autism research questions

Autism Research: Key Questions and Discussion Topics for In-Depth Understanding

From genetic puzzles to societal ripples, the quest to decipher autism’s complexities beckons researchers and society alike to embark on a journey of discovery that promises to reshape our understanding of neurodiversity. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have long captivated the attention of scientists, clinicians, and the general public, sparking a relentless pursuit of knowledge that continues to evolve with each passing year. As we delve deeper into the intricacies of autism, we find ourselves at the forefront of a scientific revolution that holds the potential to transform lives and challenge our preconceptions about the human mind.

The landscape of autism research is vast and ever-changing, with new discoveries and insights emerging at a rapid pace. From the early days of autism research in the mid-20th century to the cutting-edge studies of today, our understanding of this complex neurodevelopmental condition has grown exponentially. Yet, for all that we have learned, countless questions remain unanswered, driving researchers to push the boundaries of scientific inquiry and explore new frontiers in neuroscience, genetics, and behavioral studies.

At the heart of this ongoing exploration lies a set of fundamental research questions that serve as guideposts for scientists and clinicians alike. These questions are not merely academic exercises but crucial stepping stones toward better diagnosis, treatment, and support for individuals on the autism spectrum. By continually refining and expanding these research questions, we pave the way for groundbreaking discoveries that have the potential to improve the lives of millions of people worldwide.

Fundamental Research Questions About Autism

One of the most pressing areas of inquiry in autism research revolves around genetic factors and their role in the development of ASD. Scientists have identified numerous genes associated with autism, but the complex interplay between these genes and their impact on brain development remains a subject of intense study. Researchers are working tirelessly to unravel the genetic code of autism, seeking to understand how specific genetic variations contribute to the diverse array of traits and challenges experienced by individuals on the spectrum.

Complementing the genetic research is an exploration of environmental influences on autism development. While it’s clear that genetics play a significant role, scientists are increasingly recognizing the importance of environmental factors in shaping the expression of autism-related genes. This area of study encompasses a wide range of potential influences, from prenatal exposures to early childhood experiences, and even extends to the complex relationship between screen time and autism . By examining these environmental factors, researchers hope to identify potential risk factors and develop strategies for early intervention and prevention.

Another crucial avenue of research focuses on the neurological differences in individuals with autism. Advanced brain imaging techniques have revealed intriguing variations in brain structure and function among people on the autism spectrum. These findings have led to new hypotheses about the neural underpinnings of autism-related behaviors and cognitive processes. By better understanding these neurological differences, scientists aim to develop more targeted interventions and therapies that address the specific challenges faced by individuals with autism.

Early detection and diagnosis methods represent another critical area of research in the field of autism. As our understanding of the early signs and symptoms of autism has grown, so too has our ability to identify the condition at younger ages. This early identification is crucial, as it allows for earlier intervention and support, which can significantly improve outcomes for individuals with autism. Researchers are continually refining diagnostic tools and developing new screening methods to ensure that children with autism receive the support they need as early as possible.

Topics About Autism for Presentations and Discussions

When it comes to presentations and discussions about autism, several key topics consistently emerge as areas of significant interest and importance. One such topic is sensory processing in autism. Many individuals with autism experience atypical responses to sensory stimuli, which can profoundly impact their daily lives. Understanding these sensory differences is crucial for developing effective interventions and creating more autism-friendly environments.

Communication challenges and interventions represent another critical area for discussion. Many individuals with autism face difficulties with verbal and non-verbal communication, which can significantly affect their social interactions and quality of life. Researchers and clinicians are continually developing and refining communication interventions, from traditional speech therapy to cutting-edge augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) technologies.

Social skills development in individuals with autism is a topic that resonates with many families and educators. While social challenges are a core feature of autism, research has shown that social skills can be taught and improved with targeted interventions. Discussions in this area often focus on evidence-based strategies for fostering social connections and building meaningful relationships.

Executive functioning and autism is another crucial topic for presentations and discussions. Many individuals with autism struggle with aspects of executive function, such as planning, organization, and time management. Understanding these challenges and developing strategies to support executive functioning can have a significant impact on academic success, employment outcomes, and overall quality of life for individuals on the spectrum.

Emerging Research Topics on Autism

As our understanding of autism continues to evolve, new research topics are emerging that promise to shed light on previously unexplored aspects of the condition. One such area is autism in adulthood, focusing on long-term outcomes and support needs. While much of autism research has traditionally focused on children, there is a growing recognition of the importance of understanding and supporting individuals with autism throughout their lifespan. This research aims to identify the unique challenges faced by adults with autism and develop strategies for promoting independence, employment, and overall well-being.

Gender differences in autism presentation and diagnosis have also emerged as a significant area of study. Historically, autism has been diagnosed more frequently in males than females, leading to questions about potential biases in diagnostic criteria and the possibility of a “female autism phenotype” that may present differently from the traditionally recognized male presentation. This research has important implications for ensuring that all individuals with autism receive appropriate diagnosis and support, regardless of gender.

The impact of co-occurring conditions on autism is another emerging area of research that holds great promise for improving outcomes for individuals on the spectrum. Many people with autism also experience other conditions, such as anxiety, depression, or ADHD. Understanding how these co-occurring conditions interact with autism and developing integrated treatment approaches is crucial for providing comprehensive care and support.

Innovative therapies and interventions for autism continue to be a focus of intense research and discussion. From novel behavioral interventions to cutting-edge technologies, scientists and clinicians are constantly exploring new ways to support individuals with autism and help them reach their full potential. This research often draws on insights from other fields, such as neuroscience, computer science, and even robotics, to develop creative solutions to the challenges faced by individuals with autism.

Autism Topics for Presentation: Focusing on Societal Impact

When considering autism topics for presentation, it’s essential to explore the broader societal impact of the condition. One crucial area of focus is inclusive education strategies for students with autism. As more children with autism are integrated into mainstream classrooms, educators and policymakers are grappling with how to create truly inclusive learning environments that meet the needs of all students. This topic often involves discussions of evidence-based teaching strategies, classroom accommodations, and the importance of fostering a culture of acceptance and understanding among students and staff.

Employment opportunities and challenges for individuals with autism represent another critical area for societal discussion. While many adults with autism possess valuable skills and talents, they often face significant barriers to employment. Presentations on this topic might explore innovative employment programs, strategies for workplace accommodation, and the benefits of neurodiversity in the workforce.

The economic impact of autism on families and society is a topic that resonates with policymakers and the general public alike. Research in this area examines the financial costs associated with autism, from healthcare and education expenses to lost productivity and reduced employment opportunities. Understanding these economic factors is crucial for developing effective policies and support systems for individuals with autism and their families.

Autism awareness and acceptance in different cultures is an increasingly important topic as our global understanding of autism continues to grow. Presentations in this area might explore how cultural factors influence perceptions of autism, diagnosis rates, and access to support services in different parts of the world. This cross-cultural perspective is essential for developing culturally sensitive approaches to autism support and intervention.

Future Directions in Autism Research

As we look to the future of autism research, several exciting avenues of inquiry promise to reshape our understanding and approach to the condition. Potential breakthroughs in autism treatment are on the horizon, with researchers exploring innovative approaches such as gene therapy, targeted pharmacological interventions, and personalized behavioral interventions based on individual genetic and neurological profiles.

The role of technology in autism support and intervention is another area of rapid development and immense potential. From AI-powered diagnostic tools to virtual reality-based social skills training, technology is opening up new possibilities for supporting individuals with autism. These technological advancements have the potential to make interventions more accessible, personalized, and effective.

Personalized medicine approaches for autism represent a promising frontier in autism research. As our understanding of the genetic and neurological underpinnings of autism grows, researchers are exploring ways to tailor treatments and interventions to the specific needs and characteristics of each individual. This personalized approach holds the potential to dramatically improve outcomes and quality of life for people with autism.

Ethical considerations in autism research and treatment are becoming increasingly important as new technologies and interventions emerge. Researchers and clinicians must grapple with complex questions about consent, privacy, and the potential long-term impacts of various interventions. These ethical discussions are crucial for ensuring that autism research and treatment practices respect the rights and dignity of individuals on the spectrum.

As we continue to explore these fundamental research questions and emerging topics, it’s clear that the field of autism research is more dynamic and promising than ever before. From genetic studies to societal impact analyses, each area of inquiry contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of autism spectrum disorders.

The importance of continued research and open dialogue cannot be overstated. As our knowledge grows, so too does our ability to support individuals with autism and their families effectively. By fostering a culture of curiosity, compassion, and scientific rigor, we can work towards a future where individuals with autism are fully understood, supported, and valued for their unique contributions to society.

For those interested in delving deeper into specific aspects of autism research, there are numerous resources available. The Autism Journal provides a comprehensive guide to scholarly publications in autism research, offering insights into the latest findings and methodologies. Additionally, the comprehensive guide to autism databases empowers researchers and individuals alike to access valuable information and contribute to the growing body of knowledge about autism.

Organizations such as the Organization for Autism Research play a crucial role in advancing understanding and support for individuals with autism. These organizations not only fund important research but also work to translate scientific findings into practical support and resources for the autism community.

For those looking to contribute to the field of autism research or advocacy, there are many ways to get involved. From participating in research studies to volunteering with local autism organizations, every contribution helps to advance our understanding and improve outcomes for individuals on the spectrum. By staying informed about the latest research and engaging in open, respectful dialogue about autism, we can all play a part in creating a more inclusive and supportive society for individuals with autism and their families.

As we continue to unravel the complexities of autism, it’s important to remember that behind every statistic and research finding are real individuals and families navigating the challenges and celebrating the triumphs of life on the autism spectrum. By maintaining a balance between rigorous scientific inquiry and compassionate, person-centered approaches, we can work towards a future where every individual with autism has the opportunity to thrive and reach their full potential.

For those interested in exploring historical perspectives on autism, the article on autism in the 70s provides valuable insights into how our understanding of ASD has evolved over time. This historical context is crucial for appreciating the progress we’ve made and identifying areas where further advancement is needed.

In conclusion, the field of autism research is rich with opportunities for discovery and innovation. By continuing to ask probing questions, challenge assumptions, and explore new avenues of inquiry, we can work towards a future where autism is better understood, more effectively supported, and fully embraced as a valuable form of neurodiversity. The journey of discovery in autism research is far from over, and each step forward brings us closer to unlocking the full potential of individuals on the autism spectrum.

References:

1. Amaral, D. G., et al. (2019). Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Genes to Neurobiology. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 42, 345-374.

2. Baio, J., et al. (2018). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1-23.

3. Constantino, J. N., & Charman, T. (2016). Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder: reconciling the syndrome, its diverse origins, and variation in expression. The Lancet Neurology, 15(3), 279-291.

4. Geschwind, D. H., & State, M. W. (2015). Gene hunting in autism spectrum disorder: on the path to precision medicine. The Lancet Neurology, 14(11), 1109-1120.

5. Lord, C., et al. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 4(1), 1-23.

6. Mottron, L., & Bzdok, D. (2020). Autism spectrum heterogeneity: fact or artifact? Molecular Psychiatry, 25(12), 3178-3185.

7. Pellicano, E., & Stears, M. (2011). Bridging autism, science and society: moving toward an ethically informed approach to autism research. Autism Research, 4(4), 271-282.

8. Schreibman, L., et al. (2015). Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions: Empirically Validated Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(8), 2411-2428.

9. Simonoff, E., et al. (2008). Psychiatric Disorders in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Prevalence, Comorbidity, and Associated Factors in a Population-Derived Sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 921-929.

10. Szatmari, P., et al. (2016). Developmental Trajectories of Symptom Severity and Adaptive Functioning in an Inception Cohort of Preschool Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(3), 233-240.

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A Guide to Identifying and Understanding Scientific Research About Autism

Whether you are an individual with autism or a parent to a loved one with an autism spectrum disorder, you may want to stay informed about scientific research related to ASD. You can find information on the internet and other media channels, but how accurate is that information? Knowing how to understand scientific research studies can help you find reliable and relevant information. 

This article is a tool to help you assess information about autism based on scientific principles. As you put these recommendations into practice, remember to use critical thinking and common sense when assessing any claim about autism. Combining an understanding of scientific research studies with your own powers of reasoning can help you: 

• Make evidence-based decisions
• Understand recommendations from your care team and discuss them knowledgeably
• Minimize overwhelm
• Advocate for yourself or your family member with autism. 

Good autism research – like all medical research – meets three criteria: It is based on scientific principles and procedures, it has been peer-reviewed, and the study is able to be replicated. We’ll explore each of these criteria in more detail below.

Special thanks to Anissa Ryland and the staff of The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development for helping to develop some of the guidelines and information included in this article. 

What is a peer-reviewed study?

Peer-review is a process that academic journals use to understand if the studies they publish are based on good research. Before including a study in their publication, the journal sends the research out to other experts in the field. 

Experts who were not involved in the original study check that the study design applies scientific principles and procedures. They also use their own knowledge of the subject to determine whether the results and conclusions make sense based on available data. The editor of the journal takes their recommendations into account when deciding whether to publish the study. 

Some scientific journals have been in print longer than others or are more respected in their field. Readers can use a metric called an impact factor to decide if the journal that printed a particular study is a reliable source of information. The Impact factor is the total number of times articles from that journal were cited, divided by the total number of citable articles in that journal during that span of time. 

The impact factors of various journals are calculated and printed yearly in Journal Citation Reports . You can find the current impact factor of most journals with a quick web search. Keep in mind that a journal must exist for at least two years before its impact factor can be calculated. 

Where to find research

Many groups, organizations, and individuals write about autism. Whenever you come across a new treatment or new information about autism, you can check the validity by seeking out original sources. 

Places to find original sources: 

• Google Scholar
• University websites
• Journal websites

Some of these research aggregation services are free, others cost money. For paid services, check with your local library to see if they can connect you with a free account. You can also ask your clinician to provide you with research related to specific treatments, comorbidities, and symptoms

Types of studies

You may come across several different types of studies as you read and learn about autism. Each study type can be used to investigate topics related to autism, but some have a wider application than others. Get to know the different study types so you can think critically about how the research applies to you or your child with autism. 

• Animal and Cell Studies – Observe and test animals or cell cultures. These types of studies provide initial insight, but the application to humans may not be clear. 
• Case Reports – A written record on a single subject. Each case study represents an individual experience. This can be a starting point for research. It does not prove that what worked for one individual will work for others. 
• Case Series – A group of case reports that track multiple subjects. Remember that correlation is not causation. That means that two things can happen around the same time, but that doesn’t prove one caused the other. 
• Case-Control Studies – Look at the experiences of two groups of subjects, one group with autism and one without. The investigation is retrospective, meaning it looks at experiences in the past and attempts to draw conclusions. Causation is hard to prove with this type of study.
• Cohort Studies – Track two groups, ex. One group of people with autism and one group without or one group that receives treatment and one that does not. It notes differences in outcomes for the two groups.
• Randomized Controlled Trials – Randomly assigns subjects to either a test group or a control group. The test group receives the treatment while the control group receives a placebo. This type of study can be blind (study subjects don’t know which group they’re in) or double-blind (experimenters also don’t know which group the subjects are in).
• Systematic Review – Compares and contrasts the results of several randomized controlled trials and draws conclusions based on the quality of the study and on their results. 

Assessing information about autism and autism treatments

The following questions will help you use what you’ve learned to assess information about autism and autism treatments. Remember that critical thinking skills are your most valuable tools in assessing any claim about autism spectrum disorder. 

What is the source of this information? Blog posts, books, pamphlets, social media posts, websites, news stories, or other non-journal sources can bring information to your attention, but it’s up to you to check their sources. Is the information based on studies and research or is it the opinion of the author?

Who performed this research? What people, groups, universities, or businesses were involved in this study? Do they have a track record of producing reliable autism research? 

Who funded this research? Does the researcher or institution have any conflicts of interest that I should be aware of? What businesses, funding sources, products, or services, might benefit from the results of this study?

Has the research been peer-reviewed? Does it appear in a peer-reviewed journal? What is the impact factor of that journal? 

Has it been replicated? Have other scientists used the same method to achieve the same results? If not, why not? Be cautious about accepting any claim that has not been tested by other researchers or studies.

What other works are cited in the study? Are the researchers basing their work on good science? Have they cited earlier studies published in peer-reviewed journals?

Reading and assessing biomedical research studies takes practice. Navigating autism research can be overwhelming at first, but critical thinking and common sense, along with the knowledge you’ve gained in this article, can help you assess information. Stop and think whenever you read a new statement about autism treatments, possible causes, or potential outcomes. Before acting on any new information go to the source to check the validity of the claim. 

For more on understanding autism research, watch this webinar from The Johnson Center.

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100 Autism Research Paper Topics

Careful selection of autism research paper topics is very important. That’s because there are many autism topics that students can research and write about. The topic that a learner chooses dictates the direction that their research and writing process will take. As such, students should select their topic ideas based on their academic goals. Ideally, what a learner opts to write about should help them accomplish their study goals.

Autism can be defined as a spectral disorder that makes a child seem to have a world of their own. Many parents misinterpret this disorder and assume that the child does not notice them. However, this is usually not the case. Parents are the first people to notice this disorder. With more children being diagnosed with this disorder, educators are asking learners to write about autism essay topics.

If you’ve been asked to write about this subject, take your time to research this disorder. You can even read the autobiographies of autistic people. If possible, meet and interact with autistic people before you start writing. This will give you an idea of what this condition is all about. Our psychology topics may also come in handy. In most cases, you will be required to focus your paper or essay on the creation of more autism awareness. This article highlights some of the topics in autism that you can consider for your paper or essay.

Basic Autism Research Paper Topics

Autism is a broad research area. Researchers have delved into this field and came up with different findings. However, you can still pick a topic for your research in this field and come up with new information. Here are some of the most interesting research topics in autism that can form the basis of your academic paper or essay.

• Why some people autistic and others are not?
• Does being autistic have advantages?
• Why is being autistic disadvantageous?
• Some people have a good memory or recall skills, explain why
• Facts that people should know about autism
• Explain the chemical brain differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals
• Discuss some of major breakthroughs in autism research
• Why do people with autism have difficulty socializing with others?
• What can normal people learn from autistic people’s brains?
• What characteristics should a person with autism have?
• How should an autistic person be trained during care provision?
• What should caregivers understand about autism to do their job right?
• Explain the behavior of autistic individuals towards family members
• Provide an average autistic individual’s overview
• How can the social interactions of autistic people be improved?
• Explain what causes autism
• What educational programs do autistic people have?
• How to diagnose autism in the early stages
• Explain the role of music in an autistic person’s life
• Is there a treatment for reducing autistic people’s disadvantages?
• What are the employment limitations and opportunities for autistic people?
• Discuss the major stories about autism that have been shared in the media
• What is yet to be discovered about autism?
• Explain how healthcare workers can help autistic individuals go through their daily life
• Describe the top 5 autistic individuals that are best known in history

These are some of the most interesting autism topics for research paper or essay. However, you should research them extensively before you start writing. That’s because each of these topics requires you to include verifiable facts in your paper or essay.

Strong Autism Dissertation Topics

With so many children being diagnosed with autism, more learners are writing dissertations on this subject. And there are many autism research topics from which a learner can choose. Here are some of the best autism thesis topics to consider.

• Is there evidence to prove that environmental triggers are responsible for rising autism cases?
• Explain the relationship between stimming self-regulator for anxiety and autism
• Why is autism prevalence in western society greater?
• How is autism related to mental health?
• How can family doctors be supported to take care of autistic people?
• Discuss autism and childhood immunization
• Discuss some of the prominent individuals in history that were most likely autistic
• How can autistic people be supported at the workplace?
• How do autistic females differ from autistic males?
• Can autistic children adapt to mainstream education?
• What are the positives and negatives of special education for autistic children?
• Should autistic children attend special schools?
• Why do people consider autism a spectrum disorder?
• What diagnostic changes have raised the concern that Asperger’s Syndrome might no longer exist
• Does lifestyle play a role in autism?

Some of these topics on autism may seem complex to research and write about. However, you can find relevant and sufficient supporting evidence from different sources. You just need the time and resources required to write about any of these topics about autism.

Autism Parent Training Topics

Raising an autistic child is not easy. Parents and caregivers should learn about autism spectrum disorder and its effects on their children. They should also learn how this disorder affects the entire family. It’s for this reason that researchers focus on research topics in autism that educate parents and caregivers about taking care of autistic children. Here are some of the best autism social learning topics.

• How to manage the parenting challenges for people with autistic children
• How to enhance the communication skills of autistic children
• How to enhance the coping skills of autistic children
• How to address the negative behaviors of autistic children
• How to increase the play skills of autistic children
• How to diagnose autism early in children
• How to increase the independence of autistic children
• How to improve self-help in autistic children
• How does autism in one child affect the other family members?
• How to solve the daily problems of autistic children

Each of these topics is meant to produce a paper or essay that can help parents of autistic children cope with the disorder. The information can also help the parents make their children lead a better life despite their condition.

Paper Topics about Autism and Education

Since it’s a complex disorder that affects brain development, autism touches on education as well. Here are some of the good research paper topics on autism and education that you can write about.

• Why is autism worth researching?
• Discuss the causes of autism
• Discuss the development realms that are affected by autism
• What resources do autistic people have access to?
• Explain how autistic children learn
• Explain how autism affects the learning process
• Explain the struggles of autistic students
• Explain parent training autism
• Discuss the major types of autism
• How does learning differ between autistic and normal students?

These topics focus on the relationship between autism and learning or education. Just like the topics in the other categories, they require extensive research to write about too.

Autism Research Proposal Topics

A lot of information about autism is being discussed by researchers across the world. This makes it hard for some learners to pick proposal topics for their autism papers. Here are some of the topics to consider if struggling to pick your proposal topic.

• What is autism therapy?
• Is autism therapy helpful?
• How should caregivers provide care to autistic persons?
• What is the best way to work for an autistic person?
• Working with an autistic person- What are the major challenges?
• How do you cope with an autistic family member?
• How should autistic people be treated in social places?
• What limitations do autistic people have in modern society?
• Is the current society considerate of autistic people?
• How does modern technology benefit autistic people?

If you pick a research topic on autism from this category, take the time to research it extensively to write a brilliant paper or essay.

Thought-Provoking Autism Debate Topics

Perhaps, you want to write a paper or essay that can form the basis of a debate about autism. In that case, consider one of these topics.

• How celebrities and pseudo-scientists have caused serious damage by claiming that autism is related to vaccinations
• How to educate society about autism
• How to change the future of autistic children with early interventions
• How school officials can help autistic children
• How to help autistic kids whose parents are uncooperative or in denial
• How autistic children can benefit from occupational therapy
• Discuss the DSM-V regarding autism
• How educational opportunities for autistic children compare to those of normal children
• How health officials can convince the public that shots don’t cause autism
• Should children that have not been vaccinated because parents believe that vaccines cause autism be taken to school?
• How to support siblings of an individual with autism
• How to transition a person with autism to community-based services from school-based services.
• How to fight for autistic people’s rights
• How to deal with the psychological struggles of autistic children
• How music affects autistic patients
• Social organizations for autistic people
• Why diagnosing autism early is important
• Can autism be prevented?
• How to interact with autistic people
• What employment options do autistic people have?
• How to manage autism in adults
• A brief history of autism
• How living with an autistic person can affect your life
• How genetics affect autism
• Can the environment cause autism?
• Can medical treatment cause autism?
• A review of autism in different countries
• A review of autism in different cultures
• What signs of autism should parents watch out for?
• How to develop a treatment plan for autism

This category has controversial topics autism researchers can explore too. Nevertheless, whether you choose parenting or autism biology topics for research paper, take the time to research extensively before you start writing. Don’t hesitate to contact us if you need thesis writing help .

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College of Education and Human Development

Department of Educational Psychology

Research topics: Autism

Identifying, preventing, and developing interventions related to autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Research in the Department of Educational Psychology focuses on early identification, prevention measures, and interventions related to ASD.

LeAnne Johnson

Johnson (special education) researches interventions to improve outcomes for a range of preschool and elementary school-aged children who are at high risk given social, emotional, behavioral, and communication needs. Johnson is focused on creating the next generation of intervention studies that support high fidelity implementation of evidence-based interventions within tiered intervention and prevention models. This includes research projects that are designed to test the efficacy of social-communication interventions for children with autism.

Jason Wolff

Wolff (special education) runs a lab funded funded in-part by the National Institute of Mental Health with two goals -- to leverage brain imaging data to characterize factors associated with the early emergence of behavioral excesses and deficits in autism spectrum disorder, and to identify potential neurodevelopmental moderators of response to early intervention. The ultimate goal of this work is to determine how brain and behavioral data may be used to inform the timing and content of early or even preventative interventions.

Panayiota Kendeou

Kendeou (psychological foundations of education) investigates how people learn new knowledge and revise pre-existing incorrect knowledge or misinformation during their reading experiences. She is currently investigating how misinformation that resists correction influences reasoning and decision making in health issues pertaining to ASD (e.g., reliance on ineffective treatments, withholding vaccinations), and explore ways for effective revision.

M.Y. Savana Bak

Bak's research focuses on measurement and analysis of language in children with ASD using language samples collected from the children’s natural environment. She strives to develop practical interventions and identify environmental factors that facilitate language development and increase social interaction in children with ASD.

Related degrees

Phd in special education.

Interested in conducting research in autism spectrum disorder? Learn more about earning your doctorate in special education .

Related labs and projects

• ALAB: A Lab for Autism Research
• Reading + Learning Lab
• Research lab: Jason Wolff

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Frequently Asked Questions about Autism

Below, find common questions about autism.

For the latest autism research, click here . Some autism research articles you might find useful:

• A New Way to Diagnose and Treat Autism
• Study Scrutinizes How Autism Impacts Cognition in Adults
• Scientists Discover That Areas Regulating Genes Contribute to Autism’s Cause

Also, be sure to check out upcoming and past webinars about Autism, like this one:

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) represent a range of brain disorders that are characterized by restricted patterns of behavior and impairments in social communication and interactions. These disorders share common origins and features, but are classified as spectrum disorders because symptoms and severity vary among individuals.

Symptoms/behaviors of ASDs can range from mild to severe, and may seem to appear gradually or suddenly. Atypical development may be observed from birth, or more commonly, become noticeable during the 12- to 36-month period. Symptoms include:

• Social Deficits - Children with autism have difficulty in social interactions. They may avoid eye contact and interactions with people and resist or passively accept attention. They are often unable to read social cues or exhibit emotional reciprocity. Thus, they are unable to predict or understand other peoples’ behavior. They may also have difficulty controlling emotion, may be disruptive or aggressive at times, or may lose control, especially when frustrated or presented with a new situation or environment. Head-banging, hair-pulling and arm-biting may occur.
• Communication Difficulties - Communication skills are affected in children with autism, but difficulties vary. Some children may have good basic language skills, but exhibit difficulty initiating or sustaining conversations, such as not giving others the opportunity to respond. Others may experience delays or regression in language development; still others remain mute or may use language in unusual ways, such as repeating a phrase, or parroting what they hear (echolalia). Body language is also often hard to read in children with autism. Facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures often do not match verbal content and emotions. They have difficulty expressing what they want or need. They may also appear deaf, not responding to their names or attempts at conversation.  
• Repetitive Behaviors - Patterns of behavior, interests and activities may be restricted, repetitive or stereotyped. For example, a child may spend long periods of time arranging specific toys in a particular manner, rather than playing with the toys. Intense preoccupation with certain topics, such as obsessively studying maps, may also be seen. Odd repetitive motions, either extreme or subtle, such as arm-flapping, freezing, rocking back and forth or walking on their toes may also occur. Often, people with autism demand consistency in their environment. A minor change in routine may be tremendously upsetting.
• Sensory Difficulties - In children with autism, the brain seems unable to balance the senses appropriately. Many autistic children are highly attuned or even painfully sensitive to certain sounds, textures, tastes or smells. Some seem oblivious to cold or pain, but react hysterically to things that wouldn't bother other children. In some people, the senses are even scrambled. For example, touching a certain texture may induce a gagging response.
• Unusual Abilities - In rare cases, some children with ASDs display remarkable abilities, such as drawing detailed, realistic pictures at a young age or playing an instrument without training. Some can memorize difficult lists of items, such as statistics or names (this is called islets of intelligence or savant skills).

Autistic disorder, commonly referred to as autism, is the most prevalent ASD and severely impairs a child’s social interaction and communication abilities.

Asperger's Syndrome is the second most common ASD and is a milder form of autism. Children with Asperger’s Syndrome exhibit higher language development than children with autism and often have normal intellectual ability combined with a disinterest in social communication. Children with Asperger’s may not initiate or sustain a conversation and do not compensate for their limited language by using nonverbal means of communication, thus limiting their peer relationships. Similar to autism, children with Asperger’s do not share enjoyment or interests with others.

Other disorders in the spectrum include pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDDNOS) and two rarer disorders—childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) and Rett’s syndrome. Children with PDDNOS demonstrate symptoms similar to autistic disorder, but do not meet all criteria for the disorder. Children with CDD, which affects more boys than girls, develop normally until approximately the first two years of life (average onset of symptoms is between 3 and 4 years) but they then regress in most areas and continue worsening. Specifically, they experience a pronounced loss in motor, language, social and intellectual skills. They also lose bowel and bladder control. Seizures may even occur.

Rett syndrome is a genetic disorder almost exclusively found in females. After early normal development, autistic symptoms begin to develop between 6 and 18 months, which typically include shunning social contact, talking cessation, unique motor behaviors, and a regression in skills. A single gene mutation has been identified as a cause of Rett syndrome, a finding that may enable researchers to develop improved diagnostics, earlier interventions and better treatments for the condition.

ASDs are usually evident by the age of 3, though diagnosis may be made as early as 12 to 18 months, and as late as 4 to 6 years (or later). According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), about 1 in 59 children have an autism spectrum disorder . ASDs are three to four times more common in boys than in girls. However, girls with these disorders tend to have more severe symptoms and lower intelligence. Some children will need ongoing supervision, while others, with the right support, may pursue higher education and fulfilling jobs. These disorders affect people of all racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

To date, no biological diagnostic tests exist that detect autism. But scientists are hopeful that advanced imaging techniques and differences in blood levels of proteins in autistic versus normal children may have implications for diagnosis. Already, improved diagnostic procedures have allowed clinicians to diagnose children at a younger age.

Formal diagnosis involves parental input and structured and systematic screening instruments, such as the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) and the Autism Behavioral Checklist (ABC) for older children. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and the Autism Diagnostic Inventory-Revised (ADI-R) are used, as well. These tools measure the prevalence of symptoms. Symptoms may be present from birth, or may occur after months of normal development. However, no two children with these disorders behave the same way. Children as young as 18 months may be diagnosed, but have different clinical features than an older child with autism.

Between 18 months and 36 months, symptoms may include:  

• Limited pretend play
• Lack of pointing to demonstrate interest
• Reduced gaze following
• Less frequent demonstration of repetitive, stereotypic behaviors
• In children with autism between 2 years and 3 years of age, the following features may be observed:  
• Communication difficulties
• Socialization deficits with caregivers
• Perceptual sensitivity
• Other difficult behaviors

Some combination of genetic, biological and environmental factors is believed to cause ASDs. Researchers are exploring several genes which are believed to contribute to the development of these disorders as well as several brain regions that have been linked to the disorders. Abnormal brain development during the first months of life is being studied to determine if structural abnormalities, such as in the mirror neuron systems, may be caused by genetic and/or environmental factors. Researchers are also exploring the effects of genetic imprinting in which a gene’s expression is determined by which parent donates the gene copy. Certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and epinephrine, may also function abnormally. In some cases, scientists are exploring the possibility that a faulty immune response to a virus, elevated concentrations of proteins in the blood at birth, dysregulation of specific neuropeptides or a major stress during pregnancy may lead to the disorder.

There is no one treatment for ASDs; however, it is widely accepted that the earliest interventions allow the best outcomes.  Treatments generally address both cognitive and behavioral functioning. They may include a combination of medications (for challenging behaviors), behavioral therapy, psycho-education, family support groups, educational interventions, speech and language therapy, occupational therapy and specialized training to develop and improve acquisition of necessary skills.  

Research has found that a newer class of atypical antipsychotic medications may better treat the serious behavioral disturbances in children with autism who are between 5 and 17 years old. Applied behavioral analysis may be an effective adjunctive treatment in reinforcing desirable and reducing undesirable behaviors. Other work focuses on improving social communication in children with autism. Some have found that structured multidisciplinary behavioral programs are more successful. Parental involvement, a predictable schedule, regular behavior reinforcement and active engagement of attention in highly structured activities to enhance a strength or ability may all contribute to creating an effective treatment program.

News and Events

Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Mind-Body Health: Pathways Through the Gut-Brain Axis

Toward Brain-Based Prediction of Recovery: How Neuroimaging Can Help Combat the Substance-Use Epidemic.

New Diagnostic Tools to Predict Symptom Improvements in Personality Disorders

ADVICE ON MENTAL HEALTH: Warning Signs & What to Look For: Anxiety and Depression in Childhood

‘Brains Within Brains’: Organoid Experiments Show How Pathologies Emerge in the Developing Brain

A RESEARCHER’S PERSPECTIVE: What Can We Do When Medicine is Not Enough in the Treatment of Schizophrenia?

What We Are Learning About Brain Biology and Borderline Personality Disorder

How to Deal with Holiday Stress during Covid-19

How Brain Circuits Function in Health and Disease: Understanding Brain-wide Current Flow

An Update on Treatment of Bipolar Depression

How to Get a Good Night Sleep When Stressed

Using Neuroscience to Evaluate and Guide Treatment for Pediatric Mood Disorders

Donations are welcome

100% of every dollar donated for research is invested in our research grants. Our operating expenses are covered by separate foundation grants.

The Brain & Behavior Research Foundation is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, our Tax ID # is 31-1020010.

Research articles covering work related to austism spectrum disorders are provided below.

20% Increased ASD Risk for Kids with Autistic Siblings

BPA Exposure in Pregnancy Linked to Autism Risk

Neurodivergence Linked to Chronic Fatigue in Children

Umbilical Cord Blood Test Could Predict Autism Risk

Cancer Drug Shows Promise for Autism Cognitive Function

Healthy Prenatal Diet Linked to Lower Autism Risk

CBD and Metformin Show Promise for Autism Disorders

Autism Severity Linked to Fetal Brain Growth Patterns

MMR Vaccine Myths Persist Amid Rising Cases

Genes Link Sleep Patterns to Autism and Bipolar Disorder

Early Autism Diagnosis Enhanced by Eye-Tracking Technology

Study Links Genetic Risk of Autism to Brain Cell Activity

Pitch Perfect: Singing Earworms Reveals Surprising Trait

Muscle Proteins Trigger Desire for Exercise

Why Are We Drawn to Events Focused on Death and Disaster?

Sleep Resets Neurons to Keep Learning Possible

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144 comprehensive autism research paper topics that will help you.

July 28, 2021

Do you need autism research paper topics that will impress your educator to award you high grades? If yes, this article lists the best 140-plus ideas to consider for your papers and essays.

Simple  Autism Topics for Research Paper 

Perhaps, you want to write a paper about an easy topic. In that case, select the idea to work with from this category. Any of these topics can be a brilliant idea for an autism paper. Nevertheless, take your time to investigate it extensively, gather, and analyze data to develop a winning piece.

• Investigating the autism spectrum disorder’s prevalence
• Autism Diagnostic interview
• What are the primary causes of autism?
• Reasons for the increasing autism cases in children
• Effective learning and teaching methods for autistic children
• Mainstream education and autism
• Are there advantages of being autistic?
• What are the disadvantages of being autistic?
• Why are some individuals autistic while others are not
• Explain why some individuals have a good recall or memory skills
• What should people know about autism?
• Who are the top five most known autistic individuals in human history?
• How healthcare workers assist autistic persons in their daily lives
• What are humans yet to discover about autism?
• Discuss autism stories that people have shared on social media
• Describe the employment opportunities and limitations for autistic individuals
• Describe a treatment that can reduce autistic individuals’ disadvantages
• What is the primary cause of autism?
• What role does music play in the life of an autistic person?
• Explain autism diagnosis during the early stages
• Describe the educational programs for autistic persons
• What’s the average overview of an autistic person?
• Explain ways of improving autistic people’s interactions
• Explain an autistic individual’s behavior towards his family members?
• How the chemical brain of an autistic person differs from that of a non-autistic individual
• What are the most prominent research breakthroughs in autism?
• Why autistic persons struggle to socialize with others
• What normal individuals should learn from the brains of autistic persons
• Describe the characteristics of autistic persons
• Tips for training autistic persons when providing care
• Things caregivers should know about autism to do an excellent job
• How family members should behave towards autistic individuals

Autism Biology Topics Research Paper  Ideas

Students can also write autism biology papers and score top grades. If interested in autism biology, here is a list of topics to consider for your research paper. Any of these topics can be the basis of a debate because people have varying views towards them. You need sufficient and reliable information to support your argument.

• Is there sufficient evidence proving that environmental triggers are responsible for the rising autism cases?
• Why is western society reporting higher autism prevalence?
• Do literature and art help in raising awareness about autism?
• Reviewing films whose basis is an autism spectrum disorder
• How the media portrays autism and its effects
• Prominent public figures that lived with autism for years
• The impact of maternal age on autism
• Asperger’s syndrome and autism- An explorative study
• Analyzing the genome’s dark regions and their effect on autism mutation
• Gene expression control and its impact on autism mutation
• The connection between genetic variants and autism
• Obesity and autism- Is there a correlation?
• How a subtle genetic modification can affect an autistic person
• Autism and fragile x syndrome
• How brain homes affect autism
• Autism and vasopressin- What’s the link?
• Brain signature similarities with autism
• Investigating the unusual sensory response in an autistic person
• The effects of the cerebellum on an autistic person’s social behavior
• Anybody that loves biology will be interested in reading a paper on any of these ideas. However, make sure that your essay is on-point.
• Thought-Provoking Autism Controversial Issues to Write About
• Perhaps, you want to research and write about a thought-provoking topic about autism. In that case, consider one of these issues.
• Is autism a disorder or a difference?
• Timeline and history of autism
• Why are autism rates increasing dramatically?
• Things that scientists have disproven about autism causes
• Questionable and risky autism treatments
• The best autism treatments
• Should autistic children have a unique educational setting?
• Which are the best educational options for autistic children?
• Autistic children should have a unique home
• Autism and vaccinations- Is there any relations?
• Ways to raise autism awareness in society
• Changing the autistic children’s future through early interventions
• How educators can help children with autism
• Ways to help autistic children with uncooperative parents
• Can occupational therapy help autistic children?
• DSM-V and autism
• A comparison of autistic children’s and normal kids’ educational opportunities
• Ways health officials can convince their clients that vaccines don’t cause autism
• Should schools vaccinate children that haven’t received their shots because parents believe they cause autism?

Research Paper Topics Dealing with Autism  and Education

Experts recommend teaching people and caregivers about autistic persons. Through training, educators, parents, and other people can know how to treat autistic persons. Here are good research paper topics on autism and education. These topics relate expert advice with parenting and the daily life of autistic individuals. But like the other ideas, they need thorough research to come up with impressive papers.

• Ways to solve autistic children’s daily problems
• Why is autism research necessary?
• Differences in education among autistic kids and normal children
• Different autism types
• Understanding the struggles of students suffering from autism
• What are the possible autism causes?
• Managing parenting challenges when you have an autistic child
• Ways to improve autistic children’s communication skills
• How to enhance autistic kids’ coping skills
• Addressing negative behaviors among autistic children
• Increasing autistic children’s play skills
• Ways to diagnose autism early in children
• Ways to increase autistic children’s independence
• Effects of autism in a single child on family members
• Improving self-help among autistic children
• How autism affects different developmental realms
• Learning in autistic kids
• Resources available for autistic people
• Effects of autism on the learning process
• Why do parents need training about autism?

Autism Research Analysis Paper Topics 

Perhaps, you want to autism research topics you can analyze extensively in your paper or essay. If so, consider these ideas for your project. You can analyze any of these research topics on autism in your paper with proper references to impress the educator and earn the top grade in your class.

• Qualities of an effective autism treatment plan
• Autism signs that every parent should know
• Reviewing autism in various regions
• Analyzing the probability of medical treatment causing autism
• Analysis of the effects of genetics on autism
• Investigating the impact of an autistic person on a standard individual
• Analysis of autism history
• Ways adult patients can manage autism
• Analyzing the employment opportunities for autistic people
• Exploring parental education benefits in managing autism in children
• Analyzing the variations in social implications depending on autistic spectrum disorder and gender
• Analysis of the support autistic people need at the workplace
• Examining the socio-cultural effects of autism on understanding and behavior
• Do autistic children need special schools?- A detailed analysis
• Investigating the contextual drives affecting autism understanding in society
• Analyzing the peer group role in autism
• Investigating the increasing autism prevalence in western society
• Post-traumatic stress disorder- Analyzing its impact on parents with autistic kids
• Exploring the cross-cultural experiences of autistic persons
• Analyzing the role technology can play in improving autistic people’s social skills

Autism Research Questions 

One of the best ways to develop good research topics is by asking questions about the subject you find interesting. For instance, you can brainstorm autism thesis topics by asking questions about this illness. Here are some of the queries you can ask about autism, which can form the basis of your paper.

• Which is the most accepted theory about autism spectrum disorder’s pathophysiology?
• How can caregivers improve service delivery when dealing with autistic persons?
• How can ordinary people understand sensory processing among autistic persons?
• How can companies encourage ordinary people to support autistic employees?
• How can employers implement person-centered intervention to support autistic employees?
• How can companies maximize the performance and potential of autistic people at the workplace?
• How can hospitals improve autism diagnostic procedures?
• How can hospitals ensure the appropriate diagnosis of autistic adults?
• How can family members and parents provide quality care for autistic kids?
• How can ordinary people support families and parents with autistic kids?
• What support is ideal for autistic children?
• Which environments are suitable for helping autistic persons achieve quality education and life skills?
• How can society help autistic persons get the most from life?
• Which interventions can enhance mental health in autistic persons?
• How can caregiver reduce mental health issues among autistic persons?
• How can caregivers adapt mental health interventions for autistic individuals?
• Which interventions work in developing language skills in autistic persons?
• How can society support social care for autistic adults?
• Which intervention work in reducing anxiety among autistic people?
• Is autism treatable?
• Who suffers more, an autistic child or their family?
• What facts do most people not know about autism?
• Which brain part does autism damage?
• Does autism escalate with age?
• Is autism the same as brain damage?
• How can you tell that your kid is not autistic?
• Can a person inherit autism?
• Does an autistic person have a higher risk of having an autistic child?
• Is autism a disability?
• How does level I differ from level II autism?
• Which questions does the doctor ask during an autism assessment?

Students have many autism spectrum disorder research topics and questions to consider as titles for their papers. However, learners should pick exciting topics to develop outstanding pieces. If you are unable to select a topic and write an essay, seek professional writing help online. Expert writers can help you with topic selection or even write a high-quality, custom paper for you.

Take a break from writing.

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Research Studies

Currently Recruiting or Active Research Studies

Please download the document below for our current recruiting studies organized by age range. 

 Study Title

Study description, spark (simons powering autism research) study.

Available in English and Spanish.

If you or your child has a professional diagnosis of autism, Stanford University invites you to learn more about SPARK, a new online research study sponsored by the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative. The mission of SPARK is clear: speed up research and advance understanding of autism by creating the nation’s largest autism study. Joining SPARK is simple – register online and provide a DNA sample via a saliva collection kit in the comfort of your own home. Together, we can help spark a better future for all individuals and families affected by autism.

Register  by contacting us at [email protected] or online at www.sparkforautism.org/stanford .

SPARK está trabajando para fomentar la investigación y mejorar nuestra comprensión del autismo. Stanford y más de 30 de las principales escuelas de medicina y centros de investigación del autismo del país forman parte de este esfuerzo.

• Participar en SPARK es gratis y se puede hacer completamente desde casa.
• Muchas de las encuestas de SPARK aportan informes personalizados.
• Los participantes serán notificados en caso de haber otras oportunidades de investigación.
• Los individuos con autismo podrán recibir códigos de regalo de Amazon por un valor de hasta 50 dólares (uno por familia) después de la recepción de sus muestras de saliva.

Para inscribirse en SPARK:  https://sparkforautism.org/Stanford/ES

La inscripción suele llevar unos 20 minutos y puede empezar y parar si lo necesita. Una vez que se registre y complete unos cuestionarios en línea, le enviaremos un kit para recolectar saliva a su domicilio. Para obtener más información, envíe un correo electrónico a [email protected]

Language Treatment Trial for Children with Autism

Researchers at Stanford University are currently recruiting children with autism spectrum disorder to identify MRI-based markers of response to treatment with Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) targeting language abilities. Children with autism spectrum disorder between the ages of 2 and 4 years 11 months are invited to participate. This study involves up to a 5 month time commitment. The participant must be willing to complete cognitive and behavioral assessments (such as IQ and language testing) and be able to either sleep (young children) or lie still in the scanner during an MRI. After a successful MRI, the participant will be randomized into the PRT trial or DTG (Delayed Treatment Group). PRT will consist of 16 weekly, 60-90 minute sessions of parent training in PRT over a 16 week time period. DTG will consist of your child’s treatments as usual in the community and measurements and questionnaires will need to be filled out on three study visits over the course of the 16 weeks. After completion of the DTG, the participant will be offered PRT parent training sessions similar to the PRT group. There is no cost to participate in the study. If you would like to participate or if you have any questions please call (650) 736-1235 or email:  [email protected]  to discuss the study in more detail. 

2 and 4 years,11 months

Targeting the Neurobiology of Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors in Children with Autism Using N-acetylcysteine Randomized Control Trial

We are recruiting children autism to participate in a study examining the treatment effects of an over-the-counter dietary supplement on the brain.   

Eligibility:  Children with autism spectrum disorder who -

·    are aged between 3 and 12 years old

·    exhibit restricted and repetitive behaviors

·    will drink N-acetyl cysteine dissolved in water

·    will undergo brain scanning (asleep or awake) with magnetic resonance  imaging (MRI)

·    will undergo brain scanning with electroencephalography (EEG)

The study will take place over 3 to 6 visits (some remotely over Zoom) and the approximate time required is about 10 to 12 hours. Individuals that are able to complete both of the MRI/EEG sessions will be compensated $50.

You can find more information about our NAC studies at   https://redcap.link/NACforAutism .

If you have any questions  please call 650-736-1235 or email:  [email protected] .

3 to 12 years

Autism Center of Excellence Sleep Study

Dear Parents,

We are excited to tell you about a new research study for children. We are looking to partner with parents who have children that are between the ages of 4 and 17 years old,  with and without  an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis.

What is involved?

• In-person cognitive and behavioral assessments
• Day-time Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• In-home, 2 night sleep monitoring session
• Collection of saliva to measure cortisol and melatonin levels
• Wearing a watch device that tracks sleep and daily activity

What will I receive if I participate?

• Research sleep report and behavioral testing summary upon request
• $50 for each in-person visit to Stanford and $100 for the 2 night in-home sleep assessment

Treatment extension study:

• If your child has ASD, sleep difficulties, and ages 8-17, they may also qualify for sleep medication trials

Interested in participating or want to learn more?  Click Here!

If you would like to reach out to our team directly with any questions, please contact our team below!

Email:  [email protected]

650-498-7215

4 to 17 years

Pregnenolone Randomized Controlled Trial

Neurosteroid Pregnenolone Treatment for Irritability in Adolescents with Autism

Medication treatments for core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) continue to be unmet medical needs. The only medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of individuals with ASD are effective in treating irritability and associated aggressive behaviors, but these medications can also cause severe long-term side effects such as diabetes and involuntary motor movements. Therefore, effective medications with more tolerable side effect profiles are highly desirable. This profile is consistent with pregnenolone (PREG). PREG belongs to a new class of hormones known as neurosteroids, which have been shown to be effective in treating various psychiatric conditions including bipolar depression and schizophrenia. As compared to currently FDA-approved medications, our preliminary data suggested that PREG may represent a potentially effective and well-tolerated agent for treating irritability in individuals with ASD. In addition, our experience suggests that PREG might be helpful in improving selected core symptoms such as social deficits and sensory abnormalities of ASD. This study provides the opportunity to further explore the usefulness of PREG in the treatment of irritability and some core symptoms of ASD. We are performing a 12-week randomized double-blind controlled pilot trial to examine the effectiveness of orally administered PREG in reducing irritability and associated behaviors in adolescents with ASD. In this study, we also aim to examine the usefulness of biomarkers (blood levels of neurosteroids, eyetracking and brain wave recording) in predicting treatment response and assessing biologic changes with PREG treatment.

Link to study in Stanford's Clinical Trials Directory

14 to 25 years

Trial of Center-Based vs. In-Home Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) in Autism (PRT-HvC)

Do you have a child (2-5 years old) with autism and want an intensive center-based or in-home intervention?

Stanford University researchers are recruiting children with autism and their parents to participate in a study examining the effectiveness of a center-based vs. in-home Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) program in targeting social communication abilities in young children with autism.

Participants must:

• Be diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Be between the ages of 2 years and 5 years 11 months
• Be able to attend 3-hour research treatment sessions 4 days per week and participate in parent training

Based on behavioral screening assessments, children who are eligible will be randomly assigned to either center-based intervention, in-home intervention, or treatment as usual. Those assigned to the treatment-as-usual group will receive treatment after the 16–week period is completed.

Call 650-736-1235 or email [email protected] to learn more.

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04899544 

2 to 5 years

Improving Access to Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) via Telehealth Parent Training

There is an urgent need for improved access to effective autism treatments. With advances in technology, distance learning models have particular promise for families who cannot access evidence-based parent training locally or may be on long wait-lists for behavioral treatments. Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is an established treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, a telehealth PRT model has not yet been evaluated in a controlled trial. This study will examine the effects of training parents in PRT via secure video conferencing and investigate 1) whether parents can learn via telehealth to deliver PRT in the home setting (PRT-T) and 2) whether their children will show greater improvement in functional communication skills compared to children in a waitlist control group. Participants will include 40 children age 2 to 5 years with ASD and significant language delay. Eligible children will be randomly assigned to either PRT-T or waiting list. Weekly 60-minute parent training sessions will be delivered for 12 weeks via secure video conferencing software by a PRT-trained study therapist. Link:  https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04042337

Note: Participants must live at least 200 miles away from Stanford University (i.e., this study is geared towards out-of-state families or families living at a distance)

A Center Based Randomized Controlled Trial of Pivotal Response Treatment for Preschoolers With Autism

Researchers at Stanford University are currently recruiting children with autism and their parents to participate in a study examining the effectiveness of a center-based Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) program in targeting social communication abilities in young children with autism. We are currently recruiting children diagnosed with ASD and social communication deficits, aged 2:0 to 3:11 years. Children who are eligible based on behavioral screening assessments will be randomly assigned to either an immediate treatment (PRT) group or a delayed treatment group (DTG). If randomized into the PRT group, the 12-week treatment will consist of a combination of one weekly 60-minute individual parent training session and 12 weekly hours (approximately 3 hours per day for 4 days per week) with your child in a center-based group preschool environment at Stanford University. If randomized into the delayed treatment group, the children will wait 12 weeks to receive the PRT treatment and continue any treatment they are receiving as usual in the community. The cost of clinic-based services varies based on individual family health insurance plans.

For more information, please call (650) 736-1235 or email  [email protected]  to discuss the study in more detail. 

2 and 3 years,11 months

Natural History Study of Individuals with Autism and Germline Heterozygous PTEN Mutations

The goal of this study is to gain a better understanding of PTEN mutation syndromes to identify early markers and ultimately effective interventions for autism spectrum disorder. Individuals 18 months or older are eligible to participate if they have been diagnosed with PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome. The study involves five visits over a two year period. Three of the visits occur on-site at a study location. The other two visits occur as phone calls. The on-site visits include a blood draw, physical/neurological exams and behavioral testing.

Study Webpage    

18 months and older

Active Studies, not Recruiting

An open-label pilot study of esomeprazole in children with autism.

Researchers at Stanford University are currently examining the effectiveness of esomeprazole in improving social communication deficits in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Esomeprazole is currently FDA-approved for children ages 1 and up for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and has been identified as a potential treatment for improving social communication in children with ASD. Children with ASD ages 2 through 6 years are invited to participate. The child must be willing to take esomeprazole orally for at least 8 weeks, complete diagnostic and behavioral assessments, and be free of serious medical problems. There is also an optional research blood draw. The study will require visits to Stanford University and the parent/caregiver will be required to complete questionnaires for each visit.

For more information, please go to  https://is.gd/ASDstudy ,  call (650) 736-1235, or email  [email protected] .

2 to 6 years

Vasopressin Treatment Trial for Children with Autism

The purpose of this clinical trial is to investigate the effectiveness of vasopressin nasal spray for treating symptoms associated with autism. Vasopressin is a hormone that is produced naturally within the body and has been implicated in regulating social behaviors. It has been proposed that administration of the hormone may also help improve social functioning in individuals with autism.

Link to study at clinicaltrials.gov

6 to 17 years

165 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Struggle with writing a research paper topics on autism? We’ve got your back covered! Below, you will find a list of 147 topics about autism as well as autism research paper examples!

🏆 Best Research Autism Topics & Essay Examples

👍 good autism essay topics, 💡 psychology research autism topics to write about, ⭐ simple & easy autism essay titles, ❓ research questions about autism.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism is a serious disorder that has the potential to disrupt the success of people living with it. This is to mean that the theory of causation regarding autism is not complete as yet.
• Exploring Autism in the Drama Film Rain Man Charlie Babbitt, the brother to Raymond, is the actor who portrays Raymond’s autism on the way to Los Angeles to secure his fair share in the Babbitt’s $3 million fortunes in form of inheritance.
• Autism. Child and Family Assessment The other common disorder associated with autism is that of mutism whereby it also lies under the category of speech disorder and in many cases it is difficult to be diagnosed and at the same […]
• Autism: Characteristics, Prevalence and Interventions The symptoms of autism are noticeable in the early years of childhood. Occupational therapy is one of the non-educational interventions used to assist kids with autism.
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• “Let Me Hear Your Voice: A Family’s Triumph Over Autism” by Catherine Maurice The book was published in 1994, and it was a success as parents of autistic children were waiting for someone to prove that autism was not an incurable disorder.
• Inclusion Curriculum for Children With Autism In the given paper, the issue of children autism, the developmental issues that autism triggers and the educational prospects for children with autism are going to be considered.
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism The primary subject of this study is applied behavior analysis while the secondary subject is applied behavior analysis and its effects on autism in children.
• Critical Analysis of Published Articles: Autism It was therefore the goal of the research to find out if the negative attitude of people towards autistic children can be altered to the benefit of the parents.
• One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and […]
• Impact of Autism Disorder on Adolescents This essay discusses the impact of autism disorder on adolescents in the community and a nursing intervention that can be used to assist adolescents in becoming prominent society members.
• Progression of Reading Ability in a Child Diagnosed With Autism The battery of assessments and interviews with parents on the participant’s socialization and early reading ability indicates the study applied the Psychometric and Social Contextual approaches.
• Analysis of Behavior of Preschool Age Child With Autism The child’s behavior in the video differs from that of a mentally healthy child, and these differences lie in the child’s other emotional state and degree of interest in talking to people.
• Autism and Disability Advocacy People with autism can contribute to the diversity of disability culture by expanding understanding of what disability is and how it can be accepted.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis According to DSM-5, to fit the diagnostic criteria for ASD, a child must have evident deficits in three major areas of social communication as well as 2 out of the 4 restricted or repetitive behaviors.
• Thinking in Pictures: Autism and Sensory Problems The chapter “The Squeeze Machine: Sensory Problems in Autism” in Grandin’s Thinking in Pictures presents a series of life perspectives of various individuals, including her own, regarding the sensory problems they experienced. They postulated that […]
• Therapeutic Programs for Children With Autism in K-12 Institutions In the paper, the gaps in the research of effective treatments for children with ASD are explored, after which the efficacy of a multi-system aquatic therapy and standardized equine-assisted therapy program is argued.
• Societal Issue Research Project: Autism Spectrum Disorder The first factor is the significant risk that the genetics of siblings who had ASD diagnosis will increase the chance of the disorder.
• Child-Centered Play Therapy and Autism The purpose of the discussed research was to investigate the effects of CCPT on the sample of children with autism, establishing and describing the connection between CCPT and social and emotional growth.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Training Program for Caregivers The latter means that many caregivers take care of children with ASD, hence the importance of equipping them with the necessary skills for effective and smooth parenting and coping with various difficulties.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder’s Impact on Child’s Learning In regards to the public-school setting, standardized testing demands youngsters to grasp and react to spoken as well as written communication at an anticipated pace and level.
• Laboratory Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders The purpose of my study is to discover which of these methods is more accurate, with the reason being the importance of early diagnosis of ASD, which leads to better treatment outcomes.
• Autism and Related Cognitive Concepts It has been suggested that children with autism show a general deficit of cognitive skills in multilevel planning and in the regulation of behavior.
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Face Emotion Recognition in Autism Phenotype One critical aspect of social communication is the capability to apprehend the emotions and intentions of another person. In conclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder makes the interpretation of facial expressions difficult.
• Misrepresentation of Autism in the ‘Music’ Film While the film was not centered on the topic of autism as its message, the stereotype-heavy portrayal and a lack of research make it a harmful piece of media.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence and Impact in Society It has therefore been impossible to determine the level of increase in autism cases that is as a result of improved diagnostic measures and that which can be attributed to the real increase in autism […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnosis, Impact, Treatment The main diagnostic element for ASD is the evidence of difficulties, either in the present or past, which are different across the age groups.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Everyone Has the Power to Effect Positive Change Within the Autism Community This paper presents what is autism, how every one reacts to the problem, what is the difference between the rich and the poor in their response towards the problem.”Autism is one of five developmental disorders […]
• Reducing Off-Task Behaviors Using a Token Economy System in Children With Autism Token economy is a strategy of positive reinforcement that can be provided to children in the form of tokens for completing the assigned tasks.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Key Points The requirement to meet these needs is supported by the fact that the rate of students with ASD is high: according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, more than 83 per cent of […]
• “Theoretical Aspects of Autism” by Helen Ratajczak On the whole, it is possible to say that the standards set by Austin Hill cannot be always met, in part because the physiological aspects of this disease have not been fully investigated.
• Dr. Temple Grandin’s Argument on Visual Thinking and Autism A more in-depth analysis of visual activities can reveal the all imagery can be mentally processed and modified by children so that images are rotated and analyzed to make the brain map expand.
• Intellectual Disability: Autism In their adulthood, and because of the communication issues that most individuals with autism tend to have, they will naturally have difficulty in finding and keeping jobs.
• Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Children With Autism On the positive side, it fastens the production of different types of reactive oxygen used in the body. It is arguable that the size of the samples used in the study was small.
• Analysis of Children Autism in “The Black Balloon” It is imperative to note that Charlie’s emotions are not regulated and as such, manifest in immature behaviors such as flapping of his hands.
• Occupational Therapy for Children With Autism The main reason for the appearance of autism is the disturbance of the development of the patients brain which results in the appearance of various symptoms.
• The Mitochondria and Autism – Results and Main Function The results are important in health because children with autism were more probable to have dysfunctions and abnormalities of the mitochondria such as over replication and deletion of mitochondrial DNA compared to those without the […]
• Autism Etiology, Symptoms, Beliefs, and Management To date, debate on the cause or etiology of autism still remains divided, with extant literature demonstrating that “although many hypotheses have been proposed, a singular or specific combination of causes has yet to be […]
• Quantitative Assessment of Neuromotor Function in Adolescents With High Functioning Autism: Critique The study authors did not give the benefits and/or risks associated with the study participation. The authors indicated that the ZNA was appropriate for collecting the data because it could measure the 11 parameters of […]
• Critical Appraisal on the Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Family: A Qualitative Study of Mothers’ Perspectives The study researchers established the significance of the study by outlining the social and financial implications of taking care of children with ASD.
• Autism: External Forces, Causes and Treatment The increasing prevalence of Autism in the United States and across the world is attracting great attention from the healthcare sector to design critical programs tailored to stem the disorder in terms of prevention, treatment, […]
• The Importance of Services for Children With Autism The plea of the majority of Americans for the reverse of healthcare budget allocation is well because it is wrong to interfere with services offered to children with autism. With childcare initiative in place, the […]
• Autism: General Information and Treatment She argues that the treatment of autism is through scientific proven medication that aids in controlling aggressive behaviors and that Trisperidone is the commonly used antipsychotic.
• The Issue of Autism: Task-Group Project The role of B.N.in the meeting can be seen as a summarizer, providing a summary of the minutes of the previous meeting.
• Concepts of Autism and Williams Syndrome The disorder manifests itself in the early years of a child’s life, with long-lasting effects that are not curable but controllable and easy to deal with on condition that, the concerned parties take the necessary […]
• Autism Programs to Enhance Students’ Outcomes In addition to social and behavioral challenges, ASD typically hinders a learner’s ability to gain and process the necessary academic information.
• Autism Program’s Impact Across Contexts In other words, a detailed overview of the issues that administrators face when designing the program and which the teachers have to deal with when addressing the needs of children with autism must be carried […]
• Autism: Teaching Plan for Taking All the Features Into Account For the first child, caregiver training was done at child’s bedroom, and for the second child it was done at living room, and for the third child with severe mental retardation it was carried out […]
• Education Considerations for Students With Autism Two articles under consideration consider the opposite views regarding the education of students with autism; on the basis of the information obtained from these articles, it can be stated that none of the perspectives is […]
• Developmental Psychology: Autism and Vaccination Vaccination of infants is widely used today as the pattern of endemic diseases can be explained in terms of interplay of social, physical and biological factors in an area that is conducive to a continuous […]
• Social Work Methods to Treat the Child Who Is Suffering From Autism This is a clear indicator that alcohol intake by the family is costing the members and it is an issue that needs to be looked into.
• Autism and Immunization: Vaccines and the Changing Epidemiology The interest and attention invoked by this paper were largely due to the fact that it appeared to provide a biological means through which MMR vaccine resulted in autism.
• The Autism-Vaccine Debate, Arguments, and Research Autism is defined by the Autism Society of America as ” a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first 3 years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects […]
• Autism and False Belief in Psychology The theories are found to be covering the deficits of an individuals’ mind and factors relating to autism, research further indicates that a child’s behavior may be influenced by the executive functions this, therefore, brings […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Interventions However, the negative side of it is that such an intervention is limited to those patients who are verbal and have limited vocabulary.
• Autism: Symptoms, Forms, Diagnostic Instruments Autism is basically a developmental disorder of the human brain that its first symptoms are initially manifested in infancy and it follows a steady cause without relapse.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Features in Children One of the causes for the appearance of these issues is an inborn disability that might presuppose the need for specific methods to educate a child and guarantee a chance for integration with society.
• Autism Occurrence by Measles Vaccine Status The organization of information in the text follows a logical format by introducing the background for the vaccine, incorporating the issue of ASD connection, and leading up to the primary research question.
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder In the introduction, which is the first section, the study’s research problems and their significance to nursing are stated. The discussion section covers how the authors relate the findings to the research objective and the […]
• Teenagers With Autism Disorder Autism is seen as a spectrum disorder since its severity and symptoms vary greatly among affected individuals – from mild and occasional to persistent and interfering with all aspects of life.
• Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on Life However, between the ages of two and three, his lack of verbal activity and inability to “echo” simple sounds and syllables were found to be very concerning by the family.
• Autism Should Not Be Viewed as a Disability A good example is that the treatment of autism as a mental disorder makes it possible for pharmaceutical companies and clinics to invent new health systems or procedures that will meet the needs of the […]
• Autist Student’s Behavior and Remedial Plan In the process of reading, I would pay attention to the student’s concentration and ability to integrate what she was reading. She also took long in doing this and did not want to stop the […]
• Autism Treatment, Its Methods and Results It was appropriate to focus on the use of the DSE intervention and examine if addressed most of the challenges facing many ASD patients.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Programs Effectiveness The purpose of this PE, therefore, is to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of the programs implemented by the Day Support Services.
• Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders The main goal of this paper is to present a review of relevant literature addressing the issue of helping college students with ASD prepare for workforce readiness and job placement.
• Association Between Vaccination and Autism The study examined whether there is a link between the toxic effects of exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and the risk of developing ASD.
• Olfaction and Autism Spectrum Disorder Relationship These findings reveal that the sniff test can reveal both the presence and severity of ASD in young children. The link between ASD and olfaction can be used in diagnosing young children with autism.
• Abu Dhabi Autism Center The Abu Dhabi Autism Center has to operate within the laws and regulations of the Zayed Higher Organization for Humanitarian Care and Special Needs.
• Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism It is the most commonly applied autism treatment remedy in the United States and several other countries in the world and the major method that schools and therapists embrace and use.
• Inclusive Education: Child With Autism and Spina Bifida It is worth mentioning that Ted’s mother is willing to cooperate with teachers, and her participation can be of great assistance to the teacher.
• Children With Autism’ Communication in Saudi Arabia Parents of children with autism in Saudi Arabia have complained that the government has neglected the needs of autistic children by failing to finance their education and research to detect the effectiveness of the digital […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Testing and Measurement It will begin with the rationale that explain why the issues are critical, followed by the reasons for unavailability of the solutions to the issues and the consequences of the issues.
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Educational Interventions From this point, this paper aims to discuss the definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders, examine the etiology and incidence of the disorder, focus on the prevalence of autism, and analyze the effectiveness of the DTT […]
• Vaccines and Autism: Separating Facts From Fiction The advocacy groups say that thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, is toxic to the central nervous system and responsible for an alarming rise in rates of autism among children in the United States and […]
• Lesson for Learners With Autism: Reflection Observation The essay identifies the instructional methods used by the teacher during the exercise. The teacher also guided the learners to solve the mathematical problems using different visual objects.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Concept Besides, Temple often explores her own experiences and attempts to understand the feelings of others that are unavailable to her by visualizing herself as other creatures people and animals.
• Dubai Autism Center’ Quality Management TQM employs strategies and effective communication within the organization to incorporate the quality principles into the culture and activities of the organization to ensure that all the activities are geared towards satisfying the customers.
• Vaccination and Autism in Children The problem with this case is that while it may be true that the cause for the development of autism in children have yet to be fully determined, the fact remains that there have been […]
• Video Modeling for Individuals With Autism The video model will be developed according to the needs of autistic children, with the focus on the role of visual and auditory stimuli in the teaching process.
• The Effects of Vaccines on Autism From their study, the findings demonstrate that the presence of thimerosal is one of the causes of the disorder. It is imperative to state that they have used many studies that have indicated that there […]
• Vaccination as a Cause Autism This paper borrows on the arguments of Monica Prasad and Washington and Haydn when they argue that the belief about vaccinations as a primary cause of autism stems from emotional, psychological, and behavioral barriers, as […]
• Youth With Autism Disorder: Education and Employment This includes the communication patterns of the teenager, the extent of social relations and the unusual behavioral characteristics of the teenager in the environment.
• Autism Children Education Inclusion Policy in Private Schools: Compulsory Enrollment Policy 2011 The following are the main areas will be addressed by the policy: Prohibited Private schools will be prohibited from ignoring the needs of children suffering from autism; they will be compelled by the act to […]
• Autism: Pathogenesis and Intervention Similarly, a person with autism has to be trained on the process of communicating normally and forming a relationship with objects, events and people in their lives.
• The Real Causes of Autism However, the main problem is that this association or correlation does not imply that autism is triggered by a vaccine. This is the main argument that can be put forward.
• Autism. Sensory Integration. Tactile Desensitization The poor development that is recorded at the early stages in life is likely to affect the development of different skills by the individuals even in the adult stages The signs that are associated with […]
• Autism Effect on Children It is crucial to understand the behavior of children with autism in the school set up in order to understand how autism affects children and their social interactions. It is up to the teacher to […]
• Autism and Its Effects on Social Interaction The article “Social Impairment in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” identifies the major challenges facing many people with autism. The authors wanted to examine the social problems and difficulties encountered by individuals with Autism Spectrum […]
• Older Dads More Likely to Have Kids With Autism The author highlights autism as one of the main outcomes of late fatherhood following the release of the results of a study involving the counting of the mutations corresponding to a father’s age at the […]
• Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children Autism largely is connected to communication abilities of a child, a situation that later results into the child experiencing disability problems in effectively encoding and decoding communicative messages.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Family Impact One of the greatest fears of a parent with such a child is the fact that such a child would be taken care of until the advanced stages of their lives.
• Program Models in Autism The DTT technique has been designed in such a way as to target the individual behavior of an autistic child using the available curriculum.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Relation to Education Attending to students having ASD in the regular classrooms requires specialized teachers and supplementary staff in order to aid in the realization of the needs of the students having ASD.
• Autism in Saudi Arabia This support may come in the form of modification of the curriculum to cater for the special needs of the autistic children.
• Analysis of Autism Disorder This disorder affects the brain of the child during growth so that it does not develop in the right way thus affecting the social and communication skills of the child. This is especially to the […]
• Psychological Disorders and Their Treatment: An Overview of the Recent Progress and the Current Challenges in Treating Autism in Children In the given paper, the issue of psychological disorders is being addressed in reference to the ideas expressed in Chapter 11 “Psychological Disorders” in Carole Wade and Carol Tavris’s Invitation to Psychology.
• Early Intervention for Young Adults With Autism This is due to unavailability of information on children development stages and the importance of early detection and intervention in the case of autism.
• Different Behaviors in Children With Autism The purpose is to find out whether the co morbidity changes with the environment, and assess the influence that the environment has on the behavior of an autistic child.
• Diagnosis and Treatment for Autism Disorder Children with autism are therefore able to reason and even interpret the feelings of other people but the challenge is to communicate the response to other people.
• Autism: Qualitative Research Design Golafshani continues to argue that the use of the term “dependability” in qualitative studies is a close match to the idea of “reliability” in quantitative research.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.
• Vaccines and Autism: A Critical Analysis of Thimerosal in Relation to Measles, Mumps, and Rubella The safety and efficacy of vaccines has been the subject of many studies in the medical field. The disorder was observed in one participant from each of the cohorts in the experiment.
• How to Recognize and Teach Students With Autism If these groups of students have to be given directions that are more than three steps, the directions have to be written down due to their inability to remember sequences.
• Autism and Visual Thought Suprisingly the quality of visual thinking according to Bogdashina is dependent on other factors like time and the state the autistic person is in.
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism? Thimerosal is alleged to increase the exposure of mercury in the vaccine to a substantiated high amount. In fact, the amount of antigens between children with autism and without is the same irrespective of the […]
• Language Development Problems in Children: An Indicative Characteristic of Autism This is because it is a time when it is expected that a majority of the kids should be able to talk.
• The Disease of Autism Origin The disorder is one of the new diagnoses of the autism. Other effects of the disorder are constipation and growth failures that may be a problem to the lives of the individual.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Its Impact on the Family Manning, Wainwright and Bennet argue that children with autism are faced with a big challenge because of the nature of the symptoms the disorder.
• Autism’s Teaching Tips for Children and Adults The present description is concerned with the role of teacher in the better management of Autism in children. Further, assessment of the interactive and developmental skills is on of the important component in the teacher […]
• How Christopher’s Autism Affect His Life In spite of the fact that the issue of autism is not clearly explained in the story, the condition of the narrator is referred to as high-functioning autism or Aspersers Syndrome on the cover of […]
• What Are Autism Spectrum Disorders?
• How Does Autism Affect the Person With It and Those Around Them?
• What Are the Barriers of Learning for a Learner With Autism/Aspergers in Performing Arts?
• Does Gluten Effect Children With Autism?
• What Are the Causes of Autism?
• How Does Autism Affect a Child’s Educational Performance?
• What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do to Spot It?
• Can Children With Autism Develop a Theory of Mind?
• Which Interventions Reduce Anxiety in Autistic People?
• What Influence Has the Development of Autism Had on a Diagnosed Individual?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Are Huddles the Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Implementing Clinical Innovation for the Eating Disorder and Autism Comorbidity?
• How Does Autism Start?
• Can Mouse Imaging Studies Bring Order to Autism Connectivity Chaos?
• How Does ‘Fake News’ Affect Autism Policy?
• Are There Any Relationships Between Latent Toxoplasma Gondii Infection, Testosterone Elevation, and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Do People With Autism Experience the World?
• Can Robotic Systems Promote Self-Disclosure in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Did the Media Perpetuate the Autism-Vaccine Scare?
• Are There Cultural Differences in Parental Interest in Early Diagnosis and Genetic Risk Assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Can the Therapist Help Autism Children?
• Can Vaccinations Cause Autism?
• Does Autism Spectrum Disorder Affect People All Around the World?
• Is There a Correlation Between Epigenetics and Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Does Autism Affect Regular Brain Functions as Well as Socialization Skills?
• What Can Responses to Music in Autism Tell Us About the Nature of Musical Emotions?
• Why Has the Incidence Rate of Autism Increased?
• What Are the Most Effective Ways to Support/Provide Social Care For Autistic Adults?
• Which Interventions Are Effective in the Development of Communication/Language Skills in Autism?
• How Can Parents and Family Members Be Supported/Educated to Care For and Better Understand an Autistic Relative?
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• Systematic Review
• Published: 11 August 2024

Examining the association between autism spectrum disorder and atopic eczema: meta-analysis of current evidence

• Anas Elgenidy 1 ,
• Eman F. Gad 2 ,
• Islam Shabaan 3 ,
• Hasnaa Abdelrhem 4 ,
• Paula Gamal Wassef 1 ,
• Taher Elmozugi 5 ,
• Mohanad Abdelfattah 1 ,
• Hisham Mousa 1 ,
• Mohamed Nasr 6 ,
• Mostafa Salah-Eldin 7 ,
• Ahmed Altaweel 8 ,
• Abdelrahman Hussein 1 ,
• Mohammad Bazzazeh 8 ,
• Mohamed Atef Elganainy 8 ,
• Ahmed M. Ali 2 ,
• Mohamed Ezzat 9 ,
• Amira Elhoufey 10 , 11 ,
• Abdulrahman A. Alatram 12 ,
• Ahmed Hammour 9 &
• Khaled Saad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8473-6116 2  

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This study aims to investigate the association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and atopic eczema (AE), shedding light on potential associations and underlying mechanisms.

A comprehensive review of literature was conducted to identify relevant studies published up to August 2023. Various electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane, were searched using specific keywords related to ASD and AE.

The meta-analysis covered a total of 30 studies. The first analysis included 23 studies with a combined total of 147430 eczema patients in the ASD group and 8895446 eczema patients in non-ASD group. We calculated the risk ratio of eczema in ASD and non-ASD groups, which revealed a significantly higher risk of eczema in patients with ASD (RR 1.34; 95% CI 1.03, 1.76). The second analysis included seven studies with a combined total of 3570449 ASD patients in the AE group and 3253973 in the non-Eczema group. The risk ratio of ASD in the Eczema and Non-Eczema groups showed a significantly increased risk of ASD in patients with eczema (RR 1.67; 95% CI 0.91, 3.06).

This study underscores the possible link between ASD and atopic eczema, shedding light on their potential association.

Our study conducted a meta-analysis on the association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and atopic eczema (AE), shedding light on potential associations and underlying mechanisms.

The review we conducted covered a total of 30 studies.

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Data availability.

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author.

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Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Anas Elgenidy, Paula Gamal Wassef, Mohanad Abdelfattah, Hisham Mousa & Abdelrahman Hussein

Pediatric Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516, Egypt

Eman F. Gad, Ahmed M. Ali & Khaled Saad

Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Al Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt

Islam Shabaan

Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Hasnaa Abdelrhem

Faculty of Medicine, Benghazi University, Benghazi, Libya

Taher Elmozugi

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Mohamed Nasr

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Mostafa Salah-Eldin

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Ahmed Altaweel, Mohammad Bazzazeh & Mohamed Atef Elganainy

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Mohamed Ezzat & Ahmed Hammour

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Amira Elhoufey

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AE, KS, EFG, IS, HAHA, PGW, TE, MA, HM, MN, MSE, MB, Ahmed M Ali, BAE, Ahmed Altaweel and Abdelrahman Hussein designed the study and analyzed the data. ME, KHM, AAA, and Ahmed Hammour. drafted the manuscript. All authors were involved in the critical analysis of the final version of the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript as submitted and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

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Correspondence to Khaled Saad .

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The present study received approval from Al-Azhar University Ethical Committee (IRB NO. 1022-2023), adhering to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study's execution did not need informed consent requirements.

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Elgenidy, A., Gad, E.F., Shabaan, I. et al. Examining the association between autism spectrum disorder and atopic eczema: meta-analysis of current evidence. Pediatr Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03456-1

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Received : 21 November 2023

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Published : 11 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03456-1

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133 Essential Autism Research Paper Topics

One of the best strategies for paper writing on autism is to choose a topic that you already know about and can manage given time restraints and resource availability. This easy approach can help you get an assignment done quickly but it could also prevent you from earning the highest grade possible.

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When writing on research paper topics dealing with autism, you want to exercise some caution when there is a possibility that the issue has been overdone. Conduct your background research and check bibliographies to ensure you find content to back up your claims, but don’t merely repeat what others already know. If you’re struggling you can always refer to a psychology paper writing service :

• Using stem cell research to identify causes of autism.
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This field offers a lot of opportunities for research on this lifelong developmental disability. These students autism research questions are among the current topics being discussed among experts. You can use this list to develop your ideas or research and write about something from the list that you find interesting:

• Analysis and evaluation of autism charitable programs around the world.
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• Analysis of different diagnoses and treatment plans for children under 3 years of age.

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• The research of organoids from people with autism and the shortage of cells to suppress brain activity.
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• Growing biological research that suggests autism may be linked to 20 sets of genes.
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• Examine neurobiological underpinnings of social behavior in girls with ASD.
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• The relationship between gastrointestinal problems and autistic children.
• Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in people diagnosed with ASD.
• Maternal immune activation due to environmental factors versus biological factors.
• The concern regarding later ASD diagnosis among females.
• The effectiveness of autism biobanks in tracking and researching biological data from children.

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• Early detection of autism spectrum disorder in children as young as 18 months of age.
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• Helping teenagers with autism spectrum disorder socialize with other students.
• Subtypes of aggressive behavior in children with ASD.
• Examine the impact of mental health difficulties and quality of life in adults with an autistic spectrum disorder.
• Identifying different types of autism by examining and evaluating social interaction, repetitive behaviors, and communication.
• Observing changes in behavioral symptoms following immune results in children with ASD.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of treatment of ASD considering the wide range of diagnoses.
• Diagnosing ASD in adults without identification, family, or medical history.
• Relationship between depression and anxiety disorders in adults with ASD.
• Compare and contrast personal narrative writing by children diagnosed with ASD.
• Issues with communication and socialization in one-parent, one-child homes.
• Explain n and discuss the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in teenagers with ASD.
• Relationship between subtypes of repetitive behaviors and anxiety in children with ASD.
• Quality of health care services for adults with an autistic spectrum disorder.
• ASD assessment techniques using telehealth during the Covid-19 pandemic.
• Self-perceived quality of life in minority women with ASD.
• Aggressive behaviors in ASD children suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder.
• Developing innovative ways to reduce symptoms of the disability associated with autism.
• Evaluating the effectiveness of helping college students with autism prepare to enter the workforce.
• Evaluating therapies to improve social and communication skills in children aged 1.5 – 3 years.
• The effectiveness of autism biobanks in tracking and researching behavioral data from children.
• Visual attention and inhibitory control in young people versus adults with ASD.

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Sibling secrets: Autism's impact on family ties

by Hebrew University of Jerusalem

A recent study provides fresh insights into the dynamics of sibling relationships in families with a child diagnosed with autism. This research explores the unique perspectives of both mothers and siblings, unveiling fascinating findings on how these relationships compare to those in families with typical children.

The research was led by Dr. Yonat Rum from the Seymour Fox School of Education at the Hebrew University and the University of Cambridge with Professors Ella Daniel and Esther Dromi along with student Yael Armony from Tel Aviv University and Prof. Ditza A. Zachor, Head of the Autism Center at the Shamir (Assaf Harofeh) Medical Center and Tel Aviv University.

The study included 29 children, with an average age of 8.78 years, who have younger siblings diagnosed with autism , along with their mothers. This group was compared to 46 children, averaging 9.12 years of age, with younger typical siblings, and their mothers.

Utilizing a mixed-methods approach of both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis, both groups completed the Sibling Relationship Questionnaires and participated in interviews, offering a comprehensive view of their sibling dynamics. The work is published in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders .

According to the children's reports, sibling relationships across both groups showed remarkable similarities. There were no significant differences in overall warmth, conflict, rivalry, or relative power between siblings, regardless of the presence of autism. This suggests that, from a child's perspective, having a sibling with autism may not drastically alter the fundamental aspects of their relationship .

The mothers' perspectives revealed a different layer of complexity. Mothers of children with autism reported less warmth and closeness between their children and, surprisingly, less conflict compared to mothers of typical children, highlighting nuanced challenges and decreased involvement in these sibling relationships.

Additionally, the study found more disagreement between mothers and children in the autism group than in the typical group. Both mothers and children in the autism group reported less intimacy and fewer quarrels between siblings.

Interestingly, the qualitative analysis showed that siblings tended to focus on their present experiences, while mothers considered the broader processes in sibling relationships. Discussions in the autism group often referenced various specificities without explicitly mentioning "autism."

Dr. Rum emphasizes the importance of these findings, stating, "Our research sheds light on the nuanced experiences of siblings and mothers in families where autism is present. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for providing better support and resources to these families."

Autism spectrum conditions affect a significant portion of the population, with recent estimates indicating that 1 in 36 children in the United States are diagnosed with autism. This translates to millions of families worldwide grappling with the unique challenges that come with raising a child on the autism spectrum.

The impact of autism extends beyond the diagnosed individual, affecting the entire family unit. Studies have shown that parents of autistic children often experience higher levels of parental stress compared to parents with typically developing children and siblings of autistic children were also studied mainly as at risk for various psychological outcomes.

At the same time, research has shown that for autistic children, growing up with typically developing siblings is associated with better social-communicational skills and that growing up as a sibling of an autistic child has a positive effect on the development of cognitive empathy.

For autistic children and their families, siblingship is, thus, an essential and meaningful resource, and it is important to learn about the quality of this meaningful relationship.

This study underscores the understanding of these widespread effects and the need for a holistic approach in supporting families with autistic children, considering the diverse experiences and perspectives within these families. It highlights the importance of understanding both the typical-like experiences of siblings and the unique challenges perceived by mothers, ensuring comprehensive support for these families.

Methodology

Data was collected in Israel from Hebrew-speaking participants, and initial findings were published in Hebrew in 2020 as part of graduate and post-graduate works at Tel Aviv University. Further analysis and synthesizing the qualitative and quantitative findings in a mixed methods approach resulted in the current paper published this year.

The mixed methods (quantitative AND qualitative analysis) multi-informant (mothers' reports AND children's reports) examination of what is similar and different in the relationships of autistic children and their siblings compared with typical siblingships has added to the literature by revealing not only differences and similarities in the sibling relationships but also in mothers' and children's perspectives.

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Fact Check: Study does not show autism can be ‘reversed’, experts say

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Thimerosal and Vaccines

• Thimerosal is a mercury-based preservative that has been used for decades in the United States in multi-dose vials (vials containing more than one dose) of medicines and vaccines.
• There is no evidence of harm caused by the low doses of thimerosal in vaccines, except for minor reactions like redness and swelling at the injection site.
• In July 1999, the Public Health Service agencies, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and vaccine manufacturers agreed that thimerosal should be reduced or eliminated in vaccines as a precautionary measure.

About thimerosal

Mercury is a naturally occurring element found in the earth's crust, air, soil, and water. Two types of mercury to which people may be exposed — methylmercury and ethylmercury — are very different.

Methylmercury is the type of mercury found in certain kinds of fish. At high exposure levels methylmercury can be toxic to people. In the United States, federal guidelines keep as much methylmercury as possible out of the environment and food, but over a lifetime, everyone is exposed to some methylmercury.

Thimerosal contains ethylmercury, which is cleared from the human body more quickly than methylmercury, and is therefore less likely to cause any harm.

Purpose of thimerosal

Thimerosal is added to vials of vaccine that contain more than one dose (multi-dose vials) to prevent growth of germs, like bacteria and fungi.

Introduction of bacteria and fungi has the potential to occur when a syringe needle enters a vial as a vaccine is being prepared for administration. Contamination by germs in a vaccine could cause severe local reactions, serious illness or death. In some vaccines, preservatives, including thimerosal, are added during the manufacturing process to prevent germ growth.

Removal of thimerosal

• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccines do not and never did contain thimerosal.
• Varicella (chickenpox), inactivated polio (IPV), and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines have also never contained thimerosal.
• Influenza (flu) vaccines are currently available in both thimerosal-containing (for multi-dose vaccine vials) and thimerosal-free versions.

For a complete list of vaccines and their thimerosal content level, see the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Thimerosal in Vaccines page. This chart shows vaccine ingredients sorted by vaccine.

What the research shows

The most common side-effects of thimerosal in vaccines are minor reactions like redness and swelling at the injection site. Although rare, some people may be allergic to thimerosal.

No connection with autism

Research does not show any link between thimerosal in vaccines and autism , a neurodevelopmental disorder. Many well conducted studies have concluded that thimerosal in vaccines does not contribute to the development of autism. 1 3 5 Even after thimerosal was removed from almost all childhood vaccines, autism rates continued to increase, which is the opposite of what would be expected if thimerosal caused autism.

No association with neuropsychological delays

Studies have assessed the possible association between ethyl mercury exposure from thimerosal-containing vaccines and neuropsychological functioning including an objective measurement of neuropsychological functioning.

Timeline: Thimerosal in Vaccines

September 13.  Results of a  CDC study  do not support an association between prenatal and infant exposure to vaccines and immunoglobulins that contain thimerosal and an increased risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

February 1.  Results of an  Italian study  were reassuring that immunization in infancy with thimerosal-containing vaccines does not decrease neuropsychological performance later in childhood.

September 27.  Results of a  CDC study  do not support an association between early exposure to thimerosal in vaccines and neuropsychological problems in children between the ages of 7 and 10 years.

July 7.  CDC issues a statement on autism and thimerosal that states in part: “Some people believe increased exposure to thimerosal (from the addition of important vaccines recommended for children) explains the higher prevalence [of autism] in recent years. However, evidence from several studies examining trends in vaccine use and changes in autism frequency does not support such an association.”

September 26.  In a statement prepared for the Coalition for Mercury-free Drugs, the FDA concludes that the evidence reviewed by the IOM in 2004 does not support an association between thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism.

May 28.   ACIP recommends  that children between the ages of 6 and 23 months routinely receive an inactivated influenza (flu) vaccine. ACIP does not recommend using the thimerosal-free flu vaccine over the thimerosal-containing flu vaccine, and states that the benefits of flu vaccination outweigh any risk from thimerosal exposure.

May 17.  After reviewing over 200 scientific studies that examined thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism,  IOM concludes in a report  that the studies “consistently provided evidence of no association between thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism.”

November.  A  study  finds no consistent significant associations between exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and a variety of kidney, nervous system, and developmental problems.

August.  Another  study  looks for a link between autism incidence and the use of thimerosal-containing vaccines. The study does not find a link between thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism in Denmark and Sweden, where autism rates continued to increase although thimerosal was removed from vaccines in 1992.

January.  The last children’s vaccines that use thimerosal as a preservative  expire  .

Except for influenza (flu),  thimerosal is removed  from or reduced in all vaccines routinely recommended for children 6 years of age and under manufactured for the U.S. market.

October 1.  IOM’s Immunization Safety Review Committee issues a  report  concluding there is not enough evidence to disprove claims that thimerosal in childhood vaccines causes autism, attention deficit hypersensitivity disorder, or speech or language delay.

May 5.  A  risk assessment  of thimerosal use in childhood vaccines finds no evidence of harm from the use of thimerosal as a preservative, other than redness and swelling at the injection site.

June 7 and 8.  Fifty-one vaccine and vaccine safety researchers and experts meet in Atlanta, GA to review data regarding thimerosal in vaccines and nervous system disorders. A report summarizing the meeting was presented to ACIP.

The  FDA reviews  the use of thimerosal in childhood vaccines and finds no evidence of harm, but as a precautionary measure, recommends removing thimerosal from vaccines routinely given to infants.

November 5.  CDC states that vaccine manufacturers, FDA, and other agencies are working together to reduce the amount of thimerosal in vaccines, or to replace them with thimerosal-free vaccines, as soon as possible.

October 20.  ACIP reviews information about thimerosal in vaccines provided by CDC’s National Immunization Program and several vaccine manufacturers regarding the availability of vaccines that do not contain thimerosal as a preservative.

July 7.  The American Academy of Pediatrics and the Public Health Service issue a  joint statement  that says “There is no data or evidence of any harm caused by the level of exposure that some children may have encountered in following the existing immunization schedule.” The American Academy of Family Physicians issues a comparable statement soon after.

Frequently asked questions

What is thimerosal.

Thimerosal is a vaccine additive, added to some vaccines to prevent germs (like bacteria and fungi) from growing in them. If germs grow in vaccines, they can cause illness—or even death.

Why do some people worry about thimerosal in vaccines?

You may have heard that thimerosal has mercury in it. Not all types of mercury are the same. Some types of mercury, like mercury in some kinds of fish, stay in the human body and can make people sick. Thimerosal is a different kind of mercury. It doesn’t stay in the body, and is unlikely to make us sick.

Is thimerosal safe?

Yes. Thimerosal has been used safely in vaccines for a long time (since the 1930s).

Scientists have been studying the use of thimerosal in vaccines for many years. They haven’t found any evidence that thimerosal causes harm.

Is thimerosal still used in vaccines for children?

No. Thimerosal hasn't been used in vaccines for children since 2001.

However, thimerosal is still used in some flu vaccines . Yearly flu vaccines are recommended for all children. If you are worried about thimerosal, you can ask for a flu vaccine without it.

Does thimerosal cause autism?

No. Research does not show any link between thimerosal and autism.

Are there side effects from thimerosal in vaccines?

Most people don't have any side effects from thimerosal, but some people will have mild side effects like redness and swelling at the place where the shot was given, which will only last 1 to 2 days. It's very unlikely you will have an allergic reaction to thimerosal.

How can I find out if thimerosal is in a vaccine?

Ask your doctor or pharmacist.

Ask to see the vaccine's list of ingredients. All vaccine packages come with information (called an insert) that lists the ingredients.

What CDC is doing

CDC and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are committed to ensuring that vaccines provided to the public are safe and effective. Once vaccines are licensed or authorized for emergency use in the United States, CDC and FDA continuously monitor them through several safety systems .

• Price CS, Thompson WW, Goodson B, Weintraub ES, Croen LA, Hinrichsen VL, Marcy M, Robertson A, Erisken E, Lewis E, Bernal P, Shay D, Davis RL, DeStefano F. Prenatal and infant exposure to thimerosal from vaccines and immunoglobulins and risk of autism. Pediatrics. 2010 Oct;126(4):656-64. Epub 2010 Sep 13.
• Thompson WW, Price C, Goodson B, Shay DK, Benson P, Hinrichsen VL, Lewis E, Eriksen E, Ray P, Marcy SM, Dunn J, Jackson LA, Lieu TA, Black S, Stewart G, Weintraub ES, Davis RL, DeStefano F, Vaccine Safety Datalink Team. Early Thimerosal exposure and neuropsychological outcomes at 7 to 10 years. N Engl J Med. 2007 Sept 27;357(13):1281-92.
• Alberto Eugenio Tozzi, Patrizia Bisiacchi, Vincenza Tarantino, Barbara De Mei, Lidia D'Elia, Flavia Chiarotti, Stefania Salmaso; Neuropsychological Performance 10 Years After Immunization in Infancy With Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines. Pediatrics February 2009; 123 (2): 475–482. 10.1542/peds.2008-0795
• Verstraeten, T., Davis, R. L., DeStefano, F., Lieu, T. A., Rhodes, P. H., Black, S. B., Shinefield, H., Chen, R. T., & Vaccine Safety Datalink Team (2003). Safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: a two-phased study of computerized health maintenance organization databases. Pediatrics , 112 (5), 1039–1048.
• Stehr-Green, P., Tull, P., Stellfeld, M., Mortenson, P. B., & Simpson, D. (2003). Autism and thimerosal-containing vaccines: lack of consistent evidence for an association. American journal of preventive medicine , 25 (2), 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(03) 00113-2
• Ball, L. K., Ball, R., & Pratt, R. D. (2001). An assessment of thimerosal use in childhood vaccines. Pediatrics , 107 (5), 1147–1154. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.5.1147

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“Autism research is in crisis”: A mixed method study of researcher’s constructions of autistic people and autism research

Associated data.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Introduction

While not all autism research is ableism, autism researchers can be ableist, including by talking about autistic people in sub-human terms (dehumanization), treating autistic people like objects (objectification), and making othering statements which set autistic people apart from non-autistic people, and below in status (stigmatization).

This mixed-method study aimed to investigate how autism researchers construct autistic people and autism research, and to investigate whether including autistic people more in research relates to lower ableism in narratives about autistic people. We used a survey with autism researchers ( N = 195) asking five open-ended questions about autism and autism research, as well as demographics, career length, contact with autistic people (familial and non-familial) and degree to which researchers involve autistic people in their research. We used content analysis to categorize narratives used by autism researchers and cues for ableism (dehumanization, objectification, and stigmatization). We then used binary-logistic regression to identify whether narrative or higher inclusion of autistic people predicted fewer ableist cues, controlling for career length and connections to autistic people.

Results and discussion

Using medicalized narratives of autism predicted higher odds of ableist cues compared to employing social model or neutral embodiment narratives. Greater inclusion of autistic people in research predicted significantly lower odds of ableist cues, while controlling for other contact with autistic people and career length. Next, we used reflexive thematic analysis to analyze researcher’s perceptions of autistic people and autism research. Narratives reflected core ideological disagreements of the field, such as whether researchers consider autism to be an intrinsic barrier to a good life, and whether researchers prioritize research which tackles “autism” versus barriers to societal inclusion for autistic people. Instrumentality (a form of objectification) was key to whether researchers considered a person to have social value with emphasis revolving around intellectual ability and independence. Lastly, language seemed to act as a tool of normalization of violence. Researchers relied on an amorphous idea of “autism” when talking about prevention or eradication, potentially because it sounds more palatable than talking about preventing “autistic people,” despite autism only existing within the context of autistic people.

A progressive year-on-year growth has occurred in the amount of literature published about autism, with a minimum of 18,490 autism research papers published over a ten-year period (2005–2014; Sweileh et al., 2016 ). In 2019 and 2020 alone, over 7,000 autism research papers were published each year Kirby and McDonald, 2021 . Most literature has focused on molecular genetics which seeks to “explain” autism ( Sweileh et al., 2016 ). However, there are core disagreements at the heart of autism research which present considerable challenges, including, but not limited to: the ontology of autism (what the nature of “autism” is; e.g., Feinstein, 2011 ; Nadesan, 2013 ; Milton and Timimi, 2016 ; Hollin, 2017 ; Chapman, 2020 ); whether autism is a unitary construct (e.g., Happé et al., 2006 ; Hollin, 2017 ); the epistemology of autism research (who creates and what constitutes reliable knowledge about autism or autistic people; e.g., Frith and Happe, 1999 ; Milton, 2014 ; Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017 ; Hens et al., 2019 ); what language is most appropriate and most closely reflects the “reality” of autism (e.g., Kapp et al., 2013 ; Kenny et al., 2016 ; Bury et al., 2020 ; Botha et al., 2021 ); and research funding priorities (e.g., Pellicano et al., 2014 ; Roche et al., 2020 ). It has been argued that one reason autism research holds such a particular interest is that, despite significant financial investment, it is a deeply uncertain and contested field ( Hollin, 2017 ).

The ontology of autism—disease, disorder, disability, difference?

There are disagreements about whether autism should be classified as a disease, disorder, disability, identity, or difference (or a combination of these, e.g., such as differences which amount to disability) ( Kapp et al., 2013 ). The history of the diagnostic category of “autism” is a complicated one. “Autism” was first clinically described as a discrete medical diagnosis in the 1940s by both Leo Kanner (in English) and Hans Aspergers (in German (translated into English only in the 1980s) ( Kanner, 1943 ; Asperger, 1944 ). Between the 1940s and 1960s descriptions in the literature characterized autistic people as “children, who from early life showed extreme withdrawal” or “profound aloneness,” as “[having] disability in forming “usual” relationships with people,” children who displayed an “insistence on sameness,” “stereotyped movement” and that the “disturbance results in severe characteristic difficulties of social integration” ( Kanner, 1943 ). Later, it would be argued that Kanner plagiarized the work of Hans Asperger, and further, that Asperger himself is said to have plagiarized the work of Russian psychologist, Sukhareva, in 1925 ( Silberman, 2015 ; New and Kyuchukov, 2022 ).

There has also been a rapid evolution in how autism is conceptualized by researchers ( Cashin, 2006 ), yet clinicians diagnosing autism (according to the DSM-5) seek to identify “persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across contexts”; including “deficits in social-emotional reciprocity,” “deficits in non-verbal communicative behaviors used for social interactions,” and “deficits in developing and maintaining relationships,” plus “restricted, repetitive behavior” ( APA, 2013 ). Thus, the category which has been rooted in Psychiatry and medicine as a disorder affecting social communicational development still exists as such. This approach aligns with the medical model of disability, positioning disability within the person, as something that could be “fixed” or “cured” ( Smart, 2006 ). Thus, the gold-standard “treatment” of autism focuses on the remediation of autistic symptomology ( Walsh, 2011 ).

Often in opposition to these ideas of autism as a disorder or disease, the neurodiversity and autistic rights movements have positioned autism as combinations of disability, difference, and identity ( Sinclair, 1993 ; Singer, 2017 ; Bertilsdotter Rosqvist et al., 2020 ; Kapp, 2020 ). The term “neurodiversity” describes the idea of variations of the brain and distributed ways of functioning being a fundamental constituent of human biodiversity ( Singer, 2017 ). Both the autistic rights and neurodiversity movement are broad, with people having varying views about whether autism has a biological nature, is socially constructed, or constitutes differences, disability, and/or identity. Most accounts have a degree of realism, describing autism as mostly socially-constructed with some shared biological underpinning whose meaning is located within time and place ( Hacking, 2001 ; Nadesan, 2013 ). Further, these movements focus on the environments and society surrounding autistic people, aligning with the social model of disability ( den Houting, 2019 ). In this context, disability occurs when there is a lack of fit between the person and the environment, with a lack of accommodation for variation ( Andrews, 2017 ).

Given these different approaches, autism researchers are likely to view and research “autism” in different ways dependent on their training and discipline, either focusing more inward on the autistic person, or more outward on social contexts surrounding autistic people. For example, a researcher with a medical model orientation might be more likely to research “treatments” or “interventions” to change autistic behaviors so they conform to non-autistic people’s standards or normative ideas of what constitutes adequate functioning. On the other hand, a researcher with a social model orientation might be more likely to research ways in which environmental adaptations could benefit autistic sensory experiences, good quality of life, or how attitudes toward autistic people shape life for autistic people.

The epistemology of autism: What should we know, how should we know, and who should be heard?

In addition to medical or social model orientations, autism researchers have power in determining what we know about autism and how we know it. There is a gap between which autism research topics get funded and topics which are priorities for autistic people and their families. For example, most funding goes toward “basic science” topics (brain, behavior, genetics, causes) [ Singh et al., 2009 (USA); Pellicano et al., 2014 (UK); den Houting and Pellicano, 2019 (Australia)]. Further, most autism research focuses on children, even though autistic children grow up to become autistic adults ( Kirby and McDonald, 2021 ). However, it has become apparent that funded autism research does not tend to focus on the priorities of the autistic or wider autism community, which focuses on topics such as post-diagnostic support, mental and physical health, improving public understanding, and improving access to services ( Pellicano et al., 2014 ; Roche et al., 2020 ). Further, even in terms of who is sharing their views on where autism research funding should focus, a systematic review of autism research priorities studies found that only 9% of participants were autistic ( Roche et al., 2020 ). Instead, family members accounted for 61%, while professionals accounted for 24%—meaning a large amount of priority setting rests largely in other (typically non-autistic) people’s hands.

Beyond this gap in priorities and funding, the process of doing autism research is also contested. Autism research has had a history of conducting research “on” autistic people and not with them. This approach is opposed to the participatory and citizen-led approach that neurodiversity, critical disability studies, and critical autism studies movements have advocated for—“Nothing About Us Without Us” ( Charlton, 2004 ; Milton, 2014 ; Bertilsdotter Rosqvist et al., 2020 ). While some non-autistic researchers are considering more participatory means of doing research, actively involving autistic people as researchers themselves ( Chown et al., 2017 ; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2019 ), others, however, also express skepticism or misunderstandings about participatory research ( Pellicano et al., 2014 ; den Houting et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, there have been considerable debates on the place of autistic people in the creation of autism knowledge, with some arguing that autistic people lack epistemic authority ( Frith and Happe, 1999 ; Hens et al., 2019 ) and there has been a history of the relegation of first-hand accounts as biased or inaccurate by the nature of the fact that autistic people wrote them ( Botha, 2021 ).

Ableism in autism research

Not only do researchers have power in determining what is researched, who is involved in the research and how knowledge is constructed about autistic people, they also have a role in the language used to talk about autistic people. While there are many ways of talking about autistic people, some are more ableist than others, and further stigmatize or marginalize autistic people ( Bottema-Beutel et al., 2020 ). Ableism can be defined as:

“ A system that places value on people’s bodies and minds based on societally constructed ideas of normality, intelligence, excellence, desirability, and productivity. These constructed ideas are deeply rooted in anti-Blackness, eugenics, misogyny, colonialism, imperialism and capitalism. This form of systemic oppression leads to people and society determining who is valuable and worthy based on a person’s language, appearance, religion and/or their ability to satisfactorily [re]produce, excel and “behave.” You do not have to be disabled to experience ableism ” ( Lewis, 2021 ).

We can see ableism in the way in which autistic people are described. Others have highlighted that the language used to describe autistic people is often dehumanizing ( Gernsbacher, 2007 ; Cowen, 2009 ; Rose, 2020 ; Botha, 2021 ), objectifying ( Botha, 2022 ), or stigmatizing ( Bottema-Beutel et al., 2020 ), and reflects underlying beliefs about the inherent “otherness” of autistic people.

We define dehumanization as “the denial of full humanness to others, and the cruelty and suffering that accompany it” ( Haslam, 2006 ; p. 1). Dehumanization includes denying a group the experience of complex emotions ( Leyens et al., 2000 ), community or identity ( Kelman, 1973 ), excluding a group from shared moral boundaries ( Opotow, 1990 ) and/or denying “uniquely human” (e.g., civility, moral sensitivity or maturity) or “human nature” (e.g., emotional responsiveness, interpersonal warmth or agency) attributes to a group ( Haslam, 2006 ). Research has shown that autistic people are dehumanized by non-autistic people ( Cage et al., 2018 ). This dehumanization may extend into research itself ( Gernsbacher, 2007 ; Yergeau, 2018 ; Luterman, 2019 ; Rose, 2020 ; Botha, 2021 ). Autistic people have been compared to non-human animals and described as less domesticated than non-autistic people, described as lacking in agency, rationality, epistemic authority, the ability to form community or share culture (see Botha, 2021 , for an overview). Accounts from autistic people detail experiences of autism research as othering, dehumanizing, and full of ableism ( Luterman, 2019 ; Rose, 2020 ; Botha, 2021 ; Michael, 2021 ), with autism research determined to establish the inferiority of autistic people ( Yergeau, 2018 ). Additionally, it has been claimed that research creates and fosters stereotypes about autistic people which then invade social discourses about autistic people ( Gernsbacher, 2007 ).

Objectification means to treat a person as an object ( Nussbaum, 1995 ) and was originally conceptualized as the presence of one or more of the following: instrumentality (the objectified being used as a tool for the objectifier’s purpose), fungibility (the objectified is perceived as interchangeable with others like them or objects of other types), violability (the objectified is treated as lacking in boundary integrity or as something acceptable to harm or damage), denial of autonomy (the object is treated as lacking in autonomy or self-determination), inertness (the object is treated as lacking agency or activity) or the denial of subjectivity (the experience, feelings, or wishes of the objectified need not be taken into account). It has been argued that objectification requires someone to treat the objectified both as a tool (through instrumentality), while also failing to recognize or actively denying other aspects of the others personhood—such as agency, subjectivity, or experiences ( LaCroix and Pratto, 2015 ).

Autistic people are often objectified in autism research ( Botha, 2022 ), whereby the personhood of autistic people relies on their perceived utility to society which is measured through traditional productivity and notions of independence. Researchers have debated whether or not autistic people are “unaffordable” to society, which is predicated on “intelligence and industry” ( Tantam, 2009 ): “However, it is only a few people with ASD [autism spectrum disorder] who combine originality with high levels of intelligence and industry who are likely to make a sufficiently sustainable, salient contribution that their absence might be considered unaffordable” (p. 219). Further, a sign of potential objectification can be inferred from the fact that in a review of 150 intervention studies on autistic people, only 7% measured or reported adverse events (such as harm) ( Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021 ) meaning autistic people might be considered violable (something which inflicting harm upon is permissible).

Participatory research methods

There is a growing tradition of involving autistic people in research including in the design, collection, interpretation of data, and dissemination of results. This involves working in a collaborative and open manner alongside autistic people and their families. This approach aims to disrupt the status quo of doing research on autistic people, to doing research with them. There are some good examples of how this is done ( Nicolaidis et al., 2015 ; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2019 ; Pellicano et al., 2021 ; Pickard et al., 2022 ), but perhaps one of the most powerful examples is AASPIRE (Academic Autism Spectrum Partnership in Research and Education). AASPIRE works with autistic people and their families, using power-sharing methods to identify priorities and conduct research projects (such as the creation of healthcare toolkits for autistic people), and have produced guidelines for the inclusion of autistic people ( Nicolaidis et al., 2019 ). Working in this method may disrupt the ableism which proliferates autism research traditionally.

The present study

Considering the above points, it is important to understand both how researchers construct autistic people and their views on autism research. Autism research is a potentially powerful tool in improving—or restricting—autistic people’s lives. Research and science, which is often positioned as “objective,” holds inherent power despite the fact that it can often reflect social and cultural norms and reproduce inequality ( Fondacaro and Weinberg, 2002 ). Further, researchers are responsible for deciding where large amounts of research funding are directed, by applying for it for their own work and in peer-reviewing others’ applications. Additionally, constructions of autistic people by researchers have leaked into the social and cultural descriptions of autistic people within society—meaning researchers often control the narrative around autism.

The aim of this mixed-method study was to understand how autism researchers construct autistic people and autism research, and to investigate whether greater inclusion of autistic people in research relates to lower odds of cues of ableism in narratives about autistic people. To achieve this, our study had both a quantitative and qualitative element. For the quantitative part, we used content analysis to code narrative stance used by autism researchers (medical versus social model) and for cues of ableism (dehumanization, objectification, and stigmatization). Then, we investigated whether narrative stance and degree of participatory research predicted odds of ableist cues (while controlling for career length and contact with autistic people). We predicted that alignment to the medical model would relate to a higher odds of cues of ableism about autistic people. Further, we predicted that higher participation of autistic people in the research process would relate to lower odds of the presence of such cues. For the qualitative part, we used reflexive thematic analysis to broadly and inductively examine how researchers construct autistic people and the autism research process. The qualitative analysis was used to contextualize the quantitative findings, and to add depth to the study.

Materials and methods

Recruitment methods and participant criteria.

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Stirling General University Ethics Panel, and all participants gave informed consent before starting the survey. We defined an autism researcher as anyone who has conducted or is conducting research about autism including those from outside of academia, and at any career stage. We aimed to recruit participants from around the world, although limited to English-speaking participants. We used multiple approaches to recruit participants. Initially, we shared a study advert on our research-related Twitter accounts in February 2021. Combined, we had almost 5,000 followers at the time, many of whom are autism researchers, although it is likely many of these researchers aligned with our own research areas, perspectives or were UK-based. As such, we also used purposive sampling to target autism researchers beyond our social media reach. To do this, we posted an advert on an autism researcher mailing list for those interested in Higher Education research, which has approximately 450 people on the list, mainly in the USA. We also developed a list of autism researchers particularly in the medical and (hard) scientific fields (e.g., genetic, biological, neuroscientific research, etc.) by reviewing abstracts submitted to the 2020 International Society for Autism Research (INSAR) conference and papers published in the last three years, using corresponding author details. We sent an email to these researchers including study information and link to the survey, and we contacted 981 researchers in this way. We recruited approximately 126 participants via Twitter or the mailing list, and 69 via targeted emails (7% email response rate). Recruitment was open between February and June 2021. We did not expect this to be a fully representative sample of the field, and instead aimed to capture as many perspectives as possible within the limitations of self-selection methods.

Participants

Overall, 195 participants took part. Most were from Westernized countries, particularly the United Kingdom and North America, and were predominantly white ( Table 1 ). Most identified as female ( n = 124), with 41 male, three non-binary and two genderqueer participants (25 participants did not specify). The mean age of participants was 37.78 ( SD = 11.90; Range = 20–75, n = 169). In terms of personal connections to autistic people outside of research, many reported they had autistic family members, work colleagues or friends, with almost 20% reporting they were autistic themselves ( Table 1 ).

Participant demographic information.

Some participants elected not to provide some demographic information thus total n responses for each question are reported below. *Percentages add up to more than 100% since participants could select more than one option.

Participants came from a range of career stages or roles within autism research, academic disciplines, and research areas ( Table 2 ). However, most were from Psychology and investigating services and societal issues. The mean length of time participants had been involved in autism research for was 8.47 years ( SD = 7.48, range: 1–40 years, median = 6 years, n = 172). Mean time spent on autism research across participants was 75.33% ( SD = 26.03; range: 5–100%, median 85%, n = 172).

Information regarding participant’s research backgrounds, including discipline, research areas and career stage.

*Participants could select more than one option.

Materials and procedure

We used a mixed methods survey, hosted online using “Qualtrics.” Participants completed the questions in the order presented below. Participants first selected their personal language preferences for talking about autism (e.g., autistic person, person with autism, no preference) so the survey displayed their preferred terminology in subsequent questions. The next set of questions were qualitative, aiming to collect autism researchers’ spontaneous thoughts about autism, autistic people, and autism research, using five open questions. We asked participants to supply as much detail as possible in response to the following questions: (1) Describe what autism is, (2) describe autistic people, (3) describe the cause of autism, (4) describe what you think the main goal of autism research in general should be, (5) describe the main aim of your own research. We used this approach to limit the possibility of demand characteristics, as researchers might have recognized the purpose of psychometric scales for stigma or dehumanization.

The next questions recorded information such as the participant’s area of research, based on Pellicano et al. (2014) organization of autism research topics, and their academic discipline. For these questions participants could select multiple options. Additionally, we asked participants to select their current job title from a list of options, number of years working as an autism researcher, current country, and percentage of research focused on autism.

Next, participants answered questions about language usage within their research. Specifically, we asked how they most often referred to autism in their research (e.g., autism, autism spectrum disorder, autism spectrum condition), how they referred to autistic people (e.g., autistic person, person with autism, person on the autistic/autism spectrum), and how they referred to non-autistic people (e.g., typically-developing, neurotypical, people without autism, etc.). For these questions, participants could only select one option. They then answered questions about their connections with autistic people outside of research, selecting from options such as “I am autistic,” “I have an autistic family member,” “I have autistic friends.” Here, participants could select multiple options.

Based on Arnstein (1969) ladder of participation, we asked participants about their experiences of involving autistic people in their research. We presented participants with a series of options (randomized) and participants had to select all statements that applied to them. The lowest option on the ladder (rank = 1) was “I have not involved autistic people in my research” and the highest option (rank = 9) was “I am an autistic autism researcher.” For non-autistic autism researchers, the highest possible option (rank = 8) was “I have worked collaboratively with autistic autism researchers.” Further details on the ladder of participation can be seen in Table 3 in the results, including further categorization. Finally, participants could optionally answer questions regarding personal demographic information such as gender, ethnicity, and age. The survey took approximately 22 min to complete.

Highest degree of participatory research researchers have undertaken ( N = 170), based on Arnstein (1969) ladder of participation.

Data analysis

Firstly, we used content analysis followed by logistic regression to quantitatively investigate whether positionality and degree of participatory research predicts cues of ableism (sentiments which dehumanize, objectify, or stigmatize autistic people) in narratives while controlling for years in autism research and contact with autistic people. By controlling for these variables, we can ensure that alternative explanations of the outcome variable are not better explained by potentially related variables. Secondly, we conducted a bottom-up inductive, reflexive thematic analysis to qualitatively analyze the narratives of researchers.

Content analysis

We used deductive content analysis to code (1) participants narratives into narrative positioning (medical/social), and (2) for cues to dehumanize, objectify, or stigmatize autistic people.

Positioning: For positioning (medical/social), we created a coding scheme based on existing literature. Narratives which focused on autism as a medical disorder, as situated within an individual, which stressed individual impairment or disease, we coded as “medical model.” For example: “ Impairments in social communication with stereotyped and repetitive behaviors beginning early in development. It has a highly variable manifestation, with some individuals non-verbal and lacking self-care capacity, and others able to function extremely well .” Narratives which focused on the social or cultural barriers as the root of impairment in autism, we coded as “social model,” for example: “ Growing up autistic [ … ] attracts stigma and stress to the individual and also their family. This is because of prejudice, intolerance and lack of reasonable accommodations .”

However, we realized that the original coding scheme was inadequate, and identified a third category of “neutral embodiment.” This third positioning placed autism within an individual but described it as a neutral difference, and typically described ways in which autistic people interacted with or processed information around them, for example: “ Autism is part of a constellation of ways of being .” One hundred and seventy-two participants provided sufficient information that we could code into one of the three narratives. Both the social model and the neutral embodiment narratives fit within a neurodiversity approach.

Cues for dehumanization, objectification, and stigmatization: We used definitions within literature of each of the concepts to create the coding scheme. Each concept with its definition and exemplar quotes is available in Table 4 .

Ableism cues, their definition and example quotes.

Both researchers coded all the data independently, before calculating inter-rater reliability. Initial agreement after independent coding ranged from 68 to 85% for each positioning, and 63% for stigma cues. Lower agreement for stigma was potentially because of a lack of detail in the coding scheme, which was amended to be more detailed to make decision-making less ambiguous. After discussion, we recoded and reached 85–92% agreement for positioning and 84% for stigma cues (indicating that adding detail was successful for increasing agreement). We then met again to discuss all disagreements, until we reached 100% agreement. For accounts where we could not agree ( n = 3 for positionality), an external individual independent of the project provided their views, and we reached agreement. The external evaluator was also an autism researcher but otherwise uninvolved in the project.

To analyze predictors of stigma cues, we conducted hierarchical logistic regression. The outcome variable was the presence of ableist cues (binary variable: present or not present). Model one included years in autism research as a predictor. Model two added familial and non-familial contact with autistic people. Model three (the final model) added positioning and degree of participatory research (as a linear scale from non-participation to citizen control).

Reflexive thematic analysis

Following the quantitative element, we used thematic analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 ). This involved each author analyzing half of the scripts each (split according to odd/even numbers). Firstly, we refamiliarized ourselves with the qualitative data and then proceeded to do semantic and latent coding to create initial codes. We then met to discuss potential themes that we were generating. We had high agreement over the themes and reviewed all responses with those themes in mind. Finally, we named the themes, generating names until they were clear and best represented the underlying data.

Epistemic stance and reflexivity

Critical realism presupposes a singular objective reality which exists independent of, and often prior to interaction with it, but also that any and all description of reality is mediated through language, social cultural context, and meaning-making ( Oliver, 2012 ). This makes the stance ontologically realist, but epistemically relativist ( Bhaskar, 1997 ). Acknowledging that regardless of the ontology of autism, all knowledge about autism is situated, we took a reflexive stance to aid recognition and transparency in how our own positions shaped our interaction and construction of the data. Thus, we both used reflective memos and note-taking throughout the research process, as well as regular de-briefing, member-checking, and discussion of our own positionalities and values. One author is autistic while the other is non-autistic, and we both acknowledge we have different proximities and positions in relation to the data. A reflection is provided in the discussion. This is also important in line with critical realism, which acknowledges that while there is an independent singular reality, all representations of it (including knowledge made in research processes) are mediated through experiences and language.

Quantitative analysis

Descriptive statistics for language preference and autistic participation in research Participants’ language preferences, both personally and professionally within their research, are presented in Table 5 . Interestingly, there was a difference between the language researchers preferred and what they used in their research.

Language preferences of researchers when referring to autism and autistic people.

For the ladder of participation, participants could select multiple options concerning their approaches. Table 3 shows the individual options selected by participants. We then categorized participants ( n = 170) at their highest selected option on the ladder of participation as either conducting non-participatory ( n = 21, 12.4%), tokenistic ( n = 40, 23.5%), participatory research ( n = 75, 44.1%) or as an autistic autism researcher ( n = 34, 20.0%).

We coded most researchers as having a medical model narrative ( n = 96, 55.8%), followed by neutral embodiment ( n = 56, 32.6%) and social model ( n = 20, 11.6%). For stigma cues, we coded these as present in 104 participants (60.1%).

Predictors of cues of ableism in narratives

We used hierarchical binary logistic regression to investigate whether narrative positioning and degree of participatory research involvement significantly predicted the odds of ableism cues while controlling for years in autism research and connections with autistic people ( Table 6 ). By controlling for these variables, we can ensure that alternative explanations of the outcome variable are not better explained by potentially related variables. First, to ensure the data met assumptions of logistic regression we checked for outliers using Mahalanobis distances, and there were no significant outliers in continuous variables. Second, we checked for multicollinearity by checking correlations between predictor variables to ensure no variables were highly correlated, and then through variance inflation factors (VIF) and condition indices. A significant high correlation ( r > 0.80) may signal multicollinearity, but our highest correlation was substantially lower ( r = 0.36, p < 0.001). We used a conservative cut-off of 3 to check for multicollinearity, and VIF were below this limit (VIFs ≤ 1.25). While a high condition index (15–30) signals multicollinearity, the largest condition index was below this (<10). Lastly, we used the Box-Tidwell test to check for linearity between the predictors and the logit for continuous variables. These were non-significant ( p > 0.05) suggesting the assumption of linearity between predictors and the logit was met.

Binary logistic regression results predicting cues of ableism (present or not present).

In model one, we included the control variable “years in autism research” as predictor of stigma cues. Years in autism research significantly and positively predicted a higher odds of ableism cues ( p = 0.004).

In model two, we added the next two control variables (familial connections and non-familial connections to autistic people). Years in autism research remained significantly and positively predictive of higher odds of ableist cues ( p = 0.003). Familial connections to autistic people was non-significant ( p > 0.05). Non-familial connections significantly predicted lower odds of ableism cues ( p = 0.01).

Model three

Model three retained the control variables as above, and added “Narrative” (medical narrative was the comparison category) and “Degree of participatory research.” No control variables were significant in model three ( p > 0.05). Narrative positioning significantly predicted ableism cues, such that the medical model predicted higher odds compared to both the social ( p < 0.001) and neutral embodied narratives ( p < 0.001). Additionally, greater participatory research predicted lower odds of ableism cues ( p = 0.03). Full statistical results for each model are available in Table 6 .

Thematic analysis

We identified six themes which are outlined below, including subthemes. These themes are mapped visually in Figure 1 .

Thematic map showing the themes and sub-themes identified.

“The concept of “autism” is an ideological battleground”

This theme reflected how participants often seemed to struggle with the concept of “autism,” with a range of disagreements and contradictions between (and even within) researchers. We identified several sub-themes which highlighted the core issues:

Sub-theme: Naming autism

Participants’ descriptions of autistic people, and autism more broadly, were varied and reflected the core disagreements about the ontology of autism. For example, autism was described as a “disease,” “disorder,” “condition,” “difference,” “neurodivergence,” “minority neurotype” and a “disability.” Although language varied, many relied on medicalized notions of autistic people which reflected the DSM-5 as mostly as “ a neurodevelopmental disorder ” (e.g., ID99) but also as “ a disease which varies widely ” (ID100). For example:

“Autism Spectrum Disorder represents a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, social interaction and obsessive/stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests or activities” (ID101).

However, this was not the only way participants had defined autism, with some describing instead “ autism is a spectrum of difference where one could be described as neurodivergent ” (ID102), as “ a neurotype that is not the majority ” (ID103) or as “ a neurodevelopmental disability which includes a spectrum of abilities and challenges ” (ID104).

Sub-theme: We can agree on lifelong—and just about nothing else

There was a general agreement across researchers (regardless of how they constructed autism) that autism is lifelong—“ Autism is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition ,” (ID105), “ people are born autistic, and remain autistic throughout their lives ” (ID106), “ Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder, and is a lifelong diagnosis ” (ID107).

Sub-theme: “The good life”—placing the locus of suffering and impairment: Individual or social?

There was substantial variation in where researchers placed the locus of impairment or suffering with regards to autism, and it appeared to relate to their constructions of autistic people. Where researchers had defined autism as being a disorder, disease or condition, they tended to locate suffering and impairment as internal to autistic people, but ascribed to an amorphous “autism,” which radiated outward to disrupt the lives of those around the person, for example: “Autism … may severely impair the life of the affected subject, as well as that of her/his relatives ” (ID108) and:

“While a diagnosis of autism is by no means a “death sentence,” nor does it “doom” the individual to any specific life, it does present a wide variety of challenges to families who may not be prepared to help their loved one with the diagnosis ” (ID109).

Alternatively, researchers who constructed autism as a difference, disability or as a minority neurotype, tended to still place autism within an individual (as a biological or genetic phenomenon, but not treating autism as amorphous), and placed most suffering or impairment externally in society or the environment, for example:

“ It is the society we live in, the lack of support available and the ableist and heavily gendered expectations that exist which affect autistic people on a daily basis and lead to autism being described so negatively, even by other researchers” (ID110).

Indeed, some pointed to a chronic lack of accommodation made for autistic people: “ Many autistic people experience depression and/or anxiety; this is not inherently part of being autistic but may be associated with living in a world not designed for you .” (ID111).

What causes autism is complicated, but what doesn’t is not

We directly asked participants what they thought caused autism. In their answers, there was a pattern of participants purporting that the causes were complicated, although there were some that could be ruled out. These points are explored further within our subthemes:

Sub-theme: It’s probably epigenetic but we don’t really know yet…

Researchers predominantly ascribed the cause of autism to an interaction between genetics and environment, while similarly hedging their bets because it is both complicated and not yet fully known. Participants expressed uncertainty with phrases like “ this is complicated ” (ID112) “ it’s not clear ” (ID113), “ not known with certainty ” (ID114) and “ there is not consensus ” (ID115). Despite this, a majority settled on some form of gene-environment interaction:

“ There is likely a genetic component, though numerous genes are implicated. There is also evidence that certain environmental variables influence risk of later diagnosis. The answer is likely a combination of genetic and environmental variables ” (ID115).

Less prevalent were participants who ascribed more of the cause of autism to social and cultural processes, as well as biological ones:

“Many different cascading effects cause autism: from genetics to brain chemistry to societal norms to random chance. It can’t be pinpointed to one particular thing …” (ID106).

Sub-theme: But we know what doesn’t cause autism

Participants were more certain around what does not cause autism, for example, “ Definitely not bad parenting!” (ID116) and “ NOT related to vaccinations which is a common myth ” (ID117). One participant noted:

“There is no known cause of autism, despite a huge amount of research funding and time being invested in this question. It’s definitely easier to answer the question of what *doesn’t* cause autism: vaccinations and poor parenting being particularly notable” (ID106).

Dispelling these notions seemed to be important to people specifically because of the damaging notion which placed the fault with parents:

“It was theorized at one point that autism was caused by “cold parenting” but this was not based on any evidence and was extremely damaging to families at the time” (ID118).

Sub-theme: Really it doesn’t or shouldn’t matter

Some respondents were “ not terribly interested in the cause and beyond being confident that it is not due to refrigerator mother theory ” (ID111), since it would not change the everyday existence of autistic people or improve their lives. Another participant elaborated:

“I have no interest in understanding cause. I want to know how we can best support autistic people in ensuring equitable access to resources, community services, employment, etc, and helping to turn the conversation to changes the non-autistic community must make to facilitate this support, understanding, inclusion and respect” (ID119).

Others pointed to the fact that autistic people simply exist because humanity does: “Humanity is the cause of autism. Humans are diverse, by definition. The very nature of diversity in humanity yielded the neurodiversity of autism” (ID120).

Quality of life is a fluffy concept until you get to the nitty-gritty

Overall researchers appeared to share similar goals at a high, abstracted level—there was a focus on how research should improve quality of life for autistic people. However, “quality of life” is a nebulous term, until participants detailed what they considered to be barriers of quality of life for autistic people—some found poor quality of life to be inherent to “autism,” while others consider it to be determined by society, as explored in our subthemes:

Sub-theme: Research which tackles “autism” to get the good life

Participants who tended to construct autism as a disease, disorder or condition and typically describing “autism” as an amorphous concept saw tackling autism as the goal of autism research. Here, autism was a barrier to a good life:

“[The goal of autism research should be] to improve the life of autistic people, to allow them to achieve everything that they wish to without their disorder getting in the way” (ID100).

For many, the focus was on remediation, treatment, and ultimately the prevention of “autism”: “ The ultimate goal is to develop novel therapies against autism ” (ID121). This goal included eugenic prevention of autistic people, and how this might provide benefits for others:

“Autism research should pursue multiple goals [including] understanding the genetics of autism-associated neurodevelopment. This may ultimately lead to screening, genetic counseling of parents, and potentially, prevention … Researching the collateral benefits of treatment for individuals with autism and their families and other relevant persons ” (ID122).

Sub-theme: Research with tackles society to get to the good life

In contrast, those who constructed autistic people as being disabled, neurodivergent or a minority neurotype, and often referring to autistic people rather than amorphous “autism,” described how autism research should focus on society, culture or environments as the cause of disablement and suffering in autistic people’s lives, for example:

“Research should look into ways to address inequalities affecting autistic people, such as increasing inclusion and acceptance in society, and support wellbeing, quality of life, independence and autonomy” (ID123).

Instead of tackling “autism,” there was a focus on tackling systems which are imbued with neuro-normativity, to facilitate access to the world for people who think about and experience the world differently:

“I think that the main goal of autism research should be to improve the lives on autistic people by making the world an easier place for them to exist in. So much of how our society works is based on normative behaviors when high percentages of the population do not think in a typical way. Autism research should also consider, include, and center the voices and the wishes of autistic people” (ID124).

The current concepts of autism and autism research aren’t fit for purpose

This theme encapsulated the view that how we currently conceptualize “autism” and how we do autism research is beset with issues. These issues are explored further in our subthemes:

Sub-theme: There is a gap between the definition and experience of autism

Regardless of participants stances, there was a dissatisfaction with the definition of autism and autism research, with participants highlighting the distinct difference between how autism is defined, versus how it is experienced:

“The official “definition” of autism in the States per the DSM is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive behavior and difficulties in social communication. This, of course, is distinct from the lived experiences of people with autism and their families and friends” (ID125).

Some participants acknowledged that while the DSM was important, the criteria had clear weaknesses:

“I believe that while the DSM-5 criteria are important, there are fundamental flaws in that they do not account for the nuanced variations in the ways in which autism presents ” (ID126).

Participants highlighted that this was particularly the case for autistic people at intersections of marginalization—given current definitions of autism center around white, cis-gender boys:

“ The criteria used to diagnose autistic people is outdated and, in my view, discredited. It is over reliant on stereotypes now discredited and barely considers female autistic traits” (ID127).

“More males are diagnosed than females, though this may be due to biases in the diagnostic criteria and the tests developed to diagnose autism. People of color are more likely to be diagnosed later than white people, also likely due to biases in the diagnostic criteria and racism” (ID111).

Sub-theme: Exasperation with “tiresome,” “non-sensical,” and “harmful” research

Some participants expressed an exasperation with autism research as a process—for some it was outdated: “ Autism research has been very outdated for a number of years, utilizing tired ideas such as the extreme male brain theory ” (ID127), and others went as far as to question the point:

“Increasingly, I’m not convinced that there is a good case for autism research to continue. I have now spent 10 + years in autism research, and the longer I stick around, the less I am convinced that autism is different or special from other parts of the human experience, and other issues related to equality, diversity, and minority communities” (ID128).

Part of this dissatisfaction was with the amount of funding which went to biomedical research, with a participant saying: “ I find the current and historical fascination with the biogenetic causes of autism tiresome ” (ID106). Another participant explained:

“At present much money is wasted on biomedical research projects that are naive, impractical, and/or pointless … For example, people waste time trying to find neurobiological markers of autism, but what is the point of that? You still need to find someone to discuss [diagnosis] with family/individual (hopefully someone more capable of critical thought than the people who say all the value-laden, subjective, often offensive clinical discourse). So I would like to see less of the neurobiological research, and for the remainder of that research to be subjected to additional critical scrutiny” (ID129).

This was a shared concern with others feeling that money spent on causes or genetics was a waste:

“I think autism research should stop in attempting to identify the “cause” or “gene” of autism. It wastes valuable money and we have spent over 20 + years and billions of dollars with outcomes showing there is no single gene and no single cause. we need to move on” (ID130).

Participants highlighted that research often set autistic people up to fail, or was shaped in such a way that resulted in autistic people always being viewed as deficient:

“We know so much (though really, still so little) about non-autistic cognition, interaction, and perception. But comparatively little about autistic people and what research we do have is often from the perspective that autistic people are “worse” at whatever it is than non-autistic people. More work needs to be done to develop tests and measures that aren’t predisposed to “fail” autistic people” (ID111).

Sub-theme: Structural issues in academia—publish or perish, and the separation of research camps

There were concerns that research had become a paper mill devoid of any value for autistic people, and that researchers focused on their own careers in a publish-or-perish mentality:

“It [research goal] shouldn’t be publishing papers, which seems to be its main goal at the moment. It should be collaborating with autistic individuals to actually have an impact in areas that are important to them. Great you published another paper but how does that impact an autistic child in local primary school” (ID131).

Further, that change was made impossible by structures in academia that resulted in siloed knowledge bases, preventing bridges between disciplines to fully appreciate autistic people. Participants pointed to the fact that contrary knowledge was not necessarily seen as valid or relevant:

“My concept of autism has grown to include the theory of double empathy and much of the current published work related to that, but as my research is in genetics and biomarkers of autism, most peer reviewers in the field have never heard of the concept and even so would probably not find it relevant, compared to peer reviewers in social sciences.” (ID132).

Sub-theme: Participatory research—the way forward for some, for others a threat

There were mixed views about autistic people’s involvement in research, and there were polarized views on what increased involvement meant. For some, the involvement of autistic people in research represented hope, expressing that it is “ encouraging to see that there are more autistic people being actively involved in research ” (ID118). This was a shared hope that “ research is thankfully progressing ”(ID127):

“I am hugely encouraged by the rise of autistic researchers and by co-produced research doing research that could benefit autistic people rather than see them as subjects to do research to” (ID133).

For some, autistic involvement was key and represented moving on from either harmful or pointless research:

“Research should be what autistic people want it to be about. Not a cure, not mice experiments, nor trying to explain yet more reasons for us to be deficits. Research how we can be actually accepted into society, how things can improve our wellbeing, how the tired and harmful language of historical bias in literature can be put right for the whole of society to change their attitudes they have based on the rhetoric of medicalized deficit disablement of papers. Put right what has been wronged” (ID134).

Yet for others, autistic people being included in autism research, or challenging what they perceived as harmful or outdated research, was seen as a threat which jeopardized non-autistic peoples place in making autism research:

“Autism research is in crisis. Non-autistic people/researchers who have dedicated decades to studying autism are being pushed out of the field” (ID135).

Ableism: On the denial of subjectivity, identity, and epistemic authority

This theme captured some of the ways in which participants talked about autistic people in ways which were dehumanizing, objectifying, and stigmatizing. These aspects are elaborated on within our three subthemes:

Sub-theme: Neurodiversity is only for some autistics

Perspectives which placed disablement in society or focused on social and cultural roles in producing outcomes for autistic people were described as rose-tinted, only applicable to what were often described as “high-functioning” autistic people, or as a less “scientific” or anti-scientific approach. The idea of having higher-support needs, an intellectual disability, or being more obviously different seemed to undermine claims of neurodiversity for some who placed a high value on normative functioning:

“Some refer to autism as a condition or neurodiversity. I think that it really depends on where along the spectrum (which includes multiple dimensions) one might be” (ID99).

Participants highlighted non-speaking autistic people, and autistic people with intellectual disability, as group for which neurodiversity or autistic rights movements could not necessarily be helpful for:

“As much as I encourage the autism advocacy movement, there is a deafening silence from a large proportion of autistic people, namely those with an intellectual disability/limited communication” (ID136).

Others argued the idea of autism as a social, political, or community descriptor as “under-evidenced,” but did not clarify what evidence would be sufficient:

“Some persons also claim autism as a descriptor of a social, political, or community identity, and make further claims about uniquely autistic styles of interaction or communication. As yet, there has been little research done that would support or refute those claims” (ID128).

Sub-theme: Ableism in narratives—independence and utility

Ableism was pervasive in narratives about autistic people. Some of the dehumanization of autistic people was clear, whereby participants described autistic people as being unresponsive, culturally incapable, rigid, and lacking in complex emotions: “Autism people [sic] may demonstrate an apparent absence of empathy for people’s feelings, lack of responsiveness, awareness of social cues or cultural norms.” (ID137). When asked to describe autistic people, one researcher said: “ shut down from the outside world; rigid; emotional; fat ” (ID138).

Similarly, some participants described autistic people as being almost irrationally emotional or completely emotionless, alongside being incapable of more complex secondary emotions:

“People with autism are very heterogeneous. They can speak, write, as well as smile and hug or to be completely inexpressive and apparently without emotions [ … ] In the absence of intellectual disability they can perform many activities …” (ID139).

The utility of autistic people (which appeared to hinge on perceived intellectual ability and independence) determined the perceived social value of autistic people. Where strengths were highlighted, they were often framed in terms of the utility of “ high-functioning autistic people … [who are] extremely gifted persons with high but restricted professional skills (e.g., in data classification/analysis) ” (ID121), or “Common characteristics such as attention to detail, intense interests and honesty can be an asset in many professions” (ID140).

As one participant noted, “ autistic people [are] only seen as of being useful or valuable if they contribute to the wider economy …” (ID127). This is an example of objectification because it demonstrates that autistic people do not have worth unless they produce value for other people. While some participants focused on “ interventions that help individuals with autism live normal, happy and productive lives ” (ID147) (our emphasis), others appeared to rule out value based on the presence of any intellectual disability:

“Without often comorbid intellectual disability, and dependent upon the severity of their autism, they are interesting, often charming, and valuable members of the community” (ID141).

Sub-theme: Too unique to be grouped together…by anything other than symptoms

Autistic people were denied identity and community as linking them, and when asked to describe autistic people, many argued that it was “ impossible ” (ID148), and yet, went on to group autistic people by a list of symptoms. Further, those who referred to autism as an amorphous object often attributed heterogeneity to autism:

“As autism is so heterogenous this is a difficult question to answer. Medically speaking, autism people have difficulty with social communication and interaction. For example, eye contact may be limited, and “rules” of interactions can be challenging, e.g., turn taking, ensuring everyone is interested in the topic, staying on topic” (ID140).

This was distinct to how others positioned autistic people as heterogenous because of the heterogenous nature of humanity, or because of other identities autistic people may hold:

“Autistic people are as diverse as non-autistic people, both demographically and in terms of their personalities, interests, views, and experiences” (ID142).

Others argued that autistic people were so unique that they lacked commonality with each other more so than non-autistic people:

“Autistic people are a heterogenous group, many of whom share similar experiences related to the myriad combinations and degrees of symptoms I described in the previous question. There is likely as much or more difference among autistic people than between autistic and non-autistic people” (ID143).

It appeared that some participants wanted to stress the humanness of autistic people to prevent or counteract dehumanization or objectification, but in doing so, erased any potential commonality of identity, community, shared experience, or collectivism, which is itself a form of dehumanization. This stood in contrast to others who refused to connect autistic people through symptoms and instead grouped autistic people through the position they are given in society:

“A minoritized group of people who are part of a particular neurotype and thus sometimes approach situations differently than those of other neurotypes” (ID103).

Definitions like this did not constrain people to experiencing or expressing autisticness in the same way, but found commonality to unite autistic people or recognize them as a socially coherent group of people who meaningfully and challenge their position in society:

“To create descriptions that seek to find common identities within this group should be looking outward to the common stigma and oppression that society too often inflicts” (ID144).

Eugenics: Social value and why this all matters

The final theme brought together some of the most concerning patterns in the responses regarding eugenics and the eradication of autistic people. This theme is expanded on within three subthemes:

Sub-theme: The prevention of autistic people as a fear

There was a repeated underlying concern from many participants that eugenic traditions were still present in the goals of research: “ cause-focused research also makes me nervous in terms of the potential for eugenics ” (ID111). These concerns pervaded some researchers’ discourse, believing the ambiguity of the cause of autism (as discussed earlier) was the only barrier standing between autistic people and the prevention of autistic people:

“If the cause of autism was known, I fervently believe this would be a terrible thing. Eugenics and social engineering, consciously and subconsciously, would take place to I believe prevent autistic people from being born, or at the very least ensure they were born with non-autistic traits” (ID111).

Participants viewed the focus of preventing autistic people as deeply problematic:

“Research should focus on helping autistic people already here, rather than eugenic solutions which seek to prevent and generate fear around hypothetical future autistic people” (ID143).

Sub-theme: The prevention of autistic people as a goal (and as a valid fear)

Although some painted autistic people as being anti-science for expressing concerns around the genetic removal of autistic people from society, this was an active goal of other researchers, who constructed it as what the primary goal of autism research should be:

“[The goal of autism research is] to pinpoint genetic and non-genetic etiologies [sic], disease modifiers, create awareness, strategies for early screening and diagnosis, develop new or improved interventions or preventions” (ID145).

This included intervening before or during pregnancy and through genetic counseling:

“I think the main goal should be to understand what causes autism and what also impacts the trajectory of autism for individuals over their lives. By understanding the former we may be able to intervene for parents before they have a child …” (ID113).

Sub-theme: Language as a tool for normalization of violence—distance as palatability

This sub-theme related to the amorphous “autism” discussed earlier, whereby when talking about the prevention or eradication of autistic people, participants only referred to the prevention or eradication of “autism” and not autistic people:

“The main goal of autism research is to, simply, learn more about it. There are scientists that research the cause (i.e. , — epidemiologists, etc.) and others that research how to treat it and live with it. The main goal is to learn more about — the why it happened and how we can help those with autism ” (ID146).

There was a focus on “preventing autism,” and never “preventing autistic people” even though, autism does not, and cannot exist as an amorphous object—autism is only ever autistic people. This was consistent with participants placing autism as within an individual and constructing it as causing devastation to those around the individual. The goal of preventing autism in this way is only possible when constructed as something that is individual, removable, separate, and inherently causing a bad life.

We aimed to understand and evaluate autism researchers’ narratives and language use in describing autistic people and their views on autism research. In our sample, most participants held a medical model narrative, with fewer subscribing to a social model position, although around a third held a more neutral perspective which defined autistic as a way of being. We also identified that around 60% expressed cues of ableism which we conceptualized as dehumanization, objectification, and stigmatization. In terms of what predicted these ableist cues, social model and neutral-embodiment narratives and a higher degree of participatory research predicted significantly lower odds of expressing cues of ableism, above and beyond length of research career, and familial and non-familial contact with autistic people. We used reflexive thematic analysis to further examine the narratives and views being held, and identified six themes which captured an overall sense of disparity and disagreement amongst autism researchers. This analysis highlighted not only the potential need for conceptual reconsideration of “autism” but the fundamental need for change in the way in which autism researchers talk about autistic people and do autism research.

The future of research: Uncertainty, change and conflict

A deep frustration with the status quo of autism research pervaded the data, with participants unsatisfied with outdated autism research, how slowly it moves, and some questioning the relevance of autism research at all. Further, participants made clear that biases in research bled into diagnostic processes, meaning that neither the diagnostic process (including the DSM-5) nor research were fit for purpose. They highlighted the continued failure of research or diagnostic manuals to appreciate the complexity or variation of autistic people across genders or race. For example, evidence shows that autistic women and gender minorities fall through diagnostic gaps ( Loomes et al., 2017 ). In a systemic review of 1,013 autism intervention papers across 28 years, only 25% of the articles provided data on participants’ ethnicities or race—and in studies which did report this data, white participants were included at over eight times the rate of Black participants, at ten times the rate of Asian participants, and roughly 7 times the rate of Hispanic/Latino autistic people ( Steinbrenner et al., 2022 ). Thus, it appears to be a valid concern that autism research does not represent the experiences of many autistic people.

Interestingly, there was a gap between what participants described as their personally preferred language and the language they used in their research, whereby participants used person-first language in research, even though their preference was for identity-first. These disparities are reflected in prior debate regarding the use of person-first or identity-first language (e.g., Vivanti, 2020 ; Botha et al., 2021 ). Further, some participants in biological fields had knowledge relating to neurodiversity (such as double empathy) but felt it would not have a place in their work because peer-reviewers would not recognize this work as valid. This not only points to a fractured field, but it points to maintaining the status quo because of dogmatic positions in which researchers are entrenched.

There were also mixed views around what the future of autism research should look like. To participants who adopted medicalized constructions, the future still belonged to biomedical research, which consisted of treatment of current autistic people, remediation of the “core symptoms,” and prevention of future autistic people being born. However, many did report alternative accounts and directly called for a move away from cause-focused or genetic research. This approach may be more aligned with the neurodiversity paradigm and supports recent calls to move away from the medical model ( Pellicano and den Houting, 2022 ). Pellicano and den Houting (2022) argue that the medical model takes too much of a narrow, individualistic, and deficit-focused approach, and discuss how this messaging could contribute to prejudice toward autistic people. Our data supports this point as we found a relationship between the medical model perspective and ableist cues. The medical model approach relies on the pathologization of disabled people and sustains a powerful industry built on being able to identify “deficits” and finding ways of “fixing” or “treating” these perceived deviations from an assumed norm. Since ableism is about “a system that places value on people’s bodies and minds based on societally constructed ideas of normality, intelligence, excellence, desirability and productivity” ( Lewis, 2021 ), it makes sense that the medical model narrative predicted ableism cues. The future of autism research, then, may be one where we move away from the medical model.

Participatory research and the inclusion of autistic people in autism science

Including autistic people in autism research via increased engagement in participatory research predicted significantly lower odds of ableism cues. While researchers have discussed the need for inclusion of autistic people in autism research ( Chown et al., 2017 ; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2019 , 2021 ), this adds to a growing body of evidence which shows that involving autistic people in autism science can be beneficial ( Pellicano et al., 2021 ), although more work may be needed to increase researchers’ confidence and challenge systemic issues prohibiting participatory research ( Pickard et al., 2022 ).

We also found that increased participatory research with autistic people predicted lower odds of ableism cues, above and beyond length of time in autism research or contact with autistic people (both familial and non-familial). This is important to note, because it may point to the conditions necessary for enhanced intergroup relations and for changing the ways that autism researchers discuss autism. Dynamics (such as power and agency) in familial versus non-familial scenarios may be important to understand, given that relationships between parent and child (for example) are different to choosing to socialize or work professionally with autistic people. Non-familial connections (which includes having autistic people as colleagues) to autistic people predicted significantly lower odds of cues of ableism, but only until we accounted for increased participatory contact, whereas familial connections did not. This highlights two key things: non-familial connections are distinct in their ability to shape the perspectives of researchers, and that informal contact with autistic people is not a replacement for actual participatory ways of working with autistic people if the goal is to develop a more humanizing autism science. However, our study cannot determine the direction of this relationship. It may be the case that those less likely to hold ableist narratives might be more likely to involve autistic people in research in the first place, or involving autistic people in research might challenge ableist narratives researchers hold. Alternatively, it may be a reciprocal relationship whereby initial openness to involving autistic people in research is required, and this involvement further changes researcher’s perceptions.

However, there is an important caveat to stress. Our quantitative analyses looked only at the utility of involving autistic people in autism science as a way of producing more humanizing autism research. Autistic people should be considered beyond this utility. As shown in the qualitative responses, autistic people are often reduced to their utility to society with little consideration given to the role society has in producing autistic people’s outcomes. Involving autistic people in autism science should warrant an understanding of what is required for equitable and non-damaging involvement. We found that researchers often dehumanized autistic people, aimed to prevent, cure, and remediate autistic people, and often othered them. We therefore need to acknowledge that when autistic people get involved in autism research, they are exposed to additional stress burden and systemic ableism ( Botha, 2021 ). While researchers should seek and value autistic input, and this approach may shift the narrative toward affirmative accounts, systems must exist to protect autistic people involved in autism research. To date, there has been little discussion of what is required to make research hospitable to autistic involvement, how we can prevent tokenism, or ensure autistic people have equitable experiences or power in creating autism research. Although future work with autistic people (both researchers and non-researchers) is needed to identify exactly how we can achieve this, we would recommend systems of mentorship and support for autistic autism researchers, training for non-autistic autism researchers on avoiding ableism (see Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021 ) and the creation of collaborative communities.

Ableism and eugenics: Dehumanization, objectification, and social value

The topic of ableism is one that requires further discussion, since we found ableism cues in around 60% of accounts. In our data, these ableist cues represented a denial of subjectivity, identity, culture or community, to associating autistic people with a lack of responsiveness, rigidity, through machine-like comparisons, and as both overly emotional, and at the same time, incapable of complex secondary emotions. Previous empirical research has identified that autistic people are more likely to be dehumanized by non-autistic people ( Cage et al., 2018 ) and first-hand accounts of autism research including autoethnographies ( Botha, 2021 ), blogs ( Luterman, 2019 ; Rose, 2020 ), commentaries ( Michael, 2021 ), and editorials ( Gernsbacher, 2007 ; Cowen, 2009 ) have described that autism research is often dehumanizing. Autism research’s problem with ableism ( Bottema-Beutel et al., 2020 ) relates to the semantic dehumanization ( Haslam, 2006 ), objectification ( LaCroix and Pratto, 2015 ), and stigmatization of autistic people. While some participants attempted to stress the uniqueness of autistic people, complete individuation itself separates any likeness between autistic people or shared humanity.

Further, the value and worth of autistic people often hinged on splitting autistic people into those who were seen as valuable members of society and those who were not. Most often, this utility was based upon perceived intellect and independence—for example some participants described “high-functioning” autistic people as having utility to specific professions. This point is particularly important because it demonstrates we have not moved far from the eugenic tradition of separating out autistic people into those worthy of consideration and those not ( Czech, 2018 ). This is captured by the fact that in discussing the erasure of autistic people through pre-natal testing and intervention it is the loss of specific and valued “talent” which is lamented ( Baron-Cohen, 2009 ). This also plays into the idea of Aspie Supremacy, in which to prove their value, autistic people with lower support needs stress the ways in which they are not similar to autistic people who have higher support needs, or are non-speaking or have an intellectual disability ( de Hooge, 2019 ). This is even more important given that autistic peoples intelligence is often underestimated by the tools used to measure it ( Nader et al., 2014 ).

These points also relate to the idea of neurodiversity-lite, whereby neurodiversity is adopted but only for a certain “kind” of autistic person ( den Houting, 2019 ; Chapman, 2021 ). The adoption of identity-first language and support for neurodiversity only extends as far as autistic people who can make specific kinds of contributions to society, often relegating non-speaking autistic people and people with higher support needs or intellectual disabilities to the side-lines. Researchers rely on the language of neurodiversity, without enacting its core principles about the inalienable value of all kinds of minds and lives.

Dehumanization can also be seen in the value placed on autistic lives. The prevention of autistic people was a key concern that pervaded some participants accounts of autism research. Some described the lack of a firm cause of autism as the only thing standing between autistic people and the prevention of future autistic people. Although recent events (such as the launch of the Spectrum 10k project) saw increased debates on whether researchers are attempting to eradicate, cure or prevent autism—autistic people were said to be anti-science, or paranoid for thinking this might occur ( Chapman et al., 2021 ). Yet, it was a clear goal for some participants. Understanding the dehumanization of autistic people by autism researchers must be understood and intervened with, because increased dehumanization of groups facilitates the permissibility of harm against them more broadly ( Haslam, 2006 ; Moradi, 2013 ; Haslam and Loughnan, 2014 ). Further, researchers hold authority over the narrative of autism, meaning that accounts of autism which are sanctioned within academia may become ways of constructing autistic people within greater society. Autistic people are more likely to experience (poly)victimization ( Weiss and Fardella, 2018 ), discrimination ( Griffiths et al., 2019 ; Botha and Frost, 2020 ), and researchers’ constructions of autistic people as sub-human, or as objects, may facilitate this harm.

Previously, McGuire (2016) highlighted that the abstraction of autism from individual and into an amorphic form might facilitate the acceptance and normativity of violence again autistic people. This has also been discussed by autistic scholars ( Farahar, 2022 ) who highlight that the abstraction distracts from the fact that in talking about “autism,” we are inherently talking about autistic people. This abstraction has been highlighted by autistic academics when discussing why person-first language might be problematic ( Botha et al., 2021 ). In the qualitative accounts provided, our participants relied on a semantic separation of autism, potentially because preventing “autism” sounds less problematic than preventing autistic people. This fits with the notion raised by McGuire (2016) that by using abstraction, society can “combat,” “defeat,” “eradicate,” without sounding like material harm is coming to any one person.

Importantly, language cannot be relied upon by researchers who fail to see the fundamental humanness of autistic people. While person-first language (“person with autism”) is touted as an answer to remembering the fact that autistic people are human too, when coupled with sentiments which deny the personhood, autonomy, or humanness of autistic people, it is still dehumanization, objectification, or stigmatization, but with extra semantic steps. Conversely, coupling identity-first language and “neurodiversity-lite” ( den Houting, 2019 ; Chapman, 2021 ) or basing someone’s value on normativity, a bell-curve of intelligence, and degrees of independence still constitutes dehumanization, objectification, and eugenics. The adoption of identity-first language means very little if next you are denying autistic people complex emotions, identity, community, culture, and objectifying and othering them.

Limitations

This study has several limitations and strengths. This study used a novel technique for identifying ableism and narratives in researcher’s accounts of autistic people. If we were to use traditional and well-known measures of stigma (such as social distance scales, e.g., Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2015 ), researchers may be more likely to display demand characteristics in line with social desirability. By using open-ended questions, we elicited spontaneously driven narratives, which may more closely reflect participants actual beliefs. However, a limitation is that this process has a higher degree of subjectivity around what constitutes medicalized, or social narratives, as well as ableism, and participants likely still shared somewhat socially desirable answers. A further limitation is the low response rate to our targeted emails (7%)—and many of our respondents were from Psychology and researching topics that may align more with the priorities of autistic people, compared to what traditionally gets funded (e.g., Pellicano et al., 2014 ). Therefore, the views expressed are unlikely to be representative of the entire industry of autism research. Nonetheless, it is valuable to have obtained and analyzed the perspectives of almost 200 autism researchers, and to contribute to a discussion on the future of autism research.

Subjectivity is inherently a part of all autism research, as researchers have an undeniable power in terms of framing, study design, and representation of data, regardless of whether this goes acknowledged by researchers ( Botha, 2021 ). Acknowledgment of positions, and disruptive reflexivity can be key to challenging the status quo ( Pillow, 2003 ). Further, Pillow (2003) , p. 193) pushes for messy reflexivity which “leave us in the uncomfortable realities of doing engaged qualitative research.”

Those who subscribe to positivistic paradigms may come to this section looking for comfort or reassurance about the validity and generalizability of this study, and what was done to factor in our own biases. While we took steps to make this a rigorous study—including basing the content analysis coding framework on extant definitions of phenomena, working reflexively and collaboratively to make decisions, actively acknowledging our values and discussing disagreements—the process of research is complex and messy. Our research will be “contaminated” by personal experience in ways which will make people uncomfortable, regardless of what we say to inspire trustworthiness or rigor. In terms of representation, it is a piece of research conducted collaboratively by both an autistic and non-autistic researcher, on autism researchers (some of whom were autistic, but the majority were non-autistic), on their perception of autistic people and autism research.

As lead author (MB)—I am autistic, I have been constructed by autistic researchers my whole life—I was diagnosed in their legacy, and the legacy of their research has become a way of constituting me, including my dehumanization. There is a process of reversal here, where I am granted some power to do the same in return—I am writing them, as they are writing me. Even when I create work which is less “messy,” I am relegated in knowledge creation about autism by virtue of my autisticness ( Botha, 2021 ). But here, I am tasked with representing the people who have grown accustomed to both representing me and denying me my own ability to represent myself. Many may be unhappy with the representations we have made, regardless of how close we have positioned this work to their words or actions.

What then, becomes of the non-autistic autism researchers? As one participant expressed, they felt that they were being “pushed” out of the field. Much of what we have written in this paper will cause discomfort to non-autistic autism researchers. As a non-autistic autism researcher (EC) I have grown increasingly concerned about the state of autism research and my own position within it. Even in what is a small sample of self-selecting people, there are red flags everywhere. It can feel like those taking an anti-ableist stance are in a minority. And even then, is the stand being taken enough? Perhaps discomfort must be felt—as the first step to sitting up and realizing that change is needed. The last thing needed is more division—rather than feeling pushed out, feel pulled in . The emotional burden should not be placed all on the autistic autism researchers—non-autistic autism researchers should actively work toward carrying the load too. The discomfort you feel is probably only a tiny fraction of the pain that has been felt by autistic people reading your papers.

In this mixed-method study we aimed to understand the narratives researchers had of autistic people and autism research, and whether involving autistic people in autism science might relate to a lower odds of cues of ableism in researchers’ narratives. There was a relationship between involving autistic people in autism research and lower odds of ableist cues in researchers’ narratives about autistic people, though we cannot posit a direction to this relationship (it may well be reciprocal). While some of the results could be considered bleak (including the ways in which autistic people are dehumanized), there is still hope for the future. The disruption of ableism in autism research is key to the development of rigorous research, and findings demonstrate that meaningful inclusion of autistic people matters. Further, there were examples of researchers actively working to resist, reframe, and challenge ableism in research. These findings point to a hopeful future. Future research should aim to identify good practice for involving autistic people, the conditions needed to produce equitable involvement of autistic people in autism science, and the direction of such relationships.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by University of Stirling General University Ethics Panel. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

This research was a part of MBs fellowship research which was designed in collaboration with EC. Both authors contributed to study design, data collection, data analysis, and writing up.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank to Amy Pearson, Hannah Moore, and Ellie McManemy.

This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [Grant number ES/V012347/1] and also funded by a Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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