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Term Paper vs. Research Paper: What are the Differences?

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Term papers versus research papers and how to write them, rachel r.n..

• November 30, 2023
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College and university students often have to do writing assignments that involve a lot of research, planning, and writing. While many students know about research papers, only a few really understand what a term paper is and how to write one.

If you’re confused about the differences or wondering if there’s any distinction between the two, you’re not alone. Many students can’t tell a research paper apart from a term paper and end up not doing as well as they could.

In this short guide about term papers versus research papers, we’ll break down the differences and similarities of these common assignments in college and university. This will help clear up any confusion and get you ready for the work ahead.

Why is it important to know the difference between a research paper and a term paper?

Well, first things first, these two papers serve different purposes and have different structures. When you compare an essay to a research paper, you’ll notice that an essay is simpler. It usually involves discussing a specific problem based on personal observations.

On the other hand, a research paper is a more serious task. It requires a thorough analysis of a topic from various perspectives, and the writer needs to study credible and relevant sources.

Now, once you grasp the essential difference between an essay and a research paper, let’s look at how to understand the distinction between a term paper and a research paper. Knowing the nature of these papers is crucial for figuring out how to organize your writing and meet your professor’s requirements.

Now that we have a solid overview, let’s explore the nuances of term papers and research papers in more detail.

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What is a Term Paper?

A term paper is an important academic writing assignment that students undertake at the end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and analysis of a particular subject, demonstrating a student’s knowledge and understanding of the course material. Term papers can take various forms, such as reports, essays, or reviews, but they all require adherence to high academic standards.

Unlike research papers, term papers may not always require a thesis statement. Instead, they focus on summarizing and synthesizing the concepts and information learned throughout the term. Term papers provide an opportunity for students to showcase their comprehension of the course material and their ability to apply critical thinking skills to analyze and discuss the topics covered.

Completing a term paper successfully requires thorough research, organization, and clear writing. It is important to gather relevant sources, cite them properly, and present the findings in a coherent manner. Term papers are typically assigned towards the end of the term, giving students enough time to delve into the subject matter and produce a well-researched and well-structured paper.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic . It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions. Research papers can include primary research through experiments, surveys, or interviews, or rely on secondary sources such as books, scholarly articles, or online databases.

Research papers are typically longer and more in-depth than term papers, and they often require a thesis statement to guide the research process. The structure and format of a research paper can vary based on the discipline and the specific requirements set by the instructor or academic institution. However, research papers generally include sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion .

When writing a research paper, it is important to choose a specific research topic that aligns with your academic interests and goals. Conducting thorough research and critically analyzing the collected data are crucial steps in the research process. The findings and conclusions drawn from the research should contribute to the existing knowledge within the field and provide valuable insights for further study

Related blog article: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing a Nursing Research Paper

Key Characteristics of a Research Paper:

• Systematic investigation of a specific research topic
• Comprehensive research and data analysis
• Inclusion of primary or secondary sources
• Potentially longer and more in-depth than term papers
• Structured with sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion
• Contribution to existing knowledge within the field

By understanding the purpose and characteristics of research papers, students can effectively conduct research, analyze data, and contribute to their chosen academic field.

Key Differences Between Term Papers and Research Papers

When it comes to academic assignments, term papers and research papers are often mentioned interchangeably. However, there are distinct differences between the two in terms of purpose , approach , topic selection , level of research , references and sources , paper length , structure and organization , and time of assignment .

A term paper aims to summarize course material and evaluate a student’s understanding of the topics studied. On the other hand, a research paper requires original research and analysis of a specific topic to contribute to existing knowledge within a field.

Approach and Topic Selection

Term papers tend to have a more general approach, focusing on summarizing the material learned throughout a semester, while research papers require a more specific and in-depth analysis of a chosen topic. Term papers are often assigned by professors, while research papers allow students to select their own topics.

Level of Research

Term papers mostly rely on secondary sources, such as textbooks and scholarly articles, to support arguments and provide evidence. In contrast, research papers require more extensive research , often relying on a combination of primary sources and secondary sources.

References and Sources

Term papers typically use a limited number of sources for referencing, while research papers require a comprehensive list of sources and citations. Research papers also commonly include a literature review section to provide a context for the research topic.

Paper Length and Structure

Term papers are generally shorter in length compared to research papers. They usually follow a traditional essay structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Research papers, on the other hand, can be more extensive and often include additional sections such as an abstract, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion.

Time of Assignment

Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, serving as a comprehensive assessment of what students have learned. Research papers, however, can be assigned at any point during an academic term, depending on the course requirements and objectives.

Understanding these key differences is crucial for students to meet the specific requirements of term papers and research papers. It allows them to approach the assignments with the appropriate level of research , structure their papers effectively, and deliver a successful academic output.

The Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers serve a specific purpose in academia, as they are designed to summarize the course material learned during a semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied. They are a way for students to demonstrate their comprehension of the subject matter through written analysis and arguments. Term papers play a crucial role in assessing what students have learned and serve as a culmination and reflection of the knowledge acquired throughout the term.

When writing a term paper, the primary goal is to summarize the course material accurately. This requires a thorough understanding of the topics covered, as well as the ability to condense and synthesize the information into a coherent and concise written document. Term papers allow students to showcase their ability to analyze, evaluate, and draw connections between different concepts discussed in class.

Furthermore, term papers also serve as an opportunity for students to express their own thoughts and insights on the subject matter. While summarizing the course material is essential, term papers also provide an avenue for students to critically engage with the content, offering their own perspectives, interpretations, and arguments based on their understanding of the material.

Key Components of a Term Paper

When writing a term paper, there are key components that should be included to effectively fulfill its purpose. These components include:

• A clear introduction that provides an overview of the topic and sets the context for the paper.
• A well-structured body that presents and analyzes the course material, drawing connections between different concepts.
• Evidence-based arguments that support the student’s understanding and interpretation of the material.
• Proper citation and referencing of sources used to avoid plagiarism.
• A conclusion that summarizes the main points and demonstrates the student’s mastery of the course material.

Benefits of Writing Term Papers

While writing term papers may seem like a daunting task, they offer several benefits to students. Firstly, term papers provide an opportunity for students to develop and enhance their research, analysis, and writing skills. By engaging in extensive research and synthesizing information, students strengthen their ability to critically evaluate sources and draw meaningful conclusions.

In addition, term papers also foster independent thinking and intellectual growth. They allow students to explore topics of interest in greater depth, encouraging curiosity and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Term papers also cultivate effective communication skills, as students must articulate their ideas clearly and persuasively through written expression.

Overall, the purpose of term papers is to challenge students to engage with the course material, apply critical thinking skills, and effectively communicate their understanding. Through this process, students develop essential academic skills and gain a deeper appreciation for the subject matter.

The Purpose of Research Papers

Research papers serve a distinct purpose in academia: to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Through in-depth investigation and critical analysis, researchers aim to contribute to the existing body of knowledge within a given field. By delving into their chosen subject matter, researchers generate new insights, ideas, and arguments that can shape and advance their field of study.

Unlike term papers, which focus on summarizing course material , research papers require researchers to embark on their own intellectual journey. They formulate research questions, gather relevant data, and analyze findings to draw meaningful conclusions. This process often involves reviewing existing literature, designing and conducting experiments, or studying real-world phenomena. By engaging in original research, researchers contribute valuable knowledge that expands the understanding of their chosen topic and fosters academic growth.

The analysis and interpretation of research findings are essential components of a research paper. Researchers critically evaluate their data, draw connections between different pieces of information, and explore the implications of their findings. This rigorous examination allows for the development of new theories, the validation of existing hypotheses, and the exploration of alternative perspectives. Through their work, researchers contribute to the ongoing dialogue in their field and inspire future studies and discoveries.

Research papers provide a platform for researchers to share their discoveries, insights, and theories. Through the analysis and interpretation of original research findings, researchers contribute valuable knowledge to their field and advance the collective understanding of a specific topic.

Tips for Writing Term Papers and Research Papers

Writing term papers and research papers can be challenging tasks, but with the right approach and techniques, you can successfully complete these academic assignments. Here are some tips to help you write your term papers and research papers effectively:

1. Develop a clear outline:

Before you start writing your paper, it’s essential to create a well-structured outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing and help you organize your thoughts and arguments. Your outline should include the main sections and subheadings that you plan to cover in your paper.

2. Conduct thorough research:

Both term papers and research papers require extensive research to support your arguments and provide evidence. Make sure to gather relevant sources from reputable academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for proper citation.

3. Analyze and synthesize your findings:

Once you have gathered all the necessary research materials, analyze and synthesize the information. Identify key findings, arguments, and supporting evidence. Look for patterns and connections between different sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of your topic.

4. Follow proper structure and organization:

Ensure that your paper follows the appropriate structure and organization . Use clear and concise paragraphs to present your ideas and provide smooth transitions between different sections. Introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion should be well-defined and logically connected.

Remember to cite all your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. By following these tips, you can improve your writing skills and produce high-quality term papers and research papers.

What is the difference between term papers and research papers?

Term papers focus on summarizing course material and evaluating a student’s understanding, while research papers require original research and analysis of a specific topic.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is an assignment completed by college students at the  end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and focuses on a particular subject.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an  academic document  that involves the  systematic investigation  of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions.

What are the key differences between term papers and research papers?

Term papers are more general in approach and summarize course material, while research papers require more specific research and analysis. Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, while research papers can be assigned at any point. Term papers typically use secondary sources, while research papers require original research and often rely on primary sources. Additionally, the structure and organization of term papers and research papers can differ.

What is the purpose of a term paper?

The purpose of a term paper is to summarize the course material learned during the semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied.

What is the purpose of a research paper?

The purpose of a research paper is to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Research papers aim to contribute to the existing knowledge within a given field by conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and drawing meaningful conclusions.

What are some tips for writing term papers and research papers?

Some tips for  writing term papers  and research papers include developing an outline, conducting in-depth research, gathering and analyzing relevant sources, developing a thesis statement (if required), ensuring proper structure and organization, and citing all sources properly to avoid plagiarism.

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Term Papers Versus Research Papers: What is the Difference?

College and university students do many writing assignments involving intensive research, planning, and writing. Although many students are familiar with research papers, only a few understand a term paper and how to write one.

If you are confused about the differences or wonder whether there is any difference between the two, you are not alone. Many students cannot distinguish a research paper from a term paper and end up not performing as required.

In this brief term paper versus research paper guide, we narrow down the differences and similarities of these typical college and university assignments to clear your doubts and prepare you for the task ahead.

What is a Term Paper, and what is a Research Paper?

A term paper is an academic writing assignment involving comprehensive research with a specific focus on certain concepts, topics, or issues covered within a given course over a semester. Term papers can take many forms, including essays, reviews, projects, or reports. Term papers must demonstrate a deeper understanding of the topics and course content, mostly exploring information gathered throughout the semester.

A research paper, on the other hand, is a formal writing task that involves research into a specific subject and examination of data. It entails systematic research to explore a specific topic. Although some research papers might require data collection, analysis, and reporting, some research papers are longer essays that expound a research thesis statement. Research papers may include primary research such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments. It also involves using secondary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, government or institutional documents, and other secondary sources.

Related Blog Article: How to write a terrorism research paper.

Research Paper vs. Term Paper: The Differences

If you have written a term or research paper, you might conclude they are the same. However, these two pieces of assignments are not similar. Let's categorize the comparison into themes to explore the differences and similarities better.

Purpose and Scope

A research paper is a comprehensive document that reports the results of a given research process. It entails synthesizing information from primary and secondary research to answer a research question or prove a hypothesis. Research papers contribute new insights or knowledge to your field. When writing a research paper, you must conduct an in-depth investigation, critical analysis, and examination of existing literature to support claims and findings.

On the other hand, a term paper covers the materials, concepts, and theories studied during a specific academic term, semester, or course. The core role of a term paper is to assess the student’s level of understanding of the subject matter. When writing a term paper, you synthesize information from assigned readings, lecture slides and notes, and class discussions.

Related: How to write a research thesis statement.

Writing a research paper is time-consuming and requires considerable planning and execution. You can spend several weeks or months working on a research paper. Some professors will require a research proposal at first before approving you to conduct the research and write a research paper.

Term papers are usually assigned within shorter frames. Your professor will expect the term paper within a few weeks or the entire semester. The course timeline dictates how long you will be expected to deliver the final draft. The main thing is that they are assigned when you have covered a lot of material to prove that you have a good grasp of the contents.

Originality and Contribution

Unlike a research paper that requires in-depth inquiry into new topics and testing new theories, a term paper only requires structured arguments supported by evidence. The main aim of a term paper is to demonstrate that you have comprehended the concepts and can apply them in real-life situations. A research paper, on the other hand, must be original as you can. There is an emphasis on generating new ideas, insights, and knowledge to the already existing body of knowledge. When writing a research paper, you can critique the existing theories, fill existing research gaps, and combine theories to explain different issues. Research Methodology

Research paper writing entails conducting either primary or secondary research. This way, you must design a study, collect and analyze data, and write a paper showing a well-ordered discourse. You have to conduct original research on a given research topic. A short research paper can also involve synthesizing information from published research studies or journal articles. On the other hand, a term paper relies on secondary sources such as articles, textbooks, and other scholarly or credible materials. Some professors will also direct you to conduct primary research, although you are not limited to the extensive methodology as with research papers.

Related Reading: Steps for writing a research paper.

Format and Structure

Research papers might be prose, like longer essays with headings and subheadings. They can also take the scientific paper format, including an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, research findings (results), discussion, conclusion, and recommendations (IMRAD format). A research paper is written in a formal, objective, and concise format, focusing heavily on academic phrases and words.

Term papers have an introduction, main body, and conclusion. If you must write a literature review or formal methodology section, the tone is generally conversational and less formal than in research papers.

A term paper is generally longer than a typical essay but less voluminous than a research paper. Most term papers range between 7 and 20 pages, with some professors assigning short papers ranging from 1000 to 1200 words.

Research papers are longer than term papers. Although there are shorter research papers, 7-9 pages long, most research papers are typically 10-40 pages or more. A standard research paper is 4000-6000 words long, excluding the abstract, references, and appendices pages.

Sources and references

A research paper is anchored on your primary or secondary research. You need to design and conduct primary research. The only part you are to use secondary data is when introducing the research paper topic, stating the problem, literature review, and the discussions section to expound on knowledge.

A successful research paper must prove an in-depth understanding of the topic, theories, and concepts so that you can synthesize information from various sources.

When writing a term paper, you primarily use secondary scholarly sources such as journals, articles, book chapters, dissertations, theses, biographies, commentaries, and other materials. You will learn from lecture notes, class discussion posts and responses, and other assignments. While a term paper also synthesizes information, it also summarizes findings from other scholars to help advance knowledge.

Related Readings: Steps for writing a nursing paper

Similarities between Research and Term Papers

You are not doubting, nor is it false, that a research paper and a term paper share similarities. There are certain features that you will find in either of the assignment. Here are some of the similarities between research papers and term papers.

Topic Selection

Both the research paper and term paper topic selection process are the same. In many cases, your professor or instructor will assign you a topic to explore, or they can let you choose a topic you are comfortable handling. When you can select a research topic on your own, which is more likely, go for a narrow, engaging, and manageable one. Select a topic you can spend many hours researching and writing about without changing your mind midway.

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Requirements

A research paper and a term paper prompt might be the same. You need to adhere to standard academic writing conventions. You should also frame the papers in a given format and include citations in APA, MLA, Chicago, ASA, AMA, Turabian, Oxford, Harvard, etc. You must also adhere to the submission deadlines and ensure the paper is entirely plagiarism-free.

They can mean the same thing

A term paper can be a research paper. Yes, although this might come out as confusing, it is true. Your instructor can assign you a research topic and expect that you conduct in-depth research that includes a methodological approach. For instance, you can be asked to research a given issue or problem using qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches and then write a 10–12-page term paper. In this case, you must write a research paper using the IMRAD format.

As you Ruminate Everything …

Understanding the difference and similarities between a research paper and a term paper helps you differentiate what to include when assigned either assignment.

Both share some slight similarities, but they also have glaring differences. The next time you are required to write a research paper assignment, you will know what scope to cover. The same applies to term paper writing.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper: What’s the Difference?

by  Antony W

June 27, 2024

It’s easy to confuse term and research paper for the same thing because they have a number of elements that easily overlap. However, there are features that set them apart. In this term paper versus research paper guide, we look at the similarities and differences so you never confuse the two assignments for the same thing ever again.

What is a Research Paper?

We can define a research paper as an academic piece of assignment that requires a student to investigate subject methodically and theoretically and present their findings on the topic. Notably, research papers focus on analyzing issues (or problems) within a specific course.

In other words, when your professor asks you to write a research paper, they expect you to study a specific problem. More often than not, the problem under investigation is one that either has had questionable results in the past or hasn’t had an extensive coverage in the already existing studies.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper , on the other hand, is an assignment issued to test student’s knowledge on a given subject or themes after a given duration of studies.

The type of assignment you write in the case of a term paper will vary depending on your instructor’s preference. They may ask you to write an essay , complete a test, or do some school work linked to the theme you’ve explored in a classroom setting.

You will write a term paper near the end of a class, and what you score for the assignment will count in that specific subject’s final grades.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: What Are The Key Differences?

Many elements easily overlap between a term paper and a research paper, but that doesn’t mean they’re 100% similar to one another. You need to learn the differences so that you never confuse between these two types of assignments.

The table below indicates the apparent differences between a term paper and a research paper.

These differences may not be clear at a first glance, so it often helps to do a lookup when in doubt.

Let’s take this even further by explaining these similarities and differences in more details so that you have more insights on the same.

Term Paper Vs Research Paper: Similarities

Topic selection.

The criterion for topic selection is the same for term and research paper. Your instructor can either assign you a topic to work on or ask you to choose one yourself, with the option to identify your own topic being the most common option.

If your instructor has given you the freedom to choose a topic yourself, make sure the subject you pick relates to the discussion had and study material issued in class.

Requirements

Both term and research paper need to adhere to academic formatting and referencing style. You’ll find these requirements clearly indicated in the assignments’ instructions. If your instructor doesn’t give you a formatting and referencing style to use, stick to MLA or APA.

A Term Paper Can Be a Research Assignment

We understand that this can bring a lot of confusion, but it’s important to note that a term paper can also be a research assignment. If your instructor has asked you to investigate a topic based on existing evidence by using a methodological approach in a 10-page term paper, they’re most likely asking you to write a research assignment.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: Understanding the Differences

Structural differences.

One clear difference between term paper and a research paper is the components that go into the assignment.

A research paper should have an introduction, literature review, methodology, results (or findings), discussion (or analysis), conclusion, and reflection (optional).

You won’t have a question to explore in a term paper and it doesn’t include a hypothesis either. The assignment doesn’t require appendices, but your instructor may ask you to include an annotated bibliography in the term paper.

Differences in Goals

The goal of a research paper assignment is to solve a specific problem. Often, you’ll have to study existing literature to find gaps or contradictions and then suggest solutions based on your findings. 

A term paper, on the other hand, seeks to test your knowledge on a topic. The emphasis is on testing your understanding of a given subject or theme discussed in classroom.

Differences in Length

A term paper is longer than a typical essay, but it won’t be as voluminous as a research paper. In fact, term papers hardly ever go beyond 20 pages, and the shortest ones that Help for Assessment writers have worked on are as short as 1,000 words.

A research paper is longer than a term paper, with the number of pages ranging between 10 and 40 give or take, if not more at least.

Term papers tend to be shorter because, in part, they’re a bridge between essays and research works, and mostly because they don’t presuppose serious data collection and detailed analysis.

Differences in Deadlines and Grades

The word term, in respect to academic assignments, refers to a finite period within which a task should be complete. Therefore, in essence, a term paper is an assessment given at the very end of a course, and it often determines a student’s final grades.

A research paper may or may not influence your final grade depending on the instructions given – or your professor’s preference.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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What Is the Difference between Research Paper and Term Paper?

Attending a college, you are sure to write a number of essays and other types of papers. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between the types of the papers. This differentiation is required when one is asked to write a specific type of the paper (either a research paper or a term paper), but it appears a problem for him/her. Why do students need to know the particular type of the paper before writing it? The reason is obvious: each paper type has a specific structure and the purpose. Everything’s clear with an essay, which is defined as a paper devoted to a particular problem and written in accordance with a specific structure: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. When speaking about a term paper and a research paper, understanding the differences is important in order to understand what should be written in a paper to meet the instructions. Trying to get the main distinguishing features between a research paper and a term paper, it is important to identify the basic common aspects. Both these types of the papers are aimed at showing students’ knowledge and understanding of a particular problem under analysis. The differences are presented below.

Research Paper

“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing” Wernher von Braun

Here is a list of the points, which make a research paper different from other paper types

• A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are usually written to study some specific problem, which has not been covered effectively, which has some little research, or which results are doubtful. A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject. The title page, the table of contents, the introduction / background, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion and the conclusions / recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter which problem is under research , the structure is the same.
• This type of paper writing requires some time for conducting a research and writing it. There are a lot of different types of research, interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, experiment, etc. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take from a day to even the years.
• A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually research papers start from 10 pages and may be even 100 pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than 10 pages as in this case it is impossible to explain the major points, to discuss the results and to prove the hypothesis.
• A research paper can cover the material studied during different years and laid out in various courses. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problems discussed in the past. The materials learned in the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information and analyzing the literature on the issue.
• A term paper, being a part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or to complete another task, which will show how well students have learnt the course material during the discussed time period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.
• A term paper is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked to take a test, to write an essay, or to complete some task devoted to this particular theme.
• A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure, a term paper may be written in a form of an essay, it can have a questions-answers structure, it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.
• A term paper can be of any length. It can be one page and 20 pages, no matter which topic is used and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fits better the specific topic which has been studied.
• A term paper involves the material studied during the course. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during the particular time period. The main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the material.

To the word, a task in a term paper can be to write a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different despite the fact that each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process is very complicated and requires constant motivation and encouragement from the side of the professors. Students do want to receive new knowledge, but they need to know that this new knowledge is needed in the future. Moreover, some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them for working harder.

Being aware of the differences between the term papers and the research papers, one may become a better student, improve his/her grades and enlarge the scope of knowledge and skills. Overall, the difference is usually explained by the teacher, but being in the process of studying new information one may miss these points and become frustrated. A term paper and a dissertation have different focus and display various experience of students. Only being aware of the purpose and the structure of the particular task one is sure to complete it successfully. Each student want to receive the highest grades and this article may be in use for those, who strive for higher grades and better knowledge.

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Differences between term papers and research papers

While you might think they are the same, the term paper and the research paper are really two different things. The two share similar features. They may even be related. But there are differences to consider.

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is given at the end of the term and counts as a significant percentage of the final exam. A term paper typically runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words. Term papers allow for a critical examination of current topics and usually allow for the writer’s opinion. The term paper contains arguments and/or persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from a variety of reliable sources, such as academic papers, scholarly magazines or textbooks.

On the other hand, a research paper is typically an academic study carried out with regards to answering theoretical questions. The student is required to interpret the information given and turn it into a significant, noteworthy paper. A research paper can consist of up to 5,000 words. It is up to your instructor to indicate the length of the research paper…

In each instance, topics are chosen by the instructor and/or the student. In each instance, research and reference materials are required. In each instance, it is helpful to develop an outline before attempting to write the final drafts. In fact, the term paper and the research paper share a lot of the same qualities.

The real difference between a term paper and a research paper is that a research paper can be assigned at any time, whereas, a term paper is typically assigned at the end of the term...

Writing term papers or research papers may seem like a waste of good time; yet, both are designed to help you better communicate your knowledge and understanding of a specific topic. Both are designed to help you understand the methodologies involved in note-taking, referencing and research.

One final note: As you endeavor to write each of these papers respectively, acknowledge and incorporate what you have learned from previous writing assignments. And, always utilize your writing as an opportunity to communicate in interesting and creative ways. Make an argument. State your case. And be sure to back up what you say with sound, reliable evidence. The best writers will give one-hundred percent, regardless of what the assignment entails.

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Difference Between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

As a college student, you are largely conversant with writing a research paper. It is a prerequisite requirement most instructors enforce on their students. But what about its less-known relative, the term paper?

What Is a Term Paper?

Moreover, depending on the instructor’s instructions, it can come in different forms. For example, your instructor might decide whether it’s peer-reviewed, a report, or an essay.

Types of Term Papers

Argumentative.

These analytical tasks refer to assignments that involve thorough examination, evaluation, and interpretation of a specific topic or subject matter. The essence of this analysis is breaking down topics into individualized parts while drawing meaningful conclusions based on the analysis.

Compare and contrast

Term paper outline, what is a research paper, breakdown of different types, comparative, descriptive, research paper outline, bottom line.

Essay vs Research Paper: Key Disparities

Table of contents

• 1.1 What Is an Essay?
• 1.2 What Is a Research Paper?
• 2.1 Purpose and Objective
• 2.2 Structure and Organization
• 2.3 Length and Depth
• 2.4 Sources and Evidence
• 2.5 Voice and Style
• 2.6 Audience and Presentation
• 3 Essay vs Research Paper: 10 Points of Difference
• 4 What Is the Difference Between Research Paper and Different Types of Papers
• 5 Let’s Sum Up

Every student needs to write some academic papers for the university. However, even young people with experience can't determine the difference between an essay and a research paper. Although these two areas of academic writing have many similarities, the requirements are still significantly different.

• In this article, you will get a clear definition of an essay and research paper.
• We will outline the key differences between these two types of academic writing.
• You will learn more about the organization, structure, essay and research paper requirements.
• Finally, you will be able to tell the difference between a research paper and an essay.

To get to the heart of the matter of these two academic assignments, we should start by getting an essay vs research paper definition.

Definition and Overview

What is an essay.

An essay is a short piece of work, the purpose of which is to present individual thoughts regarding a chosen topic. Often, essays do not pretend to be scientific but require a defined structure. The basic requirements for an essay suggest writing a five-paragraph piece that contains an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

What makes your essay unique is your creativity and the novelty of your ideas. To easily structure your thoughts and present them clearly to the reader, you should devote time to drafting an essay . Before you start writing your essay, brainstorm the freshest ideas. Thus, even though all your classmates will use the same five-paragraph structure as you, your ideas will impress the teacher. Experiment with meaning, not form.

What Is a Research Paper?

The difference between an essay and a research paper revolves around the academic approaches. Research work is the depth of study of a selected scientific topic, which should bring scientific novelty by drawing conclusions based on existing research and experiments conducted. For students, it’s not enough to state the facts or express their point of view regarding the topic. Your task is to comprehensively study the subject of research, familiarize yourself with existing opinions, and outline the direction of the upcoming study.

Your teacher will expect you to demonstrate analytical skills, the ability to select reliable sources, and a broad theoretical base on your research topic. Research papers require creativity, erudition, and orientation in the topic.

Key Differences Between Essay and Research Paper

The central difference is the goal of these academic assignments. The essay aims to express an individual point of view and find a creative, fresh approach to an existing topic. A good research paper seeks to introduce scientific novelty by examining existing data and conducting new experiments to analyze the information obtained.

Purpose and Objective

The first and main difference between an essay and a research paper is the purpose of writing . An essay as an academic task has the goal of developing students' creative thinking. It also teaches us a structured presentation of thoughts regarding a certain topic. The student is required to have a non-standard approach, fresh thoughts, and reasoned conclusions on the given topic.

The purpose of the research work is to study a scientific topic in detail. This academic assignment is aimed at assessing the student’s analytical abilities and competence to determine cause-and-effect relationships, filter sources, and formulate logical conclusions. Such work requires theoretical knowledge, preliminary study of existing scientific works, and the ability to formulate goals and research methods.

Moreover, a student is supposed to show the capacity to draw comprehensive conclusions based on available data and information obtained during independent research. This task may seem complicated to students, so they opt for resorting to the help of PapersOwl writing service to save time.

Structure and Organization

To start with, the basic structure of any college essay involves a text consisting of five paragraphs, divided into three main factions: introduction, body part, and conclusion. When students lack time to compose a nicely structured academic essay, they can always pay to write a research paper and have their tasks done by a professional. The introduction presents the topic, sets the main direction for further text, and also works as a bait to motivate the reader to study further work. The introduction is followed by three body paragraphs. Each of the three body paragraphs presents a separate idea.

The last paragraph of any essay is a conclusion. In this paragraph, the college or university student must resume the arguments and ideas presented in the text, summarizing them into the main message of the essay. Often, the idea that you present in your conclusions will be most memorable to the reader.

Consequently, let’s overview the structure of a research paper. Compared to the structure of an essay, the organization of a research paper is much more ornate. This type of work requires a title page and abstract that go before the main body of text. On the title page, the student describes his topic of work, as well as gives contact details. An abstract is a short description of the main ideas and research methods of your work. The research work itself consists of an introduction, background, main part, and conclusions. Also, at the very end, they often add acknowledgments and a list of references, which must be formatted following the required international format.

Length and Depth

The length and depth of analysis between these two academic assignments also differ significantly. As for the essay, it is often a short prose piece whose length does not exceed 1000 words. You are faced with the task of fitting a large array of ideas into a small amount of text. The essay format itself rarely requires rigorous and thorough research of the topic, but you should work on creativity and the presence of a message in your essay. Most academic papers fall in the 300 to 600-word range.

On the other hand, a research paper is a scientific project that includes many theoretical aspects that require analysis and clarification. Thus, the volume is significantly bigger. Basic research paper lengths range from 4,000 to 6,000 words. In this case, you will no doubt have to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the selected sources, formulate a research vector, and spend time conducting your experiments, or ask PapersOwl to do a research paper for you . A research paper is a scientific project that includes many theoretical aspects that require analysis and clarification.

Sources and Evidence

The presence of theoretical sources and references is not a mandatory requirement for an essay. You can state your own thoughts on a given topic without resorting to the help of existing sources. Present your ideas on the topic, giving arguments that seem logical to you. If you do decide to base your paper on existing works, you must be sure to indicate where the information was taken from. And yet, the teacher needs to see your own thoughts rather than a dry listing of existing ideas.

Unlike an essay, a quality research paper must include primary and secondary sources, as well as a specific citation format. Surely, you are not the first person to study this scientific topic. In order not to repeat existing thoughts, you need to conduct a search to form a reliable basis for your study. If you skip this step, you risk basing your paper on misleading scientific findings.

Voice and Style

The very specificity of the essay as an academic paper is the subjective presentation of information. A large percentage of your essay should consist of your perspective and vision of the chosen topic. For this reason, essays often use a less formal and more subjective tone. However, you can still use a large amount of colloquial vocabulary, completely disregarding the norms of formal style. Students often have trouble figuring out the right style for their university assignments. In such cases, a reasonable solution is to seek help from a specialist. When you buy custom-written essays from PapersOwl, you’ll always get a perfectly balanced academic paper.

On the other hand, a research paper is a serious scientific work. The student must maintain a formal tone while complying with all structural requirements. Also, in investigative work, there is little room for subjectivity and a personal approach since an objective style is required. At the same time, do not oversaturate your research work with formalism and standard clichés.

Audience and Presentation

The essay format can be used both in the educational process and in an independent literary style. Therefore, the audience for such a written assignment can be wide and varied. When you’re writing an essay, make sure it’s understandable in academia and for a wide audience.

Research work, on the contrary, is aimed at a range of professionals in the chosen field. Written in scientific language, the goal of this work is to attract the attention of scientists and students of certain majors. Your scientific work should be rich in theory and related terms.

Essay vs Research Paper: 10 Points of Difference

As you may have noticed, research papers and essays have many differences, both global and specific. These two types of academic assignments differ in the purpose of writing, have different structures and formats, and are aimed at testing different skills. And yet, every day, students face difficulties in understanding the basic requirements, which leads to incorrect execution of the task. To summarize the main differences, let's look at the table below.

What Is the Difference Between Research Paper and Different Types of Papers

There are many types of papers, each focusing on different topics, serving different purposes, and requiring a specific structure. Those are different types of essays that share a common ground but differ in the way they present information and arguments.

Analytical paper. The purpose of such an essay is an in-depth analysis of the chosen topic, studying different approaches and points of view, and formulating one’s own conclusions based on the information studied and scientific evidence.

Argumentative paper. This type of essay takes as a basis an ambiguous topic; the author must take a certain position and provide a number of arguments.

Informative paper. It has an informative purpose — a presentation of information to the reader, preceded by careful analysis and selection of data.

Persuasive paper . The purpose of this paper is to present convincing arguments, using chosen writing techniques, confirming the author’s position regarding the selected scientific topic.

To get a high grade, you need to understand the requirements of academic requirements. No matter how informatively rich your work is, if it does not meet the requirements, it cannot be highly appreciated. Each type of academic assignment has its own clearly defined, unique format. It’s necessary to know the difference between a research paper vs argumentative essay so as not to get confused while completing a college assignment. So before you start writing an assignment, make sure you understand the type of academic writing required of you.

Let’s Sum Up

Research papers and essays are aimed at testing various skills of the student, following different structures, and having several requirements. An essay is a more creative writing task, which involves showing originality and expressing a personal opinion on a certain topic. At the same time, a research paper is a type of scientific writing that adheres to a strict structure and uses a formal tone. Understanding the main differences will make your writing process easier, saving you time researching the requirements. Remember that knowing the essence of the assignment is a key factor in writing a decent paper.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper vs an Essay: Differences & Tips

a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Depending on the academic level in which a student is in, they will be tasked with writing different types of academic writings to demonstrate their proficiency as learners.

Academic writings come in the form of term papers, research papers, and essays. As a learner, you will be tasked with writing exercises. You should be aware of their differences so that you can deliver what is required.

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Difference between a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Now, what is the difference between the three major forms of academic writing? Well, first of all, a term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition.

It is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

What this means is that a term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project.

Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester. The reason is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term.

In addition to ensuring that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

A research paper is an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic. It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills. They come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

Essays can be regarded as interpretive or analytic literary compositions. Alongside they are written by students to test their knowledge of simple concepts. Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

In simple, a research paper is an academic writing that tests a student’s ability to apply knowledge learned in class or a course. A term paper on the contrary is a written assignment to test a learner’s knowledge of a specific topic or chapter.

On the other hand, an essay is an interpretive or analytic literary composition where a student makes an argument about a topic.

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Comprehensive Definitions of the Three

1. term paper.

A term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition that is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

A term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project. Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester.

This is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term. Besides ensure that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

For example, let us imagine that you are studying environmental science in college. You have started the semester or term by defining the key concepts.

Finally, you are gradually getting into more details as the semester goes on.

To ensure that you understand the concepts of environmental science and give the instructor an opportunity to determine your progress as a learner, they will give you a term paper to complete by the end of the semester.

You should note that it should be completed by the end of the semester. Not at the end of the semester like other papers. Term papers are a continuous writing process that students should do throughout the semester.

In most cases, instructors will notify their students at the beginning of the semester that they are required to complete a term paper by the end of the semester.

This allows students to start the writing process early enough to avoid being overwhelmed at the end of the semester.

2. Research paper

A research paper, can be defined as an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic.

It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers for a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills to come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

In a research paper, students will also conduct research into specific questions that have been posted by hypotheses and/or scientific theories.

When instructors give students research papers as assignments, it means that they are trying to gauge the research capabilities of their students concerning a specific topic within a particular discipline.

Research papers help students become better scholars and field researchers later in life.

Research papers are usually completed at the end of the semester and they are comparatively shorter in length compared to term papers – at least in most cases.

As we have noted, term papers are meant to show a student’s academic process during the term/semester.

However, research papers are meant to tackle specific research issues or topics that have been derived from the course.

What this means is that as the course continues, the research questions or topics will arise. As such giving students an opportunity to tackle them through their research papers.

Therefore, research papers are usually given to students towards the end or at the middle of the semester to give students enough time to come up with their papers.

Research papers take a different structure of writing. Check out our comprehensive guide on how to write a research paper and learn more.

But in brief, there is an introduction, background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally a conclusion. This is the major defining characteristic of research papers.

3. An Essay

On the other hand, the essay is an interpretive or an analytic literary composition written to test students’ knowledge of simple concepts.

Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

Essays can be written by students in high school. This is because the steps of writing an essay are pretty simple.

They can also be written by college-level students. However, it is rare for post-graduate students to write essays.

Essays take a simpler structure or format compared to research papers and term papers. Essays have an introduction, body, and a conclusion.

It should be noted that there are times when research papers are longer than term papers depending on the academic requirements and the content presented in the papers.

At the same time, depending on the academic scheduling of the institution, students can be required to start writing their papers at any point during the term/semester.

As such, be keen with the instructions provided by your professors or teachers when writing essays, term papers, or research papers.

Similarities between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

The first similarity is that both term papers and research papers are longer pieces of academic writings that are written by college-level students concerning a particular subject matter.

What this means is that they are formal academic works that gauge the student’s understanding of the course concepts. These concepts go into the writing as subtopics in a research paper , which makes the difference.

The second similarity between a term paper and a research paper is that they both take the same writing or academic format. The basic format is the introduction, the background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally conclusion.

However, it can have a table of contents, abstracts, acronyms, acknowledgments, and so on. Though there might be a slight difference, both papers must have both in-text citations and a reference page at the end of the paper.

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Similarities between a Term Paper and an Essay

There are some similarities between a term paper and an essay. The first similarity is that both analyze or interpret particular course concepts.

While an essay is a literary composition that takes a narrow scope in terms of the content to be covered, a term paper will also take the form of literary composition. In addition, it covers a wider scope of concepts within the course. However, both are literary compositions.

The second similarity between a term paper and an essay is that they allow students to be more autonomous when it comes to what they are discussing.

Students are given an opportunity to write their perceptions concerning the course concepts because they are used to gauge the proficiency of the student in terms of how much they have understood the course.

That being said, hope that this article has been worth your time. All the best!

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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The term paper and the research project are two distinct things, even though you might think they are the same although they both have similar qualities. Even so, they might be connected. But one must take into account the distinctions.

A term paper is typically written to demonstrate that a student has learned or gained knowledge of a particular subject, the final test includes a sizable portion of the term paper, which is due at the end of the term and the normal word count for a term paper is between 3,000 and 5,000, term papers typically permit the writer’s views and allow for a critical analysis of current issues, the term paper includes arguments and/or persuasions that need to be backed by data gathered from a wide range of trustworthy sources, like academic papers, scholarly periodicals, or textbooks, a research project, on the other hand, is often an academic study done to address theoretical concerns, the task for the student is to analyze the supplied data and produce an important, remarkable paper, the word count for a research project is limited to 5,000, your instructor will decide how long the research project should be, the instructor or the student choose the themes in each case.

Research and reference materials are needed in each situation and each case, and creating an outline before attempting to write the final versions is beneficial. In actuality, there are many similarities between term papers and research project.

A research paper may be assigned at any time, whereas a term paper is typically assigned at the end of the term this is the main distinction between the two types of papers, although writing term papers or research project might feel like a waste of time, both are intended to improve how well you can express your knowledge and understanding of a particular subject and both are intended to aid in your understanding of the note-taking, referencing, and research procedures, recognize and incorporate the lessons you’ve gained from prior writing assignments as you work to compose each of these papers in turn and always use writing as a tool to express yourself in unique and fascinating ways.

You should be able to present a case, lay out your argument, and make sure you provide solid, credible evidence to support your claims, no matter what the job requires, the greatest writers will give it their all.

A major, methodical, and theoretical level of questioning must be addressed by the student when writing a research paper, which is an academic writing style. Similarly to that, a term paper demands the student to analyze the information they have learned to present their comprehension of the subject coherently, it can range in length from a few sentences to 5,000 words, during a particular course, a problem is the focus of a research project.

Research papers are created to investigate particular issues that haven’t been adequately addressed or occasionally when the findings are in question. Typically, a research report includes components of research and regardless of the topic, a research project has a set format that includes a title page, table of contents, introduction, background information, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Specific writing instructions are provided for each of these parts and the format often doesn’t change, regardless of the study problem question. Writing a project of this nature typically takes time, both for the research and the writing.

There are numerous research types, and each has unique characteristics depending on the method used to gather the data, some examples include interviews, observation, questionnaires, surveys, and experiments, the length of the research project will rely on the hypothesis and the goal of the investigation, as well as the volume and complexity of the problem question.

A research project often takes a lot of time to write. Research project typically include a minimum of ten pages and a maximum of one hundred pages, rarely does a research report come in under ten pages; in this situation, it would be very impossible to clarify the main ideas, examine the findings, and demonstrate the hypothesis.

A term paper, on the other hand, is meant to test students’ understanding of certain topics they have studied, students may be required to write an essay, take an exam, or complete another work after they have finished studying a certain issue.

Term papers are a requirement for students to show that they have acquired the necessary knowledge and skills in a particular subject area, near the end of a class students are typically given a term paper assignment that will contribute toward the subject’s final mark; in some cases, it may even be the sole one, despite the wide range in length, they typically range from three to five thousand words.

good project topics

A critical essay covering a current or well-liked topic can be the format for a term paper and when the assignment is set up in this way, the student is required to present both their point of view and evidence of a thorough understanding of the subject, the essay should also include some arguments that are convincing and supported by data or facts.

A term paper allows for an essential analysis of current issues and typically offers the writer’s viewpoint, the arguments and persuasions in a term paper must be backed up with data gathered from a variety of trustworthy sources, including academic journals, academic papers, and textbooks, because it is a component of the course, a term paper is often finished after a set amount of time studying.

Typically, phrases and themes are used to split up the course and at the end of a term, students are typically required to take a test or complete another assignment to demonstrate their understanding of the content covered throughout the term. The grades for this assignment typically carry considerable weight in the student’s final grade.

A term paper might have any format or content, contrasting with a research paper that follows a particular format, an essay or other type of writing may be used as the basis for a term paper, as may a questions-and-answers format, an article, review, annotated bibliography, test, or even a research paper.

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Difference Between Research Paper and Term Paper

Term paper and Research paper are two different things. The two share similar features and they may even be related, but exhibit differences to consider.

The research paper is an academic style of writing that requires the student to answer a significant, methodical, and theoretical level of questioning. Similarly, term paper requires the student to interpret what he or she gathered from the subject matter to display a clear understanding in the form of a paper. It can be of various lengths, which can be up to five thousand words.

A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are written to study some specific problems which have not been covered efficaciously or sometimes when results are doubtful. Research paper usually has elements of research.

A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject; the title page, the table of contents, the introduction/background information, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion, and the conclusions/recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter the problem question under research, the structure usually remains the same. This type of paper writing usually requires time for conducting research and writing it.

There are many types of research which differ in properties according to the mode of information gathering technique, examples; interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, and experiment. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take time ranging from a day to years depending on the volume and difficulty of problem question.

A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually, research papers are a minimum of ten pages and may be up to hundred pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than ten pages; it is almost impossible in its case to explain the major points, discuss results and prove the hypothesis in a low number of pages.

A research paper can cover materials studied over previous years which are laid out in various courses in forms of books, journals, previous research papers, and published articles. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problem discussed in the past. The materials learned from the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information, and analyzing the literature on the problem question. Look for examples of research paper to get practical idea to write your own.

A term paper , on the other hand, is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked write an essay, take a test, or complete some task devoted to this particular theme study. Students are required to write term papers to demonstrate that they have gained the required knowledge and skills in a certain subject matter.

A term paper is usually assigned to students near the end of a class as a tool to count toward the subject’s final grade; in fact, in some instances, it will be the only assigned means to grade. Although the length may vary greatly, it is common for them to be from three to five thousand words.

A term paper can come in the form of a critical essay that covers a current or popular topic. When structured like this, the student must include their point of view on the subject while also demonstrating an accurate and clear understanding of the topic. The paper should also contain some arguments that are both compelling and accompanied by evidence or facts for support

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is usually given at the end of the term and counts as an important percentage of the final exam. A term paper generally runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words.

A term paper permits for a vital examination of current topics and usually allows the writer’s opinion. Term paper contains arguments and persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from various reliable sources, such as scholarly magazines, academic papers, and textbooks.

A term paper, being part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or complete another task, which will show how well students have learned the course material during the discussed period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.

A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure. A term paper may be written in the form of an essay or other forms of writing; it can have a questions-answers structure; it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.

A term paper can be of any length. It can be one-paged, unlike the typical research paper which cannot be adequately expressed on a page and could also be twenty paged, no matter what the topic is and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fit better the specific topic which has been studied. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during a particular period, the main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the materials and lessons taught during that period.

A task in a term paper can be in the form of a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different even though each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process can be complicated and usually require constant motivation and encouragement from the professors. Therefore it is advised that tutors should try not to impose his/her opinion on students when writing term papers, this helps term paper serve its purpose better, which is to determine students’ knowledge on the topic. Some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them to work harder.

The Main Characteristics of a Research Paper

This kind of academic writing involves exploration of the topic idea which aims to answer a particular theoretical question. A typical document consists of 5,000 words but is often a bit longer. The student is asked to interpret information provided on a chosen topic and analyze it thoroughly. It can be assigned anytime, yet most instructors give this task at the beginning of the semester to allow students to have enough time to gather data and compose their works. This kind of paper often involves primary data collection and its further interpretation.

The Key Features of a Term Paper

A student writes this paper to demonstrate his or her knowledge of a particular subject studied. The length of the work usually varies from 3,000 to 5,000 words. A chosen topic should be carefully examined, and the writer should provide his or her personal opinion towards the issue under study.

This assignment is usually given at the end of the semester and significantly influences the final grade. The term paper should be based on credible sources, such as scholarly articles, academic works, lab reports, and textbooks.

The Differences between These Assignments

Despite both assignments share some qualities. In each instance, students can pick a topic that arouses their interest. They use the same type of resources and the structures of the documents could be quite similar. The real difference between these pieces of academic writing, is that a research paper is assigned at any time and doesn’t generally count toward the final grade . Another aspect that writing instructors pay their attention to is the fact that a research paper often contains a hypothesis while a term paper supports a thesis statement. Besides, the research paper usually has a long list of references. The term paper assignment, however, is shorter and does not usually contain appendixes.

Another significant difference between a research paper and a term paper is that the research paper is used to make the student engage in problem-solving activities while term paper is simply meant to test the student’s knowledge, not necessarily solve the problem.

This table summarizes the difference between research paper and term paper;

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The InfoGraphic seems to suggest that it ‘Takes Moths… to complete’. This is new to me.

very nice description for undertanding thank you

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The Difference between Term and Research Papers

Term paper and research papers have a lot in common, but they have some significant differences. First and for most, term papers are more personalized, while research assignments do not have to point to the student's personal achievements. It is rather general. Term paper is a collection of student's skills towards a particular academic Research paper highlights student's knowledge gained during the course marginally: an instructor can only guess the effectiveness of teaching methods and tools used within that class. The reason why term paper format is a bit more complex is that it provides a more detailed picture of what student actually knows. It shows the path for further education. For instance, student has to add up an appendix. This part only seems complicated, but, in fact, you just have to include some tables and graphs (if any) used as the basis for your research. Written Assignments Evaluation Criteria Term papers always go in the end of a semester. Students can face the challenge of writing a research at any time. It means that a student can be asked to accomplish multiple research papers during the semester. However, the process of grading these two tasks looks pretty much similar. The evaluation process is based on the:

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A term paper is an extensive research paper typically assigned at the end of a semester or academic term, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding and in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. It involves thorough research, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources to address a specific topic or question, culminating in a comprehensive written report. Term papers are designed to assess students’ critical thinking, research skills, and ability to communicate their findings effectively, often accounting for a significant portion of their final grade. Essential components include a Thesis Statement for Research Paper , a Research Paper Cover Letter , and adherence to the Research Paper Format .

What is Term Paper?

A term paper is a detailed research paper written by students over an academic term, contributing significantly to their final grade. It demonstrates their understanding and analysis of a specific topic, includes a thesis, supporting arguments, and evidence, and requires citations from academic sources.

Term Paper Format

Title of the Paper Student’s Name Course Name and Number Instructor’s Name Date of Submission

A brief summary of the paper (150-250 words) Key points, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions

Introduction

Introduction to the topic Thesis statement Purpose and objectives Paper overview

Literature Review

Overview of Existing Research Key Theories and Studies Gaps in the Literature Relevance to the Current Study

Methodology

Research design Data collection methods Sample selection Analysis techniques

Presentation of findings Use of tables and figures (if applicable)

Interpretation of results Comparison with existing literature Implications and limitations

Summary of key findings Restatement of thesis Future research implications

List of All Sources Cited Formatted According to a Specific Citation Style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.)

Appendices (if applicable)

Additional Material Raw Data Questionnaires Detailed Calculations

Formatting Guidelines

Font: Times New Roman, 12-point Spacing: Double-spaced Margins: 1 inch Page numbers: Top right corner Consistent headings and subheadings

Term Paper Examples for Students

• The Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Ecosystems
• The Role of Social Media in Modern Marketing Strategies
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• Cybersecurity Threats and Solutions in the 21st Century
• The Effectiveness of Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The Relationship Between Diet and Mental Health
• An Analysis of Shakespeare’s Use of Tragic Heroes
• The Evolution of Women’s Rights in the United States
• The Economic Impact of Immigration Policies
• The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
• The History and Future of Space Exploration
• The Psychological Effects of Video Games on Children
• The Ethics of Genetic Engineering
• The Cultural Significance of Traditional Festivals in Japan
• The Impact of Globalization on Local Economies
• The Role of Renewable Energy in Combating Climate Change
• The Effects of Substance Abuse on Family Dynamics
• An Examination of Modernist Architecture
• The Influence of the Harlem Renaissance on American Literature
• The Legal and Social Implications of Data Privacy Laws
• The Role of Sports in Promoting Social Integration
• An Analysis of Economic Inequality in Developing Countries
• The Impact of Music Therapy on Mental Health Recovery
• The Development and Impact of the Internet of Things (IoT)
• The Relationship Between Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance

Simple Term Paper Examples

• The Effects of Video Games on Child Development
• The History and Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Benefits and Risks
• The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• The Impact of Immigration on the U.S. Economy
• The Role of Education in Reducing Poverty
• The Ethics of Animal Testing in Medical Research
• Mental Health Stigma and Its Social Implications
• The Evolution of E-commerce and Online Shopping
• The Importance of Early Childhood Education

Types of Term Papers

1. analytical term papers.

• Definition: Analyzes a specific issue or topic, breaking it down into its components and examining them in detail.
• Purpose: To provide a deep understanding of the subject through detailed analysis.
• Example: “The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture”

2. Argumentative Term Papers

• Definition: Presents an argument on a particular topic, supporting it with evidence and reasoning.
• Purpose: To persuade the reader of a specific viewpoint or stance.
• Example: “The Case for Renewable Energy Sources over Fossil Fuels”

3. Definition Term Papers

• Definition: Explores the meaning and implications of a specific concept or term.
• Purpose: To clarify and define a concept in depth.
• Example: “Defining Social Justice in Modern Society”

4. Compare and Contrast Term Papers

• Definition: Examines the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
• Purpose: To highlight comparative aspects and provide insights into the subjects.
• Example: “Comparing Online Education with Traditional Classroom Learning”

5. Cause and Effect Term Papers

• Definition: Investigates the causes of a particular event or phenomenon and its effects.
• Purpose: To understand the relationships between events and outcomes.
• Example: “The Causes and Effects of the 2008 Financial Crisis”

6. Interpretive Term Papers

• Definition: Provides an interpretation of a specific piece of literature, artwork, or historical event.
• Purpose: To offer insights and perspectives on the subject.
• Example: “Interpreting Symbolism in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby'”

7. Research-Based Term Papers

• Definition: Relies heavily on existing research and data to discuss a particular topic.
• Purpose: To present an in-depth analysis based on extensive research.
• Example: “The Role of Vaccinations in Public Health”

8. Reflective Term Papers

• Definition: Reflects on a personal experience or event and its significance.
• Purpose: To provide a personal perspective and insights.
• Example: “Reflections on My Internship Experience in a Non-Profit Organization”

9. Case Study Term Papers

• Definition: Focuses on a detailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context.
• Purpose: To analyze specific instances and draw broader conclusions.
• Example: “A Case Study of the Flint Water Crisis”

10. Expository Term Papers

• Definition: Explains or describes a topic in a straightforward and factual manner.
• Purpose: To inform and educate the reader about the subject.
• Example: “An Overview of the U.S. Healthcare System”

Importance of Term Papers

1. development of research skills.

• Encourages thorough exploration of various information sources
• Enhances data gathering, analysis, and interpretation abilities

2. Enhancement of Writing Skills

• Improves clarity, precision, and organization in writing
• Refines grammar and syntax

3. Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills

• Fosters logical reasoning and problem-solving
• Promotes evaluation and synthesis of information

4. Time Management and Discipline

• Teaches effective planning and adherence to deadlines
• Develops a disciplined work ethic and organizational skills

5. In-Depth Understanding of Subject Matter

• Facilitates comprehensive knowledge of the topic
• Enhances retention and application of theoretical concepts

How to Write a Term Paper

1. choose a topic.

• Select a topic: Ensure it’s relevant to your course and interests you.
• Narrow the focus: Make sure the topic is specific enough to be manageable.

2. Conduct Research

• Gather sources: Use books, academic journals, and credible websites.
• Take notes: Organize your notes and highlight key points.
• Create a bibliography: Keep track of all sources for your references.

3. Develop a Thesis Statement

• Clear and concise: Summarize the main point or argument of your paper.
• Position: Clearly state your position or perspective on the topic.

4. Create an Outline

• Introduction: Introduce the topic and state your thesis.
• Body paragraphs: Organize the main points and supporting evidence.
• Conclusion: Summarize your findings and restate your thesis.

5. Write the First Draft

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention.
• Background information: Provide context.
• Thesis statement: Present your main argument.
• Topic sentence: State the main idea of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Present data, quotes, and research findings.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your thesis.
• Transition: Link to the next paragraph.
• Restate the thesis: Summarize your main argument.
• Summarize main points: Recap the key points.
• Closing statement: Provide a final thought or call to action.

6. Revise and Edit

• Review content: Ensure your arguments are clear and supported by evidence.
• Check organization: Ensure your paper flows logically.
• Edit for grammar and style: Correct any grammatical errors and improve readability.

7. Format the Paper

• Follow guidelines: Use the required formatting style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
• Title page: Include the title, your name, course, instructor, and date.
• Page numbers: Ensure all pages are numbered.
• Citations: Properly cite all sources in-text and in the bibliography.

8. Proofread

• Final check: Look for any remaining errors or typos.
• Read aloud: Helps catch mistakes you might overlook.
• Peer review: Have someone else review your paper for feedback.

9. Submit the Paper

• Meet the deadline: Ensure you submit your paper on time.
• Follow submission guidelines: Submit according to your instructor’s requirements (e.g., online or printed copy).

FAQ’s

How do i choose a topic for my term paper.

Choose a topic that interests you, is relevant to your course, and has enough research material available.

What is the structure of a term paper?

A term paper typically includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

How long should a term paper be?

The length varies, but a standard term paper is usually between 8-15 pages, depending on the subject and requirements.

How do I start writing a term paper?

Begin with thorough research, create an outline, and then draft your introduction to set the context for your paper.

What is a thesis statement in a term paper?

A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of your paper, usually placed at the end of the introduction.

How important is the introduction in a term paper?

The introduction is crucial as it sets the tone, provides background information, and presents your thesis statement.

What should be included in the literature review?

The literature review should summarize, analyze, and compare existing research relevant to your topic.

How do I cite sources in my term paper?

Use a citation style recommended by your instructor (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) to credit the original sources of your information.

How do I present my findings in a term paper?

Present your findings clearly and logically, using tables, charts, or graphs if necessary, in the results section.

How do I write a conclusion for a term paper?

Summarize your main points, restate the significance of your findings, and suggest areas for future research.

Text prompt

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• Professional

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Difference between research paper and scientific paper

What is the difference between a research paper and a scientific paper? Does the research paper also mean a term paper at the end of your Masters?

I need to present a research paper. So does it mean I need to present a solution to an existing problem or does it mean a summary of various solutions already existing?

• terminology

2 Answers 2

A research paper is a paper containing original research. That is, if you do some work to add (or try to add) new knowledge to a field of study, and then present the details of your approach and findings in a paper, that paper can be called a research paper.

Not all academic papers contain original research; other kinds of academic papers that are not research papers are

• review papers, (see What is the difference between a review paper and a research paper? )
• position papers (which present an opinion without original research to support it)
• tutorial papers (which contain a tutorial introduction a topic or area, without contributing new results).

A scientific paper is any paper on a scientific subject.

Does the research paper also mean a term paper at the end of your Masters? I need to present a research paper. So does it mean I need to present a solution to an existing problem or does it mean a summary of various solutions already existing?

If the term paper at the end of your masters contains original research, then it's a research paper.

Depending on the policies of your department, you may or may not be required to attempt original research during your masters. In some departments, a review of existing literature may be fine. If you're not sure exactly what's required from you, you need to ask the relevant faculty or staff members in your department.

• Related: What is a "white paper"? . –  E.P. Commented Jan 20, 2015 at 18:15
• It also bears mention that "a summary of various solutions already existing" does not usually qualify as a research paper. –  E.P. Commented Jan 20, 2015 at 18:16

Research means that you add something new. Something you didn't know before, and ideally something no-one knew before (although at BSc. and MSc. levels the novelty requirement is generally relaxed). This can be a new investigation, or simply an analysis of a number existing papers. It must however not be a summary of existing solutions. It should go beyond that.

An important thing to remember is that in terms of assignment you are expected to demonstrate insight and understanding. To demonstrate this you need to engage with the topics, not merely summarise (which requires less understanding).

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Difference between a research paper, dissertation & thesis

When it comes to writing academic papers, students should have the right skills if they must succeed. Whether it is doing a weekly essay assignment, crafting a term paper, or doing research, the best learners are those who have mastered the art of literary composition. You should also note that understanding how each school paper differs from the other puts you ahead of the pack. Most of the schools, universities and institutions require you to undertake research at some point or another in form of coursework .

Differences based on the definition

Definitive differences between academic papers simplify things for a college newbie yet to write his or her academic paper. Now, on defining the thesis, research and dissertation, the following are worth noting:

Length of paper and methodology

Differences based on knowledge inference and hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an educated guess. Before you conduct a study, assumptions have to be made that something will turn out in some way. Most importantly, how the outcome will impact a population informs the construction of a hypothesis/thesis statement. In research and dissertation writing, students must exhibit a rigorous understanding of a subject based on a study. It is on this premise that they must come up with/infer a meaningful conclusion. However, when writing thesis papers, the formulation of a hypothesis comes after researching and writing on a subject.

Differences based on the approach

Mode of publication and utilization, differences based on the level of academia.

While students can write research papers at any level, they are most common at the undergraduate level. Completion of a research paper often leads to the conferment of an undergraduate degree. And when it comes to writing dissertation papers, the bargain is qualifying for a master’s degree, thusly; postgraduate, Mphil or MBA.  It means if you are not writing a dissertation to obtain a postgraduate degree, you do so as a means of enrolling in a postgraduate program. Thesis papers lead to the conferment of a Ph.D. degree or a doctorate as some scholars call it. Students who write thesis papers do so within the last two years of their academic life.

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What is the Difference Between Research Papers and Review Papers?

Researchers often have to write different types of articles, from review papers to review papers and more, each with its own purpose and structure. This makes it critical for students and researchers to understand the nuances of good writing and develop the skills required to write various kinds of academic text. With so many different types of academic writing to pursue – scholarly articles, commentaries, book reviews, case reports, clinical study reports – it is common for students and early career researchers to get confused. So in this article, we will explain what is a review paper and what is a research paper, while summarizing the similarities and difference between review papers and research papers.

Table of Contents

What is a Review Paper ?

A review paper offers an overview of previously published work and does not contain any new research findings. It evaluates and summarizes information or knowledge that is already available in various published formats like journals, books, or other publications, all of which is referred to as secondary literature. Well-written review papers play a crucial role in helping students and researchers understand existing knowledge in a specific field or a research topic they are interested in. By providing a comprehensive overview of previous studies, methodologies, findings, and trends, they help researchers identify gaps in a specific field of study opening up new avenues for future research.

What is a Research Paper ?

A research paper is based on original research and primary sources of data. Unlike review papers, researchers writing research papers need to report new findings derived from empirical research or experimentation. It requires the author to draw inferences or make assumptions based on experiments, surveys, interviews, or questionnaires employed to collect and analyze data. Research papers also typically follow the recommended IMRAD format, which includes an abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Through research papers, authors address a specific research question or hypothesis with the aim of contributing novel insights to the field.

Similarities between research papers and review papers

Research papers and review papers share several similarities, which makes it understandable that it is this pair of academic documents that are often most confused.

• Research papers and review papers are written by scholars and intended for an academic audience; they’re written with the aim of contributing to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field and can be published in peer reviewed journals.
• Both research papers and review papers require a comprehensive understanding of all the latest, relevant literature on a specific topic. This means authors must conduct a thorough review of existing studies, theories, and methodologies in their own subject and related areas to inform their own research or analysis.
• Research papers and review papers both adhere to specific formatting and citation styles dictated by the target journal. This ensures consistency and allows readers to easily locate and reference the sources cited in the papers.

These similarities highlight the rigorous, scholarly nature of both research papers and review papers, which requires both research integrity and a commitment to further knowledge in a field. However, these two types of academic writing are more different than one would think.

Differences between research papers and review papers

Though often used interchangeably to refer to academic content, research papers and review papers are quite different. They have different purposes, specific structure and writing styles, and citation formats given that they aim to communicate different kinds of information. Here are four key differences between research papers and review papers:

• Purpose: Review papers evaluate existing research, identify trends, and discuss the current state of knowledge on a specific topic; they are based on the study of previously published literature. On the other hand, research paperscontain original research work undertaken by the author, who is required to contribute new knowledge to the research field.
• Structure: Research papers typically follow a structured format, including key sections like the introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Meanwhile, review papers may have a more flexible structure, allowing authors to organize the content based on thematic or chronological approaches. However, they generally include an introduction, main body discussing various aspects of the topic, and a conclusion.
• Methodology: Research papers involve the collection of data, experimentation, or analysis of existing data to answer specific research questions. However, review papers do not involve original data collection; instead, they extensively analyze and summarize existing studies, often using systematic literature review methods.
• Citation style: Research papers rely on primary sources to support and justify their own findings, emphasizing recent and relevant research. Review papers incorporate a wide range of primary and secondary sources to present a comprehensive overview of the topic and support the evaluation and synthesis of existing literature.

In summary, it’s important to understand the key differences between research papers and review papers. By mastering the art of writing both research papers and review papers, students and researchers can make more meaningful contributions to their chosen disciplines. All the best!

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Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

On the other hand, a research paper is analytical, argumentative and interpretative in nature. It involves the pursuit of knowledge and intelligent analysis of the information collected. It contains the idea of the author, often supported by expert opinions, research and information available in this regard.

Whether you are writing a thesis or research paper, they are equally challenging and take a lot of time to prepare. In this post, we will update you on all the points of difference between thesis and  research paper.

Content: Thesis Vs Research Paper

• Key Elements
• Thesis Statement

How to start a research paper?

Comparison chart.

What is Thesis?

The thesis is a document containing the research and findings that students submit to get the professional qualification or degree . It has to be argumentative, which proposes a debatable point with which people could either agree or disagree. In short, it is a research report in writing that contains a problem which is yet to be dealt with.

In a thesis, the researcher puts forth his/her conclusion. The researcher also gives evidence in support of the conclusion.

Submission of the thesis is a mandatory requirement of a postgraduate course and PhD degree. In this, the primary focus is on the novelty of research along with the research methodology.

It is all about possibilities, by introducing several anti-thesis. Also, it ends up all the possibilities by nullifying all these anti-thesis.

Key Elements of Thesis

• Proposition : The thesis propagates an idea, hypothesis or recommendation.
• Argument : Gives reasons for accepting the proposition instead of just asserting a point of view.
• Maintenance of argument : The argument should be made cogent enough by providing suitable logic and adequate evidence.

Features of An Ideal Thesis

• An Ideal thesis is expected to add fresh knowledge to the existing theory.
• It communicates the central idea of the research in a clear and concise manner.
• An effective thesis is more than a simple statement, fact or question.
• It answers why and how questions concerned with the topic.
• To avoid confusion, it is worded carefully.
• It outlines the direction and scope of your essay.
• It gives reasons to the reader to continue reading.

Also Read : Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

What is Thesis Statement?

A thesis statement is a sentence of one line, usually written at the end of your first paragraph. It presents the argument to the reader.

It is a blueprint of your thesis that directs the writer while writing the thesis and guides the reader through it.

What is Research Paper?

Research Paper is a form of academic writing. It is prepared on the basis of the original research conducted by the author on a specific topic, along with its analysis and interpretation of the findings.

An author generally starts writing a research paper on the basis of what he knows about the topic and seeks to find out what experts know. Further, it involves thorough and systematic research on a particular subject to extract the maximum information.

In short, a research paper is a written and published report containing the results of scientific research or a review of published scientific papers. Here, the scientific research is the primary research article, while the review of a published scientific paper is the review article.

In case of the primary research article, the author of the research paper provides important information about the research. This enables the scientific community members to:

• Evaluate it
• Reproduce the experiments
• Assess the reasoning and conclusions drawn

On the other hand, a review article is written to analyze, summarize and synthesize the research carried out previously.

When a research work is published in a scientific journal, it conveys the knowledge to a larger group of people and also makes people aware of the scientific work. Research work published as a research paper passes on knowledge and information to many people. The research paper provides relevant information about the disease and the treatment options at hand .

To start writing a research paper, one should always go for a topic that is interesting and a bit challenging too. Here, the key to choosing the topic is to pick the one that you can manage. So, you could avoid such topics which are very technical or specialized and also those topics for which data is not easily available. Also, do not go for any controversial topic.

The researcher’s approach and attitude towards the topic will decide the amount of effort and enthusiasm.

Steps for writing Research Paper

The total number of pages included in a Research Paper relies upon the research topic. It may include 8 to 10 pages, which are:

• Introduction
• Review of Literature
• Methodology
• Research Analysis
• Recommendations

Also Read : Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Key Differences Between Thesis and Research Paper

• A thesis implies an original, plagiarism-free, written academic document that acts as a final project for a university degree of a higher level. But, Research Paper is a novel, plagiarism-free long essay. It portrays the interpretation, evaluation or argument submitted by a researcher.
• The thesis acts as a final project. Whereas a research paper is a kind of research manual of journals.
• The length of the thesis is around 20,000 to 80,000 words. On the contrary, the length of the research paper is relative to the study.
• The thesis focuses on the central question or statement of an intellectual argument that entails further research. On the contrary, the research paper is concerned with proving the central argument.
• The purpose of submitting the thesis is to get the degree or professional qualification. It also presents the knowledge of the candidate in the respective field. Conversely, the aim of publishing research papers is to prove credibility and contribute knowledge in the respective field.
• While the student submits the thesis to the educational committee or panel of professors who review it. In contrast, scientists and other researchers read and review the research paper.
• Preparation and completion of thesis is always under the guidance of a supervisor. For submission of the thesis, the university assigns a supervisor to each student, under whose guidance the thesis must be completed. As against, no supervisor is appointed as a guide in case of a research paper.
• The thesis contains a broader description of the subject matter. In contrast, the research paper contains a narrow description of the subject matter.

Once the research paper is published, it increases the fellowship and job opportunities for new researchers. On the other hand, thesis writing will enable the students to get the desired degree at the end of the course they have opted.

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February 23, 2023 at 2:38 pm

So good and informative. These are quite beneficial insights. Thanks

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Thesis vs. Research Paper: Know the Differences

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents. This brief guide discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper.

This article discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper. To give you an opportunity to practice proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount.

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. After all, both terms share the same domain, academic writing . Moreover, characteristics like the writing style, tone, and structure of a thesis and research paper are also homogenous to a certain degree. Hence, it is not surprising that many people mistake one for the other.

However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents.

Defining the two terms: thesis vs. research paper

The first step to discerning between a thesis and research paper is to know what they signify.

  Thesis: A thesis or a dissertation is an academic document that a candidate writes to acquire a university degree or similar qualification. Students typically submit a thesis at the end of their final academic term. It generally consists of putting forward an argument and backing it up with individual research and existing data.

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Research Paper: A research paper is also an academic document, albeit shorter compared to a thesis. It consists of conducting independent and extensive research on a topic and compiling the data in a structured and comprehensible form. A research paper demonstrates a student's academic prowess in their field of study along with strong analytical skills.

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Now that we have a fundamental understanding of a thesis and a research paper, it is time to dig deeper. To the untrained eye, a research paper and a thesis might seem similar. However, there are some differences, concrete and subtle, that set the two apart.

1. Writing objectives

The objective behind writing a thesis is to obtain a master's degree or doctorate and the ilk. Hence, it needs to exemplify the scope of your knowledge in your study field. That is why choosing an intriguing thesis topic and putting forward your arguments convincingly in favor of it is crucial.

A research paper is written as a part of a course's curriculum or written for publication in a peer-review journal. Its purpose is to contribute something new to the knowledge base of its topic.

2. Structure

Although both documents share quite a few similarities in their structures, the framework of a thesis is more rigid. Also, almost every university has its proprietary guidelines set out for thesis writing.

Comparatively, a research paper only needs to keep the IMRAD format consistent throughout its length. When planning to publish your research paper in a peer-review journal, you also must follow your target journal guidelines.

3. Time Taken

A thesis is an extensive document encompassing the entire duration of a master's or doctoral course and as such, it takes months and even years to write.

A research paper, being less lengthy, typically takes a few weeks or a few months to complete.

4. Supervision

Writing a thesis entails working with a faculty supervisor to ensure that you are on the right track. However, a research paper is more of a solo project and rarely needs a dedicated supervisor to oversee.

5. Finalization

The final stage of thesis completion is a viva voce examination and a thesis defense. It includes proffering your thesis to the examination board or a thesis committee for a questionnaire and related discussions. Whether or not you will receive a degree depends on the result of this examination and the defense.

A research paper is said to be complete when you finalize a draft, check it for plagiarism, and proofread for any language and contextual errors . Now all that's left is to submit it to the assigned authority.

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In the context of academic writing, a thesis and a research paper might appear the same. But, there are some fundamental differences that set apart the two writing formats. However, since both the documents come under the scope of academic writing, they also share some similarities. Both require formal language, formal tone, factually correct information & proper citations. Also, editing and proofreading are a must for both. Editing and Proofreading ensure that your document is properly formatted and devoid of all grammatical & contextual errors. So, the next time when you come across a thesis vs. research paper argument, keep these differences in mind.

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Best Edit & Proof expert editors and proofreaders focus on offering papers with proper tone, content, and style of  academic writing,  and also provide an upscale  editing and proofreading service  for you. If you consider our pieces of advice, you will witness a notable increase in the chance for your research manuscript to be accepted by the publishers. We work together as an academic writing style guide by bestowing subject-area editing and proofreading around several categorized writing styles. With the group of our expert editors, you will always find us all set to help you identify the tone and style that your manuscript needs to get a nod from the publishers.

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You can also avail of our assistance if you are looking for editors who can format your manuscript, or just check on the  particular styles  for the formatting task as per the guidelines provided to you, e.g.,  APA,  MLA, or Chicago/Turabian styles. Best Edit & Proof editors and proofreaders provide all sorts of academic writing help, including editing and proofreading services, using our user-friendly website, and a streamlined ordering process.

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Visit our  order page  if you want our subject-area editors or language experts to work on your manuscript to improve its tone and style and give it a perfect academic tone and style through proper editing and proofreading. The process of submitting a paper is very easy and quick. Click here to find out how it  works.

Our pricing is based on the type of service you avail of here, be it editing or proofreading. We charge on the basis of the word count of your manuscript that you submit for editing and proofreading and the turnaround time it takes to get it done. If you want to get an instant price quote for your project, copy and paste your document or enter your word count into our  pricing calculator.

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Your thesis or dissertation ends with the conclusion. Its primary purposes include addressing the main research question, summarizing and echoing the study, presenting future studies recommendations, and depicting your contribution's novel knowledge.

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Impact as equalizer: the demise of gender-related differences in anti-doping research

• Open access
• Published: 29 June 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Anna Kiss 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Sándor Soós 1 , 2 , 3 &
• Andrea Petróczi 2 , 4 , 5 , 6  

In general, the presence and performance of women in science have increased significantly in recent decades. However, gender-related differences persist and remain a global phenomenon. Women make a greater contribution to multidisciplinary research, which renders anti-doping research a compelling area for investigating the gendered aspects of academic research. The research design was based on the overall research aim to investigate whether gender in a specific field (ADS) has an effect on different aspects of research impact, including (1) the size of citation impact obtained by the research output, (2) the impact on the development of the knowledge base of ADS, expressed as the capacity of integrating knowledge from different research areas, and (3) the (expected) type of research impact targeting either societal or scientific developments (or both). We used a previously compiled dataset of 1341 scientific outputs. Using regression analysis, we explored the role of authors’ gender in citations and the effect of authorship features on scientific impact. We employed network analysis and developed a novel indicator (LinkScore) to quantify gendered authors’ knowledge integration capacity. We carried out a content analysis on a subsample of 210 outputs to explore gender differences in research goal orientation as related to gender patterns. Women’s representation has been considerably extended in the domain of ADS throughout the last two decades. On average, outputs with female corresponding authors yield a higher average citation score. Regarding women's knowledge integration roles, we can infer that no substantial gender differences can be detected. Dominantly female papers were overrepresented among publications classified as aimed at scientific progress, while the share of male-authored papers was higher in publications classified as aimed at societal progress. Although no significant gender difference was observed in knowledge integration roles, in anti-doping women appear to be more interdisciplinary than men.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Since the 1970s, there has been a growing focus on gender issues (Zuckerman & Cole, 1975 ), accompanied by significant efforts to foster gender equality at both international and national levels (UNESCO, 2024 ). Beyond policymakers, researchers, and various organizations have also become increasingly interested and dedicated to narrowing the gender gap. Extensive evidence in scientific literature indicates that, generally, male academic productivity surpasses that of females, despite notable improvements in the representation and performance of women in science overall (Larivière et al., 2013 ; Chan & Torgler, 2020 ; Elsevier, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Gender disparities in academic productivity/success have been thoroughly examined through the application of standard bibliometric indicators in science studies. However, the results of these studies are not consistent. The gender gaps in productivity, citation, and promotion have been evolving, albeit at a gradual pace, as evidenced by recent reviews of gender disparities in science (Kwiek & Roszka, 2021 ). The increasing participation of women in academic science alters the framework within which gender disparities in terms of productivity, citation impact, research areas/topics, and international research collaboration are currently examined. Recent bibliometric studies are increasingly employing diverse methods to determine gender among authors and authorships (Halevi, 2019), while comprehensive research on gender disparities in science is being conducted (e.g., Chan & Torgler, 2020 ; Thelwall et al., 2019 ), shedding light on the extent of ongoing transformations. In Table 1 , we summarized the findings of some recent large-scale studies on the gender gap in science. This purposive sample only aims to demonstrate that the prevailing significance of gender differences has also recently been challenged in various approaches (and by no means considered a comprehensive review).

A high number of bibliometric analyses have been conducted in recent years on gender disparities in different fields of sciences, such as aspects of gender differences and gender disparity in research/scientific productivity, women's contribution to science in life sciences (DesRoches et al., 2010 ), medicine (Henderson et al., 2014 ; Pashkova et al., 2013 ), economy (Maske et al., 2003 ), astronomy, immunology and oceanography (Leta and Levinson, 2003 ), psychology (D’Amico et al., 2011 ), and criminal justice and criminology (Snell et al., 2009 ). From the results and conclusions of academic research, an increasing body of evidence is drawing on women's participation in science.

Gender disparities vary by research field and country (Chan & Torgler, 2020 ; Larivière et al., 2013 ). Bibliometric evaluation of gender imbalances in different research areas is especially important hence bibliometric indicators are considered important features of research excellence. Showing the degree of gender disparities in different fields of science opens a lot of doors towards informing policymakers, creating more equal opportunities for women scientists, improving good governance, and also can have an impact on research priorities as well as funding allocations.

The selected subject of the present research is the area of anti-doping research (ADS), a relatively young and emerging specialty. The main reason for selecting ADS for investigating gender differences was that though specific in scope, this interdisciplinary domain is made up of STEM and SSH reference fields often characterized by different gender-related patterns. ADS as a „melting pot” emerging from interdisciplinary interactions can therefore be assumed as a case where these dynamics potentially interfere (e.g. knowledge integration, also studied in our work). Anti-doping science intersects with various fields due to its multidisciplinary nature. It encompasses sports science, medicine, pharmacology, toxicology, analytical chemistry, but also law, ethics, public health, psychology. Together, these interdisciplinary perspectives shape the foundation of anti-doping science, driving research, policy development, and enforcement efforts to address the complex challenges associated with doping in sports. This characteristic renders this domain of interest for a case study with valuable contributions to the more general topic of gender-related issues in science.

Related work on gender-related trends in sport science and anti-doping research

Gender-related differences in sport sciences were examined several bibliometric studies in terms of academic productivity, authorship position (Chang-Yeon et al., 2019 ; Dynako et al., 2020 ; Loder et al., 2021 ; Mujika & Taipale, 2019 ; Ryan et al., 2020 ) editorial leadership position (Martínez-Rosales et al., 2021 ), academic positions, women scientists’ career development or international collaboration. Analyzing the trends of gender distribution in sport sciences there is an increasing body of evidence that the presence, role, and contribution of women have increased significantly in recent decades, but the gender gap remains a global phenomenon in the field.

For instance, Mujika and Taipale ( 2019 ) investigated gender differences in authorship within the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. They found that only 13% of the authors were women in the first 5 issues of the journal published in 2019. In the realm of sport-related medical science, Chang-Yeon et al. ( 2019 ) analyzed orthopedic sports medicine literature from 1972 to 2018 to observe changes in the proportions of female authors across various authorship positions. Although only 16.6% of the authors were female, there was a significant increase in female authorship from 2.6 to 14.7% over the 46 years. Ryan et al. ( 2020 ) evaluated articles in the Sports Health journal from 2009 to 2018, noting an increase in publications with at least one female author from 52 to 64% over the study period. They highlighted Sports Health's comparatively high rates of female authorship compared to other journals. Loder et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a bibliometric analysis of English musculoskeletal literature over 30 years, revealing gender differences in first and corresponding author positions. The percentage of female first authors increased from 10.8 to 23.7% between 1985–1987 and 2015–2016, while corresponding authorship increased from 8.9 to 18.9% over the same period. Dynako et al. ( 2020 ) examined trends in two American sports medicine journals over 30 years, finding an average of 13.3% and 8.1% female first authors for the American Journal of Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy, respectively.

Specific to anti-doping science only a few studies provide bibliometric analysis. The study by Agulló-Calatayud et al. ( 2008 ) identified key research centres and authors of scientific articles on anabolic steroids. A working paper by Engelberg & Moston (n.d.) focuses on doping-related papers published in sport management journals.

The present research aims to provide an in-depth analysis of gender-related patterns that go beyond the simple identification of the gender gap. It is also a follow-up to our previous study, completing the picture of gender-related patterns in ADS. In our previous study (Kiss et al., 2022 ) we aimed to examine the contribution of women to anti-doping research and provide a picture of the relational structure of gender aspects of country-related, authorial, and topical features via bibliometric analysis. To our knowledge, our study was the first original article in anti-doping science that specifically studied the presence and role of women based on a bibliometric analysis of international academic literature.

Aims and research questions

The research design was based on the overall research aim to investigate whether gender in a specific field (ADS) has an effect on different aspects of research impact, including (1) the size of citation impact obtained by the research output, (2) the impact on the development of the knowledge base of ADS, expressed as the capacity of integrating knowledge from different research areas, and (3) the (expected) type of research impact targeting either societal or scientific developments (or both). This latter aspect (social vs. scientific impact) is not directly investigated, so it is not social/scientific impact itself that we subjected to analysis, but we used a proxy that can be expected to predict the type of impact: research aim or, to put it differently, research orientation. In particular, it is a plausible hypothesis that the outcomes of research with e.g. „societal” orientation/aim will be valorized in societal progress, as a type of (social) impact. We capitalized on this expectation by mapping the relationship between gender and research aim – which is assumed to be causally related to the type of subsequent impact – within the field.

Accordingly, our three research questions were the following:

RQ1. How do women’s authorship features (first, last, corresponding, position in the author network) affect scientific impact within ADS?

RQ2. Are there gendered differences in knowledge integration between different areas behind ADS?

RQ3. Is there a difference between dominantly female vs. dominantly male authored papers in research goal orientation (in terms of contributing to societal progress orientation vs. scientific progress/orientation?)?

For RQ1, we employ a form of regression analysis to disentangle the effects of several potential factors on citation impact, including female authorship and its patterns in the anti-doping literature. Via this tool, we aim to capture and quantify the true, individual effect of female authorship on research impact (if any) and separate it from the contribution of other factors. On the other hand, it was a natural way to test whether any “gender gap” existed in the field(s) of ADS, being well documented in earlier studies for many cases and research areas.

In the study of knowledge integration (RQ2), we introduce a new metric to uncover gender differences in authors’ capacity to connect the diverse reference field behind ADS.

For RQ3 we applied qualitative content analysis to investigate the difference between dominantly female vs. dominantly male authored papers in research goal orientation. Our focus (in this part of the research) was the identification of research orientation which can be expected to predict the type of impact (scientific progress, societal progress) for the paper. However, the concept of impact is not directly targeted in this approach.

The study concept is depicted in Fig.  1 .

The logical framework of investigations

Data collection

To delineate the anti-doping research field, bibliometrics-aided retrieval was used in line with the methodological paper of Gal et al. ( 2015 ). Initially, a core dataset was established using a keyword profile based on a core publication (Acute Topics In Anti-Doping) for ADS (Core set, C). Subsequently, a broader dataset of publications and research outputs was assembled using a more expansive search profile (Broad search term set, B). Lastly, citation-based similarity measures were employed among the document sets to gain a final dataset with a high degree of precision.

For data collection and field delineation, the Web of Science Core Collection databases were used (including the Science Citation Index, the Social Science Citation Index, and the Arts&Humanities Citation Index). The Core set was based on the WoS database with a search query of “anti-doping* OR antidoping*” OR “anti-doping”*. The search terms were applied to the title only in WoS. No limitations were placed on the dates of the searches; the final date of data collection was October 20, 2021. The search resulted in a core set of 572 publications.

For the Broad search term set, B, we identified relevant anti-doping-specific search terms in sport science journals, systematic reviews, highly cited research papers, and WADA documents. We created a broad search term using the following query: “doping control*” OR”doping prevention*” OR”doping-free sport”* OR”clean sport*” OR”drug-free sport*” OR”anti doping in sport*” OR”fair sport*” OR “WADA*” OR “fair play*” OR “anti-doping*” OR “antidoping*” OR “anti doping*” in (Topic) in WoS database. The broad search term set included 2390 research papers.

In the next step, citation-based similarity measures were applied to integrate the core dataset and the broad search term set, resulting in two further document groups. Group I included papers in the broad search term set citing the core dataset at least twice (N = 889). To group II. belonged papers in a broad search term set with at least 10% references among the pooled references of the core dataset (N = 1594). In the final set, publications from the core dataset (C) and publications belonging to group I or II.) were included, thus ensuring the inclusion of relevant topics only. After eliminating duplications, the final set included 1802 publications, ranging between 1998 and 2021. After excluding studies to which genders cannot be assigned to authors 1341 studies were included in the analyses. Figure  2 illustrates the identification workflow of relevant research papers.

Source: Kiss et al. ( 2022 )

Flowchart of database construction.

Sex/gender assignment

To identify authors' genders, we first standardized author names by removing abbreviations, and symbols, and abbreviating first names to full names. We retrieved full author names from bibliographic data obtained from WoS databases. Using the Gender API (available from https://gender-api.com/en/ ), a platform analyzing names to ascertain gender, we assigned genders to authors based on their full names. We also noted the country assigned to each author from the publications, which increased result accuracy. The final dataset included 3628 author names, of which 2415 full author names were identified. Among these, genders were assigned to 2346 authors (97%) with an average accuracy of 93.83%. A detailed description of sex identification is provided by Kiss et al. ( 2022 ).

Data analysis

The effect of gender differences in authorship on scholarly impact.

To construct an explanatory (regression) model of citation impact in anti-doping research, two sets of explanatory variables were defined and calculated for our sample. The unit of analysis was the individual publication; therefore, factors of citedness were also defined at this level. Most importantly, first, the indicators that accounted for female authorship were developed. This set was then complemented with the group of those factors that have been demonstrated to have a significant effect on citation counts. In the subsequent section, we outline the gender-related indicators, followed by the list and definition of variables that constituted the second group we refer to as “main citation factors”.

Indicators conveying female authorship

The operationalization of the concept of female authorship at the publication level is not an unproblematic task. The main difficulty comes from the fact that papers are typically multiauthor with a mixed gender composition, so the direct attribution of a paper to any gender category is mostly unfeasible. In related studies, a heuristic is most often applied, in which the gender of the 1st (or 1st and last, or the corresponding) author is used as the decisive rule to classify a paper as a female- or male-authored publication (Zhang et al., 2021 ). Although this heuristic is a reasonable choice on the common assumption regarding distinguished roles within author listings, we attempted to take a step further and formulate women’s contributions from further, different angles. To that end, the following indicators were employed (short names for each variable are indicated in parentheses; the measures are defined for individual papers).

Gender of the corresponding author (c.au) . A binary variable indicating whether the corresponding author of the paper is male or female (0 = male, 1 = female).

The proportion of female authors (weight). The ratio of the number of female authors to the number of all authors of a paper. The measure represents the weight of female authorship at the paper level, and its value ranges between 0 and 1 (for single-authored papers, this measure, therefore, takes its maximum or minimum value depending on the gender of the author).

Relative position (rel. position). The indicator is a generalization of those measures that account for the (assumed) role of female authors based on the byline, i.e. the order of authors. It is defined as the rank of the first appearance of a female author in the author list, normalized to the number of authors. For example, if a paper has n = 4 authors, of which the 2nd and 4th one is a female, then the value of this indicator equals 2/4 = 0.5. It can be conceived as the maximum (relative) rank of female authors in the author list as well. The 1st author position then becomes a special case, which is the maximal relative rank for a single paper, and its value is increasing with the size of the author group (technically, the value is decreasing in this case: a consequence of this definition is that the maximal value is the closest to 0, while the minimal value is always 1. For single-authored papers, a correction was applied, setting the value to 0 or 1 for female- and male-authored papers, respectively).

Variables for the main factors of citation impact. The remaining variables introduced in the explanatory model of citation impact all played the role of controlling for those factors that have been shown to exert a considerable effect on citation counts (Tahamtan et al., 2016 ). Since these factors constitute a relatively wide spectrum, we enrolled the most important ones based on the bibliometrics research tradition. This consideration left us with the following indicators.

Research field and area . As long evidenced in bibliometrics, research fields, and areas show differing citation behavior so that the impact of papers from different fields are not directly comparable. To account for this ingredient of citedness, control variables were applied conveying the research area to which a paper belongs. To support a more robust model, we used a relatively high-level taxonomy distinguishing between six broad categories. Papers were preassigned to these categories in the data source (Clarivate InCites Analytics©, providing the so-called GIPP research categorization scheme). The six categories included were referred to as (1) Clinical, Preclinical and Health , (2) Life sciences , (3) Physical sciences , (4) Engineering and technology , (5) Social sciences and (6) Arts and Humanities . These areas entered the model as a dummy variable each, with values {0,1}. For example, a paper took on the value 1 in the Life sciences variable if it belonged to that area and 0 otherwise. Note that multidisciplinarity, which is clearly present in ADS, was allowed to be represented this way since any paper could belong to more than one category.

Journal Quality . Since publications in top-tier journals have been shown to attract more citations than lower-ranked journals, a journal metric is applied in the model as an explanatory variable. For this role, the well-known Journal Impact Factor (JIF) has been chosen. JIF values for our dataset were retrieved from the InCites database (as provided in Clarivate’s Journal Citation Reports).

Further indicators of authorship . The author's composition of papers exhibits several characteristics that influence the extent of their recognition in the scientific community. Given this insight, we included further variables to complement those of female authorship, thereby disentangling the effect of different author-related characteristics of papers. In particular, three indicators were implemented: (1) the number of authors for a paper (co.au) , (2) Author productivity (au.prod), and (3) Country of affiliation (cou.freq) . The motivation for co.au is that the number of co-authors and citedness typically show a positive correlation. Author productivity for paper P is the total number of papers within our sample that pertain to the authors of P. This serves as a proxy for the visibility of the authors of a paper within the area of ADS. Similarly, Country of affiliation accounts for another aspect of author visibility and reputation by summing for a paper P how many times the affiliated countries (of the authors) of P appear within the affiliation data in our sample. In other words, this variable is a score of country-level affiliations for a paper, where each country contributes with its own weight (frequency) in the sample.

Type of document. A distinct set of factors in relation to citation impact is the so-called document type . It is also a well-confirmed hypothesis that, in general, research (or target) articles, reviews, and other bibliographic types, such as editorials, proceeding papers, book chapters, etc. tend to have differing potentials to attract recognition and hence citation counts. To control for this, we used a categorical variable with three levels: (1) Article, (2) Review, and (3) Other.

Open Access. Related to the aspect of document type is the open access status of a paper. There is a vast amount of literature confirming the so-called “OA citation advantage” assumption. that a publication available to the reader free of charge, that is, published under some form of OA, can collect more citations than the same publication behind the paywall. To address the intricacies of OA publishing, we introduced a two-level dummy variable into our model that simply recorded whether a paper is available only through subscription (non-OA, value = 0) or whether it is published through any open access channel (OA, value = 1). The latter case encompassed all the versatile types of OA publishing (“gold”, “green”, “hybrid”, etc.). Data were retrieved from the Web of Science databases.

The base regression model

Beyond the explanatory variables outlined above, an appropriate measure for citation impact had to be selected for the target variable. Instead of pure citation counts, we have chosen a measure that is designed to yield directly comparable impact scores between different types of publications. In particular, the so-called field-normalized citation score (FNCS or NCS) was applied as the outcome variable, which is defined for a publication as the ratio between the number of citations to the average citation number within the same research field and in the same publication cohort (i.e. papers with identical publication year). The FNCS indicator hence normalizes citation counts in two ways, to the field of research and the age of the paper. Although we control for these factors already in the model, as research fields and the year of publication are featured among our explanatory variables, model performance can still be improved by controlling for these on “both sides” of the equation. The main reason for this choice, however, is that this citation measure can be applied as a continuous outcome variable suited to a simple linear regression model (as opposed to raw citation counts): its values are real numbers. In particular, its value is FNCS  = 1 (< 1 or 1 <) if a publication reaches (remains below or levels beyond) the citation average within the field: in fact, its value conveys how many times the field’s average a paper is being cited.

In sum, our base regression model was a multivariate linear regression of the following form.

\(G(i,\dots ,n)\) is the series of n variables on gender and female authorship ( n  =  3 ),

\(F(i,\dots ,m)\) is the group of m variables controlling for the research field ( m  =  6 field variables),

\(C\left(i,\dots ,u\right)\) is the set of u variables accounting for the main factors on citation impact ( journal quality, further authorship patterns, document type, year of publication, open access status).

FNCS , the normalized impact measure, is included with the regular logarithmic transformation (log-normalization). This was motivated by FNCS being a variable with a highly skewed distribution (as is characteristic of citation distributions), so a transformation was needed to achieve a normally distributed target variable for the linear regression model. Regarding data collection FNCS values have been obtained from the InCites service of Clarivate, measured at the Subject Category level.

Women’s impact on knowledge integration

The other main research question of ours concerned a special but equally important aspect of the scientific impact of women in ADS. This aspect can be termed the impact on knowledge integration. The methodology of measuring to what extent female authors as “mediators” are positioned between different fields was as follows. In the first step, we constructed a network representation of our publication sample. Given the pre-existing assignment of papers to the six research areas of the GIPP category system, we extracted the author—paper and the paper—area relations from the data, out of which the interconnections between authors and their research areas (within the document sample) were recorded. Based on these interconnections, we built a bipartite graph or network with authors appearing as one type of network node and the six broad research areas as the other type. The edges of the graph, connecting an author to one or more research areas each, conveyed the relation that the author has been active in the related field (i.e. at least one of her publications belonged to those areas). The network was also a weighted graph in that edges were assigned a numeric value equal to the number of papers of the author in the corresponding research area. This representation allowed us to investigate to what extent authors – especially female authors – participate in “integrative” research that connects different areas. For this purpose, we introduced a positional network measure based on the author-field graph outlined above. We refer to this as LinkScore, alluding to the idea of quantifying the capacity of an author’s work in linking research fields. The LinkScore was calculated for each author in the following steps:

Counting the number of connected fields per publication. In the first step, each publication was given a raw score by counting the number of research areas assigned to it. Hence, for “monodisciplinary” papers, the score equaled 1; for papers sorted into two GIPP research categories, it was 2, and so on.

Weighting connections based on the distance between fields. Another consideration for the LinkScore measure was that linking distant research areas represents a larger extent of knowledge integration than linking closer areas. Therefore, we scored higher in the cases of “long-distance” interdisciplinarity over “short-distance” interdisciplinarity (Larivière et al., 2015 ). In particular, the raw LinkScores for publications were weighted according to the following scheme: a weight of 3 was applied to raw LinkScores if there was a minimum of 1 “ natural science ” field plus Social Sciences and/or Humanities, whereas LinkScores within “natural” or within “social” science fields were not amplified (weight = 1). As a consequence, a paper linking, e.g., the Life Sciences and the Social Sciences, will have a LinkScore  = 6 (2 fields with a link weight = 3), while the same paper would gain a LinkScore  = 2 if it was assigned, e.g., to the Life Sciences and the Clinical Sciences (2 fields again, but with a link weight = 1). The reason for tripling the weight for the “social + natural sciences” combination was to generate sufficient discriminatory power for the measure, since lower values would not allow us to distinguish between “long-distance” and “short-distance” interdisciplinarity in all cases (e.g., the LinkScore for a combination of the four hard science fields would be the same as that of a “social + natural science” combination).

Aggregating publication-level scores for authors . The final step was to relate these publication scores to authors, i.e. to aggregate the author’s LinkScores of their papers. Since we intended to create a size-independent measure (so that the number of publications should not influence the score), the maximal score by author was taken. In particular, the LinkScore for an author with n papers was calculated as follows: \(\text{max}\left({\sum }_{i,\dots ,n}{\text{LinkScore}}\left(i\right)\right).\) With this measurement specified in the previous three steps, we calculated the LinkScore values for all authors in our sample and used the results to characterize female authors’ contribution to knowledge integration as well as to compare female and male authors along this scale.

Research goal orientation of dominantly female vs. dominantly male papers

To detect potential differences in the research goal orientation of dominantly female- vs. non-female-authored papers, content analysis was carried out. For the analysis of whether dominant research goals are associated with gendered authorship, we had to sort publications into at least two categories: one that is dominated by female authorship and the other that is characterized by male authorship. We referred to these two as “dominantly female publications” and “dominantly male publications”, respectively. In the definition of the two categories, we relied on our indicators of female authorship, namely, c.au , recording the gender of the corresponding author; weight , the share of female authors among the author group per paper; and rel.position , the rank of female authors within author lists. In particular, we applied the following rules:

Dominantly female publications. For a publication to be primarily female-authored, at least one of the following conditions were to be met: (1) the corresponding author is a female, (2) at least half of the authors of the paper are female, and (3) female authors (at least partially) appear in the first 50% of the author list. Formally, ( c.au  = 1) ∨ ( weight female  ≥ 0.5) ∨ ( rel.position female  ≤ 0.5).

Dominantly male publications. Consequently, for a publication to be deemed primarily male-authored, each of the following conditions were to be met: (1) the corresponding author is a male, (2) at least half of the authors of the paper are male, and (3) male authors (at least partially) appear in the first 50% of the author list. Formally, ( c.au  = 0) & ( weight male  > 0.5) & ( rel.position male  < 0.5).

Although logically sound, the above definitions imply some asymmetry between the two groups: at the cost of accounting for various roles of female authors in the “female-dominated group”, the “male-dominated” set becomes more restrictive. To counterbalance this effect, we relaxed the second definition (to retain the sensitivity of the first) and considered publications that met at least two criteria out of the three (corresponding authorship, weight and rank of male authors) as eligible for the male-dominated category. Based on this consideration, a certain set of papers was reassigned to the male-dominated category in a post hoc manner.

In our attempt to capture gender dominance based on the authorship patterns of papers, it would be natural to incorporate the existing evidence on author credit allocation practices. However, in doing so, a basic difficulty would be that the ADS domain under study has a broad multidisciplinary scope, incorporating social sciences, health/medical sciences, natural sciences, engineering, social sciences and humanities as well, Since these disciplines substantially differ in their practices of allocating author credit, we decided to overcome this difficulty by using the most general considerations on author credit indication (taking the first, the corresponding author and the gender ratio in our case) and use them in tandem so that they can compensate each other’s biases when applied to the diverse subfields within ADS.

Coding criteria

After categorizing the papers according to gender, a random sample of abstracts of 105 dominantly female and 105 dominantly male publications were selected from the final set of anti-doping publications. This dataset included the WOS ID, title, abstracts, and authors' keywords of the randomly selected research paper. The reading and coding of the selected abstracts were performed by two of the authors. Following the coding of abstracts, the authors discussed their differences until a consensus was reached. They conducted the evaluation simultaneously but independently to avoid influencing each other's judgment on scoring, ensuring that the evaluation was free from biases. When coding the selected publications, only the content of the abstract was considered for categorization, as the content of the article is often not discernible from the publication title alone. During the coding of the abstracts, the two authors adhered to the definitions determined in the working paper of Zhang et al. ( 2021 ). To classify publications by their aims they introduced a new distinction instead of the widely used basic/applied distinction by differentiating between three variations of the aims of the research: aiming at scientific progress, aiming at societal progress, or both. The criteria for classifying publications into three categories are shown in Table  2 .

It should be pointed out that the operationalization of the notions of „basic science” and „scientific orientation” vs. „applied science” and „social/societal orientation” is context-dependent, i.e., it cannot be detached from the domain of investigation in our research. In our case, where the context is the domain of ADS, „applied” is considered to cover the approaches aimed at directly contributing to Anti-Doping applications (regardless of this being the medical, social or ethical aspect of AD), while „basic” or „scientific” is considered as a more general research aim. Therefore, although e.g. Clinical Studies are usually considered as applied research (not being Basic medicine), in this context these would also be (and have been) categorized as „basic” or with „scientific aim” on an individual basis, if their subject went beyond direct applications, that is, external utilization of knowledge was addressed, and hence aiming at contributing the clinical knowledge base beyond ADS.

Gender differences in the proportion of authors and authorship position

Female authorship throughout the timespan of the publication records in anti-doping is best described by the dynamics of three gender-related indicators. Figures  3 and 4 depict trends in these indicators – corresponding authorship, mean relative position of female authors on papers, and the share of female authors in author lists (mean weight)—for the last one and a half decades, covering approximately 17 years between 2005 and 2021.

The annual values of the number of papers with female corresponding authors and the fractional count of papers with regard to female authors (weight.total) between 2005 and 2021

The yearly averages of the relative position of female authors on papers and the share of female authors in author lists (mean weight) between 2005 and 2021

The first indicator captures whether the role of the corresponding author for a paper is taken by a male (0) or female (1) researcher (c.au). We used the annual number of papers with a female corresponding author (no. papers with c.au = 1). Striking from Fig.  3 is that this quantity has been increasing since 2007 in a linear and mostly monotonic fashion (with a few exceptional years of “recession”). The curve is also rather steep, as the number of such papers doubled in approximately every five years during this period. This tendency clearly signals a growing representation of women in ADS.

A similar tendency is also present in the dynamics of the other two indicators. For the proportion of female authors per single paper (weight), we used the annual sum of this quantity (Fig.  4 ), which is the total weight of female authors in a particular year. In bibliometric terms, this is identical to the “fractional counting” of papers with regard to authors, where each publication is counted according to the weight of its female authors (meaning that a paper with 40% women on its author list was counted as 0.4 paper instead of 1). In this way, we can calculate the total amount of outputs (per year) that could be assigned to female authors only. Just as with the number of papers with female first authors, the total weight of women-authored papers has also increased since 2005, in fact, in the very same manner as the extent of first authorship. The two curves proceed in close proximity (almost overlap), so the same steep slope and overall monotonicity are demonstrated by the annual share of female authors (in papers), approximately doubling every five years.

The annual values of the size-independent version of the same indicator, the weight of female authorship within author lists, are depicted in Fig.  4 . In this case, the yearly averages of the shares of female authors are reported (mean weight). For the period under study, this share has been slowly but clearly (monotonically) growing: it has increased from 5% (2005) to more than 20% (2021) on average. This trend has been strengthened by the positional changes within the order of authors, as witnessed by the development of the third indicator, that of the relative position. In Fig.  4 , just as for the weight indicator, the mean values of the relative position indicator are indicated for each publication year (mean rel. position). Note that it is a’tricky’ measure to interpret because lower values represent higher ranks; therefore, the slightly descending curve actually signals improving positions for women. More specifically, from 2007 on, the mean position has gradually been improving from approximately 0.6–0.5 to 0.4, meaning that female authors are moving forward from the “first 60%” to the first 40% on author ranks (i.e. within individual papers’ author lists). Although in certain research areas, being the last author is also a distinguished position, in such a multidisciplinary domain as ADS, higher ranks (being the 1st or among the first authors) can still be expected to trigger broader recognition. Altogether, each of the three measures on female authorship mutually confirms that women’s representation has been considerably extended in the domain of ADS throughout the last two decades. Next, we turn to our main question on the relationship between this elevated representation and research impact.

Effects of women’s authorship features on scientific impact

In the regression analysis seeking the relationship between female authorship and citation impact, we followed the strategy of finding the best available model. Regarding the procedure of variable selection, that is, in our attempt to find the relevant factors influencing citation scores (out of the indicator set described above), we preferred to choose the “theory-based” method. That is, over automatic selection algorithms that seek the best fitting model (in purely quantitative terms), we prioritized theoretical considerations in setting up our collection of alternative models or indicator sets. In particular, we decided to include in each alternative model the variable group C(i,..,u), which we called “the main factors of citation impact”, as well as F(i,…,m), i.e., the control variables for the research area since the effect of these variables is vastly demonstrated in the literature. The only source of variation between our models was the set G(i,…n), that is, the variables of female authorship, the effect of which we wanted to test in all possible configurations. This left us with seven models for testing. Of these, models 1–3 involved only one of the three indicators (c.au, rel.position, weight), models 4–6 involved two of them, accounting for all such combinations, and model 7 involved each of the three variables. The most informative results are reported in Table  3 , comparing the effect size of each explanatory variable across the seven alternative models using the standardized regression coefficients (plus indicating the model fit measures).

As reflected by the model fit measures in Table  3 , the seven models performed almost equally in terms of the goodness of fit. The AIC (Akaike Information Criterion) value is practically the same across all models, meaning that varying the set of gender-related variables does not affect how well the model fits the data. Also equal is the R 2 value, according to which these models account for approximately 15–20% of the variation in citation scores, which makes them a week but (regarding such complex relationships) acceptable explanations. In fact, we also ran automatic model selection algorithms to complement the theory-based selection, but the performance of the best “automatic” model did not differ from the ones below. Moreover, the effect sizes of individual factors also remained quite stable throughout the models.

First and foremost, indicators of female authorship appear to have a weak effect on citation scores. More precisely, the corresponding author being a female (c.au) is weakly but positively correlated with citation scores (the β -values ranging from 0.04 to 0.06 across models). The relative position of female authors (rel.position) technically shows a mostly negative, weak correlation with impact (the β -values ranging from − 0.04 to 0.01). However, recall that, by the definition of relative position, lower values mean a higher rank of female authors in the author list. Hence, we can say that this negative correlation signals a positive relationship between female author rank and citation scores so that the higher the rank of female authors is, the greater the expected impact of the paper. On the other hand, the proportion of female authors (weight) came out as slightly negatively affecting citation values (the β -values ranging from − 0.05 to 0.01).

Regarding the pattern of effect sizes in relation to the other variables, our models confirmed the previous findings regarding the relevant factors of citation impact. In the “main factors of citedness” set, the greatest and invariable positive effect is attributed to journal quality ( Journal.Impact. Factor ), which is moderate ( β -value = 0.16) but the highest among all variables with a positive influence. The open access citation advantage has also been confirmed ( β -value = 0.13). The next such indicator is author productivity (au.prod) , ( β -value = 0.10), emphasizing the value of the extent of authors’ representation within the professional community. Interestingly, the number of co-authors ( co.au ) and authors’ nationality ( cou.freq ) appeared to have a small – but positive – effect on impact. Finally, a weak negative influence was detected on the part of publications that did not belong to the “Article” or “Review” category ( DT  =  Other, ( β -value = − 0.19), and of the year of publication ( PY, β -value = 0.14), the latter warning that even age-normalized citation measures as our target variable cannot fully omit the effect of the citation window (so that older publications still get higher citation scores than more recent ones).

To gain a deeper insight into the structure of effects exerted by individual variables, especially the gender-related ones, we looked into the composition of a selected model out of our seven variants. Since all the models tended to be equivalent regarding their performance, we have chosen the one that was most equipped with the indicators of female authorship: in Model 7, all three such variables were included. The detailed regression results for this model are reported in Table  4 (primarily including the raw regression coefficients and the significance values).

According to the detailed analysis, the effect of female authorship variables is not statistically significant. Significance (at the level of p ≤ 1%) was detected for the same factors that showed higher effect sizes (as discussed above): Journal Impact. Factor , the year of publication ( PY ), author productivity ( au.prod ), OA status and document category of “Other” ( DT  =  Other ). Additionally, publishing papers in the Physical Sciences or, to a lesser extent, in the Clinical, Preclinical & Health area appear to have a positive and significant influence on citation scores.

Although not statistically significant, it is still worth considering the raw estimates of coefficients in the case of gender-related variables, more specifically, that of c.au , the corresponding author being a female researcher. The reason for this is the simple fact that our “sample” can even be conceived as the population itself, since our data were retrieved by delineating the field of ADS and using “all available” publications. This value is B(c.au)  = 0.36, meaning that female corresponding authors (in the sample) trigger a 43% higher citation score ( exp (0.36) = 1.43) on average than male corresponding authors (other factors held constant). Since an impact value above FNCS  = 1 already means a recognition level above the world average (within the field), this can be viewed as a considerable increment.

The overall structure of knowledge integration present in our data is first reported via visualization of the network of authors and research areas. Recall from the Methods section that this bipartite graph represents the relations between authors and their research fields (given the GIPP categorization scheme) by connecting each author to the research categories assigned to her/his papers. In the visualization (Fig.  5 ), the nodes corresponding to the six research areas are indicated by squares, while nodes corresponding to authors are shaped as small dots. To support the interpretation and increase visibility, two further modifications were applied. First, the edges of the network (connecting authors to fields each) were colored according to the research field involved in the relation (similarly, the borders of the research area nodes were colored the same way). Colors, therefore, were specific to research areas as follows: red edges signal connections to the Physical Sciences (PS), blue edges to the Life Sciences (LS), (3) green edges to the Clinical, Preclinical and Health Sciences (CP&H), orange edges to the Social Sciences (SS), yellow edges to the Arts and Humanities (A&H), and gray edges to Engineering and Technology (E&T). Additionally, as the second modification, the graph has been simplified (or “purified”) for a better structural view: only authors attached to at least two fields are included in the visualization; hence, the reported subgraph shows the pattern of interdisciplinarity within the data.

The bipartite graph represents the relationships between authors and research areas (according to the GIPP categorization scheme). Colors are specific to research areas as follows: red edges signal connections to the Physical Sciences (PS), blue edges to the Life Sciences (LS), green edges to the Clinical, Pre-Clinical and Health Sciences (CP&H), orange edges to the Social Sciences (SS), yellow edges to the Arts and Humanities (A&H), and grey edges to Engineering and Technology (E&T). The network is being presented with two layouts: the joint distribution of authors and research areas is represented (using the Fruchterman-Reingold layout algorithm), while the second visualization captures the basic structure of the network, where author nodes in the same position (related to the same set of fields) are being collapsed into a single node by overlaying one another (using a Multidimensional Scaling-based layout).

This pattern of interdisciplinarity, as observable through the graph, is strikingly clear. The strongest connection emerges between the Physical Sciences (PS) and the Life Sciences (LS), as signalled, on the one hand, by the close proximity of these two nodes at the centre of the network (the graph layout being sensitive to the number of connections, positioning densely related nodes close to each other) and, on the other hand, by the large number of authors (dots) with blue and red edges. This part of the network is joined with the rest through the Clinical, Preclinical and Health sciences (CP&H), which is in a typical knowledge broker position: many authors relate it to either the Physical or the Life Sciences or both, as witnessed by many authors (dots) with green, blue, and/or red edges. However, the area of CP&H also plugs in the social sciences (SS) into the system, as the latter is attached to the network through its interconnections with the CP&H area. This becomes visible through a distinct set of authors (dots) “on the North part” of the network, possessing green and orange edges. Finally, both the Arts and Humanities (A&H) and Engineering and Technology (E&T) behave as satellite areas. The humanities are pulled in through some connections with the social sciences , while engineering is mainly connected through the physical sciences . (In fact, as we shall later see, in some papers, the latter fields were present in broader combinations, but – as a further simplification – for this overview, we only kept the “backbone” of our graph where stronger links with at least two related publications per author were preserved.)

The analysis of knowledge integration scores (the LinkScore values) among authors yielded the distribution shown in Table  5 , which is a cross-tabulation of two variables, namely, gender and LinkScore. The latter was interpreted here as a categorical variable, for which some explanation is in order. Since, conceptually, the integration score is an author-level maximum over publication scores, the application of this measure to our sample resulted in five discrete values. More specifically, as expected from its design, the measurement resulted in.

1, for authors who have been active in a single field,

2 or 3, for those who have typically been connecting two or three more closely related areas of “hard science”,

6, for those who have typically linked a “hard science” field with either the social sciences or the humanities ,

9, for those who have been linking more than two fields, including the social sciences and/or the humanities .

The level of knowledge integration increases with the score. The test for the association of gender and LinkScore did not support that the author’s gender has a statistically significant relationship with the role in knowledge integration in general (χ 2  = 18.26, p = 0.14), and the association of these variables was also weak (Cramer’s V = 0.05).

Considering the distribution of LinkScores among female and male authors reported in Table  5 , it is indeed striking that the percentage of female authors is quite close to that of male authors in almost every category. The majority in both gender groups (45–50% of the authors) is a “specialist” in that these researchers have been active only in one field. A fair amount, however, belongs to the “short-distance interdisciplinary” category (approximately 20–30%), connecting 2 or 3 “hard science” fields. (Nonetheless, we should note that interconnections within the “hard sciences” category can also vary in the level of knowledge integration, as the Physical Sciences—Life sciences combination, which is rather frequent in our data as could be observed through the network visualization, potentially covers a greater distance than the Life Sciences—Clinical Sciences combination.) Authors with a value of 6, that is, connecting an SSH field with a hard science area, are an order of magnitude lesser, approximately 4–5% for both genders. Finally, the share of the most integrative authors with a value of 9, linking SSH fields with multiple hard science fields, is approximately 0.8–0.9% among female and male researchers as well. The distribution of female and male authors according to LinkScore categories is presented in Fig.  6 .

Comparison of LinkScore categories by gender

Based on our results, we also compiled a list of the most integrative researchers in the ADS field. This list is reported in Table  6 , where authors on outputs with a LinkScore of 9 and 6 – that is, all authors participating in research that embodies “long-distance interdisciplinarity” – are being collected. Within the table, researchers are ordered according to their gender so that the group of female researchers can easily be separated from the other gender group. Because LinkScore relates to a given output and because the measure is not size-dependent, it means that authors listed in any LinkScore categories in Table  6 are those who have at least one paper that fits the criteria for that category. In other words, the Linkscore measure captures the potential of an author to connect fields, not the overall performance in connecting fields.

Gender differences in research goal orientation

To explore gender differences in research goal orientation, 210 randomly selected publication abstracts were coded for three variations of the aims of the research: advancing science, societal impact or both. The key determinants of the coding were the primary purpose of the research and the consideration of external knowledge utilization. The coding criteria for the three categories of the aims of the research are presented in Table  2 . The results of the two coding exercises are compared in a confusion matrix (Table  7 ), based on which the Cohen’s Kappa statistic of the agreement between the two codings was calculated. Results show a considerable agreement of the two coding rounds (disagreement could detected on the Orientation type = 1: „scientific aim” category) with a Kappa value of 0.84 (usually interpreted as an indication of a „fairly good” agreement).

The general share of female- and male-authored papers was made equal. Half of the abstracts (n = 103, 49.0%) were coded for scientific progress as the main aim. The other half was split between aiming for societal progress (n = 44, 21.1%) and having dual aims (n = 63, 30.1%). Dominantly female papers were overrepresented among publications classified as aimed at scientific progress, while the share of male-authored papers was higher in publications classified as aimed at societal progress. Among publications classified as having both aims, the share of male-authored papers is higher by 8%. Contrary to other studies, female authors are engaged more in research we have classified as aimed at scientific progress, while male authors often value research we have classified as aimed at societal progress and research having both aims. Figure  7 represents the gender differences in the research goal orientation of dominantly female vs. dominantly male papers (χ 2  = 12.7, p = 0.002).

Gender differences in research goal orientation of dominantly female vs. dominantly male papers

We have included research areas in the analysis and displayed the distribution of subject areas. Among the coded papers, the subject areas of the anti-doping-related articles are mainly distributed in Clinical Sciences (n = 65), followed by the field of Social Sciences with 51 publications and Life Sciences, then Physical Sciences (n = 25). The share of dominantly female vs. non-female papers varies by the areas of research (Table  8 ). The largest imbalances in publications of different research areas are in Social Sciences (19 dominantly female papers vs 32 dominantly male papers) and Clinical Sciences (36 dominantly female papers vs 29 dominantly male papers).

Table 9 shows the distribution of all three categories of research goal orientation according to research areas. Within the 102 publications classified as aimed at scientific progress, anti-doping-related articles mainly occur in Clinical Sciences with 34 publications, Social Sciences with 17 and Physical Sciences; Life Sciences with 16 papers. The largest shares in publications classified as aimed at societal progress or having both aims appear also in the field of Clinical Sciences (n = 14; n = 17) and Social Sciences (n = 16; n = 18).

Figure  8 summarizes the analyzed abstracts according to research areas, gender differences, and research goal orientation. The largest shares of dominantly female papers that aimed at scientific impact were in Clinical Sciences, Social Sciences and Physical Sciences. In the field of engineering and technology, predominantly male papers have been published in all three research goal orientation categories.

Gender differences in research goal orientation by scientific fields

The primary aim of this work was to provide a novel approach for the analysis of research impact and identified actors within the anti-doping research landscape who play the role of connecting different research fields in their work. Specifically, we explored the characteristics and factors of the scientific impact of women’s contribution to ADS and detected potential gender differences in research goal orientation. In addition, we were interested in women’s contribution to the interconnections and combinations of different areas and fields behind anti-doping that would lead to effective interdisciplinarity, which is a requirement to address such complex and multi-faceted problems as doping. To realize these aims, we used a mixed method approach including regression models, network measures, and qualitative content analysis.

Academic impact

The results suggest that the domain of anti-doping exhibits fairplay conditions or a “healthy” ecosystem, where no gender bias against female authors can be detected. Furthermore, in terms of citation scores, the contribution of female authors with research excellence is even more impactful. This is reflected in the study outcomes that, on the one hand, most gender-related variables showed a small positive, albeit not statistically significant, effect. On the other hand, the higher rank of female authors in the paper’s author list (such as corresponding authorship or being the first author or being “among the first couple of authors”) still appeared to trigger a somewhat larger impact if we consider our data as the “population” of research output within ADS. What seemed to matter more to impact was the set of publication-related variables (as opposed to author-related ones), such as journal quality or the Open Access status. One exception to this is author productivity, which cannot be underestimated in scientific recognition. These results are very much in accord with recent studies on the relation between female authorship and academic impact (Thelwall, 2020b ). Furthermore, Hang et al. (2022) found no substantial or statistical significance of gender in shaping citation impact but identified gender-related author rank (namely, female author as first author) as the only factor that exerts some effect on citation scores. Previously, collaboration between two female researchers or with a female researcher was found to be more transient (Shen et al., 2022 ) than collaboration between male researchers, but collaboration pairs with a female partner yielded more citations.

Impact via knowledge transfer and integration

Regarding women's knowledge integration roles, the general structure of the female author group was similar to that of the male author group, and we can infer that no substantial gender differences can be detected here. However, small differences could still be observed in particular categories. First, female authors tend to be somewhat more interdisciplinary in that fewer female researchers were shown to be active in just one area (45% compared to 51% in the male gender group). Second, this increased interdisciplinarity is manifested mostly within the hard sciences: a higher share of female authors can be found in the LinkScore category of 2 and 3 than of male authors (28% vs. 24%, and 23% vs. 19%, respectively), meaning that it is slightly more common among women to work at the intersection of two or three areas within ADS. Finally, in the most integrative category ( LinkScore  = 6), where social sciences and humanities research fields are connected with more of the hard sciences, it is female authors again whose percentage is slightly higher (0.9% vs. 0.8%). Although these differences are not conclusive, they still reflect a tendency towards gender equity or slight superiority (on the part of female authors) regarding the knowledge integration aspect of scholarly impact. Our findings are consistent with those found by Elsevier's gender report ( 2021 ), indicating that in general, women's scholarly output includes a slightly higher proportion of highly interdisciplinary research compared to men's.

Research orientation

The content analysis of 210 randomly selected abstracts of anti-doping papers showed significant differences in the aims of research between dominantly female and dominantly male papers. Dominantly female papers contributed more to research aimed at scientific progress, while dominantly male papers are overrepresented among publications classified as aimed at societal progress or as having both aims. This finding is surprising and novel to the anti-doping literature. Zhang et al. find that female first authors are relatively more involved in research categorized as aimed at societal progress, while male researchers more often engage in research mainly aimed at scientific progress in different research fields. The results of Shang et al. are consistent with the findings of Zhang et al., indicating that female researchers more frequently participate in research aimed at societal progress. The authors concluded that female first authors are more likely to be involved in research related to Sustainable Development Goals.

However, our results suggest that focusing on specific multidisciplinary specialties (other than SDG) may reveal different patterns of gender involvement as is the case with our result.

This may be due to anti-doping being a relatively young and still emerging research field where established researchers, men, and women, took on the dual role of advancing the field (academic progress) and conducting research aiming for societal progress. Perhaps women have a stronger affinity to adapt to the (perceived) demands as well as the standards of the field. These results may reflect differing research priorities or interests between genders within the anti-doping community, however, Thelwall et al. ( 2019 ) demonstrated that gender disparities in research fields and topics cannot be solely attributed to inherent differences in people/thing interests or inclinations.

Relation of the study outcomes to the existing literature

Since the results of the present study apparently show a mixed relationship to the existing results, it is worth briefly summarizing its position – and considering its potential explanation – in the landscape of bibliometric research focusing on the relationship between gender and research impact.

For RQ1 (gender and citation impact), the purposive sample in Table  1 shows that although our results diverge from those of (Zhang et al., 2021 ), which served as the direct motivation for our study, several other studies did not find a significant effect of female authorship on citation impact, similar to our case. Among these studies were research reports on multidisciplinary and large samples collected on relatively wide time intervals. In our account, this „contradictory picture” is only seemingly contradictory: the contextual differences (time period, areas of research/levels of aggregation, maturity, and traditions of research domains) may vastly influence the gender-related patterns discerned from the study. In our case, the previously emphasized peculiarities of ADS (also among the reasons for its selection as the subject area for this research) can amplify this context-dependence of these findings (even more illustrative in this respect is the case for RQ3, see below).

Beyond contextual differences such as the scope and the subject matter analyzed in these studies, it is natural to assume that methodological differences also play an equally important role in accounting for discrepancies in respective study results. The methodological variability in question ranges from the whole research design to the choice of instruments for measuring academic impact, as we shall see below. We can gain sufficient insight into the role of methodology by invoking a previous study on the potential role of female authorship on academic impact in psychology in the US (Thelwall, 2020c ). Thelwall applied a very similar methodology to ours: they used a multivariate regression model to measure the effect of female authorship in various author positions on normalized citation counts. Notably, they argued for the application of the citation measure that we adopted here, the log-normalized citation score (LNCS), as providing valid (hence fair) comparisons between papers in terms of their recognition. The results of their study showed no (either practically or statistically) significant effect of gender on citation impact, except for a small positive effect of female first authorship, which is then termed „female citation advantage” as it could be reproduced in a series of further studies (cf. Thelwall, 2020b ). What makes this study exceptionally useful for our purposes is that the authors provided a very short, still, in a sense, comprehensive list of methodology-related reasons that may have led other bibliometric approaches to opposing results. As the authors claim, „ It is possible that misinterpretations of citation counts, such as use of the h-index, career citations, or un-normalised citation counts compared between fields, have incorrectly led to males gaining greater recognition. ” (Thelwall, 2020c , p. 693.) In other words, the authors deem the instruments used to measure citation impact as responsible for the differences, and also misleading, for example, the h-index, apart from not being an impact measure per se, is known to be unnormalized for many impact-unrelated factors affecting citation counts. Moreover, many of those measures are author-level indices – such as the h-index – aggregating paper-level citation counts to gauge the impact of the author. Though it is a tempting option, since authors can much more straightforwardly be sorted into gender categories (male, female), this step introduces many potential biases as well. In the first place, by summing over individual papers, the opportunity to control for the diverse paper-level factors behind citation impact (journal prestige, co-authorship, international vs. domestic collaboration, etc.) is mostly lost. This methodological difference implies a different research design, whereby (gendered) authors are compared on their impact, instead of the impact of papers being tested for the potential effect of authorship features. This design was applied in different research on psychology (González‐Álvarez & Cervera‐Crespo, 2019 ), along with paper-level comparisons within groups homogenized for several citation-related factors (number of authors, scope of collaboration), as a solution for controlling these factors even at aggregate levels. For the measurement of impact, however, raw citation counts were used and averaged over the female- and male- (first- and last-) authored papers. Even this setting resulted in very small differences between male and female papers in terms of effect size (according to the ANOVA test), though favoring male papers in this case. On Thelwall’s abovementioned account, however, raw citation counts for such a broad field as psychology (encompassing „soft” and „hard” areas) and sheer averages for highly skewed citation distributions profoundly distort the results – as demonstrated by his analysis of psychology on subfield-level and using a robust paper-level citation measure (LNCS) to preserve commensurability. In any case, this discourse conveys the sensitivity of the results to the selected methodology – in our case, we based our choice on Thelwall’s arguments.

For RQ3 (gender and research aim), the divergence in research orientation patterns found in (Zhang et al., 2021 ) is a more subtle issue. As an aspect of context-dependence, a specific feature in our method might have led to this difference: in the present context (ADS domain) we used an adapted version of the coding criteria in (Zhang et al., 2021 ) to categorize papers, but we argued for a modification specific to the research domain (ADS). Namely, most research in clinical medicine has been categorized here as having a scientific aim, the reason for which is discussed in detail in the description of coding. This modification, considering the high share of such studies in the sample, is one potential factor of the differences from the previous study. This alteration, however, was not arbitrary, but arguably domain- or field-related, reflecting a more adequate conceptualization of „societal aim” within the confines of the specific context (ADS). In sum, a detailed comparison dissolves the picture that the present results directly contradict existing evidence (as we may speak of differences, but not contradiction per se).

As is the case with the sensitivity of authorship effects on citation impact (RQ1) to the selected methodology, further literature also suggests a similar sensitivity on the relation of gender and research orientation (related to RQ3). Although this literature is very scarce, a specific study could be identified as directly reflecting our methodology. Santos et al. ( 2022 ) provided an approach to the relationship between academics’ research agendas and their preferences for basic research, applied research, or experimental development. In contrast to our qualitative approach, they used a questionnaire-based correlational design, a previously validated inventory for measuring the components of research agendas, and analyzed their effect on the weight of basic/applied research in academic practice. The latter was also measured via an instrument recording the proportion of time allocated to each, which served as a tool for cluttering them into “applied” and “basic” categories (similarly to our dichotomy on “social/societal” vs. “scientific” aims). Their sample consisted of 1160 respondents collected from various universities (no further specification was given, concerning e.g. the research fields sampled). Regarding their results, the authors explicitly pointed out that “ we do not find different research focus preferences between male and female academics, which is inconsistent with other studies indicating that male academics lean toward the basic sciences and female academics lean toward the applied sciences ( Zhang et al., 2021 ) ” (Santos et al., 2022 , p. 4212). In any case, we can suspect that alterations of the methodology lead to differing results: the quantitative methodology just described was associated with no difference, the qualitative methodology applied in Zhang et al. and our study showed an existing difference but with opposite signs, which we partially attributed to a different context-based modification of the coding criteria. Naturally, it is difficult to assess the individual contribution of the context, subject matter characteristics – e.g. research fields – or the methodological choice to the differences in the results, which is beyond the scope of the present study but would be worth further investigations. As we basically adopted the qualitative approach in a strict manner, we can assume, as discussed above, that the inconsistency of our study with the previous one on research aims and gender can be attributed – beyond the moderate alteration of the method – primarily to the context under study.

Limitations and future directions

This paper provides insight into the correlation between gender differences and research impact on anti-doping research. During the analysis, we faced several challenges; thus, our study is limited by several factors. One, for example, is that the pool of publications we used for our research was limited due to gender identification. Although we have chosen different methods to increase the precision of gender assignment, there are still a few authors' names we were unable to identify by full author names. Thus, the number of papers we could include in the analysis was restricted by a deficiency in gender assignment. The identification of the remaining author names would allow us to further increase the set of anti-doping publications suitable for analysis.

Another limitation is related to the sample of publication abstracts for examining research goal orientation. To select the abstracts, we used stratified sampling, in which we partitioned the publications based on the gendered characteristics of the papers. Then, we selected 105 abstracts independently from dominantly female papers and dominantly male papers. Despite demonstrated gender differences in research goal orientation by scientific fields in the results, the analyzed sample cannot be considered representative of the research field. Focusing on the research field in the sampling would give a more robust result regarding gender differences in research goal orientation in subfields of anti-doping research.

We should note that our study did not incorporate funding information on anti-doping scholarly output as a variable among the main factors of citation impact. Funding has been studied empirically as an explanatory variable affecting the citation impact of individual publications elsewhere (e.g., Roshani et al., 2021 ; Yan et al., 2018 ). Having funding supporting the research can be attributable to the research impact of scholarly communication, and funded projects can contribute to the advancement of research cooperation and collaborative publishing. However, it was also noted that a direct link between research funding and output cannot be drawn because research outcomes from grant-funded work often generate multiple outputs that are tailored to different audiences with different foci (Rigby, 2011 ). Furthermore, funding is essential in some subfields of anti-doping (e.g., experimental research), while applying for funding within the subfield of social sciences may not be vital in all cases. Since an assessment of the impact obtained via the output of individual projects on the advancement of anti-doping research can be analysed through the measurement of citation impact, mapping such an impact of funded projects by major organizations operating in the anti-doping research area would be recommended in future studies. Future research could also look into the impact of gender in the peer-review process of grant applications and publications (Bianchini et al., 2022 ; Chubb & Derrick, 2020 ; Squazzoni et al., 2021 ; Tricco et al., 2017 ).

Contributing to advancing the field from a bibliometric viewpoint, we developed a new score for the assessment of authors whose work links different research fields. The LinkScore allows detecting to what extent authors participate in “integrative” research that connects different areas as well as quantifying the capacity of the author’s work in linking research fields. Applying LinkScore in future scientometric analyses is a feasible approach to detect gender differences in knowledge integration in other research areas that appear to be highly interdisciplinary.

Additional future research questions revolve around the influence of male dominance in ADS on our understanding of the doping problem and proposed solutions to date. The results presented in this paper are not able to answer this question, but future research could build on the results we presented and employ citation path analysis to follow the influence of the ‘star’ men and women researchers identified in our previous study (Kiss et al., 2022 ) and via LinkScore in the current study.

This study provides a novel approach for the analysis of research impact and research goal orientation within the anti-doping research landscape. Specifically, we explored the role of women’s contribution to the scientific impact of ADS and detected potential gender differences in research goal orientation. The large-scale, data-driven bibliometric models we used in our study, can account for the structure, dynamics, and drives of both the global system of sciences and such specific, complex, and multidisciplinary (that is, otherwise hardly characterizable) constellations as the field of anti-doping sciences.

The results from this study showed that the gender gap observed in anti-doping scientific outputs wanes for research impact. The characteristics of female authorship (e.g., gender of the corresponding author) do not have an effect on citation impact except for gender-related author rank (female first author), which has a positive influence on citations for women scientists. The trend-defying picture in ADS may not be because women’s ADS are different, but it could be the consequence of the field being relatively young and still emerging. Future research is needed to further elucidate the underlying factors of women’s success in ADS. Regarding research goal orientation, dominantly female papers were overrepresented among publications classified as aimed at scientific progress, while the share of male-authored papers was higher in publications classified as aimed at societal progress. A better understanding of the dynamics of women’s research priorities or interests will offer valuable insight into how anti-doping scientific advances. Anti-doping research is in a unique position due to its multidisciplinary nature, in essence, scholars can truly grasp the richness and complexity of this research field only by applying a wide range of methodologies.

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Open access funding provided by Library and Information Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The work received support from Kingston University Impact Fund 2022–2023.

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Library and Information Centre, Department of Scientometrics and Science Policy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

Anna Kiss & Sándor Soós

Faculty of Education and Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), Budapest, Hungary

Anna Kiss, Sándor Soós & Andrea Petróczi

Pro-Sharp Research and Innovation Centre, Budapest, Hungary

School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, UK

Andrea Petróczi

Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium

Willibald Gebhardt Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

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Conceptualization: Andrea Petróczi; Methodology: Anna Kiss, Sándor Soós; Formal analysis and investigation: Anna Kiss, Sándor Soós, Andrea Petróczi; Writing—original draft preparation: Anna Kiss, Sándor Soós; Writing—review and editing: Andrea Petróczi; Funding acquisition: Andrea Petróczi.

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Validation of the LinkScore measure

In order to justify the introduction and use of the LinkScore measure (LS), various attempts have been made to provide an initial validation of this tool, via testing its convergent validity with respect to existing indices on knowledge integration. Most importantly, we investigated the agreement between the level of interdisciplinarity as measured by the LS versus a family of knowledge integration measures based on the Rao-Stirling index (RS), widely used in the literature (Leydesdorff et al., 2013). The reason behind this choice was twofold: (1) the RS is typically applied on a more granular level than our LS, namely, on the level of WoS Subject Categories, and (2) this measurement type accounts for the cognitive proximities of the research fields (WoS SCs) being covered by an actor’s research portfolio. Our goal in the validation attempt was to demonstrate whether the LS, as a more robust and more easily applicable and interpretable tool (not being dependent on extensive computations and access to the full content of indexing databases as is the RS index) sorts authors into ranked categories that mirror their levels of interdisciplinarity along the RS index.

To that end, a modified version of the RS index was calculated for each author in our sample (RSm). Since the main conceptual difference between the RS and the LS index was that the latter did not directly reflect the micro-level cognitive organization of the publication record, lacking cognitive proximities/distances as a factor in its calculation, we only retained this latter feature of the RS index to amplify potential divergence based on this theoretical (and technical) difference. In particular, we modified it to convey the „average cognitive distance” within an author’s publication set:

where n is the number of SCs associated with the publication set, s ij is the proximity of the i- th and j -th Subject Category ( i,j  ≤  n ) measured by the cosine similarity of their reference patterns (their vectors of aggregated references to other SCs) within a global science map. We used the global science map based on the Web of Science (that is, the similarity matrix of WoS SCs) published by Leydesdorff et al., 2013, downloadable from https://www.leydesdorff.net/ ).

As a means of statistical comparison between the RS and LS scores, as LS scores could most naturally be characterized as author categories w.r.t. the degree of knowledge integration, an ANOVA test was used (with post-hoc comparisons). The test showed that the differences in the average cognitive distance (RSm) were strongly significant between LS categories (F(4) = 461.8, p < 0.001***). The mean values of RSm are reported in Table  10 . Post-hoc comparisons and HSD Tukey tests were conducted to assess the pairwise differences of LS categories (or scores) in terms of RS scores (Fig.  9 ). The LS category mean values confirm that higher levels of knowledge integration on the LS scale implies higher mean cognitive distance, on average, that is, a greater extent of knowledge integration on the RS scale. Furthermore, the differences between the categories are, in most cases, significantly differ from zero, as conveyed by the Tukey plot. More precisely, there is a significant difference among lower levels (category 1, category 2), as between lower and higher levels of interdisciplinarity (category 3, 6, 9). Notably, higher levels do not differ significantly among themselves.

The Tukey plot of pairwise comparisons of the differences between LinkScore classes (along with RS scores)

These results can be interpreted as a fairly good initial confirmation of the use of the LS score, despite the low discrimination between its highest levels (3–9) by the RSm, since the latter categories are all meant to represent high levels of knowledge integration, while LS = 2 can be considered as moderate, and LS = 1 as the „zero” level. These watersheds are well reflected in the corresponding RSm ranges (Table  10 ).

Another concern that can emerge regarding the definition of the LinkScore measure is the selected aggregation method: namely, taking the maximum of the publication-level LS values to characterize the knowledge integration capacity for the author. An implication of this method is that authors with e.g. one highly interdisciplinary paper (LS = 9) are deemed more interdisciplinary than authors with several, perhaps many, but somewhat less interdisciplinary publications each (3 ≤ LS < 9), which is a potential bias. In addressing this bias, it should first be noted that such an implication is in line with our purposes to define knowledge integration capacity as the range of knowledge integration for authors, instead of the frequency or share of interdisciplinary papers in their record. In this sense, this behavior of the LS does not violate the conceptual validity of the measure. However, in order to further investigate the empirical relation between these two perspectives (range vs. frequency), we made a systematic comparison between two versions of the LinkScore metric, differing only in the aggregation method. In particular, we compared (1) the original LS with the maximum value and (2) an LS with the average value of the underlying publications’ LinkScore (the latter was meant to represent the „frequency-based” perspective on knowledge integration capacity). An ANOVA test was applied with post-hoc comparisons of the mean differences of individual LS categories in terms of their average LinkScore values. We found a significant overall difference between LS categories (F(4) = 3308, p < 0.001***), and a strict monotonic increase in the category means of the average LS values for successive LS ranks relying upon the maximum-based aggregation method (Table  10 ). Furthermore, there is a difference significantly differing from zero between each pair of LS categories, as reported in the post-hoc tests (Tukey plot, Fig.  10 ). All these results clearly evidence that the maximum-based LS-definition empirically aligns with the average-based LS-definition, that is to say, higher ranges of knowledge integration are associated with higher frequencies of interdisciplinary publications at the level of authors, which conclusion renders the potential bias in question less of a violation to construct validity even for a broader concept of interdisciplinarity.

The Tukey plot of pairwise comparisons of the differences between LinkScore classes (along with average LinkScore values)

Validation of the impact type categorization

The categorization of selected papers into the „impact orientation” classes defined in our research was based on a qualitative analysis of the papers’ abstracts. In order to improve and test the quality of the analysis we, besides canonical tests of reliability (see below), made an attempt to support this categorization with a quantitative approach, and investigate the convergent validity of the two approaches. To that end, we selected a quantitative indicator that can be argued to covary with the type of orientation (mainly scientific / mainly social) for individual publications. It has become quite common in scientometrics to use so-called „usage indicators” as proxies for measuring social impact. We considered these indicators as less applicable in the present context. It should be noted that there is vast criticism as to their content validity in the literature (Pulido et al., 2018 ), whether it is the social impact of research that these indicators convey. Nonetheless, our main reason was that the construct for which we coded the sample was not social impact per se, but rather the orientation of the paper towards „basic” or „pure” scientific research vs. direct applications (that is, the achievement of „social value”). Usage indicators in themselves are arguably not ideal for differentiating between these types.

Instead of usage indicators, we capitalized on a feature of publications that can directly be linked to the research goal in these terms, viz . funding data. It is reasonable to assume that the type of funding/funder imposes certain constraints on the content of the reported research. In particular, we considered funders with clear science-related missions (such as universities, research councils, and bodies funding basic research) as supporting basic research or scientific orientation, and funders with clear „social missions” or bodies involved in research valorization (such as anti-doping agencies, Olympic committees, governmental bodies concerned with sport and health policy) as supporting applied or – in this sense – socially oriented research. Typical examples from our sample are listed in the following Table  11 .

Given these considerations, the validation process was undertaken in the following steps. (1) We have coded the unique funding bodies listed in the „funding information” field (FU) of the WoS sample into a funder type variable with values {0, 1}. Funder type = 0 represented funders with science-oriented missions or basic research, and funder type = 1 stood for funders with social^societal or research valorization missions. (2) For each publication P we calculated a metric that detected the weight of funders with social missions among all the funders reported for P ( Share of funder type  =  1 ). Given the coding, for any publication P with n reported funders, this could easily be described by the formula

(3) In the final step., we compared the three Impact type categories by the funder type statistics of papers belonging to them.

In the sample, only a subset of papers (n = 90) contained sufficient funding information (at least one reported funder) for calculating the statistics described above. For this subsample we applied explorative statistics, the average of the Funder type measure in each category as a means of comparison. The results are shown in Table  12 . It is striking from the table that (1) the categories are well separated by the average Funder type, and (2) their differences are well aligned with their type of research orientation they represent. In particular, the smallest average value (~ 0.6), that is, the smallest average share of social mission oriented funders pertains to Impact type category = 1, coding for „pure” scientific research goals. The highest (in fact, 100%) value is tied to Impact category = 2, that is, primarily social missions in research. The mixed category (Impact category = 3) presents a value in between. In sum, the present quantitative attempt to support the qualitative analysis confirms the results of the coding procedure applied on the sample.

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Kiss, A., Soós, S. & Petróczi, A. Impact as equalizer: the demise of gender-related differences in anti-doping research. Scientometrics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05094-0

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Published : 29 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05094-0

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Why Are Companies That Lose Money Still So Successful?

• Vijay Govindarajan,
• Shivaram Rajgopal,
• Anup Srivastava,
• Aneel Iqbal,
• Elnaz Basirian

New research on how to identify investments that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits.

In a well-functioning capital market, profits should be the sole criterion for firm survival; that is, firms reporting losses should disappear. Of late, however, loss-making firms are highly sought after by investors — often more than some profitable firms. Unicorns, or startups with valuations exceeding a billion dollars, are examples of such loss-making firms. What has changed over time? When and why did losses lose their meaning? The authors’ series of new research papers provide some answers, guiding managers to make the right investments: those that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits but decimate shareholder wealth in long run.

In 1979, psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky famously posited that losses loom larger than gains in human decision-making. For example, a dollar of loss affects our behavior more than a dollar of profits . Likewise, when a firm announces losses, its stock price declines more dramatically than it increases for the same dollar amount of profits. Investors abandon and lenders tend to stop financing loss-making firms , which then start restructuring their business lines and laying off employees. Some firms go even further, conducting M&A transactions without substance and “managing earnings” to report profits instead of a loss.

• Vijay Govindarajan is the Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College’s Tuck School of Business, an executive fellow at Harvard Business School, and faculty partner at the Silicon Valley incubator Mach 49. He is a New York Times and Wall Street Journal bestselling author. His latest book is Fusion Strategy: How Real-Time Data and AI Will Power the Industrial Future . His Harvard Business Review articles “ Engineering Reverse Innovations ” and “ Stop the Innovation Wars ” won McKinsey Awards for best article published in HBR. His HBR articles “ How GE Is Disrupting Itself ” and “ The CEO’s Role in Business Model Reinvention ” are HBR all-time top-50 bestsellers. Follow him on LinkedIn . vgovindarajan
• Shivaram Rajgopal is the Roy Bernard Kester and T.W. Byrnes Professor of Accounting and Auditing and Vice Dean of Research at Columbia Business School. His research examines financial reporting and executive compensation issues and he is widely published in both accounting and finance.
• Anup Srivastava holds Canada Research Chair in Accounting, Decision Making, and Capital Markets and is a full professor at Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary. In a series of HBR articles, he examines the management implications of digital disruption. He specializes in the valuation and financial reporting challenges of digital companies. Follow Anup on  LinkedIn .
• Aneel Iqbal is an assistant professor at Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University. He examines the accounting measurement and financial disclosures for new-economy firms and incorporates his wide-ranging industry experience into his research and teaching. He is a seasoned accounting and finance professional with diverse experience in auditing, financial analysis, business advisory, performance management, and executive training. Follow Aneel on LinkedIn .
• Elnaz Basirian is a PhD student at the Haskayne School of Business. She examines the influence and role of intangibles in accounting and finance, aimed at improving valuation and market efficiency. She brings a decade of work experience in international financial markets. Follow Elnaz on LinkedIn .

Partner Center

Remarkably Large Differences Among Eight Satellite, Reanalysis and Reconstructed Products of Global Sea Surface Net Radiation

44 Pages Posted: 27 Jun 2024

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Shunlin Liang

Hongkai chen, yingping chen.

The performance of all-wave net radiation (Rn) estimates at the global sea surface is largely unknown. In this study, eight daily mean long-term sea surface Rn products were compared and evaluated using observations from 55 moored buoys. The eight products included three satellite products: Editions 4A of the Clouds and the Earth’s Energy System (CERES-4A), the Japanese Ocean Flux Datasets with Use of Remote Sensing Observations, Version 3 (J-OFURO3), and the Global Energy and Water Exchange (GEWEX) – Surface Radiation Budget; four reanalysis products: ERA-Interim, the Japanese 55-Year Reanalysis (JRA55), the Modern Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA2), and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction Department of Energy Reanalysis 2 (NCEP R2); and one reconstructed product: the Objectively Analyzed Air-Sea Fluxes from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project radiative flux D-series product (OAFlux+ISCCP). The results indicate the following: (1) large discrepancies appeared in all products, particularly in the tropics and high-latitude seas; (2) the satellite products generally outperformed  the reanalysis products, among which J-OFURO3 performed the best with an R2 of 0.883, a root-mean-square difference (RMSD) of 21.883 Wm−2, and a bias of 0.275 Wm−2 , and NCEP R2 was the worst, with an R2 of 0.341, an RMSD of 60.296 Wm−2, and a bias of -13.105 Wm−2, during the common study period from 2000 to 2013, and the conclusions were almost unaffected by the spatial resolution; and (3) the long-term trends, variations, and magnitude in the annual average sea surface Rn from all products were remarkably different, especially before 2000, and thus, it is difficult to tell which product is reliable. Overall, these eight products show significant disagreements, and each product has its own advantages and drawbacks; therefore, further studies are required to improve the accuracies of the sea surface radiative fluxes.

Keywords: net radiation, sea surface, evaluation, satellite, reanalysis, reconstructed product, moored buoy

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The future of health systems

Rapid population ageing, tight healthcare budgets, a shortage of health workers and the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic are all putting increased pressure on healthcare systems. As OECD countries look to prepare for the future, radical policy change is needed to ensure high-quality care is available to all while keeping spending levels sustainable. 

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Key messages, policy change is needed to care for an ageing population.

As people get older, it becomes more likely that they will need help with day-to-day activities like cooking, cleaning, getting dressed and self-care. This type of support is known as long-term care (LTC). With rapid population ageing, countries need to rethink how systems can promote healthier ageing, improve the quality of care and find new ways to care for people at the end of their lives, while balancing the social adequacy of systems with financial sustainability.

Measuring health system performance

Assessing health system performance is crucial to ensure that health systems meet people’s health needs and preferences and provide high-quality accessible healthcare for all. It helps policy makers to identify areas that require improvement, effectively allocate resources, and measure the progress of key policy objectives.

Health systems must be prepared for future shocks

Health system resilience is the capacity of health systems to proactively foresee, absorb, recover from, and adapt to shocks such as pandemics, climate change, geopolitical conflicts, and cyberthreats. As countries recover from COVID-19, bolstering the overall capacity of health systems is more critical than ever. Health system resilience must be prioritised as one of the key objectives for high-performing health systems.  

Addressing shortages in health workforce

While the supply of health workers has increased over the past few decades in OECD countries, the demand for healthcare has also increased due to population ageing. In order to address health workforce shortages, countries should increase the training of new health professionals, increase staff retention by improving working conditions, and encourage innovation related to work organisation and the use of new technologies to respond efficiently to the growing demand for care.

Population ageing

The rapid population ageing seen across OECD countries will lead to increasing demands on health systems, and a decreasing working-age population to support them. In this context, promoting high quality of care while maintaining sustainable spending levels will present a significant challenge to health systems.

In recent decades, the share of the population aged 65 and over has doubled on average across OECD countries, increasing from less than 9% in 1960 to 18% in 2021. This varies significantly between member countries, with highs of 28.9% in Japan and 23.6% in Italy, compared to just 7.9% in Mexico and 8.8% in Colombia. This trend is expected to continue, with the proportion of the population aged 65 and over set to increase significantly.

Health systems are under financial pressure

The growing pressure on health system budgets reflects a challenging economic climate, with competing priorities squeezing the public funds available for health. This has been exacerbated by high levels of inflation and the increasing demands of an ageing population.

In 2019, prior to the pandemic, OECD countries spent on average 8.8% of GDP on healthcare, a figure relatively unchanged since 2013. By 2021, this proportion had jumped to 9.7%. However, 2022 estimates point to a significant fall to 9.2%, reflecting a reduced need for spending to tackle the pandemic but also the impact of inflation. This increasing pressure on health systems will require major policy change to address in the coming years.

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New CLTC White Paper on Explainable AI, Counterfactual Explanations

Developers of artificial intelligence (AI) often struggle with making their models “explainable,” i.e., ensuring that users of the system understand how or why an output or decision was made. A new white paper from the Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity explores diverse approach to explainable artificial intelligence (XAI), focusing on one approach in particular: counterfactual explanations, or CTEs.

The paper, “ Improving the Explainability of Artificial Intelligence: The Promises and Limitations of Counterfactual Explanations ,” was authored by Alexander Asemota , a PhD candidate in statistics at UC Berkeley. Asemota conducted his research on counterfactual explanations during his term as a fellow in the AI Policy Hub, an interdisciplinary initiative that trains UC Berkeley researchers to develop effective AI governance and policy frameworks.

“As AI rises in prominence across domains, it is crucial that companies, governments, and the public understand how AI is impacting decision-making,” Asemota writes. “However, there continues to be a dearth of guidance on how decisions made by algorithmic systems should be explained to those affected by them. This paper seeks to offer some perspective on counterfactual explanations, a methodology that has the potential to greatly improve access to recourse for algorithmic subjects.”

Counterfactual explanations, Asemota explains, are “intuitive for users because they describe how changing the factors that went into an algorithm-based decision would lead to a different output.” He offers the example of an applicant denied admission to a university: a counterfactual explanation might recommend that the applicant increase their test scores or take additional courses to improve their chances.

Still, while CFEs offer some improvements over other explanation methods, they still have significant limitations, Asemota writes. Companies, lawmakers, researchers, and regulators must keep these limitations in mind when considering how and when to use CFEs. Asemota provides specific recommendations for different stakeholders in shaping AI and AI policy, including regulators, lawmakers, companies and researchers.

“Counterfactual explanations are promising as they provide specific recommendations to the user in a format that does not require significant knowledge of AI.”

Asemota suggests that regulators of AI technologies should, at least for now, refrain from requiring AI developers to provide counterfactual explanations, due to deficiencies in existing methodologies. They should, however, support the development of frameworks for explainability, and collaborate with open-source developers to create robust libraries for models, tools, and methodologies that support explainability.

Lawmakers, meanwhile, should require reporting on explainability for high-stakes domains such as finance and medicine. They should also require that technology makers disclose the use of AI systems, ensuring that algorithmic subjects are aware of when and how AI/ML is being used for decisions that affect them.

Companies should continue to test the use of counterfactual explanations, including by comparing the recommendations provided by CFEs to observed data to evaluate their accuracy and effectiveness. They should also test and validate any methods for explainability that they intend to implement, and build rigorous and automatic evaluation structures into AI pipelines.

Asemota recommends that AI researchers collaborate with applied AI/ML practitioners to progress counterfactual explanations research. They should place higher emphasis on safety and explainability in AI research, and communicate the risks in using explainability methods developed through their research.

“The rise of AI/ML has led to a growing need for explainability and transparency from what are often opaque systems,” Asemota writes in the conclusion. “Counterfactual explanations are a promising tool in the pursuit of explainable AI, but CFEs have significant limitations. Regulators, legislators, private companies, and researchers all have a role to play in improving counterfactuals and increasing explainability in AI/ML more generally.”

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• #artificial intelligence (AI)
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Comparing Research and Term Papers

Research and term papers are two of the most commonly encountered forms of academic writing. As such, it is important for students to have an understanding of the differences between these two types of papers. This article will compare research and term papers in terms of their purpose, structure, content, format requirements, and grading criteria in order to help students determine which type is best suited to meet their needs.

I. Introduction to Research and Term Papers

Ii. identifying the differences between research and term papers, iii. the scope of a research paper versus a term paper, iv. crafting an argument in a research or term paper, v. developing ideas for your topic through primary and secondary sources, vi. structuring the sections of your paper appropriately vii. making final revisions before submitting.

Getting Started on Research and Term Papers

When it comes to writing academic papers, the two most common types are research papers and term papers. Though they both involve substantial effort in researching and composing a paper, there are important distinctions between the two that need to be noted.

Research papers usually require an investigation into some kind of subject matter or topic; this often entails conducting interviews with experts, reading literature related to your project’s focus area or exploring databases for relevant data sets. Your job as author is then take all these sources and draw conclusions from them; when finished you should have created a cohesive narrative that presents new ideas based on facts established by credible evidence.

• A research paper requires more than just summarizing existing information
• You must analyze current information then build upon those findings using logic & analysis

Term papers tend to differ from research in one major way: rather than presenting original ideas based on researched material, they summarize what has already been written about a particular topic or issue — basically reviewing everything someone else has already said (or at least all of the key points). The main objective here is not necessarily reaching any sort of conclusion but instead demonstrating your ability review large amounts of text without becoming overwhelmed while synthesizing the content effectively for readers unfamiliar with it.

• A term paper focuses primarily on summarization
• It tests how well you understand complex texts & can deliver summaries concisely

Distinctive Features Research papers and term papers are both writing assignments that students may need to complete during their academic careers, but they have some key differences. Primarily, research paper focus on presenting an argument or exploring a specific topic while term papers do not necessarily require making an argument. Term papers may instead focus on summarizing existing material from other sources in order to offer a comprehensive overview of the chosen subject area. Additionally, since research paper often requires original contributions it typically requires longer completion times than term papers which generally use already-existing information from external sources for reference.

. Research projects usually require more citations and references throughout the text body compared to citation requirement for shorter pieces like essays or brief reports common in college level coursework such as English classes.

Exploring Differentiations When it comes to analyzing academic works, the differences between a research paper and a term paper are substantial. Although both assignments require students to engage in intensive study of relevant course material, their outcomes diverge significantly.

In general, research papers can be considered more comprehensive than term papers as they include an abundance of sources from literature reviews for reference and evidence. As such, authors must integrate more knowledge into their document while adhering to an expanded scope during its compilation. In comparison with this structure, term papers tend toward focusing on one main idea or concept that is studied thoroughly throughout the writing process – thus requiring narrower focus and fewer external sources.

Moreover, due to the broader scope associated with research documents compared to those of a shorter nature like terms papers; topics should be chosen carefully so that all aspects may be addressed correctly within page limits set by instructors. To further refine these distinctions even further: when preparing a research paper one should expect sections including introductions/backgrounds information about source materials being used alongside results discussion followed by conclusions drawn from presented data – however some professors may request different formatting based upon curriculum standards at hand.

• Research Papers have broad scopes
• Term Papers have narrow focuses
• Research Papers must contain many references

. Both types of essays present ample opportunity for students enhance problem-solving skills which will aid them later in life regardless if pursued fields are related directly or indirectly through future career paths explored along each individual’s unique journey!

When crafting an argument for a research or term paper, it is important to understand the distinction between the two. A research paper requires a comprehensive investigation of available data and literature on the subject matter while taking into account different points of view and providing analysis in support of your conclusions. In contrast, a term paper often relies more heavily upon primary sources rather than secondary sources and involves rigorous examination of all relevant evidence.

Key Considerations

• Gather reliable information from authoritative sources related to your topic.
• Think critically about how these elements fit together to form arguments or lines of reasoning that can support your claims.

Researching primary and secondary sources is essential when developing your topic. Primary sources provide the direct evidence from the person or event you are studying, while secondary sources draw upon existing research to offer interpretations of a given topic.

• Surveys/Interviews/Oral Histories

Structuring the Sections of Your Paper Appropriately Having an organized structure is essential when writing any type of academic paper. A research paper requires you to formulate a hypothesis and back it up with evidence, while a term paper simply summarizes the material learned in class or from various sources. When constructing your sections, be sure to do each step thoroughly and accurately.

Begin by choosing a topic that interests you and will help drive your research forward. Research relevant topics surrounding this subject for ideas on how best to structure your argument or point-of-view; create unnumbered lists for all potential points or arguments as they come up during your search process. Make sure these are concrete facts rather than speculative thoughts – remember: evidence matters! As you move through different sources and materials relating to the original topic, refine and narrow down those items into more specific categories which can then form subsections within each main section of your paper. VII. Making Final Revisions Before Submitting As soon as possible after completing all drafts of the paper before submission, set aside time for revising what has been written so far – this is one of the most important steps in producing good work! It also helps ensure accuracy throughout since last minute errors may have crept their way into earlier drafts unnoticed until now. Look over every sentence carefully making note if anything needs rephrasing or restructuring further away from vagueness towards precision instead; check spelling/grammar mistakes plus any typos present too (spellcheck programs don’t catch everything). Finally take another glance at how logical flow between paragraphs looks like overall – does something feel out-of-place? Reorder things around until there’s no confusion regarding order intended moving across pages.

English: In conclusion, the distinction between research and term papers is critical for any student or academic looking to make an impact in their field. By understanding the differences between these two writing formats, students are more likely to produce successful written work that will prove beneficial both during their studies and beyond. Additionally, with a firm grasp of each type’s respective purpose and structure, professors can create meaningful assignments that challenge students while aiding them in achieving educational success.