mount etna 2002 case study

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Volcano case study - Mount Etna (2002-2003), Italy

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Can you describe the location of Mount Etna? Could you draw a sketch map to locate Mount Etna?

Case study task

Use the resources and links that can be found on this page to produce a detailed case study of the 2002-2003 eruption of Mount Etna. You should use the 'Five W's" subheadings to give your case study structure.

What happened?

The Guardian - Sicilian city blanketed in ash [28 October 2002]

When did it happen?

Immediately before midnight on 26 October 2002 (local time=GMT+1), a new flank eruption began on Mount Etna. The eruption ended after three months and two days, on 28 January 2003.

Where did it happen?

The eruption occurred from fissures on two sides of the volcano: at about 2750 m on the southern flank and at elevations between 2500 and 1850 m on the northeastern flank.

Why did it happen?

Mount Etna is a volcano. The reasons why Mount Etna is located where it is are complex. Here are some of the theories:

• One theory envisages a hot spot or mantle-plume origin for this volcano, like those that produce the volcanoes in Hawaii.
• Another theory involves the subduction of the African plate under the Eurasian plate.
• Another group of scientists believes that rifting along the eastern coast of Sicily allows the uprise of magma.

Who was affected by it happening?

• The Italian Government declared a state of emergency in parts of Sicily, after a series of earthquakes accompanying the eruption of forced about 1,000 people flee their homes.
• A ship equipped with a medical clinic aboard was positioned off Catania - to the south of the volcano - to be ready in case of emergency.
• Emergency workers dug channels in the earth in an attempt to divert the northern flow away from the town of Linguaglossa.
• Schools in the town have been shut down, although the church has remained open for people to pray.
• Villagers also continued their tradition of parading their patron saint through the streets to the railway station, to try to ward off the lava flow.
• Civil protection officials in Catania, Sicily's second-biggest city, which sits in the shadow of Etna, surveyed the mountain by helicopter and were ready to send water-carrying planes into the skies to fight the fires.
• The tourist complex and skiing areas of Piano Provenzana were nearly completely devastated by the lava flows that issued from the NE Rift vents on the first day of the eruption.
• Heavy tephra falls caused by the activity on the southern flank occurred mostly in areas to the south of the volcano and nearly paralyzed public life in Catania and nearby towns.
• For more than two weeks the International Airport of Catania, Fontanarossa, had to be closed due to ash on the runways.
• Strong seismicity and ground deformation accompanied the eruption; a particularly strong shock (magnitude 4.4) on 29 October destroyed and damaged numerous buildings on the lower southeastern flank, in the area of Santa Venerina.
• Lava flows from the southern flank vents seriously threatened the tourist facilities around the Rifugio Sapienza between 23 and 25 November, and a few days later destroyed a section of forest on the southwestern flank.
• The eruption brought a heightened awareness of volcanic and seismic hazards to the Sicilian public, especially because it occurred only one year and three months after the previous eruption that was strongly featured in the information media.

Look at this video clip from an eruption on Mount Etna in November 2007.  What sort of eruption is it?

There is no commentary on the video - could you add your own explaining what is happening and why?

You should be able to use the knowledge and understanding you have gained about 2002-2003 eruption of Mount Etna to answer the following exam-style question:

In many parts of the world, the natural environment presents hazards to people. Choose an example of one of the following: a volcanic eruption, an earthquake, or a drought. For a named area, describe the causes of the example which you have chosen and its impacts on the people living there. [7 marks]

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Report on Etna (Italy) — November 2002

Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, vol. 27, no. 11 (November 2002) Managing Editor: Richard Wunderman. Etna (Italy) Witnesses saw N- and S-flank eruptions begin at around 0200 on 27 October

Please cite this report as: Global Volcanism Program, 2002. Report on Etna (Italy) (Wunderman, R., ed.). Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network , 27:11. Smithsonian Institution. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN200211-211060

37.748°N, 14.999°E; summit elev. 3357 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted).

After the violent flank eruption of July-August 2001, Mount Etna was rather calm for more than 10 months, except for usual fumes from the four summit craters [and minor ash emissions]. In the first days of July 2002 weak magmatic activity resumed sporadically at the NE Crater with ejection of bombs that fell on the outer slopes of the cone. On 12 September explosions occurred every 2 or 3 minutes and were violent enough to throw large spatter as far as the northern rim of the Voragine (Central Crater). However, there were many days without explosive activity and, at other times, the NE Crater emitted large clouds of brownish ash. Although a magnitude 3.7 earthquake had struck the northern flank of the volcano on 22 September, subsequent days were so calm that, to these contributors, the following events came as quite a surprise.

As the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) previously reported ( BGVN 27:10), a seismic swarm began to shake Etna late during the evening of 26 October 2002. One observer, Maurice Aubert, happened to be in a hotel on the northern flank (at Piano Provenzana, 1,816 m elevation). There the seismic shocks were distinctly felt after midnight and rapidly reached hazardous levels. Hours later, at 0205 on 27 October, lava fountains began to play along a fissure 1-2 km up slope, but decreased at 0220 when lava flows expanded downwards.

The seismic intensity of earthquakes felt the night of the 26th ranged from II to VII or perhaps VIII. The approximate timing and seismic intensity was recorded as follows at 0030, II; at 0140, VI; at 0200, VI; at 0320, VII; and at 0343, VII or VIII. Maurice Aubert and his group hastily retreated shortly after 0320, exiting while cracks were developing through the mountain road. The last of the above-reported intensities was felt during their departure, when a strong earthquake shook their car.

Vents at ~2,700 m elevation on the southern flank (on the Piano del Lago) are here called the S2700 vents. These new S-flank vents lay just SE of the ancient cone of Monte Frumento Supino and ~800 m NW of the Laghetto cone, which appeared in 2001.

Watching the S2700 vents, Giuseppe Scarpinati saw two lava fountains develop after 0200, together with a large ash plume that drifted S. The eruptive phenomena were accompanied by strong detonations and rumblings together with continuous earthquakes that were felt in Acireale, a town at Etna's southeastern foot.

Lava flows from the northern vents invaded and over ran the flat area containing tourist facilities at Piano Provenzana and proceeded as two branches downwards through the pine trees towards Linguaglossa, a village ~10 km to the NE. The greatest damage was not the loss of all tourist facilities at Piano Provenzana, but was instead due to heavy ashfall S of the volcano, which led to closing of the Catania airport on the afternoon of 27 October.

On the morning of 28 October the S fissure had developed at least three explosive vents. A 100-to-200-m-high lava fountain, ~200 m downslope, fed lava flows that extended by more than 2 km toward the uninhabited area of Monte Nero degli Zappini (figures 97 and 98). During the day, however, the effusive activity significantly decreased, and on 29 October the lava fronts virtually stopped on the southern side, although violent degassing at the upper end of the fissure continued unabated. Sustained release of high pressure gas fed a voluminous SE-directed ash plume that reached to more than 5 km altitude. At the same time on the 29th, a large plume of white vapor was emitted at the summit from the central crater vents (Bocca Nuova, Voragine) and the NE Crater. The SE crater, the main site of the 2001 eruption, remained entirely calm.

Strong earthquakes on 29 October caused damage on the lower E flank of the mountain, particularly at Santa Venerina where some 1,000 people were left homeless. The main shock was recorded by Jean-Claude Tanguy in the SE region of the volcano (Trecastagni) at 17 seconds after 1102 (± 5 sec). Horizontal ground motions there lasted 7 to 8 seconds. The INGV reported the seismic event as M 4.4, located 8-9 km beneath Santa Venerina. Other strong shocks at 1739 and 1814 (M 4.0 and 4.1) caused walls to collapse along the road between Zafferana and Milo.

On 30 October soon after midday the Bocca Nuova vent began to emit large clouds of brownish ash. This activity culminated between 1310 and 1320, and the ash cloud merged into the still large, dark ash plume from the southern lateral vents. However, Strombolian explosive activity was still vigorous at the main explosive center, which included a group of about six vents near 2,000 m elevation (called the N2000 vents). These vents, which produced photogenic activity into the night (figure 99), lie just to the E of an old cinder cone known as Monte Ponte di Ferro (at 2,040 m elevation). Here the accumulation of pyroclasts had built a spatter rampart ~200 m long and 30 to 40 m high, the upper part of which reached 2,035 m elevation (± 5 m, measured from Mt. Ponte di Ferro using both altimeter and inclinometer).

On 31 October the wind gradually shifted from the N to the W and then SW, so that ashfall from S2700 vents affected localities NE of the volcano including Reggio di Calabria, whose airport also had to be closed. At the northern vents the lava effusion was on a waning stage, but violent explosions from the two upper vents of the N2000 group threw blocks of ancient material amid juvenile tephra (figure 100).

On 1 November all activity ceased on the northern side except for very small residual lava flows, but the S2700 upper vent appeared to enter a phase of sustained explosive activity resembling a small subplinian column that continued to cause disruptions around the volcano. It was not until 12 November at 1340 that the activity abruptly changed to typical Strombolian explosions of liquid lava clots with loud detonations. On 13 November at about 1600 a small lava flow began to trickle from the lower base of the S2700 cone. The lava effusion increased on 14 November, expanding downwards along the 27-28 October flows. Meanwhile ash emission recommenced at the S2700 crater.

This kind of eruption style is quite unusual at Mount Etna. The authors suggest that it could indicate that a considerable amount of magma has intruded into the S rift zone, which would account for strong degassing without any significant lava effusion between 2 and 13 November.

Geological Summary. Mount Etna, towering above Catania on the island of Sicily, has one of the world's longest documented records of volcanism, dating back to 1500 BCE. Historical lava flows of basaltic composition cover much of the surface of this massive volcano, whose edifice is the highest and most voluminous in Italy. The Mongibello stratovolcano, truncated by several small calderas, was constructed during the late Pleistocene and Holocene over an older shield volcano. The most prominent morphological feature of Etna is the Valle del Bove, a 5 x 10 km caldera open to the east. Two styles of eruptive activity typically occur, sometimes simultaneously. Persistent explosive eruptions, sometimes with minor lava emissions, take place from one or more summit craters. Flank vents, typically with higher effusion rates, are less frequently active and originate from fissures that open progressively downward from near the summit (usually accompanied by Strombolian eruptions at the upper end). Cinder cones are commonly constructed over the vents of lower-flank lava flows. Lava flows extend to the foot of the volcano on all sides and have reached the sea over a broad area on the SE flank.

Information Contacts: Jean-Claude Tanguy , University of Paris 6 & Institut de Physique du Globe, 94107 St. Maur des Fossés, France; Maurice Aubert , University of Clermont-Ferrand, Department of Geology, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Roberto Clocchiatti , CNRS-CEN Saclay, Lab. Pierre Süe, 91191 Gif sur Yvette, France; Santo La Delfa and Giuseppe Patané , University of Catania, Department of Geological Sciences, Corso Italia 55, 95129 Catania, Italy; Giuseppe Scarpinati ,via Muggia 7, 95024 Acireale, Italy.

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Mount Etna 2002 Case Study A-Level Geography OCR

Subject: Geography

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

18 April 2024

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This 3 page case study consists of three sections (facts at a glance, impacts, and recovery), all of which are valuable knowledge to students studying A-Level Geography OCR. This particular Mount Etna case study is for the Hazard Earth topic.

This case study will help students get an understanding of the different ways in which volcanic eruptions can impact an area as well as the effects eruptions have socially, environmentally, and economically. This knowledge will be valuable to students in the summer exam series.

Italy’s Mount Etna volcano, which erupted in 2002 had many widespread impacts on the local economy as well as on the environment also, so acts as a good case study for students to learn about as part of the hazardous earth topic of the OCR specification.

A-Level geography is a great subject for A-Level students to learn. It teaches them a range of topics from different landscape systems, understanding food around the world, migration patterns, and more. All of which will be used by students throughout their careers and beyond.

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6x Hazardous Earth Case Studies OCR A-Level Geography

Included is 6 case studies made for the hazardous earth topic of the A-Level Geography OCR specification. The six case studies include: - Chile Earthquake 2010 - China Earthquake 2008 - Haiti Earthquake 2010 - Iceland Volcanic eruption 2010 - Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 2011 - Mount Etna Eruption 2002 Each case study covers elements which would be useful for students to know for each case study that can be applied in the exam. Examples include recovery methods, reasons for vulnerability, impacts, causes, and more. Each case study is 2/3 pages and they all include a short header section which includes a list of facts for students to memorize to gain extra marks in the exam. A-Level geography is a great subject for A-Level students to learn. It teaches them a range of topics from different landscape systems, understanding food around the world, migration patterns, and more. All of which will be used by students throughout their careers and beyond. Who are Phillips Resources? At Phillips Resources we use your feedback to create the highest quality and most desired resources so that students can get the grades they desire and teachers are trusting in the resources they use and also are left stress free from not having to create their own resources as often.

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A retrospective study on acute health effects due to volcanic ash exposure during the eruption of Mount Etna (Sicily) in 2002

Daniele lombardo.

1 Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy

Nicola Ciancio

2 Pulmonology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele, Catania, Italy

Raffaele Campisi

Annalisa di maria, laura bivona.

3 Department of Diseases of the Thorax, Pulmonology Unit, Pierantoni-Morgagni Hospital, Forlì, Italy

Venerino Poletti

Antonio mistretta.

4 Department of Hygiene and Public Health “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, Catania, Italy

Annibale Biggeri

5 Department of Statistics, Informatics and Applications “G. Parenti”, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

6 Biostatistics Unit ISPO Cancer Prevention and Research Institute, Florence, Italy

Giuseppe Di Maria

Mount Etna, located in the eastern part of Sicily (Italy), is the highest and most active volcano in Europe. During the sustained eruption that occurred in October-November 2002 huge amounts of volcanic ash fell on a densely populated area south-east of Mount Etna in Catania province. The volcanic ash fall caused extensive damage to infrastructure utilities and distress in the exposed population. This retrospective study evaluates whether or not there was an association between ash fall and acute health effects in exposed local communities.

We collected the number and type of visits to the emergency department (ED) for diseases that could be related to volcanic ash exposure in public hospitals of the Province of Catania between October 20 and November 7, 2002. We compared the magnitude of differences in ED visits between the ash exposure period in 2002 and the same period of the previous year 2001.

We observed a significant increase of ED visits for acute respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and ocular disturbances during the ash exposure time period.

Conclusions

There was a positive association between exposure to volcanic ash from the 2002 eruption of Mount Etna and acute health effects in the Catania residents. This study documents the need for public health preparedness and response initiatives to protect nearby populations from exposure to ash fall from future eruptions of Mount Etna.

There are a number of active volcanoes throughout the world and many of them are close to urban settings and major cities. At times, they are responsible for pyroclastic emissions, consisting of a mixture of gases, vapours, aerosols, and particulate matter. These emissions have the potential to cause massive environmental pollution and impact on climate, surface infrastructures and human activities, thus resulting in a significant economic burden for both the community and the individuals [ 1 ]. Among the adverse effects of pyroclastic emissions (ash fall), those related to human health raise significant concern in both exposed populations and health service administrators [ 1 , 2 ].

Previous observations report that although volcanic ash may not be acutely toxic, its exposure has been associated with a variety of health effects - spanning from sudden, asphyxia-induced death due to acute respiratory tract irritation and symptoms either in subjects with existing respiratory disorders like asthma or healthy individuals [ 3 - 6 ]. Adverse respiratory effects from exposure to volcanic ash have been documented during the eruption of Montserrat, British West Indies, in 1995 [ 7 , 8 ], and from Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland, in 2010 [ 9 , 10 ]. In addition, repeated exposure to ash fall from Mount Sakurajima, Japan, was associated with increased mortality due to respiratory diseases including lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [ 11 ].

Despite the fact that volcanic eruptions are common throughout the world, and millions of people are exposed to their health hazards, few studies have been published that assess acute and chronic health effects thereby shaping prevention and measures of intervention for local communities.

Mount Etna, located in the eastern part of Sicily (Italy), is the most active volcano in Europe. In 2002 an intense eruption activity began in October and ended up November 2002 [ 12 ]. This long lasting eruption produced explosions and jets of lava from two newly formed fissures in the proximity of the volcano’s summit, and it was also characterized by the emission of pyroclastic flows that were more intense during the first two weeks of activity [ 12 ]. Local winds carried the emissions for kilometers and subsequent ash fall affected a largely populated area extending south of Mount Etna, which includes Catania, a major city with nearly 315,000 inhabitants (Figure  1 ). During the eruption the exposed population complained of health disturbances such as eye and airway irritation, cough, or acute exacerbation of chronic respiratory disorders. However, a subsequent study investigating the rate of hospital admissions and causes of death only found an increase in cardiovascular diseases along with a decrease in mortality for respiratory diseases during the eruption period in the same area [ 13 , 14 ].

Area interested by the eruption and ashfall from satellite, with indication of the Hospital (H) reported in the study. Local winds carried the emissions for kilometers and affected a largely populated district extending south of Mount Etna.

To ascertain whether or not there was an association between the Mount Etna's ash fall and acute health hazards in the exposed communities, we carried out a retrospective study to investigate the number and type of visits to the emergency departments (ED) of hospitals near Mount Etna during the 2002 eruption.

To test the hypothesis that there is a putative association between acute health effects reported by the exposed population and the volcanic ash fall, we collected the number and type of visits to the ED for various acute diseases in public hospitals (see end-note) near the volcano in the Province of Catania between October 20 and November 7, 2002. We compared these results with the number of ED visits during the corresponding period in 2001. Disease conditions were classified according to previous surveillance activity that was conducted during the eruption as required by the Prefecture of Catania.The surveillance activity was aimed to detect and monitor acute health effects in order to provide prompt intervention to exposed residents. These conditions included acute respiratory disorders of both the upper and lower respiratory tract, cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, coronary and cerebrovascular diseases, arterial hypertension and cardiac arrhythmias, as well as ocular disturbances, neuropsychiatric disorders, skin diseases and traumatic events. The outcome measure was the proportion of ED visits for those conditions among the total ED visits, whereas the effect measure was the ratio between the proportion in the exposed time period during 2002 to the proportion in same yet unexposed time period during 2001. Whereas the population denominators were constant for the two considered periods, the total number of ED visits changed because of a change in policies of the healthcare system in Italy. We therefore used the proportion instead of the rate of ED visits for the selected disease states [ 15 ].

In addition to health monitoring, levels of particulate matter ≤10 μm (PM 10 ), and 2.5 μm (PM 2.5 ) in diameter were also recorded in the same geographic area near Mount Etna [ 13 , 14 ].

The chemical composition of volcanic ash and the amount of each surface component were analyzed by mass spectrometry.

Statistical analysis was performed to quantify and verify the relevance of differences between the two study periods. Statistical tests used were the “Chi-Square (χ 2 )” and the “Z test” with a two-sided α =0.05. We also applied multinomial logistic regression to adjust for hospital of admission on a restricted sample of 73% of ED visits with complete information. This model produced exposure Odds Ratio (OR) estimates. The reference category was the number of ED visits for all other diseases. For example, an exposure OR of 1.30 for acute respiratory disease would be interpreted as an increase of 30% in the odds of having a ED visit for acute respiratory disease versus the odds of having an ED visit for a condition not related to volcanic ash exposure.

We first summarize the results of chemical analysis of volcanic ash sampled in Catania from this eruption. Whereas, in the second part we report the results of acute health effects during the intense ash fall period.

Analysis of volcanic ash

The Protezione Civile, the Italian organization for disaster management, estimated that four days after the beginning of eruption, 9 kg of ash per square meter had fallen in Nicolosi (a small town 15 km south of the volcano), and 2.5 kg per square meter in Catania (24 km south-east) [ 7 ].

The chemical analysis carried out by mass spectrometry on ash samples of October 28, 2002, indicates that the fine particles of volcanic ash were mainly composed of ferrous ions (Fe ++ ) and a great presence of free crystalline silica in large particles.

Acute health effects

The results of this retrospective study are presented in Table  1 , which shows the frequency and level of statistical significance in the proportion of ED visits to the Hospitals in the Province of Catania - for disease states and health effects that may be related to the exposure to volcanic ash emission. The difference in the proportion of selected health effects varied among the different hospitals for each selected disease category. There was a significant increase in the number of ED visit for selected disease states in the three main hospitals serving the municipality of Catania, i.e. Vittorio Emanuele, Cannizzaro and Garibaldi Hospital. These hospitals were located in the area that received the plume of ash fall (Figure  1 ). Taking into account the data obtained from the EDs of these three main hospitals only, the cumulative number of total visits in 2002 was less than the corresponding number in 2001 (10,337 and 12,230, respectively). Despite this, the proportion of ED visits for the selected categories was significantly higher with the exclusion of neuropsychiatric disorders and skin diseases (Table  2 ). Therefore, a significant increase in the number of visits for acute diseases of upper and lower respiratory tract, cardiovascular diseases and ocular symptoms was observed between October 20 and November 7 2002 compared to the corresponding period of 2001.

Level of significance and difference in the frequency, in ED visits of the hospitals in the province of Catania, for some acute diseases

p < 0,01 highly significant difference.

p < 0,05 statistically significant difference.

p > 0,05 not significant difference.

The period is between October 20 and November 7, 2002. The results obtained were compared with those of the same period in 2001. Table  2 contains more detailed information in relation to the three major hospitals in Catania.

Number and frequency of visits, to ER of the Hospitals Vittorio Emanuele, Cannizzaro and Garibaldi in Catania, for some acute affections

We also analyzed the frequency of visits to ED of the Hospitals in Catania through multinomial logistic regression adjusting for hospital of admission, but we found no difference from previous analyses (Table  3 ).

OR trough polytomic multinomial logistic regression

Number of observations = 16.069.

According to current knowledge volcanic ash creates minor health problems such as eye and upper airway irritation, and may exacerbate pre-existing respiratory diseases including asthma and chronic bronchitis. In this study we found that during the sustained pyroclastic emission of volcanic ash due to Mount Etna eruption in 2002, ED visits for acute health disorders of respiratory tract and cardiovascular system increased significantly. This increase suggests that volcanic ash fall is associated with acute health effects on exposed local communities, and confirms the results of previous studies showing that short-term exposure to volcanic emission is associated with acute respiratory morbidity, asthma attacks, and increased hospital visits for respiratory illness [ 3 - 6 , 9 ], as well as for cardiovascular symptoms and morbidity [ 14 , 16 ].

Due to the lack of information on time relationship between daily levels of particulate matter and daily rate of ED visits we were unable to perform time-series analysis of our data. Consequently, we cannot conclude that a causal relationship exists between exposure to volcanic ash and health effects observed in our study. The existence of an association, however, is further supported by the evidence that unusually high levels of respirable sized particulate matter, along with a nearly threefold increase in PM 10 and fourfold increase in sulfur dioxide, were recorded during the same period in the same area as compared to the previous year [ 13 ]. Contrary to the results reported by Fano and coworkers [ 13 , 14 ] of an increase in hospital admissions for cardiovascular morbidity along with a decrease in the rate of admission for respiratory diseases, we found a significantly higher frequency of ED visits for both cardiovascular and respiratory diseases in the three main hospitals of Catania in 2002 as compared to the same period of the previous year. By taking into account that hospital admissions represent a higher intensity of care than an ED visit, a reason for this discrepancy could rely upon a precautionary attitude of ED doctors towards the hospital admission of patients with cardiovascular symptoms rather than of those presenting with respiratory symptoms. On the other hand, the inclusion in our selection of minor respiratory problems, such as the upper airway irritation, and the higher number of hospitals considered for the rate of hospitalization might represent further explanation for the different behavior of hospital admissions and ED visits for acute respiratory diseases. In addition, our data do not provide crude figures of mortality, nor they allow for the stratification of age range, gender, smoking habit, occupational risks, and pre-existing disease states.

Volcanic eruptions are relatively frequent throughout the world, yet few other observational studies have been carried out on this topic. In addition, besides the scarcity of published studies, researchers have investigated ash fall and associated health effects by using varied approaches thus making the broad interpretation of findings difficult or not fully comparable. For example, some studies analyzed hospital admissions or ED visits, rather than outpatient or GP visits. In Alaska during the volcanic activity of Mount Spurr in 1992, located 60 miles west of the city of Anchorage, an increase in PM 10 along with an increase for outpatients visits for bronchial asthma and upper respiratory diseases was observed [ 17 ]. Few investigations with conflicting data are available on mortality rate during or after eruptions, as well as on the long-term effects of volcanic ash exposure. No effects on overall and cause-specific mortality were observed during the eruption of Mount Etna in 2002, as reported by a different group of investigators [ 13 , 14 ]. By contrast, residents in Sakurajima-Tarumizu area located near Mt. Sakurajima in Japan, over the long term (>30 years) experienced a relatively high mortality for respiratory diseases, which included lung cancer and COPD [ 11 ]. In 6–9 months after the end of Eyjafjallajökull eruption, residents from exposed areas reported several medical problems including increased wheezing, cough and phlegm, as well as eye and skin irritation [ 10 ].

Another problem is to determine whether or not some working categories, such as local police, firefighters or people involved in extensive ash-removal operations, have a higher level of exposure and maybe a higher risk for developing acute health effects. During the eruption of Mount St. Helens, on May 18, 1980 respiratory symptoms and ocular problems were significantly higher among loggers who were regularly employed outdoors in areas with heavy ash exposure, than among other groups of workers who weren’t assigned to clean up after volcanic eruptions. Loggers inhaled higher concentration of ash showing a significant, short-lived reduction in lung function. This transitory functional impairment was directly proportional to the intensity of exposure to volcanic ash [ 2 - 4 ]. One reason for the observed higher risk of respiratory illness among population involved in ash-removal operations may be due to the “re-suspension” of fine ash particles and their chemical components. However, pragmatically, this distinction may not make much difference. A proportion of silica particles detected during Mount Etna’s eruption were small enough to penetrate deeply into the lungs of exposed subjects. It is conceivable that re-suspension caused by atmospheric factors or human activity such as road traffic and ash removal may have re-suspended particles with smaller diameter and more likely to be inhaled, thus determining an increase in exposure. Soundly, this is not trivial and suggests the opportunity to adopt strategies avoiding the phenomenon of re-suspension.

Little information is available about the relevance of age, sex, and more importantly the possible presence of pre-existing chronic respiratory diseases in patients that presented to EDs during the 2002 eruptive event at Mount Etna. During the July 1995 eruption in Montserrat, a study was performed with the aim to evaluate whether ash fall had any effect on the respiratory health of children. The results were that volcanic ash emission adversely affected the respiratory health and produced exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in the Montserrat children [ 7 ]. The health effects of volcanic ash on the respiratory system might depend on size and composition of the inhaled particles. Their diameter is the most important determinant of penetration into the peripheral airways. The size of 10 μm is considered to be the cut-off point for the aerodynamic diameter of respirable particles. However, penetration to the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar spaces is limited to particles with diameter of 2.5 μm or less.

By reaching the small airways, it is thought that volcanic ash causes airway inflammation, and it has been reported that patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and bronchial asthma, are more prone than healthy people [ 3 ].

Referring to traumatic injuries, a further analysis of our data showed that they were significantly reduced in the main Hospital located in the downtown area of Catania. This may be explained by the advice issued by local authorities, that was not extended to neighboring communities, about risks of driving motorcycles on ash-laddened roads in downtown Catania city.

Other adverse effects of volcanic ash include the irritation of upper respiratory tract causing nasopharyngitis, with transient hyperemia, as well as eye irritation causing conjunctivitis. Our data are in agreement with those reported in previous studies [ 9 , 10 ].

Finally, it is important to take into account the composition of volcanic ash, and evaluate the possible tumorigenic effects of some ash components. In our experience, during the eruption of Mount Etna in 2002, analysis of large particles performed with a mass spectrometer showed a relevant proportion of free crystalline silica, which upon long-term exposure to particularly high concentrations, could represent a risk factor for the development of pneumoconiosis [ 18 ]. Furthermore, the presence of ferrous ions on the surface of fine particles, was registered with the same method. It has been reported that removable divalent iron (Fe ++ ), can trigger inflammatory processes causing the release of free radicals in the lung tissue [ 6 ]. An in vitro study has shown that biochemical processes induced by exposure to high levels of PM 10 could produce cytotoxicity and DNA alterations [ 19 ]. In summary, these observations are highly suggestive that volcanic ash exposure could represent a hazard for developing lung cancer. The existing data on this issue, however, are not conclusive and further studies are needed.

In conclusion, in this study we found an association between exposure to volcanic ash fall and acute health effects in the resident population of Catania at Mount Etna. Peculiar evolution of the eruption in 2002 and the volcanic and geographical characteristic of the volcano do not provide an “ideal-model” to study health hazards of ash producing eruptions. However, the information provided by this study is useful to assist the Province of Catania in planning environmental and public health measures that could limit exposure and protect the population. Indeed much work remains to determine the specific short-term and long-term health risks volcanoes pose to humans. In the future, it may be necessary to design and implement longitudinal epidemiological observations in areas at high risk of volcanic emissions, to answer the questions still left open by the present and other investigations.

Denomination of the Hospital cited in the article. The main hospital in the town of Catania are the first three listed.

1) Azienda Ospedali Vittorio Emanuele, Ferrarotto e S. Bambino,

2) Azienda Ospedaliera Cannizzaro,

3) Azienda Ospedali Garibaldi, S. Luigi-Currò, Ascoli-Tomaselli,

4) Presidio Ospedaliero S. Giovanni di Dio e S. Isidoro di Giarre,

5) Presidio Ospedaliero di Militello Val di Catania,

6) Presidio Ospedaliero S. Marta e S. Venera di Acireale,

7) Presidio Ospedaliero SS. Salvatore di Paternò,

8) Presidio Ospedaliero di Biancavilla,

9) Presidio Ospedaliero di Bronte.

Competing interest

All authors have no conflicts of interest in this issue.

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Mount Etna 2002 case study

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• volanic eurption
• natural hazards

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Europe’s most active volcano , Mount Etna, has been hitting the headlines recently after a series of spectacular eruptions. In Etna’s first eruption of 2021, explosive lava fountains reached over 1500 m in one of the most amazing eruptions in decades.

Mount Etna, located on the island of Sicily, has been largely dormant for the past two years. The stratovolcano (composite) dominates the skyline of the Italian island, where it sits on the eastern coast.

Located between the cities of Messina and Catania, it is the highest active volcano in Europe outside the Caucasus – a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea – and the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps.

The recent activity is typical of a strombolian eruption among the normal activities of the more than 3,300-metre-high volcano. The recent eruption is the strongest explosion in the southern crater since it was discovered in 1971.

On Monday 22nd February 2021, at around 11 pm, the lava fountains, surrounded by gigantic clouds of smoke, exceeded 1,500 metres (4,900ft) in height, while thousands of rock fragments, some the size of fridges, were thrown from the crater into the sky for several kilometres.

Etna is a hyperactive volcano with over 3,500 years of historically documented eruptions. The volcano has been erupting on and off since September 2013. Since September 2019, it’s been erupting from its various summit craters virtually continuously. In December 2020, Etna’s explosive activity and lava output began to spike, and in February 2021, it has been launching fluid lava skywards.

Etna is an unusual volcano in that it can produce explosive eruptions of runny lava and release slower flowing, thick lava flows. Scientists are still trying to work out why this is the case.

The magma from the latest eruption appears to be coming up from deep within the mantle . Extremely hot, fluid magma is rapidly rising through the network of conduits within and below the volcano. However, there is another factor that is contributing to the current explosive eruptions.

There are high quantities of water vapour in Etna’s magma, which makes it explosive. The water does not cool the magma. As the molten magma approaches the surface, the pressure drops, and the bubble of water vapour expands violently, leading to lava being ejected out of the volcano.

Following each explosive lava fountain , less gassy magma lingers just below the vent. This is then cleared when a new volley of gassy magma rises from below. These explosive eruptions are known as volcanic paroxysms.

Authorities have reported no danger to the nearby towns, however, local airports have been temporarily closed, as has the airspace around the volcano. Etna’s last major eruption was in 1992. Despite the explosive nature of the recent eruption, there is no risk to the population, other than from the ash that covers buildings and smoke that can, after a few hours, cause breathing problems. In March 2017 vulcanologists, tourists and a BBC film crew were injured during an eruption when a flow of lava ran into snow, producing superheated steam that sent fragments of rock flying in all directions.

Further reading For a Volcanologist Living on Mount Etna, the Latest Eruption Is a Delight  – Advisory – this article contains expletives (swear words).

In Pictures: Mount Etna eruption lights up Sicily’s night sky

Mount Etna: BBC crew caught up in volcano blast

Mount Etna illuminates night sky with 1,500-metre lava fountain

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Mount Etna Case Study

• Natural hazards
• Created by: portialeoniee
• Created on: 11-02-20 15:40
• Home to approx. one million people.
• Lava destroyed springs and water supply was disrupted.
• Schools closed
• Buildings destroyed by lava
• Lava destroyed tourist station at Piano Provenzana
• Catania airport closed due to ash
• Lava took out power cables
• Agricultural yields affected
• Millions of insurance claims for property damage
• The Italian Army's heavy equipment was brought in to block and divert lava flows
• The Italian government pledged immediate financial assistance of more than $8 million.
• Orange groves, vineyards, chestnuts and hazel groves destroyed
• Ash deposited material as far away as Libya, 600km
• Land swelling and gas emissions
• Development of evacuation plans and emergency supplies.
• Dams of soil and volcanic rock were put up to protect the tourist base and helped to divert lava flow.
• Evacuation of people from Nicolosi
• Buildings strengthened to reduce risk of collapse from weight of ash
• Mount Etna used for tourism to generate local income.
• Management plans
• Italy, 2002

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