aim to lessen violence. In contrast, Shilapiji has a different idea with Veerayatan: she tries to foster an engaging environment in which monks and nuns can teach and serve at the same time, and the desire to help others and solve worldly problems takes precedence over the personal goal of reaching moksha. Another of her radical thoughts is that instead of lay people taking on karma for monastics, the monastics should be helping the lay people by taking on their bad karma. Taking on bad karma for monastics includes lay people doing such things as giving food or clothing to them, turning on lights and other electronics, and even holding up cell phones to their ears. However, Shilapiji wants to aid others in reaching their highest level of spiritual development. She would like to say to people: “you are doing so many karmas, so please take all of your bad karmas from inside and give them to me, and you live with good life and good karmas, and bad karmas can be on me because I have a lot time [as a monastic] to remove the bad karma” (Evans, 2014, p. 213). It is essentially this concept of ahimsa that has become the driving inspiration for nonviolence movements. Leaders like Shilapiji however, have also used this eye-opening and transformational period of ahimsa to point out some negative and outdated points, like the lack of inclusion of non-Indians and gender inequality within the religion. In his essay on Jainism and ecology, Michael Tobias comments that “The Jains always granted equal status to women. There was never a caste system among the Jains. How could there be given the Jain conviction that all people can become enlightened?” (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p 141). Although Jains do not practice the caste system, it is not quite accurate to say that women are granted equal status. In fact, many identify the religion as having a bias towards males. In Digambara Jainism, for example, it is taught that in order to ascend higher, Jain nuns must be reborn as men first (Johnson, 2009, Rites, Celebrations and Services section, para. 5). Jain nuns agree that Jainism needs to evolve further to reflect the more prominent roles that women take on today, as well as in societies that are more liberal with gender roles, like the U.S, where Jainism is gaining popularity in certain communities. Sadhvi Siddhali Shree is one of these figures. Formerly known as Tammy Herbster, she is the first American-born Jain nun in history. She originally grew up Catholic and converted after witnessing terrible violence as a U.S army medic in Iraq. She credits the religion with helping her to overcome post-traumatic stress disorder (Flaccus, 2013, para. 21). Currently, she is the director of a spiritual retreat in Texas called Siddhyatan Tirth. As the author of many spiritually based books and CDs that she promotes through her YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook accounts, as well as her own website, she represents the true embodiment of the modern Jain nun, mixing technology with the teachings of Jainism (Shree, n.d). Shree has commented that if Jainism is going to spread, “they need to raise women’s status” (Flaccus, 2013, para. 22). Although more orthodox Jains in India do not approve of mixing modern conventions with the religion, in the United States Jains are often more liberal and believe that the most important part of Jainism is spreading the message of nonviolence to young people. Jainism has grown immensely since Virchand Ghandi, apparently the first Jain to arrive in the United States, settled in the country in 1893 (Johnson, 2009, History and Geography section, para. 8). Today, a number of states have considerable Jain communities, and Jain temples have also been established throughout America. It is estimated that there are 150,000 Jains in the United States, most of whom immigrated in the 1960s (Flaccus, 2013). The spread of Jainism around the world is generally considered a positive thing. On the other hand, however, this also poses a challenge to those who fight to balance the demands of Jainism with the activities of the modern world. One worry in particular is how to teach the younger generations of Jains these religious practices, especially ahimsa, which gets harder to uphold as young people have a desire to live a less restrained life than their parents did in India.

In July of 2012, J.J Craig (2013), author of the article “Jain Wisdom in Cultivating Nonviolence in a New Era,” witnessed first-hand the process of getting young people to listen to their Jain elders. She attended the Young Jains of America Convention in Tampa, Florida that year, and listened to former Jain monk and spiritual leader Gurudev Shri Chitrabanuji talk to hundreds of Jain teenagers about perpetuating the practice of ahimsa in their own lives. Chitrabanuji took a more personal approach with his audience, emphasizing the small things that keep this principle of nonviolence alive in everyday life. Craig (2013) has written that “The Jain diet and practice of worship, he suggests, moves closer to the value of nonviolence when veganism replaces vegetarianism…If creative or new approaches to ahimsa are encouraged, then children will become personally involved in deepening and developing the practice of nonviolence in their own lives” (para. 5). Some ways that young people can strengthen their value of ahimsa may include joining organizations that promote peace, giving up dairy products, and reducing the number of violent movies, music, and videogames that they are exposed to (Craig, 2013, para. 7). The overarching lesson in this modern approach to teaching ahimsa encourages people to find their own way to practice it, even if it does not coincide exactly with those more traditional teachings. As Craig (2013) argues, it does not matter how one practices ahimsa, as what is important is “the value of ahimsa that lies behind their choice” (para. 8). Vastupal Parikh, author of the book Jainism and the New Spirituality, backs this more secular view of ahimsa as well. In 1967, Parikh had an experience that changed his view on religion. That year, a fellow colleague who taught religious studies asked him to speak to her students about his religion. Parikh, who was originally from India but raised in a Presbyterian school, did not know much about the practice of Jainism as a child and knew even less as an adult. As a non-practicing Jain, the former professor had to study Jainism intensively before giving a successful presentation to students. Even after that, Parikh did not act on his study and continued to be a non-practicing—though self-identified—Jain. It actually was not until decades later, when he heard a mother reprimand her son at a local temple that his interest renewed in Jainism. The woman explained to her child that if he acted badly, he would go to hell. Of this experience Parikh explained, “The mother didn’t know how to satisfy her child’s curiosity in a way that wouldn’t turn him off religion” (Csillag, 2002, p. K14). This was the main inspiration for what Parikh calls the “new spirituality.” He defines it as what youth are interested in today. In another part of the interview, he commented, “I find youth a lot more dedicated to the environment, democracy, human rights, peace, and animal rights…And that is also the Jain philosophy. It ties into future happiness” (Csillag, 2002, p. K14). Like Chitrabanuji, Parikh wants to take away the rigidity and limiting nature of the rules of Jainism. Instead, the focus should be on the principles of Jainism themselves, such as ahimsa, and teaching young people to use those principles for good in everyday life. It is no wonder that many devout Jains in the United States, but especially in India, would worry that this approach does not teach youth the deeper meaning of Jainism, as was expressed by the vice president of the Jain Centre of Southern California, Hamendra Doshi. In an interview, he echoed the importance of those traditional rituals: “All of the rituals have a real meaning that we’re supposed to bear in mind when we’re doing it. When I’m doing the cleansing with the water for the idol, my thought process is I’m also cleansing my soul that way” (Flaccus, 2013, para. 15). This, in the view of many Jains, is what fosters the growth of ahimsa from the inside out. This conflict also brings to light a little-discussed principle of Jainism known as Anekantvad, which encompasses the concept of having many viewpoints at the same time. Parikh said of this principle that, “This teaches that other viewpoints should be explored and respected…We don’t say other religions are wrong and that we’re right” (Csillag, 2002, P. K14). Perhaps this openminded concept of Jainism now needs to apply to the religion itself as it makes way for a fusion of modern customs and ancient traditions.

So, how is the evolution of ahimsa mainly reflected in today’s world? An overwhelming consensus points to environmental movements as being strongly influenced by the concept of Jainist nonviolence. It is also agreed upon that the environmental movement may not have grown to the extent that it has if it were not for the mix of cultures that second-generation Jains have promoted throughout the United States. Because of its tendency toward withdrawal and renunciation, Jainism in India did not promote the spread of environmentalism and ecology (Evans, 2012). But as the idea in Jainism of lending a hand to others in need to stop violence together, ahimsa is now shared with others in a way that encourages a united fight against harmful environmental behaviour. Evans (2012) cites another potential cause for this generational difference in Jains. Through his research on Jain communities in the United States, he pointed out that “when the first-generation immigrated, their concerns related to employment, education, and establishing themselves within a new country. Seen in this way, it may be understandable why environmental ethics were not primary priorities, as they are today among many second-generation Jains” (p. 81). Although no environmental protest group or movement in particular has been associated with Jainism, many scholars argue that the foundations of ecology and environmentalism were built first and foremost on ahimsa. The book Worldviews and Ecology echoes this sentiment. It contains various essays on the evolution of environmentalism and an in-depth look at several ecological viewpoints. Although Tucker and Grimm (1994) have mentioned that no single religious philosophy has the ideal solution to the environmental crisis, they do agree that Eastern religions, above all, have been responsible for moulding environmental consciousness in Western culture. Michael Tobias, the author of the featured essay “Jainism and Ecology: Views of Nature, Nonviolence, and Vegetarianism,” explained that Jainism is the perfect mix of ecology and spirituality that preaches universal love and the sacrifice of self-interest for the more pressing issues in the world. In fact, it is so unique that this mix of ideas is often referred to as Jain ecology. Most importantly he says, the ecological message of Jainism is easily available to any individual who wishes to study or practice it (Tucker and Grim, 1994, p. 145-6). It is clear that Jainism has come a long way, and it is still evolving. From a view of complete renunciation and solitude to a fervent and refreshing philosophy of active participation in the fight against all types of violence, Jainism has inspired many around the world, and its number of adherents is growing rapidly. Its main philosophy of ahimsa, or nonviolence, has experienced a radical change in meaning, as the younger generations of Jains are continually finding innovative ways to balance Jainism with Western culture and values. Although this new perspective on Jainism is gaining speed and has proven a successful way of keeping Jain philosophy and ahimsa alive, there are still various issues with the religion, such as gender inequality, that Jains are seeking to change. However, no matter the problems that Jainism faces in the future, it has shown its longevity all the way into the 21st century, and its message of nonviolence and love has heavily influenced modern environmental movements in the United States and beyond. It is this philosophy of loving one another, and treating all beings with respect, that has resonated with many in an increasingly violent and individualistic world. As Jainism reminds us, in the end we are all connected and have a responsibility to look out for the Earth and every individual on it. As Dr. Padmanabh S. Jaini affirms, one Jain monk recited in a temple: “I forgive all beings, may all beings forgive me. I have friendship toward all, malice towards none” (as cited in Tucker and Grimm, 1994, p. 147).

Curtesy – The Downtown Review. Vol. 2. Issue. 1 (2015). Available at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/6

About Author

Lana E. Sims

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Originally from Cleveland, Ohio, Lana was an Arts and Sciences Fellow in the Department of Hispanic Languages and Literatures in her first year at the University of Pittsburgh. She has studied abroad in Spain on a Benjamin A. Gilman International Scholarship and has spent time studying in Cuba as well. In October of 2015, she presented her essay on Mexican-American literature at the 6th Annual Crossing Over International Symposium at Cleveland State University. While at Pitt, she looks forward to collaborating with the faculty and getting the opportunity to delve more deeply into her preferred areas of study.

Top 7 Contributions of Jainism | Indian History

The following points highlight the top seven contributions of Jainism to Hindu culture. The contributions are: 1. Philosophy 2. Caste 3. Purification of Hindu Religion 4 . Greater attention towards Public Utility 5 . Dampening of Military Spirit 6 . Literature 7 . Architecture.

Contribution # 1. Philosophy:

Though the teachings of Jainism were greatly influenced by the Vedic philosophy, it developed a distinct philo­sophy of its own also. For example “syatvad” was a new and original philosophy propounded by Jainism. This philosophy is new in the sense that it aims at the welfare of both individual as well as the community.

Contribution # 2. Caste:

Jainism also rendered great service to the Indian society by giving a rude shock to the caste system. Rigours of the caste system were greatly reduced during the 6th century B. C.

Contribution # 3. Purification of Hindu Religion:

The vehement attack on the perversions of Hinduism led the Hindu scholars and informers to devote attention towards the removal of the evils which had crept into its fold. They tried to get rid of the various evils with the view- to regain the lost prestige for Hinduism.

Contribution # 4 . Greater attention towards Public Utility:

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The teachings of Jainism not only insisted on Ahimsa but also laid stress on the greater service to the cause of humanity. The followers of Jainism opened a number of inns, hospitals, schools and other institutions for public utility and thereby gave encouragement to the spirit of public utility works.

Contribution # 5 . Dampening of Military Spirit:

Jainism’s emphasis on Ahimsa and peace led to the dampening of the military spirit of the Indian people. According to certain scholars it was due to this reason that a number of foreign invaders could win easy victories over the Indians and established their control over this country.

Contribution # 6 . Literature:

Jainism has also rendered valuable contribution to the growth of vernacular literature. While the Buddhist and the Brahmans preached in Pali and Sanskrit, the Jains preached in the language of the people. Most of the Jain literature was written in Prakriti.

Large literature was produced in the vernacular language also. For example Mahavira preached in a mixed dialect called Ardha Magadhi so that people of the area could understand his teachings.

His teaching, which were subsequently compiled into 12 books under the title Srutangas were also composed in this language. Hut the most important contribution of the Jains to the literature is in Apabhramsa language. This literature links the classical language Sanskrit and Prakrit on the one hand and modern vernacular on the other.

The Jains also influenced the Kanarese literature in the South. It may be noted here that certain Jain works were also produced in Sanskrit language. The literature produced in Sanskrit includes not only philosophical works but also subjects like Gram­mar, prosody, lexicography and mathematics. The prominent scholars of the Jain literature were Hem Chandra, Hari Bhadra, Sidha Sena, Pujya Pad.

Contribution # 7 . Architecture:

Besides religion and philosophy Jainism ren­dered great contribution to the development of art and architecture: The Jain followers erected stupas like Buddhists in honour of their saints. These stupas were built of stones and were decorated with Bate-ways, stone-umbrellas, carved-pillars and huge statues. The followers of Jainism also built many famous caves such as Tiger cave of Udaigiri and Indira Sabha of Ellora.

These caves are excellent examples of architecture and sculpture of the period. The Jains also constructed cave-temples out of rocks. One of the best cave- temples of the second century B.C. exist in Orissa and is popularly known as Hathingumpha caves.

Temples of Gwalior, 57 feet high statue of Gometeshwar in Shramanbdlogola, temples of Khujaraho and Abu are other marvelous examples of the high standard of Jain art and architecture.

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