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BPSC-102: IGNOU BAG Solved Assignment 2022-2023

• 1 Assignment – I
• 2 Answer the following in about 500 words each.
• 3 1. Elaborate upon Philosophical premises of the Indian Constitution.
• 4 2. Explain the Division of Powers between the Union and Federal Units in the Constitution of India.
• 5 Assignment – II
• 6 Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
• 7 1. Discuss different types of emergency provisions in the Indian Constitution.
• 8 2. What were the recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission? Explain.
• 9 3. Explain the special provisions under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution.
• 10 Assignment – III
• 11 Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.
• 12 1. Write a brief note on Balwant Rai Mehta Committee.
• 13 2. Discuss the special powers and functions of the Rajya Sabha.
• 14 3. What are the powers of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha?
• 15 4. What is the procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court?
• 16.1 How to Download BPSC-102 Solved Assignment?
• 16.2 Is the BPSC-102 Solved Assignment Free?
• 16.3 What is the last submission date for BPSC-102 Solved Assignment?

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each., 1. elaborate upon philosophical premises of the indian constitution..

Ans: The Indian Constitution is grounded in several philosophical premises that reflect the values and aspirations of the people of India. These premises are derived from the ancient and medieval philosophical traditions of India, as well as from the ideas of Western thinkers such as John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. Here are some of the key philosophical premises of the Indian Constitution:

1.1. Dharma

Dharma is a central concept in Indian philosophy that refers to ethical, moral, and spiritual principles that govern the universe and human conduct. The Indian Constitution is based on the principle of dharma, which includes values such as truth, justice, equality, and respect for human rights. The Preamble to the Constitution, which is its introductory statement, declares that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, and republic nation that is committed to securing justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for all its citizens.

1.2. Satyagraha

Satyagraha is a nonviolent resistance movement that was developed by Mahatma Gandhi during India’s struggle for independence. The Indian Constitution draws inspiration from the philosophy of satyagraha, which is based on the principle of nonviolence and seeks to transform society through peaceful means. The Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression, the right to peaceful assembly, and the right to form associations and unions, which are essential for the practice of satyagraha.

1.3. Ahimsa

Ahimsa is a Sanskrit word that means nonviolence or non-injury. It is a central principle in Indian philosophy and is closely linked to the idea of dharma. The Indian Constitution recognizes the importance of ahimsa and seeks to promote a culture of peace and nonviolence. The Constitution prohibits the use of force against any citizen except in accordance with law and also prohibits the use of capital punishment except in the rarest of rare cases.

1.4. Socialism

The Indian Constitution embodies the principles of socialism, which seeks to promote social justice and reduce economic inequalities. The Constitution directs the State to promote the welfare of the people, to eliminate inequality and to ensure that the ownership and control of material resources are distributed in such a way as to serve the common good. The Constitution also guarantees the right to work, the right to education, and the right to healthcare, which are essential for the realization of socialist principles.

1.5. Secularism

The Indian Constitution is based on the principle of secularism, which seeks to ensure that the State remains neutral in matters of religion and treats all religions equally. The Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of religion, the right to propagate religion, and the right to manage religious institutions, subject to public order, morality, and health. The Constitution also prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion and ensures that no person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any particular religion.

2. Explain the Division of Powers between the Union and Federal Units in the Constitution of India.

Ans: The Constitution of India provides for a federal system of government in which power is divided between the Union Government and the State Governments. The division of powers between the two levels of government is based on the principles of federalism, which seeks to balance the need for a strong central government with the desire for regional autonomy. Here is an explanation of the division of powers between the Union and the State Governments in India:

• Union List: The Union List contains subjects that are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Union Government. This list includes areas such as defense, foreign affairs, currency, telecommunications, and atomic energy. The Union Government has the sole power to legislate on these matters and the State Governments cannot interfere in any way.
• State List: The State List contains subjects that are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the State Governments. This list includes areas such as public order, police, healthcare, education, and agriculture. The State Governments have the sole power to legislate on these matters and the Union Government cannot interfere in any way.
• Concurrent List: The Concurrent List contains subjects that are under the jurisdiction of both the Union and the State Governments. This list includes areas such as marriage and divorce, forests, trade unions, and electricity. Both the Union and State Governments can legislate on these matters, but in case of a conflict, the Union Law prevails.
• Residuary Powers: In addition to the three lists mentioned above, the Constitution of India also provides for residuary powers, which are not explicitly mentioned in any of the lists. These powers are vested in the Union Government and can be used in exceptional circumstances when the need arises.
• Financial Powers: The Constitution of India also provides for a system of financial powers in which the Union Government and the State Governments share revenues and expenditures. The Union Government collects taxes on subjects in the Union List and shares a portion of these revenues with the State Governments. The State Governments collect taxes on subjects in the State List and also receive a portion of the Union revenues.

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each., 1. discuss different types of emergency provisions in the indian constitution..

Ans: The Indian Constitution has several emergency provisions to ensure the smooth functioning of the democratic system during times of crisis. These provisions are primarily outlined in Part XVIII of the Constitution and can be classified into three types:

• National Emergency: This provision is outlined in Article 352 and can be invoked if there is a threat to the security of the nation or a part of it, whether it is due to war, external aggression, or armed rebellion. Once declared, the central government can assume more power over state governments and suspend the Fundamental Rights of citizens. However, this emergency must be approved by the President and the Parliament and is subject to judicial review.
• State Emergency: This provision is outlined in Article 356 and can be invoked when a state government is unable to function according to the Constitution. The Governor of the state must first issue a report to the President detailing the reasons for the emergency, after which the President can assume control of the state government and declare a state of emergency. This can lead to the suspension of the state government, and the President’s rule is imposed.
• Financial Emergency: This provision is outlined in Article 360 and can be invoked if there is a threat to the financial stability of India or a part of it. The central government can assume greater control over the financial affairs of the states and suspend the distribution of financial resources to them. Like other emergencies, this provision is also subject to judicial review and must be approved by both the President and the Parliament.

2. What were the recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission? Explain.

Ans: The Sarkaria Commission was a body appointed by the Indian government in 1983 to examine the relationship between the Centre and the States and suggest measures to improve it. The Commission submitted its report in 1988, which contained several recommendations. Some of the key recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission are:

• Governor Appointments: The Commission recommended that Governors should be appointed by the President after consulting with the Chief Minister of the concerned state. The Governor should have experience in public life and must be a person of standing.
• Centre-State Relations: The Commission recommended that the Centre and the States should maintain a cooperative relationship, and the Centre should provide more financial and technical assistance to the States. The Centre should also avoid interfering in the States’ affairs unless it is necessary to maintain national unity and integrity.
• Emergency Provisions: The Commission recommended that the use of emergency provisions under the Constitution, such as Article 356, should be the last resort and should only be used in exceptional circumstances.
• Legislative Powers: The Commission recommended that the legislative powers of the Centre and the States should be clearly defined to prevent conflicts between the two. It also recommended that the Centre should avoid legislating on matters that fall within the States’ jurisdiction.
• Centre-State Disputes: The Commission recommended that disputes between the Centre and the States should be resolved through peaceful means, such as negotiation and conciliation, rather than litigation.
• State Reorganisation: The Commission recommended that state reorganisation should be undertaken only after careful consideration and broad-based political consensus. The Centre should also consult with the State concerned and the concerned State Legislature before initiating the process of reorganisation.

3. Explain the special provisions under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution.

Ans: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Indian Constitution provide for special provisions to protect the interests of certain tribal communities and areas. These provisions aim to promote the welfare of tribal communities and protect their cultural identity and land rights.

The Fifth Schedule deals with the administration and control of Scheduled Areas, which are predominantly tribal areas. The Schedule includes provisions for the establishment of a Tribal Advisory Council, which advises the Governor of the State on matters related to the administration of Scheduled Areas. The Schedule also provides for the regulation of land transfer, where the transfer of tribal land to non-tribals is restricted to prevent exploitation of tribal land and resources. The Schedule further ensures that the community’s social customs and traditions are protected while administering justice in these areas.

The Sixth Schedule deals with the administration of tribal areas in the Northeastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. The Schedule provides for the establishment of autonomous districts and regional councils, which have the power to make laws on a range of subjects, including land, forests, and local governance. These councils are also responsible for preparing plans for economic development and social justice. The Schedule further provides for the protection of the tribal community’s customary laws and practices.

The special provisions under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules recognize the unique needs and challenges faced by tribal communities and provide for their welfare and protection. These provisions help ensure that tribal communities are not left behind in India’s development process, and their rights and identity are protected. However, the implementation of these provisions remains a challenge, and efforts are needed to ensure that the benefits of these provisions reach the tribal communities effectively.

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each., 1. write a brief note on balwant rai mehta committee..

Ans: The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was a committee set up in 1957 to examine the working of the Community Development Programme (CDP) and the National Extension Service (NES) in India. The committee was headed by Balwant Rai Mehta, a member of the Parliament of India. The committee recommended the establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system in India, which would decentralize power and resources to the grassroots level. The recommendation was subsequently accepted by the government, and the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, was passed to give a constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions in India. The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee is therefore considered a landmark in India’s efforts towards decentralization and local governance.

2. Discuss the special powers and functions of the Rajya Sabha.

Ans: The Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the Indian Parliament and has several special powers and functions that distinguish it from the Lok Sabha or the lower house. Some of the important special powers and functions of the Rajya Sabha are:

• Representation of States: The Rajya Sabha represents the states and the Union Territories of India. Its members are elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
• Legislative Functions: The Rajya Sabha has the power to initiate, amend and reject bills related to any subject matter other than money bills, which can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha can also recommend amendments to the money bills, which the Lok Sabha may or may not accept.
• Special Powers: The Rajya Sabha has some special powers under the Constitution of India. These include the power to create new All India Services, the power to impeach the President or Vice-President of India, and the power to remove judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts.
• Constituent Assembly: The Rajya Sabha also functions as the Constituent Assembly for the Union Territories of India. It has the power to make laws for these territories and can also create or abolish legislative assemblies or councils for these territories.
• Representation in Other Bodies: Members of the Rajya Sabha are also represented in several other important bodies such as the National Development Council, the Planning Commission, and the Finance Commission.

3. What are the powers of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha?

Ans: The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer of the lower house of the Indian Parliament. The Speaker’s role is to conduct the proceedings of the House, maintain order, and ensure that the members of the House follow the rules and procedures laid down in the Constitution of India and the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha. Here are some of the powers of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha:

• Presiding over the House: The Speaker presides over the meetings of the House and maintains order during the proceedings.
• Interpretation of Rules: The Speaker has the power to interpret the rules and procedures of the House.
• Maintaining Discipline: The Speaker has the power to maintain discipline in the House, and if a member disregards the rules of the House or is guilty of any misconduct, the Speaker may order the member to withdraw from the House.
• Allotting Time for Debates: The Speaker has the power to allot time for debates and discussions in the House and can also curtail the time allotted for speeches if necessary.
• Granting Permission to Raise Issues: The Speaker has the power to grant permission to members to raise issues of public importance in the House.
• Deciding Agenda of the House: The Speaker has the power to decide the agenda of the House and determine which Bills will be taken up for discussion.
• Casting Vote: In case of a tie, the Speaker has the power to cast the deciding vote.
• Administrative Powers: The Speaker has administrative powers over the Lok Sabha Secretariat, which is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the House.

4. What is the procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court?

Ans: The procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court of India is laid out in Article 124(4) of the Constitution of India. The process for removal involves the following steps:

• Initiation of the Motion: A removal motion against a Supreme Court judge can be initiated in either house of the Parliament by a notice signed by at least 100 members of the Lok Sabha or 50 members of the Rajya Sabha.
• Formation of an Inquiry Committee: After the notice has been given, the Speaker or the Chairman of the House will constitute an Inquiry Committee, consisting of three members – a sitting judge of the Supreme Court, a sitting Chief Justice of a High Court, and a distinguished jurist.
• Investigation and Report: The Inquiry Committee will investigate the charges made against the judge and submit its report to the Speaker or the Chairman of the House.
• Presentation of the Report: If the Inquiry Committee finds the judge guilty of any misbehavior or incapacity, the report is presented to the Parliament for further action.
• Voting: The motion for the removal of the judge is then put to vote in the House. For the motion to succeed, it needs to be passed by a special majority of two-thirds of the members present and voting in each house of Parliament.
• Presidential Approval: If the motion is passed by both houses of Parliament, it is presented to the President for his assent. After receiving the Presidential assent, the judge is removed from office.

The procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court is a complex and difficult process, and it is designed to ensure that judges are not removed from office without just cause. This process provides a system of checks and balances that helps to maintain the independence and integrity of the judiciary in India.

5. What are the qualifications for a member of the Indian Parliament?

Ans: To become a member of the Indian Parliament, a person must meet the following qualifications:

• Citizen of India: The person must be a citizen of India.
• Age: For the Lok Sabha (Lower House), the person must be at least 25 years old, and for the Rajya Sabha (Upper House), the person must be at least 30 years old.
• Educational Qualification: The person must have completed at least the 10th standard or equivalent.
• Disqualifications: The person must not have been convicted of any criminal offense, be of unsound mind, or hold an office of profit under the Government of India.

These qualifications ensure that the members of the Indian Parliament are qualified, competent, and representative of the diverse population of India.

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For June Examination: 31st April, For December Examination: 30th October

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IGNOU BPSC-102 SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2021-22 HINDI MEDIUM

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BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA Solved Assignment 2020-21

BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA , BPSC 102 Solved Assignment, BPSC 102     Assignment 2020-21, BPSC 102     Assignment, IGNOU Assignments 2020-21- Gandhi National Open University had recently uploaded the assignments of the present session for MPS Programme for the year 2020-21. Students are recommended to download their Assignments from this webpage itself. They don’t got to go anywhere else when everything regarding the Assignments are available during this article only.

Candidates got to download the IGNOU Assignments for appearing within the Term End Examination [TEE] of IGNOU MPS Programme.

For Students - BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA Students are advised that after successfully downloading their Assignments, you'll find each and each course assignments of your downloaded MPS Programme. Candidates need to create separate assignment for the IGNOU Master Course, in order that it's easy for Evaluators to see your assignments.

BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA

Solved Assignment 2020-21

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Assignment - I

Answer the following in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks.

1. Discuss the evolution of constitution of India (1885-1935). (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 2. Describe different types of emergency provisions in Constitution of India.

Assignment - II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. Each question carries 10 marks.

3. Compare the Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights. 4. Discuss the fundamental duties. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 5. Discuss the provisions of the fifth Schedule of the Indian constitution.

Assignment - III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 6 marks.

6. What were the recommendations of the Cripps Mission? 7. Write note on judicial review. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 8. Discuss the powers of the Speaker of Lok Sabha. 9. What were the recommendations of Sarkaria Commission? 10. Identify the features of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

IGNOU Assignment Status 2020-21

BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA Solved Assignment 2020-21 Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Alongside assignment status, they will also checkout their assignment marks & result. All this is often available in a web mode. After submitting the assignment, you'll check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. it'd take 40 days to declare.

Here the scholars can check their IGNOU Assignment Status 2020, marks, result or both the sessions i.e; June & December.

BPSC 102 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA Once the TEE assignments are submitted to the Centres, it's send to the evaluation department. After which the evaluation of IGNOU Assignment Solutions takes place.

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IGNOU BPSC-102 Assignment 2020-21

IGNOU BPSC-102 Assignment | IGNOU BAPSH Assignments 2020-21 | July 2020 | January 2021 | IGNOU Assignments 2020-21- Indira Gandhi National Open University had recently uploaded the assignments of the current session for BPSC-102 Programme for the year 2020-21. Students are recommended to download their Assignments from this webpage itself. They don’t need to go anywhere else when everything regarding the Assignments are available in this article only.

Candidates need to download the IGNOU Assignments for appearing in the Term End Examination [TEE] of IGNOU BAPSH Programme.

Important Note- Students are advised that after successfully downloading their Assignments, you will find each and every course assignments of your downloaded BPSC-102 Programme. Candidates have to create separate assignment for the IGNOU Bachelor Course , so that it is easy for Evaluators to check your assignments.

IGNOU BAG Assignments

Programme Code: BAPSH

Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Political Science

Subject Code: BPSC-102

Subject Code Name: Constitutional Government and Democracy in India

Medium: English

Session: July 2020 & January 2021

IGNOU BPSC-102 Assignment July 2020 & Jan 2021

Remember that every question printed on the BPSC-102 Assignments July 2020 & Jan 2021 has different marking scheme. Students need to write all the solutions for all the questions in a separate IGNOU BAPSH Assignment File.

The students of IGNOU BAPSH Programme have to submit each course assignments to the Study Centre in which they had registered earlier.

Please Note- Students need to submit their BPSC-102 Assignments July 2020 & Jan 2021 before the due date for appearing in the Term End Examination conducted by the university.

BPSC-102: Constitutional Government and Democracy in India

IGNOU BAPSH [July 2020 & January 2021]

Check Here: IGNOU BPSC-102 (July 2020 & Jan 2021) Assignment

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Also Check: IGNOU BAPSH Assignments 2021

Important dates.

Here are some important date for the submission of BPSC-102 Assignments submission 2021.

For  July 2020 – 31st May 2021

For Jan 2021 – 31st October 2021

**There are chances that the last dates for the submission of assignments might get extended**

Also Download: IGNOU BPSC-102 Assignment in Hindi 2021

IGNOU Solved Assignments

All those candidates who had completely solved their IGNOU BPSC-102  Assignments can submit their IGNOU Assignments to the coordinator of your nearest IGNOU Study Centre that has been alloted to you during the time of IGNOU Admission.

Please Note- After submitting your Assignments, please don’t forget to take the receipt of the Submission of Assignment.

Also Read- Important Instructions for IGNOU Assignments 2020-21

IGNOU Assignment Status

Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Along with assignment status, they can also checkout their assignment marks & result. All this is available in an online mode. After submitting the assignment, you can check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. It might take 40 days to declare.

Here the students can check their IGNOU Assignment Status , marks, result or both the sessions i.e; June & December.

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IGNOU BPSC 102 HINDI SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2023-24

• Post author: IGNOU ASSIGNMENT WALA
• Post published: July 10, 2024
• Post category: Solved Assignments
• Post comments: 0 Comments

     IGNOU BPSC 102 HINDI SOLVED ASSIGNMENT   2023-24

क्या आप इग्नू हल असाइनमेंट प्राप्त करना चहेते है ? हम  हल कार्य प्रदान कर रहे हैं। याहा दे गया लिंक से इग्नू बेवे 181 हिंदी हल असाइनमेंट पब्लिश किया गया है .  इग्नू ने असाइनमेंट बेवई 181 हिंदी 2023-24  हल किया.IGNOU BPSC 102 HINDI

Title Name                                                       BPSC 102 Hindi Solved Assignment 2023-24

Service Type                                                     Solved Assignment (Soft copy/PDF)

Course                                                               Bachelor’s Degree Programme Under CBCS

Language                                                          HINDI   MEDIUM

Course:                                                               BA(Hindi)

Session                                                              2023-24

Assignment Code                                              BPSC 102/TMA/2023-24

Submission Date                                                For the students enrolled in July 2023- 30th April 2024 For the students enrolled in January 2024- 31st October 2024

Read more    www.ignou.ac.in

Read more:  Solved Assignments Archives – IGNOU Assignment Wala

प्रोग्राम गाइड में असाइनमेंट पर अनुभाग पढ़ें जो इग्नू   ने आपको आपके नामांकन के बाद भेजा था।  30 प्रतिशत का वेटेज,जैसा कि आप जानते हैं, निरंतर मूल्यांकन के लिए निर्धारित किया गया है, जिसमें इस पाठ्यक्रम के लिए एकट्यूटर-चिन्हित असाइनमेंट शामिल होगा। असाइनमेंट इस पुस्तिका में है,  और इसमें दो भाग होते हैं, भाग ए और बी।सभी भागों के कुल अंक 100 हैं, जिनमें से इसे पास करने के लिए 35% की आवश्यकता होती है।

उम्मीदवारों को महत्वपूर्ण बात पता होनी चाहिए कि IGNOU BPSC 102  HINDI  टर्म एंड परीक्षा (TEE) में भाग लेने के लिए, IGNOU के क्षेत्रीय केंद्र में IGNOU असाइनमेंट जमा करना आवश्यक है। असाइनमेंट के बिना, उम्मीदवारों को परीक्षा में बैठने की अनुमति नहीं दी जाएगी। इसलिए, इसके लिए छात्रों को पहले अपना असाइनमेंट डाउनलोड करना होगा, उन्हें पूरा करना होगा और फिर इसे इग्नू के क्षेत्रीय केंद्र में जमा करना होगा।

उम्मीदवार इग्नू द्वारा उपलब्ध कराई गई पुस्तकों या अध्ययन सामग्री का उपयोग करके इग्नू IGNOU BPSC 102 HINDI के अपने संबंधित कार्यों को हल कर सकते हैं। ये अध्ययन सामग्री/पुस्तकें न केवल सत्रीय कार्यों के लिए बल्कि उनकी संबंधित सत्रांत परीक्षा की तैयारी के लिए भी लाभकारी हैं।

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BPSC-102 CONSTITUITONAL GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY IN INDIA Solved Assignment 2023-2024

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BPSC-109: Political Processes and Institutions in Comparative Perspective

Ignou solved assignment solution for 2021-22, if you are looking for bpsc-109 ignou solved assignment solution for the subject political processes and institutions in comparative perspective, you have come to the right place. bpsc-109 solution on this page applies to 2021-22 session students studying in bapsh courses of ignou., looking to download all solved assignment pdfs for your course together, bpsc-109 solved assignment solution by gyaniversity.

Assignment Code: BPSC-109/ASST/TMA/2021

Course Code : BPSC-109

Assignment Name : Political Processes and Institutions In Comparative Perspective

Year : 2020-2021

Verification Status : Verified by Professor

Answer all questions in each Section.

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks

1. Critically examine political culture as an approach to the study of comparative politics .

Ans) A longstanding argument in the literature on comparative politics is that political culture has an important effect on the emergence of political democracy. In part, the focus on political culture is rather a natural extension of the behavioural revolution in political science and a product of economic modernization. With modernization came changes in values regarding the role of the individual in the political system. Political culture is a simple concept, but it can easily be misunderstood. The fact that we may characterize a given nation ‘s culture in some way should not lead us to underestimate the importance of diverse subcultures within it. Similarly, the fact that political culture may be an explanatory factor should not lead us to overlook the possibility that objective conditions within a country may be responsible for behaviour often attributed to culture.

It is extremely difficult to define the term political culture. It is elusive and comprehensive at the same time. In the extant literature in political science, political culture has been defined in many ways but essentially it involves the basic values, ideas, beliefs, attitudes, and orientations about politics. This involves issues of right and wrong, good, and bad, what is acceptable in politics and what is not. To understand the dynamics of political culture, it will be useful to begin with a meaning of the term culture ‘. Culture is a derivation of the German word ―kultur. Kultur indicates the distinctive higher values of enlightenment of a society. Culture thereby was defined as ―the sway of man over nature. The term culture was first used by Edward B. Taylor, the pioneer English anthropologist in his book, Primitive Culture. Taylor used the term culture to refer to a universal human capacity. It is the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, ethics, morals, law, traditions, traits, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in one's mind.

Culture, thus, represents the shared psychological orientation of the people of society towards societal objects. People of a society acquire and form a distinct pattern of orientations towards societal objects. This is, in fact, the culture of the people of the society or the 'Societal Culture', and 'Political Culture' is a distinct part of this societal culture. The political culture approach can be seen as a natural evolution in the growth of behavioural approach in political analysis in the 1960s. More specifically, the concept was developed to address the need to bridge a growing gap in the behavioural approach between the level of micro-analysis and macro-analysis. It is a set of attitudes and practices held by people that shape their political behaviour includes moral judgment, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes up for a good society.

It reflects government, but it also incorporates elements of history and tradition that may predict the current regime. It is said to matter because it shapes a population's political perceptions and actions. It is associated with the concept of political ideology, national ethos and spirit, national political psychology, the fundamental values of people etc. For example, the United States and Great Britain have been both democracies, but each has a distinctive political culture. American government derives its power from a written constitution and is dominated by two political parties. In contrast, Britain has a long history of monarchy and has never had a written constitution. There is a close relationship between political culture and the political system. Political culture is the basis of the survival of all old and modern political systems.

2. Examine the role of pressure groups in modern politics.

Ans) Pressure group activity also encourages wider participation in decision making process. Ordinary individuals participate in political life only during election time. Elections which are held once in four or five years may not allow voters to express a preference on individual issue. Pressure groups give an opportunity to individuals be politically active and to contribute to the working of democracy between elections. Pressure groups act as a link between the people and the government, a useful intermediary between the electors and those whom they elect, allowing a variety of views to be expressed. They counter the monopoly of the political process by political parties. As one political scientist put it “The views which pressure groups convey are legitimate interests…Modern democracy would not exist without pressure groups. As a channel of representation, they are as legitimate as the ballot box…. They can mediate between the government and the governed”.

Pressure groups often provide specialist information to the government and often help in the implementation of policy. Some of the well organised pressure groups often participate in official consultative committees, advisory groups, and commissions. Most governments rely on these groups for advice, information specialist expertise and help in implementing policies. Pressure groups thus contribute to the formation, shaping and implementation of public policies. Finally, activities of pressure groups make the public at large better informed about public policies. These activities keep political system and government more responsive to the aspiration and demands of the people. However, there are critics who argue that pressure groups can endanger and weaken the democratic process. They argue that relatively small unelected groups of individuals, instead of elected representatives, can influence policies and laws. Marxist and Elitist theorists, for instance, argue that politics is always dominated by a small number of people. According to Marxist scholars, pressure groups reflect the prevailing power structure of the system in which few leaders from the capitalist class always control and dominate these pressure groups. This class-based nature of pressure groups ensures the system in favour of the powerful and wealthy class while leaving less for the weaker majority.

Critics of group activity also contend that the methods and tactics used by pressure groups are often corrupt and intimidating. For example, large-scale demonstrations or protest may cause inconvenience to many. Sometimes direct actions methods go out of control, thereby resulting into violent clashes between the protestors and state machineries. However, the right to make a protest, particularly when those in power take actions that are detrimental to a section of society, is a fundamental one in any democracy. It appears that excessive group power creates the possibility of organised interests foisting their views upon elected representatives who are expected to keep the general interest of the people. On the other hand, too little group power poses the threat of elected government behaving in high handed manner and ignoring the legitimate needs and preferences of the people. Given that pressure groups have become indispensable components of modern political life, it is important to draw a line between excessive and reasonable influence of group activity. In general, governments which allow pressure groups to operate freely are far more accountable and responsive to the public than those without pressure groups.

Assignment - II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. Each question carries 10 marks.

1. Examine the importance of pluralism for contemporary states.

Ans) On the other hand, there are states where the state elites practice ethnic, religious, or regional discrimination by favouring the members of their ethnic group. This results in the politicisation of ethnic differences and the creation of ethnic democracy or „ethnicization of bureaucracy‟. Wimmer suggests two reasons for this ethicised politics. Firstly, there may be a scarcity of resources, which prevents the state elites from an inclusive integration of all sections of society. Secondly, the state formation may precede the establishment of a democratic civil society; thus, the state elites‟ function based on political networks often structured along ethnic lines. We often see such ethnicization of national politics in post-colonial states such as Rwanda, Ethiopia, Sudan, and other states such as Israel.

The politicisation of ethnic identities does not necessarily lead to violent conflict. In democratic states, negotiations between ethnic groups can result in redefining national identity in pluralist terms. Hear, the dominant group realises that it is just one among other ethnic groups that share the state. In other words, the majority does not adopt pluralism on its own. Most of its own volition rarely grants equal status to the minorities. The minorities must claim and advance their rights. The minorities demanding pluralism must have sufficient leverage to stake their claims. Thus, a pluralistic state is not free from power relations. It keeps on balancing between containing the demands of the minorities and granting concessions to the minorities. There is an ongoing negotiation and renegotiation of defining the national identity. Pluralism provides the space for such negotiations. Pluralism believes that there are different ways of leading a good life and hence, there is potential for different cultures to learn from one another. Pluralism cherishes diversity. It attempts to redress the ethnic exclusions that are an inherent by-product of modern nationalist discourse. The mechanism through which pluralism is implemented depends on power relations and negotiations between the majority and minority groups.

2. Describe the structuralist explanation of democratization process in the developing countries.

Ans) The main proponent of structuralism also called historical sociology or social forces approach was Barrington Moore who in 1966 wrote Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. He was writing at a time when modernization theory and the idea of unilinear path of development was still popular. Moore argued that there are many paths to modernization and that the path taken by an individual nation was influenced by the nature of relationships between different classes that existed. Since this approach gives importance to structures, it is also called structuralism. Structuralists see democracy as state transformation, and they analyse state through conflict between different classes over a period. It also contains features of political economy as it highlights how economic evolution affects class or social conflict. Moore analysed eight big countries in comparative perspective through the 19th century into the 20th century. The outcome depended on relationship between three classes – the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, and the landed upper class.

Democracy was the result when:

The peasant question was solved by gradually eliminating peasant agriculture accompanied by transformation of peasants into urban workers by expanding towns and employment in industrial sector.

The rising bourgeoisie defeats the landed class and transforms it in its struggles for state control.

Structuralism has a good understanding of grass root level and is explanatory, but it has its share of shortcomings. Post-modernists, for instance, argue that power is too diffused a concept to be understood in a static way. Structuralism gives importance to historical change in the long-term, but it has been unable to explain the onset of sudden democratization in former Communist countries in East and Central Europe and the former Soviet republics where there was little evidence of class struggle or agitation for democracy. External factors have played an important role in these regions.

3. Examine the reasons for the chequered democratic process in post-colonial countries.

Ans) It is remarkable that very few post-colonial states in the world were able to remain democratic despite starting as democratic ones after decolonisation. In a very short period, democratic regimes were overthrown, and authoritarianism set in. Decolonisation had witnessed the transfer of the political power to the local political elites by the imperial regimes in these former colonies. The postcolonial state elites had led the nationalist struggle in these states while holding out democratic promises to the masses. The state elites enjoyed a very high level of peoples‟ confidence and legitimacy due to their role in leading the anticolonial resistance. They were also viewed as being capable of rising over and above the sectional interests. There was also wider acceptance of their key role even in the economic sector mainly because of the absence of any developed class which could mobilise resources for the developmental purposes and because the state was also endowed with a prescience to know what the best for the people was.

However, very soon the disenchantment set in as the state elites started dismantling the nascent democratic structure, subverting the democratic procedures, and undermining the democratic institutions. Most of these democratic regimes turned into authoritarian ones by the same political elites under the pretext of bringing about radical social and economic changes swiftly without allowing themselves to be constrained by the democratic procedures and institutions. Democracy in any case has not been a constant variable in these countries. There have been times when these countries have been under democratic regimes and in other times it would be authoritarian regime in power. Even India, considered the signpost of liberal democracy among the post-colonial countries, experienced democratic backsliding during two years of emergency when the democratic freedoms were curtailed, and the elected and non-elected institutions were subverted.

Assignment - III

Write a short note on the following in about 100 words each. Each short note carries 6 marks.

1. Representative function of political parties .

Ans) The representative function of political parties is extensive and diverse because the representation takes many forms: ideological representation, regional representation, representation of identities and representation of interests. A good number of political parties represent the common ideology of their core voters and supporters. Such parties‟ core vote is based in a particular region; they prefer to identify themselves with the region’s culture, language and religion and speak for that region. India’s Telangana Rastra Samiti which championed the cause of separate statehood for Telangana or the National Conference striving for the autonomy for the state of Jammu & Kashmir are examples of parties that represent the demands of their region. Some parties represent identities. The Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh and the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra are examples of parties which represent the interests of Dalits and Marathi’s respectively. Although these parties succeed in garnering support from voters of other identities, a large chunk of votes comes from their core identity-based voters.

2. Federal features of Canadian constitution.

Ans) Canadian federalism involves the current nature and historical development of the federal system in Canada. Canada is a federation with eleven components: the national Government of Canada and ten provincial governments. All eleven governments derive their authority from the Constitution of Canada. There are also three territorial governments in the far north, which exercise powers delegated by the federal parliament, and municipal governments which exercise powers delegated by the province or territory. Each jurisdiction is generally independent from the others in its realm of legislative authority. The division of powers between the federal government and the provincial governments is based on the principle of exhaustive distribution: all legal issues are assigned to either the federal Parliament or the provincial Legislatures.

3. Features of Single Transferable Vote System.

Ans) Under STV, each elector (voter) casts a single vote in a district election that elects multiple winners. Each elector marks their ballot for the most preferred candidate and marks back-up preferences. A vote goes to the voter's first preference, if possible, but if the first preference is eliminated, instead of being thrown away, the vote is transferred to a back-up preference, with the vote being assigned to the voter's second, third, or lower choice if possible. Where there are more candidates than seats, the least popular is eliminated and their votes transferred based on voters' marked back-up preferences. In some systems surplus votes not needed by successful candidates are transferred proportionally, as described below. Elections and/or eliminations, and vote transfers where applicable, continue until enough candidates are declared elected or until there are only as many remaining candidates as there are unfilled seats, at which point the remaining candidates are declared elected.

4. Concept of popular sovereignty.

Ans) Popular sovereignty posits that consent of the people is one of fundamental basis by which the authority of the state can be justified. The main pioneers of this concept were John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. John Locke, an English philosopher who lived from 1632 to 1704, published Two Treatises of Government in 1689, where he put forward his version of the social contract theory. According to Locke, sovereignty lies with the people. It is the people who transfer this power to the state so that it can protect its life, liberty, and property. David Held writes, “It is important to emphasize that, in Locke’s account, political authority is bestowed by individuals on government for the purpose of pursuing the ends of the governed; and should these ends fail to be represented adequately, the final judges are the people—the citizens—who can dispense both their deputies and, if need be, with the existing form of government itself”.

5. Procedural and substantive democracy.

Ans) Substantive democracy is a form of democracy in which the outcome of elections is representative of the people. In other words, substantive democracy is a form of democracy that functions in the interest of the governed. Although a country may allow all citizens of age to vote, this characteristic does not necessarily qualify it as a substantive democracy.

Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy or proceduralism is a term used to denote the procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its cantering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centres the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy.

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