causes of hunger essay

What Causes

Here are the top issues driving world hunger today.

The Cause of Hunger

Is not what you think.

Ending hunger isn’t about supply. The world produces enough food to feed everyone on the planet. The problem is access and availability, both of which are disrupted by things like extreme weather, food waste, one’s gender and – worst of all – conflict.

Ending hunger is the greatest challenge of our time, but together it’s solvable.

The Biggest Drivers of Hunger

Conflict is the #1 driver of hunger in the world, and it’s entirely preventable. It uproots families, destroys economies, ruins infrastructure and halts agricultural production.

Climate change is one of the leading causes of global hunger, causing more frequent and intense extreme weather events. Over 80% of the world’s hungry people live in disaster-prone countries.

In nearly two-thirds of countries around the world, women are more likely than men to suffer from hunger and malnourishment. That’s because in many cases, women eat last and least.

Nearly one-third of all the food produced globally each year is lost or wasted. If we could recover all the food we waste, we could feed every hungry person on the planet twice over.

New data shows the novel coronavirus has doubled the number of hungry people worldwide. Its impact on supply chains, humanitarian access, the global economy and food supplies threatens to push 20 countries into famine or famine-like conditions. For 30 million of these people, WFP is quite literally their only source of food. Without it, they face starvation.

Half the world’s population lives on less $5.50 a day. Poverty is often at the heart of hunger – it’s brought on or made worse by drivers like conflict and natural disasters. When people can’t afford the food their families need, it limits their children’s physical and emotional development and perpetuates the cycle of hunger and poverty.

Hunger and malnutrition are part of an ongoing cycle, as both a cause and effect of many other factors too, like inequality and lack of education.

These factors are within our power to change.

That’s why hunger is also the world’s most solvable problem.

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World Hunger: Causes and Solutions Essay (Critical Writing)

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Although World Hunger may seem to be completely solved for the majority of people in developed countries, it is not entirely true. Diverse issues concerning this global problem can be considered urgent or damaging for some nations or even continents. For example, despite the presence of several developing and industrial countries in Africa, most of the continent’s inhabitants lead an agricultural lifestyle and live under conditions of constant hunger. Therefore, an appropriate solution requires to be found in order to provide broad-based prosperity and admissible living conditions.

World hunger can be caused by diverse reasons, which lead to the establishment of different concepts about the issue. The most common reasons for famine are poverty, food shortages, war, armed conflicts, global warming, the economy, poor public policy and food nutrition, gender inequality, food waste, as well as forced migration. Hence, the global understanding of world hunger can be viewed in correlation with other ubiquitous issues, and the reason for various solutions is the distinctions between its diverse concepts and directions.

For example, poverty tends to be one of the most significant factors that contribute to global hunger. In terms of famine, inadmissible living conditions lead to the inability to purchase healthy food. Additionally, the majority of poor families often sell their household goods, devices, and clothes to provide their relatives and children with the minimum amount of food and water. Living under the line of poverty results in a decrease in health levels, higher death rates, and expanding world hunger, especially in poor domestic areas. The Democratic Republic of Congo can be presented as an example of these factors’ influence. The second enormous problem causing global hunger is the ubiquitous food shortage that is mostly applicable to African countries as well. Generally, in this case, famine emerges under the affection of global warming, inappropriate weather for cultivating activities, the overall poverty across certain regions, and the population’s low educational level. In addition, global hunger shows a tendency to fluctuation depending on the year’s seasons; for example, when in certain tribes, the food from the previous harvest is ceased.

War or armed conflicts are often the primary reason for broad-based hunger. For example, in such countries as Sudan, Syria, or Iraq, the confrontations among diverse belligerent groups led to poverty, the decay of natural and human resources, and a shortage of land suitable for cultivating activities. Under such conditions, the populations of specific countries suffer from famine and struggle to get access to nutritious food. Hence, it can be stated that several reasons and issues for world hunger can be grouped based on their distinctions and similarities, such as economic, martial, social, or environmental factors.

A number of scholars and scientists express their concerns about global hunger and often consider it the most significant social problem comparable with the climate crisis. For example, Peter Singer and Garrett Hardin depict the importance of famine and suggest diverse solutions for the cease of the problem in their publications and scientific research. Both researchers argue about helping the less lucky and wealthy ones or leaving them without support and donation. The issue is rather controversial. Hence, scientists express diverse opinions regarding the world hunger and poverty problem. Singer’s main idea is that if people can provide starving, dying, and struggling people with help or financial support, they should definitely do it (Boesch, 2021). However, Hardin argues his viewpoint and supports the idea of “no sharing,” which means no donation from the wealthy ones (Hardin, 1974). Those viewpoints cannot be defined as correct or incorrect, ethical or unethical, because both have their risks and benefits. Therefore, they require to be examined and estimated to find the right compromise for solving this existing catastrophe.

On the one hand, people living in wealthier and more economically developed countries cannot be forced to donate to save other people from dying. Additionally, it cannot be considered an ethically inappropriate decision as such citizens do not bear any responsibility for the lives of poorer nations. However, when individuals see some donation or volunteering proposals and do not perform any actions, they generally feel guilty despite their non-participation. Singer explains that if there is any chance of helping someone to survive, then this opportunity has to be taken, and the person needs to be saved. Due to the complexity of people’s lives, this cannot be taken as the only right decision. For example, many people in the United States live under the line of poverty and often cannot afford to buy even vital products. However, American citizens prefer to donate to children in Africa instead of helping those who live only several miles away. In addition, Singer’s idea is rather extreme as it requires every citizen living under appropriate or satisfying living conditions to donate their money instead of buying more goods and services for themselves.

In comparison to Singer’s opinion, Hardin takes just the opposite position on the issue. However, the no-sharing concept can be considered extreme as well. For example, celebrities having millions or even billions of dollars could take part in diverse volunteering activities to encourage others willing to help to do so. Business corporations could apply a particular part of their profit to the establishment of specialized funds for helping people in need.

Such a viewpoint cannot be considered totally correct as well due to the broad-based integration and international relations between different political leaders and countries. Hardin thinks that people should not share their incomes or wealth with the poorer representatives of the community and focus on the increase of their own well-being (Hardin, 1974). No evidence is needed to state that the refusal to donate and invest in poverty and world hunger will lead to an enormous difference in economic and socio-cultural levels among various countries and continents. This situation will not be beneficial for both sides as such causes as lowering international trade volumes, growing number of immigrants and refugees, as well as overall economic stagnation will be seen. Therefore, the concept of no sharing might be inappropriate based on its radicalism and damaging outcomes.

Blind donations cannot help other nations succeed or fight the problem. More than money, such countries need support in developing and implementing advanced technology and learning to deal with climate change and diverse natural disasters. Additionally, modifications in the political, economic, and social spheres would be beneficial; hence, developed countries and their citizen would play a greater role by teaching volunteers than by donating. Hence, the right solution for the issue can be found by overlapping both Hardin’s and Singer’s suggestions. The donations should continue; however, those actions should be voluntary; therefore, only those who want to help should do it. Such funds are relevant in combination with the increase of knowledge, development of production, and economy. Donations and sponsorships without an actual rise in productivity are irrelevant and unprofitable.

Boesch, B. (2021). Ethics and absolute poverty: Peter Singer and effective altruism. 1000-Word Philosophy. Web.

Hardin, G. (1974). Lifeboat ethics: The case against helping the poor . The Garret Hardin Society. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2022, November 30). World Hunger: Causes and Solutions. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-hunger-causes-and-solutions/

"World Hunger: Causes and Solutions." IvyPanda , 30 Nov. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/world-hunger-causes-and-solutions/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'World Hunger: Causes and Solutions'. 30 November.

IvyPanda . 2022. "World Hunger: Causes and Solutions." November 30, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-hunger-causes-and-solutions/.

1. IvyPanda . "World Hunger: Causes and Solutions." November 30, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-hunger-causes-and-solutions/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "World Hunger: Causes and Solutions." November 30, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-hunger-causes-and-solutions/.

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The top 10 causes of world hunger

The world produces enough food to feed all 7.5 billion people, yet more than 10% of the population goes hungry each day.

Since 2020, after years of progress towards zero hunger, numbers once again are on the rise.

A lot of this was due to the knock-on effects of COVID-19, but that’s not the whole story.

Conflict and the worsening climate crisis, together with the ongoing effects of a global pandemic, have worked together to undermine the fight against hunger. 

These issues also underscore some of the other top causes of world hunger.

Here are ten of those causes, what Concern is doing to address them, and how you can help.

Hunger by the numbers

• The world produces enough food to feed all 7.5 billion people
• Despite this, 10% of the world goes to bed hungry each night
• According to the  Global Hunger Index , 47 countries will fail even to reach Low hunger status by 2030
• The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to increase global hunger by 30 million people

Poverty and hunger go hand in hand. Parents and caregivers experiencing poverty usually can’t afford enough food to feed themselves and their children - and, if they can, they often aren’t able to afford nutrient-rich foods. 

In turn, undernourishment makes it difficult for children to focus in school, hindering their chances of breaking what is often an intergenerational cycle of poverty. Parents (especially mothers) who skip meals so that their children have enough to eat may also struggle with working to earn enough money to keep food on the table. It’s a vicious cycle. 

We can see the link between poverty and hunger play out in larger statistics: The Democratic Republic of Congo is one of the world’s poorest countries. In 2022, nearly 62% of the country’s 60 million residents lived below the poverty line. Earlier this year, the UN estimated that 43% of all Congolese are also living below the hunger line in a crisis that is only expected to grow.

2. Food shortages

Across regions like the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, farming families experience periods before harvests known as hunger seasons . These are the times of year when food supplies from the previous harvest are exhausted, but the next harvest is still a ways off. This leaves families forced to skip one (or more) meals each day in the period before the next harvest, which could be months away.

We’ve also seen food shortages increase in the last few years as the results of COVID-19 and the crisis in Ukraine . Border closures intended to curb the pandemic and trade routes interrupted due to conflict have prevented critical supplies from getting where they’re needed most. Read on to learn how the situation in Ukraine, for instance, has fed the hunger crisis in Somalia .

3. War and conflict

Conflict and hunger form another vicious cycle.

A history of conflict has played out in tandem with a history of hunger in South Sudan . More than a decade of civil war has led to mass displacement and abandoned fields, meaning crops and harvests have failed. Conflict also has an economic impact: It often leads to soaring inflation rates that make imported (or even local) foods unaffordable for many residents. 

International conflicts also carry a large impact. Pre-war, Ukraine and Russia exported 25% of the world’s wheat supplies. Somalia , Sudan , and South Sudan rely on this region - more than 8,000 km away - for staples. Those supply chains have been interrupted due to the conflict, and have left millions of people, including those affected by the ongoing drought in Horn of Africa , without a key lifeline. 

4. Climate change

Countries like Malawi enjoy relative peace and political stability. However, climate change is also a major cause of hunger , with each shock setting the most vulnerable people and communities further and further back. 

Too little - or too much - rainfall can destroy harvests or reduce the amount of animal pasture available. These fluctuations are made worse by the El Niño weather system, and are likely to only get worse in the future. Extreme climate patterns also tend to affect the poorest regions of the world the most: The World Bank estimates that climate change has the power to push more than 100 million people into poverty over the next decade.

5. Poor nutrition

In order to thrive, humans need a range of foods providing a variety of essential health benefits. We mentioned above that families living in poverty often get food lower in nutrients. That’s because many of these families rely on just one or two staple foods, like corn or wheat, for the majority of their meals. As a result, they don’t get enough critical macronutrients and vitamins. Even if they feel full, they may still be suffering the effects of hunger , particularly malnutrition. 

Nutrition is especially important for pregnant and breastfeeding women , as well as young children. Mums-to-be who don’t get enough vitamins and minerals during their pregnancy may “pass on” malnutrition to their children. If a child does not have the adequate nutritional support during their first 1,000 days between conception and their second birthday, they may also suffer lifetime health and developmental ramifications. 

6. Poor public policy

Systemic problems, like poor infrastructure or low investment in agriculture, often prevent food and water from reaching the populations that need them the most. This is especially true in fragile contexts. Many of the world’s hungriest countries also experience some form of political instability or conflict. Political leaders often focus limited resources on these emergencies rather than the silent ones like hunger.

This can become further exacerbated if another disaster hits, creating a complex humanitarian crisis. With decades of crisis in Somalia , the latest drought to affect the region is one example of a complex emergency, one that - even with the long spring rain season delivering water to the area - could still lead to a famine .

7. Bad economy

After two civil wars and the 2014-16 Ebola outbreak, Liberia ’s economy was left weakened by back-to-back crises.

Seven years after the end of the Ebola epidemic, more than 50% of Liberians still live below the poverty line. It also ranks as the eighth hungriest country in the world, with a 2022 Global Hunger Index score of 32.4.

Inflation as the result of a bad economy means that, even if food is available and people have jobs, they may not be able to afford even the most basic staples. Last year, the cost of a food basket rose by 66% in Ethiopia , and 36% in Somalia.

8. Food waste

According to the World Food Programme, over 1 billion tonnes of food produced is never consumed. That’s equivalent to us throwing out one-third of the global food supply every year. 

What’s more, producing this wasted food also uses other natural resources that, when threatened, have a ripple effect in the countries that are already hit hardest by hunger, poverty, and climate change. Producing this wasted food requires an amount of water equal to the annual flow of Russia’s Volga River, and nearly 3 billion tonnes of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

9. Gender inequality

The UN notes that if female farmers had the same access to resources as their male counterparts, the number of hungry people in the world could be reduced by up to 150 million. Female farmers are responsible for growing, harvesting, preparing, and selling the majority of food in poor countries, and they’re just one example of the many ways that hunger is a women’s issue . 

Women are on the frontlines of the fight against hunger, yet they are frequently underrepresented at the forums where important decisions on policy and resources are made.

10. Forced migration

Hunger can be a cause of forced migration. Forced migration can also be a cause of hunger. Refugees and internally-displaced people living in displacement camps or informal communities are often legally or linguistically prevented from getting work to support their families while away from home (many refugees are also women and children, which means their options are even more limited). 

Many refugees live in neighbouring countries , countries with limited resources to begin with. Some of the hungriest countries in the world are also among the largest host communities or have high rates of internal displacement. Food aid helps, but the problem of hunger and migration can only be resolved with a political solution. 

How Concern addresses the causes of world hunger

From Afghanistan to Ukraine, Concern’s Health and Nutrition programmes are designed to address the specific, intersectional causes of world hunger in each unique context. We work with displaced communities to deliver food supplies, as well as to help migrants build skills (including home gardening ) and find sources of income that empower them to keep food on the table.

Programmes like Lifesaving Education and Assistance to Farmers (LEAF) support farmers affected by climate change to improve their harvests using Climate Smart Agriculture techniques, while also addressing existing cases of malnutrition in the community via our standard-setting programme, Community Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) . Thanks to LEAF, food aid was not needed in one region of Kenya for the first time in 30 years. 

You can help us in the fight against hunger. Last year alone, Concern was able to reach 8.3 million people with lifesaving and life-changing Health and Nutrition initiatives. With $0.93 out of every dollar going directly into our programmes, your tax-deductible donation to Concern means that we can reach even more next year.

The causes of world hunger in context

Conflict and hunger: Five aspects of a deadly cycle

How climate change increases hunger — and why we’re all at risk

Women and hunger: How gender inequality is fuelling the food crisis

Share your concern.

A global food crisis

Conflict, economic shocks, climate extremes and soaring fertilizer prices are combining to create a food crisis of unprecedented proportions. As many as 309 million people are facing chronic hunger in 71 countries. We have a choice: act now to save lives and invest in solutions that secure food security, stability and peace for all, or see people around the world facing rising hunger. 

Extreme jeopardy for those struggling to feed their families

The scale of the current global hunger and malnutrition crisis is enormous. A shocking 37.2 million people face Emergency levels of hunger, while 1.3 million people are in the grips of catastrophic hunger – primarily in Gaza and Sudan but also in pockets of South Sudan and Mali. They are teetering on the brink of famine.   In the North Darfur Region of Sudan, famine has been confirmed in a camp sheltering hundreds of thousands of displaced people.

Many food crises involve multiple overlapping issues driving hunger, that are building year on year. The interplay between conflict, economic shocks and the impact of the climate crisis is vital to understanding the scale of the challenge.  The global community must not fail on its promise to end hunger and malnutrition by 2030.   

WFP is facing multiple challenges – the number of acutely hungry people continues to increase at a pace that funding is unlikely to match , while the  cost of delivering food assistance is high  because food and fuel prices have increased.  

Unmet needs heighten the risk of hunger and malnutrition. Unless the necessary resources are made available,  lost lives and the reversal of hard-earned development gains  will be the price to pay. 

What is driving the global food crisis?

But why is the world  hungrier than ever? 

This seismic hunger crisis has been caused by a deadly combination of factors. 

Conflict is still the biggest driver of hunger, with 70 percent of the world's hungry people living in areas afflicted by war  and violence. Events in countries such as Palestine and Ukraine are further proof of how conflict feeds hunger – forcing people out of their homes, wiping out their sources of income and wrecking countries’ economies. 

The climate crisis is one of the leading causes of the steep rise in global hunger.  Climate shocks destroy lives, crops and livelihoods, and undermine people’s ability to feed themselves.  Hunger will spiral out of control if the world fails to take immediate climate action. 

Global fertilizer prices have climbed even faster than food prices. The effects of the war in Ukraine, including higher natural gas prices, have further disrupted global fertilizer production and exports – reducing supplies, raising prices and threatening to reduce harvests.  High fertilizer prices could turn the current food affordability crisis into a food availability crisis . 

On top of increased operational costs , WFP is facing major drops in funding,  reflecting the new and more challenging financial landscape that the entire humanitarian sector is navigating. Almost half of WFP country operations have already been forced to cut the size and scope of food, cash and nutrition assistance by up to 50 percent.

Hunger Hotspots 2024

Hunger and malnutrition surging across west and central africa, says report.

Story | 12 April 2024

Hunger in Gaza: Famine findings a ‘dark mark’ on the world, says WFP Palestine Country Director

Story | 18 March 2024

Hunger hotspots

From the Central American Dry Corridor and Haiti, through the Sahel, Central African Republic, South Sudan and then eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Palestine, Syria, Yemen and all the way to Afghanistan,  conflict and climate shocks are driving millions of people to the brink of starvation. 

In 2023, the world rallied  US$8.3 billion for WFP to tackle the global food crisis.  But it is not sufficient to only keep people alive. We need to go further, and  this can only be achieved by addressing the underlying causes of hunger. 

The consequences of not investing in resilience activities will reverberate across borders. If communities are not empowered to withstand shocks and stresses, this could result in  increased migration and possible destabilization and conflict.  Recent history has shown us this: when WFP ran out of funds to feed Syrian refugees in 2015, they had no choice but to leave the camps and seek help elsewhere, causing one of the  greatest refugee crises in recent European history.  

Let's stop hunger now

WFP’s changing lives work helps to build human capital, support governments in strengthening social protection programmes, stabilize communities in particularly precarious places, and help them to better survive sudden shocks without losing all their assets. 

In just four years of the  Sahel Resilience Scale-up, WFP and local communities turned 158,000 hectares of barren fields in the Sahel region of five African countries into farm and grazing land.  Over 2.5 million people benefited from integrated activities.  Evidence shows that people are better equipped to withstand seasonal shocks and have improved access to vital natural resources like land they can work.  Families and their homes, belongings and fields are better protected against climate hazards.  Support serves as a buffer to instability by bringing people together, creating social safety nets, keeping lands productive and offering job opportunities – all of which help to break the cycle of hunger. 

As a further example, WFP’s flagship microinsurance programme – the R4 Rural Resilience initiative –  protects around 360,000 farming and pastoralist families from climate hazards that threaten crops and livelihoods  in 14 countries including Bangladesh, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guatemala, Kenya, Madagascar and Zimbabwe. 

At the same time, WFP is working with governments in 83 countries to boost or build  national safety nets and nutrition-sensitive social protection, allowing us to reach more people than we can with emergency food assistance.  

Humanitarian assistance alone is not enough though. A  coordinated effort across governments, financial institutions, the private sector and partners is the only way to mitigate an even more severe crisis in 2024.  Good governance is a golden thread that holds society together, allowing human capital to grow, economies to develop and people to thrive.  

The world also needs deeper political engagement to reach zero hunger.  Only political will can end conflict in places like Palestine, Yemen, and South Sudan and Ukraine,  and without a firm political commitment to contain global warming as stipulated in the  Paris Agreement , the main drivers of hunger will continue unabated. 

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What Causes Hunger?

Many factors contribute to hunger – which is why simply providing more food is not a long-term answer to hunger. To solve hunger, we need to understand the systems, environmental factors, and social factors that limit people’s access to nutritious food.

Chapter Titles

Poverty is the greatest cause of hunger around the world – in both higher-wealth and low- to middle-income countries. Most people who are hungry live in extreme poverty, defined as income of $2.15 per day or less. More than 650 million people in developing countries live in extreme poverty, and 1 out of 5 children globally.

The largest group of people in the world in extreme poverty are smallholder farmers in developing countries. They do not have the land to grow enough food to supply themselves with enough to eat year-round, and they earn so little income from what they sell that they cannot afford to purchase food from other sources once their own supply runs out.

Climate Change

Climate change is the greatest environmental challenge the world has ever faced, and it is damaging food and water security in significant ways, like drought and flooding. If countries cannot work together to find and implement solutions, ending hunger in our lifetime will be out of reach.

Changing weather patterns and natural disasters destroy crops, limit what crops can be grown in certain areas, and reduce access to grazing land for animals. Climate change is also shrinking water supplies.  

Since 2010, about 21.5 million people have been displaced by climate-linked disasters each year; experts project that by 2050 the total number of displaced people could reach 1.2 billion.

They will hunger no more, and thirst no more.

Revelation 7:16

The period leading up to a harvest is known as the “hunger season.”

Hunger Season

While there is enough food in the world, developing countries often experience shortages as a result of conflict, economic shocks, and natural disasters such as earthquakes, flooding, or drought. This can disrupt access to food, and the people most affected are smallholder farmers who depend on their own surplus to survive between harvests.

The period leading up to a harvest is known as the “hunger season.” Food from the previous harvest runs out and families cut back on meals. This period of time may last for months, depending on the size of the previous harvest. 

Bread sees the potential for a high payoff in providing smallholder farmers with resources and tools to improve the ways they grow food. Family farmers that are able to grow more food and more nutritious food have extra produce to sell to others, leading to income they can use to pay for better housing, medical care, and school fees.

In the U.S., families with very low incomes also experience food shortages. They run out of money at the end of the month and often have to skip meals until their next paycheck comes. 

Hunger is both a cause and effect of war and conflict. Wide-scale poverty and hunger lead to frustration and resentment with governments that appear to ignore the plight of people experiencing hunger. 

The poorest members of society suffer the worst during war and conflict. Homes are destroyed and communities of people are displaced. Peace, when it comes, is often tenuous. The physical infrastructure needed for reconstruction is damaged and might even be destroyed.

Unstable Markets

People who live on $2.15 per day spend most of their income on food. In some countries, like Pakistan and Malawi, people in the lowest income group spend more than 75 percent of their incomes on food. Any fluctuation that pushes food prices up creates additional hardship – especially of basic grains such as wheat, rice, and corn, which make up the largest share of calories among people in developing countries who are hungry.

Poor Infrastructure

Poor infrastructure causes hunger by making it difficult — sometimes impossible — to transport food to areas of a country where there are shortages. Because of poor road conditions, people have died of hunger in one region of a country while there was plenty of food in another region. 

In addition, a lack of water infrastructure for crops and sanitation are leading causes of hunger and malnutrition. Women and girls in developing countries can spend hours each day fetching water, pulling them away from other productive activities like school or work. 

Nutritional Quality

All people who are hungry are malnourished. They are not getting enough protein or nutrients, so they lose weight and in severe cases their bodies begin wasting. 

Infants and young children (especially during the 1,000-day window between pregnancy and age 2) are most vulnerable to the harmful effects of malnutrition. This form of malnutrition has stunted 1 in 4 children in the developing world. They will suffer lifelong effects from earlier onset of chronic diseases, to difficulties learning in school, to lower earning potential as adults.

Job Instability

In the United States and other high-income countries, hunger is mainly caused by poverty that results from a lack of jobs or jobs that pay too little.

• Hunger rates rise when the national or local economy is in a slump.
• People who have been in prison face wide-scale discrimination that makes it difficult for them to find jobs once they reenter their community.
• Single parents may not be able to take a job or work enough hours because of no childcare options.

In most countries, evidence shows that hunger and poverty disproportionately impact women, communities of color, and rural communities.

Race and Gender Inequity

Economic growth alone does not ensure that prosperity is broadly shared. Every country, regardless of its wealth, has discrimination woven into its social fabric. Disadvantaged groups tend to be left the furthest behind. In most countries, evidence shows that hunger and poverty disproportionately impact women, communities of color, and rural communities. 

Among all of these groups, women and girls are more disadvantaged than their male counterparts. Discrimination is why women farmers in developing countries labor with fewer productive resources than their male counterparts, why women in all sectors of the economy earn less than men, and why girls are pulled out of school to work or to marry.

Gender discrimination is often a cause of persistent hunger. Sixty percent of the world’s hungry people are women and girls. Empowerment of women and girls is essential in ending hunger, extreme poverty, and malnutrition around the world and in the U.S. Research has shown that giving women greater control of their income and assets leads to widespread improvements in a country.

A cost-effective way of combating global malnutrition is to invest in improving the lives of women farmers. Women produce well over half the global food supply. Studies show that women are more likely to spend additional income on food when their economic circumstances improve. 

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Our bowl and table logo represents what we do. We gather people, at many tables, to provide Bread for the World. We sit, together, at tables of power and influence with lawmakers to enact policies that help ensure everyone has access to nutritious food.

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May 17, 2023

World Hunger: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

In this blog post, we explore the causes and effects of world hunger, as well as how we can stop it. learn more about the impact of poverty, climate change, conflict, and economic factors on food security and find out how targeted interventions can help reduce world hunger and malnutrition..

Why care about world hunger? Because hunger is a basic human need that everyone deserves to satisfy. Yet too many people around the world suffer regularly from hunger. According to the World Food Programme, more than 345 million people are facing high levels of food insecurity this year. That’s more than the population of the United States!

So where does hunger stem from and what can be done to alleviate its effects? Let’s dive in. 

What is World Hunger?

World hunger refers to the chronic and widespread lack of access to enough nutritious food among populations worldwide. It is a complex problem that affects people of all ages and genders.

The Scope of World Hunger

World hunger affects hundreds of millions of people in different regions, with sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia being the most affected areas. Although most widespread in low-income countries, hunger also affects developed countries, where poverty and inequality persist.

What are the Causes of World Hunger?

What is the number one cause of world hunger: poverty and inequality.

According to the United Nations , “Hunger is increasing in many countries where economic growth is lagging, particularly in middle-income countries and those that rely heavily on international primary commodity trade.” Poverty and inequality are among the leading causes of world hunger. Even though the world produces enough food for our global population, it can be out of reach for people living in poverty either because it quite literally doesn’t reach their community or because they can’t afford a diet with adequate nutrients. They are also more vulnerable to the effects of economic downturns and natural disasters , which can further exacerbate hunger.

Climate Change and Environmental Degradation

Climate change and environmental degradation , including deforestation and soil degradation , significantly impact food production and availability. Additionally, severe weather events like droughts and floods can decimate crops and contribute to food shortages. According to the World Food Programme, 1.7 billion people have been affected by extreme weather and climate-related disasters over the past decade.  

Conflict and Displacement

Conflict and displacement are significant causes of world hunger, especially in regions affected by wars and civil unrest. Marie Haga, the Associate Vice-President of External Relations and Governance the UN’s International Fund for Agricultural Development notes that, “conflict is the main driver of hunger in most of the world’s food crises.” Conflict disrupts food production, distribution, and access, leading to widespread hunger and malnutrition.

Economic Factors

Economic factors, including trade policies and market dynamics, also contribute to world hunger. Dr. Mukhisa Kituyi , Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference

on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) writes that, “enhanced international and national measures on transparency and regulation are needed to ensure incomes arising from agriculture value chains are fairly shared by all actors. We also need improved market access and risk management tools for smallholder farmers, including for female farmers, to expand opportunities and reduce income volatility.” Unequal distribution of wealth, lack of investment in agriculture, and volatile food prices can all affect food availability and affordability.

What are the Effects of World Hunger?

World hunger has far-reaching effects on individuals, communities, and nations. 

Physical Effects

Hunger can lead to malnutrition , which can cause various physical health problems, including stunted growth, weakened immune systems, and increased risk of disease.

Almost nowhere are malnutrition’s human and economic costs more stark than in Nigeria . The country has the second-highest number of malnourished children in the world. Fifteen million children under the age of five are stunted, and 30 million are anemic, according to figures from UNICEF . Seven percent of women of childbearing age also suffer from acute malnutrition. 

As a result, Nigeria loses an estimated $1.5 billion in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annually due to diminished productivity and increased healthcare costs caused by malnutrition. 

There are solutions to world hunger that can alleviate the burden on hardworking men, women, and families. Fortifying staple foods with essential vitamins and minerals, for instance, is one of the most effective ways of improving a population’s nutrition. 

The Micronutrient Fortification Index (MFI) developed by TechnoServe is a platform that enables food processing companies to publicly disclose and monitor their staple food fortification levels along with other quality system metrics. This groundbreaking platform is the first to offer a transparent and incentivized method to measure industry-wide progress on fortification.

Mental Effects

Hunger also has significant mental health consequences, particularly for children. Malnourished children may experience cognitive delays, difficulty concentrating, and behavioral problems.

As of November 2021, more than 26% of children under five years suffered from chronic malnutrition in Kenya. This can lead to serious health consequences like anemia, blindness, and brain damage. In addition to its devastating impact on families, malnutrition limits a country’s economic potential, decreasing the productivity of its people and increasing healthcare costs.

The Strengthening African Processors for Food Fortification (SAPFF) program – a partnership between TechnoServe, Partners in Food Solutions , and the Bill and Melinda G ates Foundation – is working with food companies in Nigeria, Kenya , and Tanzania to improve their capacity to produce and sell fortified foods for local markets.

Social and Economic Effects

Hunger also affects social and economic development. It can decrease productivity, lower educational attainment, and increase healthcare costs. Additionally, hunger can perpetuate poverty and inequality, creating a cycle of deprivation.

In Jicarito, Honduras , María Castillo is a bean farmer. While southern Honduras has rich farmland, María and her family still struggled over the years with hunger. “We used to grow bad quality beans and have low productivity because we did not know the best practices,” she recalls. Although María eventually worked with TechnoServe to improve her crops and income , her struggle with food insecurity isn’t uncommon. Smallholder farms in Latin America and worldwide produce nearly 30% of the world’s food supply , and close to 2 billion people depend on those farmers for food . 

TechnoServe works with small- and medium-scale coffee and bean producers in Honduras, like María Castillo, to train them in better agronomic techniques . Staff is also working to improve the operations of more than 600 farmer organizations and to facilitate an improved environment for public policies related to climate change resilience.

As a result, nearly 30,000 producers in Honduras have access to $15.5 million in credit for inputs, farm maintenance, and infrastructure investments. After four crop cycles, bean farmers increased productivity by an average of 54%, substantially increasing incomes and reducing food insecurity.

María herself worked with TechnoServe to launch a rural savings and loan association , which sells agricultural inputs such as drought-resistant seeds. This helps prevent other community farmers from facing the same food insecurity that she once did. 

How Can We Stop World Hunger?

Addressing world hunger requires a multifaceted approach that considers the complex nature of the problem. Some potential solutions include:

Increasing Agricultural Productivity

Investing in agriculture can increase food production and promote food security. This includes improving access to technology and training for farmers and providing financial incentives to increase production.

Rosa González is one of nearly 9,000 fruit and vegetable farmers in Guatemala and Nicaragua who learned how to improve the value of their produce, connect to new markets, and earn higher incomes.  

This income is critical for Rosa, a single mother who relies on her farm to provide for her family, including her son, Ángel. He is “my greatest motivation,” she says. “I want to give him an education. I want to teach him many things that I didn’t get.” 

These dreams seem more possible for Rosa and Ángel since she joined TechnoServe’s Smallholder Market Access Program with grant funding from the Walmart Foundation . TechnoServe worked with farmers like Rosa to help them escape poverty by providing agricultural training , helping them strengthen farmer business organizations, connecting them with agricultural exporters, and working across the value chains to make them more inclusive for women farmers.

Promoting Sustainable Food Systems

Sustainable food systems can help reduce the impact of climate change on food production while ensuring equitable access to nutritious food. This includes promoting agroforestry, regenerative farming, and sustainable land use practices.

Food processors are the linchpins of the food supply chain and play an essential role in local economic growth, with the potential to drive a positive impact for smallholder farmers, consumers, and other actors across the food system.

TechnoServe helps processors identify and analyze business constraints and provides tailored guidance to help them improve operations, strengthen supply chains, connect to new markets, and access finance. With our support, food processors are able to grow, increase profits, and strengthen their local food system. Through this growth, they help create jobs, expand markets and trade, and increase access to safer, nutritious foods.

Severina Paul Mwakateba founded AA Nafaka in 2012, excited to help raise the incomes of local farmers and increase the supply of high-quality food available to Tanzanian consumers. This small, woman-owned business provides consumers with nutritious food like fortified flour, polished rice, and sunflower oil. It also provides a reliable market for smallholder farmers selling their crops.

In 2019, AA Nafaka made more than $60,000 in sales, with schools making up an important segment of its customer base. The company had the opportunity to expand even further in 2019 as well, as a result of the installation of additional milling equipment. However, the COVID-19 pandemic would confront the company with serious challenges.

With transportation restrictions and school closures in place, the company experienced both product distribution difficulties and the loss of an important part of its market. With the resulting drop in sales, AA Nafaka had to lay off seven of its employees and decrease its purchases from smallholders and aggregators by 60%.

With the pandemic threatening the operations and survival of food businesses like AA Nafaka, the Visa Foundation stepped in in 2021 to provide resiliency grants to eight African food processors. These grants were complemented by technical assistance from the Coalition for Farmer-Allied Intermediaries (CFAI), a group of pioneering organizations, including TechnoServe , that work with over 600 African food companies to strengthen the continent’s food systems. TechnoServe and Partners in Food Solutions provided technical assistance to these firms through the Alliance for Inclusive and Nutritious Food Processing program, which is funded by USAID’s Feed the Future initiative . As a result of this partnership, these African food businesses increased their sales by 70% , supporting stable markets for 1,500 farmers and creating new employment opportunities for nearly 100 workers. 

In the case of AA Nafaka, TechnoServe’s business advisors worked with the company’s managers to help improve the company’s sourcing and marketing strategies. Like many small food businesses, the company needed to shift its approach in order to survive the volatile market conditions.

TechnoServe also helped Severina and her team to develop an inclusive business plan that would enable the company to purchase its crops. The team also helped the company to improve the utilization rate of its processing facilities and adapt its marketing strategy.

With this support, AA Nafaka was able to persevere through the challenges of the pandemic and even rehire three of its employees who had been laid off. The company was also able to purchase more than $20,000 of crops directly from 112 smallholder farmers–80% of whom were women. And it purchased roughly the same amount from an aggregator that bought directly from smallholder farmers. 

Supporting Vulnerable Populations

Targeted support for vulnerable populations, including women, children, and refugees, can help address the root causes of hunger. 

When violence broke out in Rwanda in 1994, Athanasie Musabyimana was 20 years old and eight months pregnant. She fled to a refugee camp in Tanzania with her husband and son. The trip was arduous as she was nauseous and could barely walk. When they arrived, conditions were challenging. “We were packed together like blades of grass,” Athanasie explains. 

Athanasie gave birth to a daughter in the refugee camp. Because food supplies were limited in the camp, she couldn’t breastfeed her daughter and feared the baby would die. Three of her children had tragically passed away previously, and so Athanasie named the little girl Nzamwitakuze, or “I will give you a name if you survive.”

But her daughter did survive. They returned to Rwanda to settle down as farmers. Shortly afterward, Athanasie’s husband died from malaria, leaving her a young widow, now with two children and her parents to support. She constantly struggled to make ends meet and feed her family.

So Athanasie turned to coffee farming. She joined TechnoServe’s agronomy and business training program as part of the Coffee Initiative . Using what she learned from the program, Athanasie increased the yields and the quality of her coffee harvest. “From TechnoServe, I learned better composting, better pruning, and how to use fertilizer for coffee.”

As her income grew over the years, Athanasie continued to invest in her farm, buying more land and doubling her coffee holdings. By 2014, Athanasie had tripled her income, earning approximately $420 for the year. 

Athanasie now runs a successful coffee farm and has expanded into growing maize. The boost in income has enabled her to support her household of six, affording medical insurance for her extended family and school fees for her children. Athanasie’s son, Ndimubanzi Jean Bosco, farms with his mother, and her younger daughter, Uwineza Denise, attends school.

Her daughter, Nzamwitakuze Dina, has not only survived but thrived: she recently completed the first phase of secondary school and hopes to attend college. The profits from her farm have also allowed Athanasie to start renovating and expanding her house.

Addressing Climate Change

Addressing climate change is critical to reducing the impact of severe weather occurrences on food production and availability. We can do this by working to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, promote renewable energy, and invest in climate adaptation strategies.

TechnoServe is among many non-profits, businesses, and other groups around the world that are stepping up to meet this challenge. Our Regenerate 30 initiative aims to achieve the following impact by 2030:

• 30 million people with increased resilience
• 30% average income increase for farms and businesses
• 30 million tons of CO2e mitigated or sequestered
• 30 million acres of land under sustainable management or improved conservation
• $300 million in private-sector investment

Find out more by downloading our PDF fact sheet on the initiative and by watching this YouTube Short about Regenerate 30.

Comprehensive Strategies for Addressing World Hunger

Global hunger is a complex problem with far-reaching effects on individuals, communities, and nations. Addressing hunger requires a comprehensive approach considering the various factors contributing to the problem. We can work towards a world free of hunger through targeted interventions and investments in agriculture, sustainable food systems, and vulnerable populations.

Test your understanding of the factors contributing to global hunger, its consequences, and possible remedies. Take our brief four-question quiz to assess your knowledge regarding hunger on a global scale.

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• Why We Need to Fix Broken Global Food Systems
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• Part I: How Is the Global Food Crisis Affecting Africa?

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Goal 2: Zero Hunger

Goal 2 is about creating a world free of hunger by 2030.The global issue of hunger and food insecurity has shown an alarming increase since 2015, a trend exacerbated by a combination of factors including the pandemic, conflict, climate change, and deepening inequalities.

By 2022, approximately 735 million people – or 9.2% of the world’s population – found themselves in a state of chronic hunger – a staggering rise compared to 2019. This data underscores the severity of the situation, revealing a growing crisis.

In addition, an estimated 2.4 billion people faced moderate to severe food insecurity in 2022. This classification signifies their lack of access to sufficient nourishment. This number escalated by an alarming 391 million people compared to 2019.

The persistent surge in hunger and food insecurity, fueled by a complex interplay of factors, demands immediate attention and coordinated global efforts to alleviate this critical humanitarian challenge.

Extreme hunger and malnutrition remains a barrier to sustainable development and creates a trap from which people cannot easily escape. Hunger and malnutrition mean less productive individuals, who are more prone to disease and thus often unable to earn more and improve their livelihoods.

2 billion people in the world do not have reg- ular access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food. In 2022, 148 million children had stunted growth and 45 million children under the age of 5 were affected by wasting.

How many people are hungry?

It is projected that more than 600 million people worldwide will be facing hunger in 2030, highlighting the immense challenge of achieving the zero hunger target.

People experiencing moderate food insecurity are typically unable to eat a healthy, balanced diet on a regular basis because of income or other resource constraints.

Why are there so many hungry people?

Shockingly, the world is back at hunger levels not seen since 2005, and food prices remain higher in more countries than in the period 2015–2019. Along with conflict, climate shocks, and rising cost of living, civil insecurity and declining food production have all contributed to food scarcity and high food prices.

Investment in the agriculture sector is critical for reducing hunger and poverty, improving food security, creating employment and building resilience to disasters and shocks.

Why should I care?

We all want our families to have enough food to eat what is safe and nutritious. A world with zero hunger can positively impact our economies, health, education, equality and social development.

It’s a key piece of building a better future for everyone. Additionally, with hunger limiting human development, we will not be able to achieve the other sustainable development goals such as education, health and gender equality.

How can we achieve Zero Hunger?

Food security requires a multi-dimensional approach – from social protection to safeguard safe and nutritious food especially for children to transforming food systems to achieve a more inclusive and sustainable world. There will need to be investments in rural and urban areas and in social protection so poor people have access to food and can improve their livelihoods.

What can we do to help?

You can make changes in your own life—at home, at work and in the community—by supporting local farmers or markets and making sustainable food choices, supporting good nutrition for all, and fighting food waste.

You can also use your power as a consumer and voter, demanding businesses and governments make the choices and changes that will make Zero Hunger a reality. Join the conversation, whether on social media platforms or in your local communities.

Facts and Figures

Goal 2 targets.

• Despite global efforts, in 2022, an estimated 45 million children under the age of 5 suffered from wasting, 148 million had stunted growth and 37 million were overweight. A fundamental shift in trajectory is needed to achieve the 2030 nutrition targets.
• To achieve zero hunger by 2030, urgent coordinated action and policy solutions are imperative to address entrenched inequalities, transform food systems, invest in sustainable agricultural practices, and reduce and mitigate the impact of conflict and the pandemic on global nutrition and food security.

Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round.

2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons.

2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment.

2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.

2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed.

2.A Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries.

2.B Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round.

2.C Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility.

International Fund for Agricultural Development

Food and Agriculture Organization

World Food Programme

UNICEF – Nutrition

Zero Hunger Challenge

Think.Eat.Save.   Reduce your foodprint.

UNDP – Hunger

Fast Facts: No Hunger

Infographic: No Hunger

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Recognizing and tackling a global food crisis

Globally, over 200 million people are facing emergency and famine conditions.

Adobe Stock

This year, acute food insecurity is projected to reach a new peak, surpassing the food crisis experienced in 2007-2008. A combination of factors—including greater poverty and supply chain disruptions in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, rising inflation, and high commodity prices—has increased food and nutrition insecurity. This is a multifaceted crisis, affecting access to and availability of food, with long-term consequences for health and productivity. The World Bank has scaled up its efforts to bolster food security, reduce risks, and strengthen food systems over the short and long term. Urgent action is needed across governments and multilateral partners to avert a severe and prolonged food crisis.

Declining food access and availability, with high risks

For most countries, domestic food prices have risen sharply in 2022, compromising access to food—particularly for low-income households, who spend the majority of their incomes on food and are especially vulnerable to food price increases. Higher food inflation followed a sharp spike in global food commodity prices, exacerbated by the war in Ukraine. Average global wheat, maize, and rice prices were respectively 18 percent, 27 percent, and 10 percent higher in October 2022 relative to October 2021.

At the same time, food availability is declining. For the first time in a decade, global cereal production will fall in 2022 relative to 2021. More countries are relying on existing food stocks and reserves to fill the gap, raising the risk if the current crisis persists. And rising energy and fertilizer prices—key inputs to produce food—threaten production for the next season, especially in net fertilizer-importing countries and regions like East Africa.

These trends are already affecting health. Stunting and wasting in children, and anaemia in pregnant women, are increasing as households are less able to include sufficient nutrition in their diets. A recent World Bank survey indicated that 42 percent of households across all countries covered were unable to eat healthy or nutritious food in the previous 30 days. These health effects carry long-term consequences for the ability to learn and work, and therefore escape poverty.

Globally, food security is under threat beyond just the immediate crisis. Growing public debt burdens, currency depreciation, higher inflation, increasing interest rates, and the rising risk of a global recession may compound access to and availability of food, especially for importing countries. At the same time, the agricultural food sector is both vulnerable and a contributor to climate change, responsible for one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions. And agricultural productivity growth is not staying ahead of the impacts of climate change, contributing to more food-related shocks. For example, an unprecedented multi-season drought has worsened food insecurity in the Horn of Africa, with Somalia on the verge of famine.

Managing the crisis and preparing for the future

The World Bank is responding to this escalating crisis with four areas of actions: (i) supporting production and producers, (ii) facilitating increased trade in food and production inputs, (iii) supporting vulnerable households, and (iv) investing in sustainable food security. It has made over $26 billion available for short- and long-term food security interventions in 69 countries, including active interventions in 22 of the 24 hunger hotspots identified as countries with the most pressing needs by the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Food Programme. Since April 2022, the World Bank has disbursed $8.1 billion, approximately evenly split between crisis response and long-term resilience projects. In the short term, projects like the Emergency Project to Combat the Food Crisis in Cameroon will provide 98,490 beneficiaries with emergency food and nutrition assistance with support from the World Food Programme. In addition to supporting vulnerable households, governments of food-exporting countries can improve global food security by limiting measures like export bans and stockpiling of food. In the longer term, governments can make an enormous difference by repurposing public spending on agricultural policies and support for a more resilient and sustainable food system that directly improves health, economies, and the planet.

These actions and newly released funding underline the scale of the crisis. Timely, coordinated, and sustained action through partnerships such as the Global Alliance on Food Security can maximize the impact of new policies and funding, and mitigate the scale of the crisis. The time to act is now.

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Famine Imminent in Gaza. Take Action Now.

World Hunger Facts

There is more than enough food produced in the world to feed everyone on the planet. yet 733 million people still go hungry., global hunger crisis in 2024.

Nearly one in 11 people around the world go to bed hungry each night, a crisis driven largely by conflict, climate change, and chronic inequality.

of Child Deaths Are Linked to Hunger

Children Are Stunted Globally

More People Face Hunger Than in 2019

What is hunger?

Hunger is more complicated than empty bellies. It’s a multifaceted problem with many root causes and far-reaching impact. The first step to ending the global hunger crisis is to understand what it is and why it exists in a world of plenty.

Who does hunger affect?

An overwhelming majority of the world’s hungry people reside in the developing world, where extreme poverty and lack of access to nutritious food often leads to malnutrition. Women and children are particularly vulnerable.

7 Hunger Facts

Due to the severe drought in Somalia, Mumina has no food and no breastmilk left to feed her youngest baby.

Today, we made dried tamarind. You crush the tamarind until it’s a sticky paste. Then you add ash and cook it. We’ll eat it this evening. It’s not healthy at all, but at least we have something warm in our bellies.”

— Tsiharatie, a mother of seven children in Madagascar

Both me and my child were very weak. We do not have enough food - just a bit of rice, wheat, and flour, nothing else. Pregnant women here face the risk of death, and they face many other risks. They do a lot of work, and they have no choice because there is no one else to work.”

— Nadia, a mother of five in Afghanistan

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Conflict and hunger

Five links in a deadly chain

Oct 17, 2021

Conflict and hunger exist in a back-and-forth relationship where one tends to increase the other. Unfortunately, in 2021, both are on the rise. This piece is adapted in part from Caroline Delgado and Dan Smith’s essay, “​​Hunger and Food Systems in Conflict Settings,” published by Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe as part of the 2021 Global Hunger Index.

One of the key  causes of hunger  is conflict — and, in many cases, vice versa. Unfortunately, both are on the rise. In 2020, more people were subject to food crisis due to conflict than any other factor. 2020 also saw 169 violent conflicts around the world. Military spending that year was at its highest since the Cold War.

This connection isn’t new: Angola and  Rwanda  both experienced large-scale civil wars in the 1990s and 2000s. With a decrease in violence, a significant fall in hunger levels followed. Conversely,  Chad  and the  Central African Republic  are both experiencing some of the highest levels of hunger in the world. They’re also caught in ongoing conflict and political unrest.

Without achieving food security, sustainable peace is an impossibility. Likewise, without peace, the likelihood of ending global hunger is equally unlikely. Here are five key ways in which conflict and hunger work together — to deadly consequences.

Stand with Concern in the fight against hunger

Conflict and hunger: fast facts.

• Hunger is a weapon of war , whether used explicitly or not, and leaves civilians paying the highest price.
• Violent conflict remains the main driver of hunger, exacerbated by climate change and COVID-19.
• Food systems in conflict-affected countries are more vulnerable to setbacks and have fewer safety nets.
• There’s a two-way street between conflict and hunger, and it’s almost impossible to end one without also ending the other.
• In 2021, violence escalates faster and in more hyper-specific locations. But its effects can stretch on for miles and take years — if not decades — to undo.

1. Conflict destroys agriculture

One of the most direct effects that conflict has on hunger is also the most tangible. In conflict-affected countries, approximately 60% of people live in rural areas. Agriculture is their source of both food and income. This means that entire communities are vulnerable to the effects of conflict. In the Central African Republic , 80% of the population relies on subsistence agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods. This is a devastating number when you consider that the country is more than a decade into a civil war with no sign of peace. Fighting has destroyed villages, land for crops and livestock, irrigation infrastructure and crops. Fighting often closes roads and points of access, which prevents others from getting to their fields. If they make it to their farm, it may be too late: Militant groups often take crops to feed themselves.

Even if the land and crops are safe and families don't flee their home, running a farm is a labor-intensive job. Civilian injuries during conflict are common, and can often leave people unable to work the land — sometimes for the rest of their lives.

2. Conflict interrupts food supply chains and economies

Suppose a family is able to safely remain at home during a conflict. They're able to till the land and reap a decent harvest. What then? If they're unable to go to market due to conflict-related closures, that can also disrupt a delicate food system . In rural communities, neighbors often rely on one another for their income as well as for a diverse diet. Close the market, and the system is likewise shut down. Without formal storage facilities, this also means that much of the food harvested will go to waste, rotting before it can be eaten.

Conflict makes day-to-day life unpredictable, which can also lead to economic instability. Even relatively wealthy families, like those living in Burundi during the country's civil war, may hedge their bets in response. In Burundi, farmers of all economic situations switched to low-risk, low-return crops. Likewise, farmers in Colombia during the country's five-decade civil war switched from profitable crops like coffee and fruit trees to options that are more seasonal and subsistence-based. The goal was to survive rather than thrive. Such crops allowed for quicker harvests and immediate results, but they also hurt incomes and diets for generations.

The economic impacts of a conflict also mean inflation. Food not only becomes scarcer, but also more expensive. In these conditions, black markets thrive, but they offer a double-edged sword: On the one hand, they are sometimes the only way people can eat. On the other hand, they also open people up to more risk and greater  shocks if the prices become unmanageable or supplies run dry.

3. Conflict leads to displacement which leads to food insecurity

People displaced (internally or as refugees) are more vulnerable to hunger and undernutrition. In one study from Nigeria's Yobe state, children living in displacement were 57% more likely to have acute malnutrition than children in host communities.

In host communities, refugees often face challenges based on their legal status and language barriers. Without work or formal resources, their living situations are often compromised. After more than a decade of conflict in Syria , many middle-class families gave up everything to escape. Now living below the poverty line as refugees, many now struggle to feed their families. Many fare better with food aid and nutrition support provided by NGOs. However, with humanitarian financial commitments lagging, this isn't a long-term solution.

4. Conflict disproportionately affects child hunger and nutrition

It's not just about the immediate lack of food. A poor diet (both quality and quantity) leaves children especially vulnerable. Their bodies and minds are still growing, and that growth requires energy in the form of food. Without food, they may be stunted physically and/or intellectually. They also become more susceptible to other illnesses and are more likely to die of hunger than adults.

This is a link between conflict and hunger that's well-documented. In Somalia , data from 2007-10 showed that conflict increased both child stunting and wasting rates. A 2013 study from Nigeria showed that states affected most by conflict had child wasting rates of 23%; in non-conflict areas, the rates were as low as 10%. Reports from 2019 showed  similar rates in Afghanistan and Yemen.

While conflicts have grown more localized, these effects of violence can be felt by children living as far as 60 miles away. They can also impact children born as late as eight years after the conflict ends.

The effects of a local conflict can be felt by children living 60 miles away and born as late as eight years after the conflict ends.

5. Conflict can increase in areas affected by food insecurity

Conflict and hunger exist in a vicious cycle. Conflict not only drives up hunger levels: Rising hunger levels also lead to grievances that can escalate to violence. As violence escalated in Haiti through 2019, UN reports that year predicted a nearly 10% increase in hunger levels for 2020. This was before COVID-19, and by the beginning of 2021, the increase in Haitians without adequate food was closer to 20%.

Part of the current crisis in Haiti has been fueled by this food shortage and inflation. Year-over-year, food prices rise, unregulated, by 30%. A recent World Food Programme report estimated that a working person in Haiti paid 35% of their daily income on one meal. That's akin to someone in New York paying $74 for lunch.

The Haiti crisis, explained: What you need to know in 2024

Here are five things to know about a crisis that has gone largely ignored.

The causes of conflict and hunger in each country — even community — are unique. Because of this, recovery takes time. The World Bank estimates between 15 and 30 years. This is an equally fragile period of peacetime, where ongoing food shortages or other issues can reignite old disputes. Signing a peace treaty is only the first step in a long road to recovery. It's also why we must continue to work towards establishing a peace strengthened by food systems, and food systems strengthened by peace.

Download the 2021 Global Hunger Index

Since 2006, Concern has partnered with the International Food and Policy Research Institute and Welthungerhilfe to assess the progress and setbacks in ending hunger. The Global Hunger Index , an award-winning, peer-reviewed report, offers a way to compare levels of hunger between countries and regions, allowing us — and other organizations and policy-makers around the world — to focus on areas where the need is greatest.

Conflict and hunger in context

What We Know About Hunger In The DRC In 2021

The Cost of Conflict in Burkina Faso

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Hunger and malnutrition in the 21st century

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• Related content
• Peer review
• Patrick Webb , professor 1 ,
• Gunhild Anker Stordalen , policy advocate 2 ,
• Sudhvir Singh , policy researcher 2 ,
• Ramani Wijesinha-Bettoni , United Nations 3 ,
• Prakash Shetty , professor 4 ,
• Anna Lartey , director of nutrition 3
• 1 Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
• 2 EAT Forum, Oslo, Norway
• 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Ringgold Standard Institution, Rome, Italy
• 4 MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, Ringgold Standard Institution, Chennai, India
• Correspondence to: P Webb patrick.webb{at}tufts.edu

Despite record food output globally, hunger is still with us. Patrick Webb and colleagues argue that key policy actions are urgently needed to tackle this scourge and must focus on improving diet quality for all

Today’s world is characterised by the coexistence of agricultural bounty and widespread hunger and malnutrition. 1 Recent years have seen a reversal of a decades old trend of falling hunger, alongside the re-emergence of famine. 1 National and global evidence shows that ensuring an adequate food supply is still an important contribution to eradicating hunger. However, generating more food in the form of staple grains or tubers is not enough. Good nutrition and an end to hunger both require everyone to have an appropriate diet. How can that be achieved?

Characterising the problem

A recent report for the World Committee on Food Security argued that “malnutrition in all its forms—not only hunger, but also micronutrient deficiencies, as well as overweight and obesity—is … a critical challenge not only in the developing but also in the developed countries. Resolving malnutrition requires a better understanding of the determinants and processes that influence diets.” 1 Malnutrition ranges from extreme hunger and undernutrition to obesity ( box 1 ). 2 3 Furthermore, malnutrition is found in all countries, irrespective of their economic development, where people lack high quality diets. 4 5 6 Thus, solutions to hunger and to all forms of malnutrition need to focus on ensuring an adequate supply of food, but equally, on the quality of diets.

Terms and definitions 1 2 3

Hunger is characterised in many ways. It encompasses individual sensations and household behavioural responses, food scarcity (actual or feared) and national food balance sheets that focus on supply of energy (kilocalories) in any country in relation to a minimum threshold of need. The food balance sheet approach is the only standard of measurement used globally. It is based on data collated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This organisation has replaced its previous use of the word “hunger” in describing this metric with the phrase “chronic undernourishment”. This today is defined as “a person’s inability to acquire enough food to meet daily minimum dietary energy requirements during 1 year” 1

Malnutrition— An all inclusive term that represents all manifestations of poor nutrition. It can mean any or all forms of undernutrition, overweight, and obesity

Undernutrition —Refers to any form of nutritional deficiency, particularly those manifest in maternal underweight, child stunting, child wasting, or micronutrient deficiencies. It does not include reference to overweight and obesity

Maternal underweight— A body mass index (BMI) of <18.5 among women of reproductive age. This typically reflects chronic energy deficiency coupled with a lack of other key macronutrients or micronutrients, ill health, or energy expenditure higher than consumption. A prevalence >20% indicates a serious public health problem

Child stunting —Height for age ≤ −2 standard deviations of the median for children aged 6-59 months, according to World Health Organization child growth standards

Child wasting— Weight for height ≤ −2 standard deviations of the median for children aged 6-59 months, according to WHO child growth standards

Micronutrient deficiencies— A lack of various key vitamins and minerals leads to a range of symptoms that are of global concern. These include anaemia due to iron deficiency and risk of child mortality associated with clinical vitamin A deficiency. Such deficiencies are measured in several ways, including biomarkers (assessed using blood, serum, urine, etc), clinical manifestations, or proxy measures of diet quality

Overweight and obesity —For non-pregnant adults, a BMI ≥25 represents being overweight. The threshold for obesity is a BMI ≥30. Child obesity is of increasing concern and was included in the latest global nutrition goals for 2030 (“no increase in childhood obesity”) 4

Today, risk factors for ill health associated with poor quality diets are the main causes of the global burden of disease. 5 6 Low quality diets lack key vitamins, minerals (micronutrients), and fibre or contain too many calories, saturated fats, salt, and sugar. 7 In 2010, dietary risk factors combined with physical inactivity accounted for 10% of the global burden of disease (measured as disability adjusted life years, which reflect the number of years lost due to ill health, disability, or early death). 8 By 2015, six of the top 11 global risk factors were related to diet, including undernutrition, high body mass index (BMI), and high cholesterol. 9 10 Where governments have invested the economic gains derived from rising productivity in safety nets and services accessible to the poor, this has resulted in national growth. 11 12 13 However, where poverty persists, including in rich nations, hunger also persists.

Several faces of hunger

Hunger is a broad unscientific term that relates to nutrition and health outcomes in various ways. The proportion of people defined as hungry over the long term (usually termed “chronically undernourished”) fell from 18.6% globally in 1990-2002 to under 11% in 2014-16 ( table 1 ). That was a decline of 211 million people while the world’s population increased by 2 billion. 2 Big gains were made in large countries like China and in Brazil, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh ( box 2 ). South America was particularly successful, reducing undernourishment by over 50% in 25 years. 1 Such gains were made possible largely by rapid reduction of poverty, rising levels of literacy, and health improvements that reduced preventable child mortality. 17

Numbers (millions) and prevalence (%) of people with chronic undernourishment, stunting, and wasting* by year and geographical region 2 14

• View inline

Successful resolution of undernutrition: Brazil, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh

Hunger (chronic undernourishment) has remained static at around 800 million people for several decades. This is largely because of rising populations in fragile states and the escalation of armed conflict in numerous parts of the world. 1 2 Nevertheless, child undernutrition has been falling. In 2000, roughly 200 million children under 5 years of age were stunted, but this has fallen to less than 151 million today. Rapid improvements in nutrition have been concentrated in several large nations, which have shown the way with policy success stories

• Brazil saw its prevalence of child stunting decline from 37% in 1974–1975 to 7% in 2006-7. 17 It achieved these gains through a sustained commitment to expand access to maternal and child health services (reaching into previously underserved geographical regions). This was coupled with large scale investment in social reform and safety net programmes that supported a narrowing of the income gap (through equitable poverty reduction), rising numbers of girls in school, declining fertility, and greater stability in income flows and food consumption among the poor. Stable food consumption was achieved through food supplementation targeted at mothers and children, and with cash transfers targeted at the poorest groups. All of this was helped by improved stability of governance. Few of these actions focused explicitly on nutrition, but many were driven by a policy agenda called “zero hunger.” Even with recent economic challenges and changes of government, the gains made over past decades persist

• Ethiopia has faced famines many times between the 1980s and the early 2000s. It has also reduced child stunting from 58% in 2000 to <40% by 2014. 18 Although this figure is still unacceptably high, it represents a fall of about 1.2% a year. 19 Ethiopia also increased enrolment and retention of girls in schools during this period, increased agricultural productivity, and implemented a huge employment based safety net (one of the largest social protection programmes in Africa). However, two other important drivers improved nutrition in this period. Firstly, a move by government to treat nutrition as a multisector challenge (met by numerous line ministry responsibilities) and, secondly, improved sanitation, focused on eradicating open defecation, which was a major impediment to health and the retention of nutrients in the diet 18 19

• Bangladesh is a modern nutrition superstar. It emerged from famine in the 1970s. Successive governments have worked alongside an unusually vibrant non-governmental sector to deal with underlying problems and visible symptoms of malnutrition. While service delivery remains generally weak, widespread targeted interventions were combined with a variety of nutritional measures that deal with underlying problems. 20 Such actions included economic growth policies aimed at the poor, girls’ education, improved sanitation, and a significant turnaround in the agricultural sector, which moved Bangladesh from being a net importer of food to a significant exporter. 18 21 As a result, child stunting fell from almost 57% in 1997 to around 36% in 2014 18 19

However, despite such progress the world still has unacceptably high numbers of undernourished people. Of the roughly 800 million undernourished, 780 million are in low income countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. 1 The continents of Africa and Asia have the greatest number of people living in extreme poverty, and it is here that extreme hunger and poverty together present the greatest risk of famine.

Famine is the most acute face of hunger. Over 70 million people died in famines during the 20th century. 22 23 24 Most deaths occurred in human induced crises, in which political mismanagement, armed conflict, and discrimination of marginalised political or ethnic groups compounded the effects of environmental shocks, such as droughts or locust invasions. 25 Deaths from famine fell from the mid-1980s onwards. However, as of 2017 four countries were again struggling to cope: Somalia, Yemen, South Sudan, and Nigeria. 26 In each case, instability induced by conflict, terrorism, drought and decades of failed governance have left over 20 million people facing famine, including 1.4 million children “at imminent risk of death.” 27

A major cause of mortality in famines is children becoming severely wasted. Around 52 million children were wasted in 2016, of whom around 70% (36 million) resided in Asia ( table 1 ). 14 Roughly 12.6% of deaths among children under 5 are attributed to wasting worldwide. 28 Although wasting has declined, progress has been slow and some countries have seen a rise, including Pakistan and India. 29 Many of the drivers of wasting are often the same as for stunting—namely, low birth weight, lack of exclusive breast feeding, poor hygiene and sanitation, and infectious disease. 30 While wasting is one sign of acute hunger, stunting (being too short for one’s age) represents chronic distress. Around 151 million preschool children were stunted in 2017, down from 200 million at the turn of the 20th century. 14 Improvements were made in east Asia, including China (today reporting a prevalence of only 6% compared with the global mean of 23%) and Bangladesh as well as in Latin America ( table 1 ). 31 Nevertheless, South Asia and East and Central Africa all still had rates over 32% in 2017.

Coexisting forms of malnutrition related to diet

The coexistence of multiple forms of malnutrition is a global phenomenon. That is, wasting often coexists with stunting in the same geographical areas, and can be found simultaneously in children. 32 For example, around 9% of children in India exhibit both conditions, while the rate in parts of Ghana is reported to be >3%. 32 33 Many countries with a high prevalence of stunting have made limited progress in achieving annual average rates of reduction required to meet global targets. For example, Timor Leste needs an annual reduction of around 5% to reduce stunting by 40% by 2030, but its current reduction rate is barely above zero. 9 Ethiopia also needs an annual average rate of reduction of 5%, but continues to remain at 3%.

Part of the reason for slow progress lies in overlapping micronutrient deficiencies. Inadequate supply of energy and protein both impair a child’s growth, but micronutrient deficiencies also have a role. It has been estimated that roughly 2 billion people, or about 29% of the world’s population, faced micronutrient deficiencies in 2010. 34 35 36 37 Micronutrient deficiencies are also widely present in high income countries. For example, childhood anaemia in 2010 was 26% in the Russian Federation and in Georgia, and 16%, on average, across the European Union. 38

Obesity is conventionally associated with food excess, but it is also associated with micronutrient deficiencies and even with daily hunger, as shown for Malaysia, 39 Canada, 40 and Iran. 41 Indeed, people with obesity can be prone to deficiencies of micronutrients, such as zinc, iron, and vitamins A, C, D, and E. 42 43 44 45 46 Between 1990 and 2010, the prevalence of adults with a high BMI in sub-Saharan Africa tripled. At the same time, hypertension increased by 60%, and the prevalence of high blood glucose rose nearly 30%. 47 The prevalence of overweight and obesity among South Asian women is almost the same today as the prevalence of underweight. 6 Pacific and Caribbean islands and countries in the Middle East and Central America have reached extremely high rates of adult overweight and obesity. Some have a prevalence as high as 80% (eg, Tonga, 84% for men, 88% for women). 48

Many countries today face the dual burden of rising rates of female obesity with continuing high rates of maternal underweight. The latter matters because of ill effects on the mother and on the unborn child. Roughly 30% of stunting by a child’s 3rd birthday can be attributed to being born small for gestational age, which is linked to nutrition before birth and health problems of the mother. 28 Not only is maternal underweight still more prevalent than overweight in rural parts of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa but adult female underweight rose recently in Senegal, Madagascar, and Mali, mainly in urban settings. 49

Thus, actions are needed in all countries around the world to deal with undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overweight and obesity simultaneously. No country is exempt. “Triple duty” investments are needed everywhere because wealth and food sufficiency will not in themselves resolve the problems of low quality of diets.

Effective actions to tackle hunger and malnutrition

In 2016, the world hit a new record by producing over 2.5 billion metric tons of cereal grains—up from 1.8 billion tons 20 years earlier. 50 But hunger persists because an increased supply of food alone is neither the solution to hunger nor an answer to malnutrition. Countries that have made recent progress in reducing hunger and improving nutrition have a core set of common characteristics. Firstly, they tend to be politically stable countries that have pursued relatively equitable growth policies (not only increasing wealth for some but reducing poverty overall). Secondly, they employ targeted safety nets for the poor and invest in accessible services (education, clean water, healthcare). Thirdly, they assume responsibility for responding to shocks (economic, environmental, or due to conflict) in timely ways that mitigate human suffering.

Successful actions typically include a mix of targeted so called nutrition specific programming (aimed at preventing or resolving defined nutrition and health problems in individuals) and nutrition sensitive interventions for the whole population that deal with the underlying causes. 9 32 35 Table 2 provides details of evidence based policies and programmes in a variety of sectors, which are known to reduce hunger and deal with malnutrition. 32 In food and agriculture, these may include national price support interventions that increase the supply and accessibility of nutrient rich foods (often perishables, like dairy, fruits and fresh meats), coupled with technical and financial support for women farmers to produce nutrient rich vegetables in their gardens. In health, national policies to support accessible high quality services are critical to ensuring antenatal and postnatal care, particularly combined with targeted nutrition, exclusive breast feeding, and infant feeding messaging. Measures directed at underweight mothers are important for good birth outcomes, as well as varied forms of micronutrient supplementation. 1 In other words, the quality of services, scale of coverage, and the singling out of nutritionally vulnerable demographic groups are all keys to success. 20 47

Examples of actions to tackle hunger and malnutrition across sectors 3 20 47 51

Good nutrition and eradication of hunger comes at a price, but pays for itself in the longer term. Donor funding for nutrition sensitive programmes rose between 2003 and 2015, from 11.8% to 19.4%, reaching around $19bn (£14bn, €16bn) in 2015. 48 Such assistance is deemed to be effective, in that a 10% increase in overall nutrition sensitive aid delivers an estimated 1.1% “decrease in hunger” (measured as chronic undernourishment). 48 The World Bank has argued that a “priority package” of evidence based nutritional interventions that could be readily scaled up would require roughly $23bn over a decade, or $5 per child. 51 52 The World Bank emphasises that while international donor agencies should increase spending to achieve global nutrition goals, national governments and citizens themselves need to increase spending and act appropriately. The role of individuals and families comes largely in the form of preferences and constraints. 52 People make choices that shape dietary patterns and physical activity but also the uptake of healthcare services, spending on smoking and hygiene, as well as investments in schooling for their children and agricultural productivity (if farmers).

The value of such large investments to future human and economic development has long been understood in high income countries, such as Europe and the United States. European countries deploy a wide range of policies to combat residual hunger. These include promoting more diverse local food production and diversified diets, the latter “encouraged through nutrition education targeting school children and mothers of young children.” 38 The United States also supports large state food provisioning through nutrition programmes aimed at women and children. For example, spending on the federal food stamp programme in 2017 reached $68bn ($126 per person). 53 Similarly, spending on the Women Infants and Children programme, which targets low income families nutritionally at risk with food supplements, nutrition education, and health system referrals, reached $6.5bn in 2017. 54

Conclusions

The sustainable development goals require all countries and their citizens to act together to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030. 13 Setting targets is a good first step, but actions need to follow quickly. Urgent attention to achieve such goals is seriously overdue. Policy action must be designed to reduce malnutrition in all its forms, and be adequately funded. Measures must be evidence based, implemented at scale, and include both broad based and targeted actions aimed at the most nutritionally vulnerable people. The evidence to support such actions is growing, but it is already plentiful and compelling; there is no need for delay. The rapidly escalating threats posed by malnutrition represent a planetary challenge on a par with poverty and climate change. An appropriate response at the required scale is top priority for decision makers globally. It cannot wait.

Key messages

Despite record levels of food production globally, hunger and many forms of malnutrition still affect billions of people

While traditionally associated with a lack of food, hunger, and malnutrition (which includes overweight and obesity as well as undernutrition) are associated with low quality diets

Poor diet quality is a problem in every country—high and low income alike. A high quality diet meets most key nutrient needs, mainly through nutrient rich foods

Securing high quality diets for all, comprising sufficiency, diversity, balance, and safety, is necessary to resolve hunger and malnutrition in all its forms

Policy makers must urgently implement evidence based, cost effective actions that have a triple purpose: eradicate hunger, resolve all forms of undernutrition, and tackle obesity

Governments must consider how policies across multiple sectors influence the functioning of food systems from farm to fork. They must identify changes that will help all consumers to have healthy diets

The challenge is huge, but the urgency has never been so great

Contributors and sources: The authors have diverse subject expertise and policy experience relating to hunger, food insecurity, diets and nutrition. Some authors have a medical or agriculture background, while others have training and experience in policy analysis, nutrition and humanitarian action. PW and GAS were both members of the Global Futures Council on Food Security and Agriculture of the World Economic Forum. PW and AL advise the Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition. SS is a contributing author to the upcoming EAT Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems. Data used are all in the public domain, and are derived from nationally representative surveys, United Nations agency analyses, or peer reviewed publications. PW, GAS and AL were involved in manuscript concept and design. All authors were involved in drafting and editing the manuscript; critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and approved the final manuscript and the authorship list. PW is the guarantor.

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ policy on declaration of interests and have no relevant interests to declare.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

This article is one of a series commissioned by The BMJ . Open access fees for the series were funded by Swiss Re, which had no input into the commissioning or peer review of the articles. The BMJ thanks the series advisers, Nita Forouhi and Dariush Mozaffarian, for valuable advice and guiding selection of topics in the series.

This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

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Causes And Effects Of The World Hunger

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