Each level and each branch of government generates information. The information sources are so voluminous that it would require a book for each of the branches to discuss comprehensively the material available at each level and in each branch, and the tools to locate that material. The important thing for you as a communications professional is to understand that each level of government generates information that is likely to be important for most messages you will work on and that there are efficient and effective ways to locate that information if you know how and where it is generated.
Private-sector institutions are funded by revenues made from the sale of products or services, through investment by stockholders, or through donations. There are two types of private-sector institutions: for-profit and non-profit. Under for-profit institutions, there are two types: Publicly-held and privately-held. The distinction is important because different types require different kinds of reporting of information.
For-profit private-sector institutions:
By definition, a for-profit institution “ is a corporation that is intended to operate a business which will return a profit to the owners . [2] ” There can be two types of for-profit private-sector institutions: publicly-held and privately-held . The distinction between the two is that the publicly-held corporation sells stock in the company – the public, therefore, can essentially be “co-owners.” Privately-held corporations do not sell stock; all of the company’s assets are in private hands.
For-profit private-sector institutions generate multiple types of information in support of the running of the business, to promote their products, or as required by the government. The required documentation for government differs from publicly-held corporations requiring more reporting than privately-held corporations (this is due to the government’s interest in protecting citizen’s investment in companies.)
Unlike public-sector institutions where some neutrality of position is expected, private-sector institutions may be more agenda-driven since their information is generated to support their product, organizational goals or policy line. Much of what private-sector institutions produce is for their internal use only, but some are created for use both inside and outside of the institution.
Non-profit private-sector institutions
Non-profit private-sector institutions differ from the for-profit in their ultimate objective. The for-profit’s goal is to generate revenue through the sales of goods and services. The non-profit’s goal is to influence, persuade, or receive support for a cause. They generate donations that support the efforts of the organization but that funding is invested back into the organization, not as revenue that delivers income to “owners.”
Non-profits are organizations like associations, churches, fraternal organizations, and other groups that have a focused set of activities that support the interests or concerns of the organization.
In both for- and non-profit private-sector institutions, information is generated and used for different purposes: some because law requires they make the information available, some to promote the organization, some to satisfy the organizational mission to inform the public or stakeholders about an issue or topic, some to support the network of members of the organization. The information may be available in databases of statistics, on institutional websites, as part of media kits prepared by the public relations department, in directories or annual reports, and in many other formats.
Private-sector institutions generate both public and private records about their own activities.
Private information created by both for-profit and non-profit private-sector institutions is intended for use by the company or organization and can be difficult to obtain by someone outside the institution. These can include:
But other records generated by private-sector institutions are public and more easily obtained. These can include:
You have legal and legitimate access to much more information from private-sector institutions and through public records than you would likely ever think to request. In fact, the potential problems involved in seeking information about for-profit and non-profit institutions is not the chance that your requests might be denied but, rather, that you will be overwhelmed by the quantity and complexity of it all.
You can reasonably expect for-profit and non-profit institutions to be reliable, accurate and complete in their information-producing and -disseminating functions. But you should not expect the information to be neutral in respect to social values and social structures. Nor should you expect that institutions will remain static as laws change and as social values and structure evolve. Rather, you should recognize that when you use information from these institutional sources, you have to decode the biases, assumptions and vested interests inherent in the information.
Another major category of information sources is scholarly information produced by subject experts working in academic institutions, research centers, and scholarly organizations. Scholars generate information that advances our knowledge and understanding of the world. The research they do creates new opportunities for inventions, practical applications, and new approaches to solving problems or understand issues.
Scholars introduce their discoveries to the world in a formal system of information dissemination that has developed over centuries. Because scholarly research undergoes a process of “peer review” before being published (meaning that other experts review the work and pass judgment about whether it is worthy of publication), you can be assured that the information you find from scholarly sources has met the standards for accuracy, credibility, and validity in that field.
Academics, researchers, and students at universities make their contributions to scholarly knowledge available in many forms:
All serve the purpose of publishing and distributing the new knowledge gleaned from the research efforts of these scholars.
Journals that publish scholarly contributions are different than the journals that might be published by an institution such as a think tank or by a media organization. Scholarly journals have a board of editors and a panel of peer reviewers who will determine whether the submitted material has sufficient merit to be published.
Materials from scholarly sources are usually found most readily in libraries with large collections of scholarly journals and books. Some scholarly materials can be located in the sponsoring institution’s library. For example, a dissertation written by a University of Texas student would be available at the University of Texas library.
There are now “digital only” scholarly publications that uphold the same rigorous peer review and high academic standards as their printed predecessors. An example is the Journal of Interactive Advertising . Research projects and papers of professors, doctoral students and researchers can be found on university websites. In some cases, institutional sources – such as associations – will make compilations of scholarly papers available, like the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s database of AEJMC conference papers .
The supporting datasets used to analyze the research are rarely available online, but the clever communicator will know that the database must exist and that the scholar will be the source they need to contact to find out about it. Since one of the tenets of scholarly research is replicability, scholars have an interest in making their data available.
Making distinctions between types of disciplines may help you determine the types of scholarly information sources that are most useful for your purposes. The clearest distinction is between the sciences and the humanities. The scientist and the humanist use different sorts of research methods and study different phenomena. They publish their findings in forms that are characteristic of their disciplines and make these documents available through a variety of tools.
Scientists seek experimental validity by studying the natural world and examining the regularities or irregularities that seem to govern natural phenomena. Their methods must be open to scrutiny and, in the best of circumstances, must be reproducible by others following the same procedures. Experimental validity, rather than an individual interpretation of events or phenomena, is paramount. Immediacy in sharing results is very important for professionals in the scientific fields, so scientists rely on the research report and journal article.
The humanist’s method is shaped for interpretive validity; that is, the humanist tries to interpret a poem, a painting, a novel or a musical score by presenting an interpretation that will be considered valid. Humanists study the products of human imagination and combine a personal, unique perspective with the framework of accepted concepts and knowledge that their discipline provides. Humanists rely on books as the primary method of expressing their knowledge of a field because the book allows the in-depth exploration of context that characterizes humanistic investigation.
Social and policy scientists rely on a combination of experimental and interpretive methods. They have adopted the scientific method for much of their work and exhibit the same concern for openness and validity exhibited by scientists. However, because the subject of much of their study is a human social activity, social scientists work interpretively as well. For the most part, they are concerned with the present and with the implications of their work in social organizations and in public decision making. Social and policy scientists publish their findings in a number of forms. Journals are important, but research reviews, yearbooks and handbooks are also valuable.
While it is easy to understand why it is important for scholars to share their work among themselves, why would scholars want to share their information with you as a communications professional? For one thing, scholars are as eager as anyone else to have their work recognized and appreciated. Taking a call from a reporter or public relations specialist seeking the most reliable “expert” on a particular subject is an ego-boost for the scholar who is used to toiling in relative anonymity in the quiet of the academic or research center environment.
Another motivation for scholars to talk to you is that they might be conducting their work with the help of a grant or financial backing from a foundation or research organization that would appreciate the wider distribution of the findings and a larger public audience for the organization’s work.
In fact, it is your job as a communications professional to ask scholars who is supporting their work financially. It is not unusual for scholars to have grants from large companies (pharmaceutical companies, for instance) or government agencies (the U.S. Defense Department, for instance), and the work they do may reflect the interests or priorities of the funding source.
Scholars typically must reveal their funding sources in manuscripts they submit to journals for peer review so the experts reviewing the work know who “paid the piper” and who may be “calling the tune.” This is not to disparage the independence of scholars who work with grant funding but rather to alert you, the information seeker, to ask for full disclosure about the nature of the funding of the scholarly work you intend to use in your research. Bias comes in many different forms and even if a funding source is a reputable governmental organization such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), you should acknowledge that the agenda and interests of this organization are important for understanding the perspective of that research.
Much of the work you do as a communications professional requires you to range across many disciplines of knowledge and skim across many fields of expertise. That usually means that you will not, as the media professional, become an “expert” in any one subject area.
You must rely on scholars to help you accurately interpret information for your audience. You seek the help of scholarly sources to identify emerging social or scientific trends, to decipher specialist information or jargon that you cannot understand, to comment on the work of other scholars, to critique institutional policies or procedures, and for a wide variety of other purposes. The main use of scholarly sources in mass communication messages is as a source of expertise and knowledge about audiences, subject matter, or effects of messages.
As you move through the information strategy process, you will begin to identify the individual scholars and/or the scholarly publications or resources that are most appropriate for your message task. For instance, if you are working on the advertising account for a new type of low-fat snack food, your initial discussions about the product with the client may direct you to several researchers whose work documents the dietary effects of the new food.
If you are writing a news story about the possible effects of a new government-imposed tariff on imported steel, you are likely to want to discuss the policy with economics scholars who study trade policy whose names you find in the transcripts of testimony before Congress about the policy.
If you are preparing the news release about the introduction of curtain airbags in next year’s models, your supervisor may ask you to seek the expertise of a scholar studying the effects of the new devices on the injury rate in auto accidents.
In every case, the scholarly source is intended to provide credibility, depth, balance and/or expertise to your message. Rather than asking your audience to trust that you, the communicator, just happened to get it right, you seek the help of scholarly sources to ensure that audiences are receiving complete, accurate, and fair information in their news stories, advertisements and public relations messages. If you choose your scholarly sources carefully and with attention to their credentials, expertise and relevance for your topic, you are likely to produce a much more reliable and credible message for your audience. We will go into more detail about locating and using scholarly sources in later lessons.
Another major category of information sources is journalistic materials produced for a general audience and distributed through popular media (newspapers, magazines, radio, television, Web sites, etc.). Journalistic sources also include industry-specific news sources such as PRWeek, Advertising Age, or Editor & Publisher magazine—we will commonly refer to these specialized business-oriented sources as trade publications.
Much of the work that media professionals do relies on the previous journalistic work in that area. The basic rule to “check the clips” before starting on any information task applies to newsrooms of all types. Advertising libraries maintain “tear sheet” files of ad examples from magazines and newspapers in a myriad of product and service categories so ad professionals have some idea about how a particular item has been advertised before launching off on a new campaign. Public relations professionals are judged, in part, by the coverage their clients receive in the popular media and therefore use a variety of means to document where their news releases were published in media outlets.
News media moved to the digital production of their newsprint products more than thirty-five years ago. News organizations, with rare exceptions, now have a digital version of their print, television or radio counterpart available on the Web. And in the last decade, many digital-only news publications have been created. What this means for the communicator is unprecedented access to the news coverage from journalistic organizations around the world.
Many news sites will give access not only to current stories but to the archive of previously published stories. Sometimes free, sometimes for a fee, these archives will be important resources to communicators needing background on a topic or event. Often, news sites will make the databases of statistics they have used to report a story available. The “computability” of the digital space allows the user of a news database to find the crime statistics, or school test scores, for example, for the specific area they are interested in.
Many journalistic organizations are making interactive, digital versions of their publications available in addition to their print versions, so you can see all the articles and ads as they appeared in the print publication. This is of particular interest to strategic communicators who need to track the placement and play of stories and ads.
As potential contributors to your information search, journalistic sources might be helpful in generating ideas for your news message (how have others written about this and what could we choose as a new “angle”), identifying possible problems or crises you might need to address with your PR messages (a news report identifies falling public confidence in your client organization) or suggesting an opportunity for a new ad approach (a news report might document that more women are doing home repairs so your client home improvement store should target women).
Depending on the context of the information request you present them, you will get different kinds of information from journalists as interviewees. If the media organization itself is the focus of the research, the information you will get is likely to be the “party line” of the organization. If you are tapping one of the employees of a media organization about a story they have written, you are likely to get more of a personal view of what went on in the crafting of that message. If you are seen as any kind of competitor, you are unlikely to get any information at all. The products of journalistic organizations are messages and if the journalist believes you are going after the same sort of message, that reporter won’t be a very willing contributor.
Getting started on a new subject and grounding the information in “reality” are just two challenges you’ll face early in the information strategy. The best route to meet both of these challenges can be consulting people informally and observing the world around you.
When describing how informal sources might be helpful, we are talking about what people know, feel, and believe in their life experiences. A person you might consult as an informal source might also be an institutional, scholarly, or journalistic source in another context – one in which the information you are trying to get from them is related to their work.
Monitoring online forums, chat rooms and social networking sites has become a routine part of a communicator’s daily work routine. These sites allow individuals to share what is sometimes a disconcerting amount of personal information about their lives, interests, activities, acquaintances and future plans. Social networking sites as sources of information from informal contributors provide the communicator with a rich vein of material that was once non-existent or nearly impossible to tap.
The ability to find information sources and “listen in” on what they are talking about has been greatly enhanced with the rise of social networks and microblogging services like Twitter. A challenge, though, is identifying those messages truly contributed by unaffiliated people and messages that look like they are from “informal” sources but which are actually marketing-sponsored messages.
Even at their best, informal sources provide just a portion of the information that is needed for a message. Informal sources may be incomplete, outdated, self-serving or contain errors of fact or interpretation. They are most likely to provide you with a “slice of life” perspective rather than an informed, credible perspective that other types of sources might provide.
Another major aspect of identifying possible contributors involves drawing the boundaries for the information strategy.
It is never possible to examine an idea in its entirety. You have to carve out a manageable portion of an idea if you are going to make your deadline and do a credible job with the message. When drawing these boundaries for the strategy, it helps to think about how and where information is produced. For this, you need to identify the disciplines of knowledge production in a subject area.
The information does not exist in the environment like some kind of raw material. It is produced by individuals who work within a particular field of knowledge
and who use specific methods for generating new information. Disciplines are knowledge-producing and -disseminating systems. Looking through a college course catalog gives clues to discipline structure. Fields such as political science, biology, history and mathematics are unique disciplines with their own logic for how and where new knowledge is introduced and made accessible.
You must become comfortable with identifying the disciplines that might contribute information to any strategy. You must learn how to:
For example, think about the disciplines that might contribute information to a search on the topic of the role of sports in society. Try to anticipate the type of perspective each discipline might have on the topic. Consider the following types of questions as you examine what different disciplines might contribute:
We might identify three disciplines that have something to say about the role of sports in society: medicine, sociology, and economics. What would each of these disciplines raise as key questions or issues related to that topic?
So we see that a single topic can be approached from many different perspectives depending on how the disciplinary boundaries are drawn and how the topic is framed. This step of the information strategy process requires you to make some decisions early on in order to focus the topic on a manageable and appropriate scope for the rest of the strategy.
For all that it offers in the information gathering process, the most essential resource for information from all types of contributors is the library. Libraries can be affiliated with a particular contributor type or they can be totally independent entities that contain information from different kinds of contributors.
Libraries are storehouses of recorded knowledge in print, digital, and other formats. But with all of the digitally stored and accessible information available from any computer with access to the Internet, it may not be easy to see why you would need to use the resources of a library at all.
The main reason why libraries continue to be major contributors to the communicator’s information process is that library material has been organized, indexed, and coherently arranged for ease of use. Despite the best attempts of the creators of some of the best digital services, most still lack even the more rudimentary organization schemes and retrieval systems that have been in use in libraries for centuries.
Quality control is an even worse problem for some digital services. Libraries continue to be among the few information repositories that clearly organize their collections and allow for evaluation of the relative quality and usefulness of almost everything retrieved .
Libraries are set up to preserve, collect, and make accessible recorded intellectual products. Most libraries have
It is especially important when you are working under a deadline and need accurate, appropriate, and verifiable information to understand how libraries differ from one another and how those differences affect the information strategy. Especially for freelance communicators and for those working in organizations without an in-house library, it is useful to know about the kinds of libraries that may be available in the community. There are five types of libraries that are important for communicators: public libraries, academic libraries, special libraries, archives, and media-organization libraries.
Public libraries exist to serve a very special function. The need for an informed electorate is considered so important that residents are willing to tax themselves to make libraries available to the entire community.
Many public library collections reflect the history and makeup of the neighborhoods in which they are situated. They may include materials in the languages of the most dominant ethnic groups of that section of the city. The materials you will find in the public library reflect this community mission. The collection reflects the library’s attempt to meet the recreational and day-to-day informational needs of the general public.
Most public libraries are not equipped to handle in-depth or technical research projects or questions but it might well be the best source for in-depth and retrospective information about the community: telephone books and city directories, electoral-district maps, photographs of city landmarks over the years, and other community-related material.
At the start of your information strategy process, you might determine that it is crucial for you to have locally-relevant information about your topic, your community or your audience. In that case, some of the resources available from a public library might be good contributors to your process.
Academic libraries serve a very different function from the other types of libraries. These collections exist to support the teaching and research needs of the scholars, students, and researchers of the institution with which they are affiliated. Large academic libraries collect scholarly materials published in many languages and from all over the world. Even small academic libraries reflect the teaching mission of the institution. Specialized, technical, detailed materials are the norm in most academic collections of any size.
Unlike the use of public libraries, the use of academic library collections may be restricted to some extent. You may have to apply for a special privilege card or pay a fee in order to gain access to the online catalog and check out materials, or you may only be able to use materials if you go in-person to the library. In extreme instances, unauthorized users may not even be able to enter the building.
However, if the topic you are researching is of a national or international nature, if it involves specialized or technical subject areas, or if it is likely to cover controversial ideas, then an academic library collection is probably one of the best places to look. In addition, if you have been a student at a university and are an alumni society member, it is likely that you have free access to that library system and to a network of materials from other academic libraries as well.
The term special refers to a broad category of various kinds of libraries. The collection, the clientele, or both may be special. For instance, most companies have some kind of library or information center that houses books, journals, documents, and materials relevant to that industry. Historical societies usually have libraries. Museums have libraries geared toward the subject matter of the museum collection. The Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington D.C. is a special library in the sense that it collects books and materials by and about Shakespeare. Insurance companies, law firms, churches, hospitals, oil companies, and banking institutions are other kinds of places where a special library might be located. The Special Libraries Association has 26 different divisions of special librarians in its membership.
You may want to use these special libraries for the kinds of unique materials they make available. For instance, if you are involved with an advertising campaign for a brand of beer, you may wish to use the library collection at the brewery in order to get an understanding of the history of the company and the nature of past campaigns. If the information is not proprietary (that is, held by the company to be private because it involves trade secrets or financial information), you may want to look for clues about the unique brewing process or chemistry that sets that brand of beer apart from its competitors.
Special library collections may or may not be open to the public because corporate secrets are often housed alongside the usual industry or company information. The best rule of thumb is to check the website and call ahead as the hours and visiting policies are likely to differ from collection to collection.
Archives differ from libraries in mission and operation. Whereas libraries have a selective collection development policy, archives attempt to be a comprehensive collection of a business, organization or social movement. An archive is responsible for keeping a permanent record of the history, transactions, and operations of whatever it is that is being archived and thus, the materials in an archive usually do not circulate.
There are governmental archives responsible for keeping the permanent record of that organization or branch. The National Archives in Washington, D.C., for example, maintains treaties, maps, photographs, motion pictures, sound recordings, correspondence files, and other documentation of the operations of the administrative branch of the federal government.
Corporations and businesses house archives that serve both a public relations function and provide historically accurate information about the company and clients. For instance, the Coca-Cola archive includes such materials as original Coke bottles, print and broadcast ads, drugstore signs, decal-covered serving trays, and other Coke-related paraphernalia. The manager of the archive is called upon regularly by the legal department to produce documentation to protect the Coca-Cola trademark.
At the start of your information strategy process, you may determine that it is crucial for you to gather information about the history or operation of the organization or business you are reporting on or for whom you are preparing a strategic communications message. That organization’s archive is the place to start.
The libraries supported by media organizations are types of special libraries. Both the materials and the clientele are unusual. As the likely first stop for the communicator during the early stage of the information search, media libraries are crucially important. Many media organizations – whether in the business of producing a newspaper, a national magazine, a local television news broadcast, advertising campaigns, or public relations materials – have some sort of library collection or research function.
The in-house library of a newspaper office may have a small, current collection of major reference tools (dictionaries, directories, almanacs), may subscribe to a handful of magazines and journals, may have access to online database services, and most likely is staffed by a professional librarian. But by far the most important resource, in the opinion of the newspaper staff, is the backfiles of the newspaper itself.
Today, every large-circulation newspaper has its content stored and searchable through a digital library system. With the growth of online news publications, the challenge of reconciling the archive of the print edition of the newspaper and the digital version of the newspaper has grown and often news organizations will have two separate and not entirely equal database representations of news products they create.
Broadcast news libraries may not have as many of the print and digital reference tools found in a newspaper or magazine library, but they do have a major resource for their employees – the archive of tapes or digital files of previous broadcasts. When you see file footage flashed on the screen during a television news report, you are seeing one use of this archive of materials. Broadcast news organizations keep archives of their own broadcasts, but journalists also have access to Web-based archives of streaming audio/video files through services such as those provided by the Vanderbilt Television News Archive . Current clips can sometimes be found using YouTube, Google News or Yahoo! News.
Strategic communications agency libraries are designed to meet the information needs of communicators creating the ads or news releases, preparing the media kits, conducting market research, studying audiences or clients, and developing “new business pitches.” The library for an advertising agency or department, for instance, may include tear sheets, pages ripped out of magazines and newspapers that serve as examples of ads for particular products or services. The library may have files of pictures and photos so artists have examples if they need to draw a cheetah or a cricket bat. The library has industry and trade information so communicators can do background research on potential and current clients and their products and services. And these libraries have all of the specialized market and audience research tools that help determine the message context. A public relations agency library will subscribe to the important media tracking services and provide access to the databases and digital services that help the PR professionals follow news about their clients.
Media organization libraries, then, serve a special function. Those creating messages must have at their fingertips examples of the own organizations’ output; materials produced by other communicators around the country or the world; information about the industries, products and audiences for whom messages are produced; and general fact-finding sources for quick reference.
As we’ve indicated, the library houses information from all contributors – public-sector institutional, private-sector institutional, scholarly, journalistic and informal. No matter what you are looking for, a library is likely to have at least a portion of what you need. As such, the library is an integral part of your information-gathering routine.
Libraries make accessible the materials you need for your initial message analysis work, for your topic-specific information-gathering needs, for your in-depth information evaluation requirements, and for your synthesis work as you create the message. In other words, libraries contribute to every step of the information strategy, not just at this early step of the process.
Planning Your Strategy
Identifying a number of the possible contributors to your information strategy at this early step of the process will help focus your efforts and narrow the range of information you need to locate and evaluate. It is an important time-saver and a key aspect of your work as an efficient and effective communications professional.
The Evolving World of Public Relations : Beyond the Press Release Copyright © by Professor Rosemary Martinelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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W. Bradford Mello
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Mello, W.B. (2015). Public Relations Group Project Assignment. Saint Xavier University.
Students in my Public Relations class work in teams to create fictional non-profits to address a particular social issue or problem. The assignment is for a sophomore/junior level Public Relations course. The assignment is introduced on the first day of the course. Teams are created and the assignment will be worked on throughout the course culminating in final presentations near the end of the semester.
I used this assignment in this manner for the first time in Spring semester 2015. In previous iterations of this assignment I required students to propose a non-profit on their own and attack a similar problem in a much less detailed manner. In this assignment I raised the level of work required by the assignment and addressed various student-learning outcomes as articulated in the DQP.
DQP Connections :
This course seeks to address outcomes outlined in the following areas identified in the DQP: Applied and Collaborative Learning, Civic and Global Learning, and Communication Fluency.
First, as outlined in the DQP Applied and Collaborative Learning section, students at the bachelors level, this assignment requires students to prepare and present a project, paper, exhibit, performance or other appropriate demonstration that links knowledge together. By requiring students to design a non-profit meant to address a social issue, and create PR strategies to promote the mission of the non-profit, students must integrate their knowledge of organizations, their knowledge of persuasion and their knowledge of PR strategies Since it is a team project that requires a final substantial paper and presentation, they also must, negotiate a strategy for group research or performance by involving all team members in the completion of the project. Teams will have to think creatively and use their communication knowledge to address a social issue.
Second, as outlined in the DQP’s Civic and Global Learning section, students must address a contested public issue and collaborate with others in developing and implementing an approach to a civic issue. The assignment in question, by requiring students to create a non-profit to address a social issue, ensures students identify a public issue and develop a strategy to address the issue by suggesting various PR strategies to implement. The assignment may not necessarily address the global aspect as students may select a local or national issue, but it is possible that team members may select a global issue for their project.
Third, as outlined in the Communication Fluency section of the DQP, students must construct, sustained, coherent arguments, narratives or explications of issues, problems or technical issues and processes, in writing and at least one other medium, to general and specific audiences, which this assignment requires via a 10 page written paper and a 30-minute oral presentation delivered by the team.
Students are expected to integrate various visual technologies such as Power Point, Prezi and the like to enhance their oral arguments and aid in articulating their approach to solving a social dilemma/issue.
Associated in-class activity: Crisis Dejour: A Public Relations Crisis Management Course Activity
In order to add a sense of reality to these projects I designed this ungraded class activity. I create for each team a crisis that realistically could occur given the project their team is working on and ask each team to prepare a crisis response as outlined below. I conduct this exercise in one 80-minute class period, but the exercise could easily be modified to fit in other formats including on-line formats where teams could video record responses and the subsequent press conference could be held via a chat function in a course management system.
I send out an email via our course management system the evening before explaining that the class period the following day will be devoted to this exercise so they have less than 24 hours to ponder an appropriate response to the assigned crisis.
Exercise Description {as given to students]
Each team will have 20 minutes at the start of class to work to create a 3-5 minute response to the crisis assigned. Your team should choose one spokesperson to be the point person to deliver this response. After the response, the rest of the class will take on the role of journalists and ask questions of each team at which point all team members can respond as necessary. The question and answer portion will last 5-7 minutes. Feel free to be creative in your response and fill in details (i.e. invent) as necessary. Journalists feel free to be tough in your questioning of each team as they respond to their particular crisis.
Be sure to take into account best crisis management strategies as discussed in class and summarized on this website: http://sterlingpr.com/2012/10/crisis-communications-plan-a-must-have/
Crisis Examples
The possibilities are endless in terms of what crisis you provide students to respond to. Here are a few examples: For a team focused on creating a smart phone AP to provide voter information, they faced the issue of their application crashing a week before the election. For a team creating a local community center for underserved populations, they faced the issue of a young attendee to one of their programs having the measles, likely exposing many others. For a team creating a dog adoption and training team, they faced the problem of a dog attacking one of the children sending them to the hospital for stitches to repair a bite to their leg. These are but three examples and potential crisis are only limited by team topics and instructor creativity.
Reflections on the crisis exercise
Students take to this exercise with enthusiasm. They work hard to prepare their opening statements and the best teams create a unified message strategy so that even in the question and answer portion of the process all team members stay on point. Journalists are often very tough in their questioning, as they are not concerned about hurting their fellow students grades since this activity is ungraded. After each presentation we discuss the various effective crisis management techniques employed and how each team could have improved their crisis response. Students learn to apply crisis management concepts to a realistic situation, and to think critically and evaluate various potential message strategies as both a creator and recipient.
Raising the level of this assignment from a short individual assignment to a more comprehensive team assignment challenged the students a great deal. Raising the level of the assignment forced students to apply what we study in class to a more realistic situation. Students worked hard to put together their final products and presentation. Using the rubrics was very helpful in terms of assessing the final products. I was concerned that using multiple rubrics might be confusing but the rubrics allowed me to focus on different aspects of each team’s work and provide clear detailed feedback on their final product.
The rubrics also allowed the students to understand more specifically the learning outcomes that they were to demonstrate through their work. By observing in-class teamwork meetings I was able to evaluate their collaborative learning. They demonstrated civic learning through their various choices of topics. Finally, I think including the oral communication rubric in the mix encouraged each team to thoroughly prepare for their presentations. Often presentations can be an afterthought but final presentations for this project were more engaging and well prepared than typical final presentations.
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27 multiple choice questions.
Definition a democratization of information around the world Choose matching term The most admired fortune 500 companies think of public relations as Which is NOT an important fact about the Internet The internet has caused The practice of using expert communication services from outside the organization is Don't know? 1 of 27
Definition Pinterest Choose matching term This photo-sharing site launched in 2011 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram This photo-sharing site launched in 2000 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram This photo-sharing site launched in 2010 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram This photo-sharing site launched in 2009 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram Don't know? 2 of 27
Term Which is NOT an important fact about the Internet Choose matching definition The internet is only used for entertainment purposes. All websites are secure and cannot be hacked. The internet does not facilitate communication between users. Websites do not need to be interactive. Don't know? 3 of 27
Definition Facebook Choose matching term Individuals using smartphones spend most of their time Of the leading social networking sites, this one is considered "king" ___________ is the most common outsourced public relations activity Which is not an important fact about the internet Don't know? 4 of 27
Term A "rule of social engagement" for using the internet is which of the following? Choose matching definition spread false information; (wrong are be honest, take responsibility, reveal personal details) insult others freely; (false are be respectful, no need for transparency, always use your real name) keep things conversational; (not true are it's okay to trash the competition, accountability rules don't apply, never disclose your identity) ignore others' opinions; (incorrect are listen to feedback, follow guidelines, hide your true self) Don't know? 5 of 27
Definition podcasts Choose matching term The pr burden includes bathing ethical decisions that consider Of the leading social networking sites, this one is considered "king" Of the leading social networking sites, this one is considered "king" Full version audio or video files that are posted on a website are called Don't know? 6 of 27
Term The overall responsibility for managing a corporation's website should lie with: Choose matching definition front groups the corporate communications group the it group the web group Don't know? 7 of 27
Definition accessing various apps Choose matching term Of the leading social networking sites, this one is considered "king" Two public relations profession organizations in the textbook Individuals using smartphones spend most of their time ___________ is the most common outsourced public relations activity Don't know? 8 of 27
Definition Instantly able to update w/o reprint important for major news and crisis, interactivity, dig deeper through linking information, no space or time limitation of material that can be posted, cost-effective to distribute on a global basis, reach niche markets and bypass traditional mass media gatekeepers (editors), accessible 24/7 Choose matching term There are three areas that raise ethical concerns when dealing with the media: Kant's belief that every decision is either "right" or "wrong" regardless of the consequences (or outcomes) is called This photo-sharing site launched in 2010 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram List some characteristics of the Web that make it possible for public relations people to do a better job distributing information Don't know? 9 of 27
Term Kant's belief that every decision is either "right" or "wrong" regardless of the consequences (or outcomes) is called Choose matching definition Relativist Outsourcing Absolutist Exclusivism Don't know? 10 of 27
Term The PR burden includes bathing ethical decisions that consider Choose matching definition keep things conversational; (not true are it's okay to trash the competition, accountability rules don't apply, never disclose your identity) All of the following: public interest, employer's self-interests, the standards of the public relations profession and their personal values toothless--essentially no punishment for an unethical and unprofessional individual--purpose of establishing a code of ethics is not enforcement but education and information. Gifts to journalists, linkage between buying ads and getting news coverage, transparency and disclosure issues--NOT source identification issues Don't know? 11 of 27
Term Ethics refers to the standards of conduct that indicates how one SHOULD behave based upon moral duties and virtues rising from principles of right and wrong Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 12 of 27
Term ________ seek to influence the public policy process by disguising or obscuring the true identity of their members or by implying representation of a much more broadly based group than exists Choose matching definition Anonymous organizations Backdoor coalitions Stealth societies Front groups Don't know? 13 of 27
Term The common complaint about the enforcement of ethic codes is that they are: Choose matching definition overly punitive and harsh strict and severe inconsistent and biased toothless--essentially no punishment for an unethical and unprofessional individual--purpose of establishing a code of ethics is not enforcement but education and information. Don't know? 14 of 27
Term There are three areas that raise ethical concerns when dealing with the media: Choose matching definition Media censorship dilemmas Advertising revenue challenges Journalistic integrity concerns Gifts to journalists, linkage between buying ads and getting news coverage, transparency and disclosure issues--NOT source identification issues Don't know? 15 of 27
Definition IABC-International Association of Business Communicators PRSA-Public Relations Society of America Choose matching term Two sports clubs in the textbook Two medical organizations in the textbook Two marketing associations in the textbook Two public relations profession organizations in the textbook Don't know? 16 of 27
Definition Years of professional experience Choose matching term Corporate public relations practitioners' influence in the company is based on 4 factors: Perception of value by top management; practitioners taking on the managerial role, reporting to the CEO and ________ seek to influence the public policy process by disguising or obscuring the true identity of their members or by implying representation of a much more broadly based group than exists Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a "public relations firm"? There are four areas of possible friction between public relations and other departments Don't know? 17 of 27
Definition It should replace marketing and advertising as financial liaisons for the company Choose matching term Kant's belief that every decision is either "right" or "wrong" regardless of the consequences (or outcomes) is called There are four areas of possible friction between public relations and other departments A "rule of social engagement" for using the internet is which of the following? Grunig's IABC Foundation research study on "Excellence" notes all of the following about public relations EXCEPT Don't know? 18 of 27
Term Grunig's IABC model (two-way symmetrical communication, mixed motives) "Excellence" study notes Choose matching definition It should replace marketing and advertising as financial liaisons for the company the corporate communications group IABC-International Association of Business Communicators PRSA-Public Relations Society of America It helps the organization make $ by cultivating relationships, repairs problems and regains lost revenue from bad relationships with publics, and saves the organization money by reducing costs of litigation, regulation and legislation Don't know? 19 of 27
Definition Basic hourly fee, plus out-of-pocket expenses Choose matching term In PR firms the most common method used to bill a client is Which is NOT an important fact about the Internet There are four areas of possible friction between public relations and other departments The PR burden includes bathing ethical decisions that consider Don't know? 20 of 27
Term There are four areas of possible friction between public relations and other departments Choose matching definition Objectivity, Special Problem-solving Skills and Variety of Skills and Expertise Basic hourly fee, plus out-of-pocket expenses Gifts to journalists, linkage between buying ads and getting news coverage, transparency and disclosure issues--NOT source identification issues Legal, Human Resources, Advertising and Marketing Don't know? 21 of 27
Definition outsourcing Choose matching term There are three areas that raise ethical concerns when dealing with the media: Kant's belief that every decision is either "right" or "wrong" regardless of the consequences (or outcomes) is called This photo-sharing site launched in 2010 is considered to be a close cousin to Flickr and Instagram The practice of using expert communication services from outside the organization is Don't know? 22 of 27
Term The most admired Fortune 500 companies think of public relations as Choose matching definition the epicenter of the c-suite a bottom line function an equal partner with marketing and advertising a strategic management tool Don't know? 23 of 27
Term Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a "public relations firm"? Choose matching definition full-time commitment to a client a strategic management tool Websites do not need to be interactive. objectivity, special problem-solving skills and variety of skills and expertise Don't know? 24 of 27
Definition objectivity, special problem-solving skills and variety of skills and expertise Choose matching term Individuals using smartphones spend most of their time In PR firms the most common method used to bill a client is Advantages of a "public relations firm" are Which is NOT an important fact about the Internet Don't know? 25 of 27
Term ___________ is the most common outsourced public relations activity Choose matching definition graphic design social media management writing/communications event planning Don't know? 26 of 27
Definition Explain which type of work setting, public relations firm or in-house organization, you think you would prefer. Use text description of either sources to structure your answer. Choose matching term The PR burden includes bathing ethical decisions that consider The internet has caused There are three areas that raise ethical concerns when dealing with the media: Short answer example essay '?' Don't know? 27 of 27
The case study is a descriptive, qualitative research method that analyzes in great detail a person, an organization, or an event. Case studies are found in most applied areas, such as business, law, and marketing, and offer insight into practices and tactics. The case study's major advantage is the detail and analysis it provides of a specific person, organization, or event. Its major disadvantage is that it cannot be generalized to situations other than the one that was studied. Encyclopedia of Public Relations
In Public Relations, case studies:
Introduction to the warc database.
Note: the home page design has been updated since this video was made. In order to navigate to the Case Finder, click the three lines in the top right corner of the page, open the Case Studies+, and then Case Finder will appear.
University of Texas Arlington Libraries 702 Planetarium Place · Arlington, TX 76019 · 817-272-3000
Public relations include the promotion of the organization to create goodwill in the eyes of the clients. Public relations professionals work to build and maintain healthy relations between the company and the public. Writing an assignment on public relations might be difficult for students because of lack of information and time. Researchomatic has large number of materials available on various topics which will help students write good quality assignments.
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The University of Texas at El Paso University Connect Department of Communication COMM 4323: Case Studies in Public Relations CRN: 35158
MATERIALS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Required Materials: All resources required for this course are available as a Library Guide through UTEPs Library. Please check the course’s blackboard page to access the readings.
INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION:
Instructor: MBA/MA Eli Garcia Email: [email protected] Office: COTTON 205 Phone: (915) 747- 5310 Office hours: by appointment
COURSE CONTENT
Course Description: This course studies the role of public relations in organizational problem solving practices. Through the analysis of real–life cases you will study how the functions of public relations help manage and reconcile the conflicts/challenges that arise between an organization and its diverse stakeholders.
Course Learning Objectives: • Examine the role of public relations in organizational problem solving practices • Identify the roles of communication strategies in organizational public relations plan • Analyze real-life case studies • Compare and contrast different organizational public relations situations
Technology Requirements This course is presented in the Blackboard learning management system. To ensure your success in accessing your course materials and completing your assignments, it is recommended that you ensure your computer setup for this class meets the following minimum requirements: 1. Broadband Internet connection, such as cable or DSL 2. A modern computer (PC or Mac), no more than four years old, with the following minimum configuration:
Tech Support : The University of Texas at El Paso offers complete technical information and online help desk support at http://at.utep.edu/techsupport/.
ASSIGNMENTS
Weekly Discussions (8 @ 50 points each, due weekly):
Every week we will discuss a series of different topics related to the course’s material. This is a great opportunity to share your perspectives on the PR strategies applied in each of the case studies that we will analyze through our course. You will be asked to post an initial response to the week’s discussion question/s and then post 2 replies to classmates. As always, the golden rule of public relation applies: all postings should be professional, respectful and relevant to the focus of the discussion. Your postings and replies will be graded based on the following rubric:
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| Initial reply was posted on time, meets the length requirement, and directly answers the discussion question(s). Excellent replies often include quotes from reading material. | Initial reply was posted on time, meets the length requirement, and answers the discussion question(s). | Initial reply was posted late or does not meet the length requirement. However, the post still directly answers the discussion question(s). | The initial reply is missing or does not answer the discussion question(s). |
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| First peer reply was posted on time and contributes meaningfully to the discussion by introducing new perspectives. | First peer reply contributes meaningfully to the discussion. | First peer reply was late but still contributes to the discussion. | First peer reply is missing or only states “I agree” or “I disagree” without advancing |
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| Second peer reply was posted on time and contributes meaningfully to the discussion by introducing new perspectives. | Second peer reply contributes meaningfully to the discussion. | Second peer reply was late but still contributes to the discussion. | Second peer reply is missing or only states “I agree” or “I disagree” without advancing the discussion in any way. |
Case Study Written Reports (3@ 150 points each, due week 2,4,6):
You will also have the opportunity to analyze, critique and report on 3 real-life public relations case studies. Case studies will be available through the Library Guide (from the UTEP Library) on your blackboard page.
Please follow the instructions and rubric mentioned below:
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| 10 Points |
Give a short summary of the situation ( cited in APA style) Identify key players in the case study (organizations, executives, media outlets, etc.) | 10 points |
| 20 points |
(Answers to Case Questions) | 50 points |
| 30 points |
What did you learn from this case? From a approach, what would be your 4 recommendations for public relations professionals? | 30 points |
Reflection Paper 1@150 points (due week 7): You will write a final reflection paper. The purpose of this assignment is to take a moment and analyze how the topics/concepts discussed throughout our course can help you become a more competitive professional in the field of PR.
Reflect and include the following:
Your paper should include :
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| Minimum of three pages in length (excluding cover and reference pages). | 30 |
| Introduction, Sections, and Conclusion. | 30 |
| Proper citations, as applicable. | 90 |
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GRADING This course is ambitious and requires your active participation. Students can earn up to 1000 points. Grades will be based on the following scale: A= 1000-900 points B= 899-800 points C= 799-700 points D= 600-699 points F= 599 points and below
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Discussions (8 @ 50 points ) = 400 points Case Studies (3 @ 150 points) = 450 points Reflection Paper = 150 points
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Total Points = 1000 points |
COURSE CALENDAR The instructor reserves the right to make necessary changes in the schedule/calendar/assignments depending on the needs of the class.
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| Discussion 1: Introductions | Initial Post: Wednesday May 17th, 11:00 PM MST Reply: Saturday May 20th, 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Discussion 2: Key Concepts of Public Relations | Initial Discussion Post: Thursday May 18th, 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday May 21th , 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Discussion: Domino's | Initial Discussion Post: Wednesday May 24th, 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday May 28th, 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Assignment Case Study Domino's | Assignment Submission: Sunday May 28th, 11:00 PM MST |
150 |
| Discussion: Chipotle | Initial Discussion Post: Wednesday May 31st 11:00 PM MTS Replies: Sunday June 4th 11:00 PM MTS |
50 |
| Discussion: Zombies Gone Viral | Initial Discussion Post: Wednesday June 7th 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday June11th 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Assignment Case Study: Zombies Gone Viral | Assignment Submission: Sunday June11th 11:00 PM MST |
150 |
| Discussion: Orlando Magic | Initial Discussion Post: Wednesday June14th 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday June 18th 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Discussion: British Petroleum | Initial Discussion Post: Wednesday June 21th 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday June 25th 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Assignment Case Study: BP's Oil Spill | Assignment Submission: Sunday June 25th MST |
150 |
| Discussion: The Titanic | Initial Discussion Post : Wednesday June 28th 11:00 PM MST Replies: Sunday July 2nd 11:00 PM MST |
50 |
| Assignment: Reflection Paper | Reflection Paper Submission: Sunday July 2nd MST by 11:00 PM MST |
150 |
What to Expect from the Instructor The best way to communicate with your instructor is via email. Always include in the subject of your email “Online COMM 4323” When sending an email and your name. All emails will be answered within 48 hrs. Graded assignments will be posted a week after the submission date.
Participation Your active participation extremely important! There will be an opportunity to discuss and interact with classmates through discussion questions and assignments, which will be graded. Please refer to the “Assignments and Grading” sections for discussion questions and assignments’ points and value.
Academic Dishonesty Statement
Academic dishonesty is prohibited and is considered a violation of the UTEP Handbook of Operating Procedures. It includes, but is not limited to, cheating, plagiarism, and collusion.
Any act of academic dishonesty attempted by a UTEP student is unacceptable and will not be tolerated. Violations will be taken seriously and will be referred to the Office of Student Conduct and Conflict Resolution for possible disciplinary action. Students may be suspended or expelled from UTEP for such actions. You can find more information in the UTEP Handbook of Operating Procedures, under the heading “ Alleged Student Scholastic Dishonesty ,” and in the Regents’ Rules and Regulations.
Late Policy Deadlines for all quizzes, discussion questions and written assignments will be strictly enforced. No quizzes, discussion questions or written assignments will be accepted after deadline. Missing a deadline is equivalent of not doing the assignment. PR professionals must meet strict deadlines. Students are expected to do the same.
Library Information
Access the UTEP Library by visiting http://libraryweb.utep.edu/.
Disability Statement
If you have a disability and need classroom accommodations, please contact The Center for Accommodations and Support Services (CASS) at 747-5148, or by email at [email protected], or visit the office located in UTEP Union East, Room 106. For additional information, please visit the CASS website at www.sa.utep.edu/cass. Have a great learning experience!
Responsible, Ethical and Effective Electronic Communication
It is important to share a word of caution so we can become wiser about interpersonal distance learning communications. In an online environment, many of the feelings or impressions that are transmitted via body language in face-to-face communications are lost. Consequently, interpreting emotions and innuendos can be difficult. Only what is written, or drawn, carries the message. Often, excitement can be misinterpreted as anger or insult. We all need to keep this in mind as we communicate. Words in print may seem harmless, but they can injure us emotionally when working at a distance. Hence, we must be conscious of how we communicate while working at a distance and use good netiquette, that is, online communication etiquette. For example, your classmates may not know who is posting a comment, so clearly identify yourself when posting to a discussion board. Furthermore, avoid using all capital letters in electronic communication, as all caps come across as shouting. The standard netiquette for participation in networked discussion requires that all comments focus on the topic at hand, without becoming personalized, and be substantive in nature. In other words, you certainly may disagree with others, but you must do so respectfully. You may express strong beliefs or emotions, but you may not get so carried away that you lose all perspective on the course itself. You can find more information on netiquette, the etiquette of Internet communication, at www.albion.com/netiquette.
500 W. University Avenue El Paso, TX, 79968-0582 (915) 747-5672 |
JAMES L. GIBSON, RAYMOND M. DUCH, ANTI-SEMITIC ATTITUDES OF THE MASS PUBLIC: ESTIMATES AND EXPLANATIONS BASED ON A SURVEY OF THE MOSCOW OBLAST, Public Opinion Quarterly , Volume 56, Issue 1, SPRING 1992, Pages 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1086/269293
In this article we examine anti-Semitism as expressed by a sample of residents of the Moscow Oblast (Soviet Union). Based on a survey conducted in 1920, we begin by describing anti-Jewish prejudice and support for official discrimination against Jews. We discover a surprisingly low level of expressed anti-Semitism among these Soviet respondents and virtually no support for state policies that discriminate against Jews. At the same time, many of the conventional hypotheses predicting anti-Semitism are supported in the Soviet case. Anti-Semitism is concentrated among those with lower levels of education, those whose personal financial condition is deteriorating, and those who oppose further democratization of the Soviet Union. We do not take these findings as evidence that anti-Semitism is a trivial problem in the Soviet Union but, rather, suggest that efforts to combat anti-Jewish movements would likely receive considerable support from ordinary Soviet people.
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Eurasian Geography and Economics
Grigory Ioffe
komal choudhary
This study illustrates the spatio-temporal dynamics of urban growth and land use changes in Samara city, Russia from 1975 to 2015. Landsat satellite imageries of five different time periods from 1975 to 2015 were acquired and quantify the changes with the help of ArcGIS 10.1 Software. By applying classification methods to the satellite images four main types of land use were extracted: water, built-up, forest and grassland. Then, the area coverage for all the land use types at different points in time were measured and coupled with population data. The results demonstrate that, over the entire study period, population was increased from 1146 thousand people to 1244 thousand from 1975 to 1990 but later on first reduce and then increase again, now 1173 thousand population. Builtup area is also change according to population. The present study revealed an increase in built-up by 37.01% from 1975 to 1995, than reduce -88.83% till 2005 and an increase by 39.16% from 2005 to 2015, along w...
Elena Milanova
Land use/Cover Change in Russia within the context of global challenges. The paper presents the results of a research project on Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) in Russia in relations with global problems (climate change, environment and biodiversity degradation). The research was carried out at the Faculty of Geography, Moscow State University on the basis of the combination of remote sensing and in-field data of different spatial and temporal resolution. The original methodology of present-day landscape interpretation for land cover change study has been used. In Russia the major driver of land use/land cover change is agriculture. About twenty years ago the reforms of Russian agriculture were started. Agricultural lands in many regions were dramatically impacted by changed management practices, resulted in accelerated erosion and reduced biodiversity. Between the natural factors that shape agriculture in Russia, climate is the most important one. The study of long-term and short-ter...
Annals of The Association of American Geographers
Land use and land cover change is a complex process, driven by both natural and anthropogenic transformations (Fig. 1). In Russia, the major driver of land use / land cover change is agriculture. It has taken centuries of farming to create the existing spatial distribution of agricultural lands. Modernization of Russian agriculture started fifteen years ago. It has brought little change in land cover, except in the regions with marginal agriculture, where many fields were abandoned. However, in some regions, agricultural lands were dramatically impacted by changed management practices, resulting in accelerating erosion and reduced biodiversity. In other regions, federal support and private investments in the agricultural sector, especially those made by major oil and financial companies, has resulted in a certain land recovery. Between the natural factors that shape the agriculture in Russia, climate is the most important one. In the North European and most of the Asian part of the ...
Ekonomika poljoprivrede
Vasilii Erokhin
Journal of Rural Studies
judith pallot
In recent decades, Russia has experienced substantial transformations in agricultural land tenure. Post-Soviet reforms have shaped land distribution patterns but the impacts of these on agricultural use of land remain under-investigated. On a regional scale, there is still a knowledge gap in terms of knowing to what extent the variations in the compositions of agricultural land funds may be explained by changes in the acreage of other land categories. Using a case analysis of 82 of Russia’s territories from 2010 to 2018, the authors attempted to study the structural variations by picturing the compositions of regional land funds and mapping agricultural land distributions based on ranking “land activity”. Correlation analysis of centered log-ratio transformed compositional data revealed that in agriculture-oriented regions, the proportion of cropland was depressed by agriculture-to-urban and agriculture-to-industry land loss. In urbanized territories, the compositions of agricultura...
Open Geosciences
Alexey Naumov
Despite harsh climate, agriculture on the northern margins of Russia still remains the backbone of food security. Historically, in both regions studied in this article – the Republic of Karelia and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) – agricultural activities as dairy farming and even cropping were well adapted to local conditions including traditional activities such as horse breeding typical for Yakutia. Using three different sources of information – official statistics, expert interviews, and field observations – allowed us to draw a conclusion that there are both similarities and differences in agricultural development and land use of these two studied regions. The differences arise from agro-climate conditions, settlement history, specialization, and spatial pattern of economy. In both regions, farming is concentrated within the areas with most suitable natural conditions. Yet, even there, agricultural land use is shrinking, especially in Karelia. Both regions are prone to being af...
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Phone 8 (496) 575-02-20 8 (496) 575-02-20
Phone 8 (496) 511-20-80 8 (496) 511-20-80
Gornostayeva Galina A. Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow . In: Espace, populations, sociétés , 1991-2. Les franges périurbaines Peri-urban fringes. pp. 349-357.
DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/espos.1991.1474
www.persee.fr/doc/espos_0755-7809_1991_num_9_2_1474
Galina A. GORNOSTAYEVA
Moscow University
Suburbanization Problems
in the USSR :
the Case of Moscow
Suburbanization processes typical to cities in Western Europe, the USA and other countries are not observed in the USSR or they are distorted to such an extent that they may not be compared with existing standards. This states the question how Soviet cities-succeeded in escaping this stage of urban development. In order to answer this question, we should first summarize the main aspects of Western suburbanization.
Firstly, it is well known that the urbanization processes are linked to structural changes in the economy. Thus the transition from the stage of concentration to this of suburbanization is associated with industrialization, and the transition to the third stage - déconcentration - is related with the rapid growth of employment in the non-industrial sphere. Secondly, a suburbanization of economic activities can be distinguished. It applies in the first place to the building and iron- working industry, transports, engineering and chemical works. These are polluting and requiring extensive areas. This suburbanization of industry is caused by the following factors: rising demand for land from firms ; worsening of transport
tions in the inner cities ; demand for lower land costs and taxation levels in suburbs ; rapid growth of road transports; state policies regulating the growth of large cities ; migration of the labour force to the suburban zones. Scientific and educational activities are also transferred from the centre to the suburbs.
The third important aspect of suburbanization applies to the population. In the suburbs two opposite flows of population meet ; one is centripetal, coming from non- metropolitan regions, the other is centrifugal, coming from the central city. The reasons for the migration to the suburbs are as follows : declining living standards in large cities (overcrowding, slow housing renewal, environmental problems, etc.); growth of motorization of the population, development of communications (telephone, telex, fax, computer) ; intensifying decentralization of working places ; lower land prices in the suburbs ; state support for the intensification of real estate development in the suburbs. The above-mentioned factors and reasons for suburbanization are altered in the Soviet cities. Let us explore them, by taking for example the largest one - Moscow.
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Public Relations Discussion Questions; ... Corporate PR is another current public relations assignment topic. In this article, we've gathered hot PR topics that will be suitable for essays, research papers, presentations, theses, and other projects. A collection of public relations essay examples is a nice bonus!
Whether you are a reporter, a public relations specialist, or someone who works in advertising, the main output of your work will be a media message. Ceramic Pot by OpenClipart-Vectors. Source: ... Following are some of the kinds of questions you might ask to clarify the assignment. Question Mark by Marco Belluci. Source: Flickr. CC BY 2.0.
Global businesses that have extended their public relations strategies worldwide should: a. Never decentralize their global public relations programs to ensure the company has "one voice." b. Assum... View Answer. Contrast formal and informal methods for reporting adverse events in a healthcare organization.
The assignment is for a sophomore/junior level Public Relations course. The assignment is introduced on the first day of the course. Teams are created and the assignment will be worked on throughout the course culminating in final presentations near the end of the semester. ... The question and answer portion will last 5-7 minutes. Feel free to ...
NOVEMBER 28, 2022. Next up, if you're blogging, asking similar questions about your blog traffic is a valuable exercise considering the impact it can have on site performance. Case Study: How We Grew Blog Traffic and Leads 110%: 543 pageviews (+20.9%). Case Study: How we grew blog traffic and leads: 13 (-13.3%).
Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Public Relations Quiz Questions, so you can be ready for test day. ... Corporate public relations practitioners' influence in the company is based on 4 factors: Perception of value by top management; practitioners taking on the managerial role, reporting to the CEO and.
Hypothetical Example #1. Primary message point ⇒. Proof points. Focusing on a few key messages is key to effective communication. ⇒ •. People are bombarded by thousands of messages a day, so only the most compelling and easy to remember messages get through. •. Helps you prepare for discussions. •.
Research questions have a few characteristics. They're open-ended. (They can't be answered with a simple yes or no response.) They're often measurable through quantitative data or qualitative measures. They summarize the issue/topic being researched. They may take a fresh look at an issue or try to solve a problem. In addition, research ...
The case study is a descriptive, qualitative research method that analyzes in great detail a person, an organization, or an event. Case studies are found in most applied areas, such as business, law, and marketing, and offer insight into practices and tactics. The case study's major advantage is the detail and analysis it provides of a specific ...
Researchomatic is the largest e-library that contains millions of free Public Relations Assignment topics & Public Relations Assignment examples for students of all academic levels. ... Assignment Question 1 After reading the on-line story about public pension underfunding in Kentucky, discuss the following issues.
Deadlines for all quizzes, discussion questions and written assignments will be strictly enforced. No quizzes, discussion questions or written assignments will be accepted after deadline. Missing a deadline is equivalent of not doing the assignment. PR professionals must meet strict deadlines. Students are expected to do the same. Library ...
Public relations professionals are specially recruited by companies who work tirelessly to protect the organisation's brand value. They instil a positive picture of a specific organisation in the minds of potential customers through press releases, newsletters, interviews, meetings, and functions, as well as recruiting a celebrity as a brand ...
assignment stcm may 2022 essay questions what would you like to know about the audience coming to the event and why is that info helpful? as numerous local area. Skip to document. ... Course: public relations and advertising (STCM 130) 19 Documents. Students shared 19 documents in this course. AI Chat. Info More info. Download. AI Quiz. Save.
Public Relations Assignment - Free download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. Public relations plays several crucial roles in an organization: 1) It is responsible for establishing and maintaining mutual understanding between an organization and its various publics through deliberate communication efforts.
Individual Assignment - PUBLIC RELATIONS AND EVENT MANAGEMENT INSTRUCTIONS: 1. This assignment consists of 4 case studies only. 2. Please type your assignment as follows: Font Size 12 Times New Roman Double-spaced on A4 paper format. 3. The contents of the assignment must be based on your opinion, discussion; details, of your own critical thinking.
From the three definitions, provide your own operational definition of public relations. (5) QUESTION 3 In the field of public relations, social media has become a very important tool. Identify any two social media platforms and discuss how they have been used in public relations activities using real-life examples. (10)
DPR1503 Assignment 02 questions 2021; DPR1501-22-S1 Assignment 1; DPR2601 2023 Assignment 1 Questions; Develop-quantitative; DPR 1503 Ass 2 - this is assignment two ... Public relations is responsible for linking the various departments and external publics to ensure that the goals and aims of the organisation are met. 1. Point out the role or ...
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, IDL ACCRA CAMPUS FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL STUDIES PA 565: PUBLIC RELATIONS IN ORGANIZATION ASSIGNMENT ONE (1) QUESTION: DICHOTOMY BETWEEN SOCIAL MEDIA AND PUBLIC RELATION. NAME: MARFO GEORGE INDEX NUMBER: PG4451620 REG.NO: 20775070 ANSWER Introduction Public Relations has acknowledged public involvement as ...
Abstract. In this article we examine anti-Semitism as expressed by a sample of residents of the Moscow Oblast (Soviet Union). Based on a survey conducted in 192
ASSIGNMENT. ASSIGNMENT PUBLIC RELATIONS N5 V Page 2 of 2 ERSION 1 2022. The assignment mark allocation will be as follows: ... ASSIGNMENT QUESTION. Most colleges have banned welcome functions for students as it leads to excessive drinking that results in damage to property and fights. As a public relations practitioner for Rapid Results TVET ...
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State Housing Inspectorate of the Moscow Region is located in Elektrostal. State Housing Inspectorate of the Moscow Region is working in Public administration activities. You can contact the company at 8 (496) 575-02-20. You can find more information about State Housing Inspectorate of the Moscow Region at gzhi.mosreg.ru.
The social and economic causes of Moscow's extensive growth reveal that its problems are a reflection of the ones facing the USSR. The concentration of economic, social and management functions in Mos-. cow in Soviet times materializes the strong centralism of the particraty and weighs down on the city's development.