research paper on animal cruelty

Animal Cruelty: A Review

January 2013

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
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Federal University Oye-Ekiti

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Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research

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INTRODUCTION

On November 25, 2019, the federal law H.R. 724 – the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT) prohibiting the intentional harm of “living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians” was signed. [1] This law was a notable step in extending protections, rights, and respect to animals. While many similar state laws existed, the passing of a federal law signaled a new shift in public tone. PACT is a declaration of growing societal sentiments that uphold the necessity to shield our fellow creatures from undue harm. Protecting animals from the harm of citizens is undoubtedly important, but PACT does nothing to protect animals from state-sanctioned harm, particularly in the form of research, which causes death and cruelty. It is time to extend and expand protections for animals used in research.

There is a long history of animal experimentation in the US, but no meaningful ethical protections of animals emerged until the 20 th century. Proscription of human experimentation and dissection led to animals bearing the brunt of harm for scientific and medical progress. For instance, English physician William Harvey discovered the heart did not continuously produce blood but instead recirculated it; he made this discovery by dissecting and bleeding out living dogs without anesthesia. [2] Experiments like this were considered ethically tenable for hundreds of years. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant, Thomas Aquinas, and Rene Descartes held that humans have no primary moral obligations to animals and that one should be concerned about the treatment of an animal only because it could indicate how one would treat a human. [3] During the 20 th century, as agriculture became more industrialized and government funding for animal research increased, the social demand for ethical regulations finally began to shift. In 1966, the Animal Welfare Act (Public Law 89-544) marked the first American federal legislation to protect laboratory animals, setting standards for use of animals in research. [4]

There has been progress in the field of animal research ethics since Harvey’s experiments, but much work remains. In the US alone, there are an estimated 20 million mice, fish, birds, and invertebrates used for animal research each year that are not regulated by the Animal Welfare Act. [5] Instead, the “3Rs Alternatives” approach (“reduce, replace, and refine”) [6] is one framework used to guide ethical treatment of animals not covered by federal protections. Unfortunately, unpacking the meaning and details of this approach only leads to ambiguity and minimal actionable guidance. For instance, an experimenter could reduce the number of animals used in research but subsequently increase the number of experiments conducted on the remaining animals. Replace could be used in the context of replacing one species with another. Refining is creating “any decrease in the severity of inhumane procedures applied to those animals, which still have to be used.” [7] The vague “ any ” implies that even a negligible minimization would be ethically acceptable. [8] An experimenter could technically follow each of the “3Rs” with minimal to no reduction in harm to the animals. One must also consider whether it is coherent to refer to guidelines as ethical when they inevitably produce pain, suffering, and death as consequences of research participation.

Other ethical guides like Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing [9] encourage researchers to euthanize animals that undergo intractable pain or distress. This is a fate that an estimated one million animals face yearly in the US. [10] However, to use the word “humane” in this context contradicts the traditional meaning and undermines the integrity of the word. Taking living creatures, forcing them to experience intractable pain and suffering for human benefit, and killing them is the antithesis of what it means to be humane. During one of my Animal Ethics classes as a graduate student, our cohort visited an animal research facility to help inform our opinions on animal research. We observed one of the euthanasia chambers for lab mice – an enclosed metal lab bench with a sign above describing methods for euthanasia if CO 2 asphyxiation were to fail. The methods included decapitation, removal of vital organs, opening of the chest cavity, incision of major blood vessels, and cervical dislocation. [11] Behind us were rows and rows of see-through shoebox-sized containers housing five mice in each little box. Thousands of mice were packed together in this room for the sole purpose of breeding. If the mice were not the correct “type” for research, then they were “humanely” euthanized. “Humane,” in this context, has been deprived of its true meaning.

One can acknowledge that animal research was historically necessary for scientific progress, but those that currently claim these practices are still required must show empirically and undoubtedly this is true. As of now, this is not a settled issue. In the scientific community, there is contention about whether current animal research is actually applicable to humans. [12] Many drug researchers even view animal testing as a tedious barrier to development as it may be wholly irrelevant to the drug or medical device being tested. Since 1962, the FDA has required preclinical testing in animals; it is time to question whether this is necessary or helpful for drug development.

The scientific community should stop viewing animal testing as an unavoidable evil in the search for medical and technological innovation. PACT should be amended and extended to all animals and the FDA should modify the requirement for preclinical animal testing of all drugs and medical devices. It is time to encourage the scientific community to find alternative research methods that do not sacrifice our fellow animals. We use animals as test subjects because, in some sense, they resemble humans. But, if they are indeed like humans, they should receive similar protections. Science builds a better world for humans, but perhaps it is time for science to be more inclusive and build a better world for all creatures.

[1] Theodore E. Deutch, “Text - H.R.724 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act,” legislation, November 25, 2019, 2019/2020, https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/724/text.

[2] Anita Guerrini, “Experiments, Causation, and the Uses of Vivisection in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the History of Biology 46, no. 2 (2013): 227–54.

[3] Bernard E. Rollin, “The Regulation of Animal Research and the Emergence of Animal Ethics: A Conceptual History,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27, no. 4 (September 28, 2006): 285–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-006-9007-8; Darian M Ibrahim, “A Return to Descartes: Property, Profit, and the Corporate Ownership of Animals,” LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS 70 (n.d.): 28.

[4] Benjamin Adams and Jean Larson, “Legislative History of the Animal Welfare Act: Introduction | Animal Welfare Information Center| NAL | USDA,” accessed November 3, 2021, https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislative-history-animal-welfare-act-introduction.

[5] National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Patterns of Animal Use , Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (National Academies Press (US), 1988), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218261/.

[6] Robert C. Hubrecht and Elizabeth Carter, “The 3Rs and Humane Experimental Technique: Implementing Change,” Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI 9, no. 10 (September 30, 2019): 754, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100754.

[7] Hubrecht and Carter.

[8] Hubrecht and Carter.

[9] William S. Stokes, “Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing,” ILAR Journal 43, no. Suppl_1 (January 1, 2002): S31–38, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.43.Suppl_1.S31.

[10] Stokes.

[11] “Euthanasia of Research Animals,” accessed April 21, 2022, https://services-web.research.uci.edu/compliance/animalcare-use/research-policies-and-guidance/euthanasia.html.

[12] Neal D. Barnard and Stephen R. Kaufman, “Animal Research Is Wasteful and Misleading,” Scientific American 276, no. 2 (1997): 80–82.

Chad Childers

MS Bioethics Candidate Harvard Medical School Center for Bioethics

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Documenting Harm to the Voiceless: Researching Animal Abuse

First Online: 03 September 2021

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Jennifer Maher 6

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology ((PSVV))

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This chapter considers how harms against nonhuman animals have been documented in criminological research, associated challenges and implications for future research. The development of animal abuse research is examined and contributions from studies identifying, defining and measuring harm to nonhuman animals are discussed. It finds that although animal welfare laws exist in most countries, legislation typically addresses a few crimes against some nonhuman animals. Protections are limited because most harms are legal, falling outside the remit of mainstream criminology. Historically, few criminological studies have adopted an animal-centred nonspeciesist approach, contributing to a legacy of speciesism in social institutions, academia included. The development of animal abuse and critical animal studies challenges the status quo, greatly expanding concepts of victimology, while highlighting a broader spectrum of harms including interpersonal violence and everyday routine harms which exploit and kill nonhuman animals in their millions. These studies shine a light on the voiceless long-suffering nonhuman animal victims and the unique challenges facing animal abuse researchers.

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The rating produced by World Animal Protection involves a ranking of 50 countries according to their legislation and policy commitments to protecting animals (e.g. recognising animal protection, governance structures and systems, animal welfare standards, providing humane education and promoting communication and awareness). The Global Animal Law database ranks countries according to existing animal laws, civil code provisions and constitutional principles.

Other legislation exists which provides a lower standard of protect to other animals, such as the UK Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 (see Nurse 2012 ).

See the RSCPA explanation of the five freedoms at https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/endcruelty/changingthelaw/whatwechanged/animalwelfareact .

In 1999, a protocol which explicitly recognised nonhuman animals as sentient beings was incorporated into the Lisbon Treaty (Article 13 of Title II). The UK has no legal instrument other than Article 13 of the Lisbon Treaty to legally recognise that nonhuman animals are sentient beings. In the aftermath of the UK vote to exit the EU, the Bill to transfer this protocol on nonhuman animal sentience into UK law, brought to Parliament on 15 November 2017, failed to be passed. Consequently, there is no legal recognition of nonhuman animal sentience in the UK.

Human-like rights does not equate to human rights for animals. For a more detailed discussion on rights for animals, see Regan ( 2004 ).

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Paul Leighton

Tanya Wyatt

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Maher, J. (2021). Documenting Harm to the Voiceless: Researching Animal Abuse. In: Davies, P., Leighton, P., Wyatt, T. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Social Harm. Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72408-5_8

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Animal cruelty: a multidisciplinary approach to understanding

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Animal Cruelty, Its Causes and Impacts Research Paper

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Literature Review

Socio-cultural and environmental causes of animal cruelty, effects of animal cruelty with special focus on the ethical effects, solutions and recommendations to animal cruelty problems.

Research has proved that animal cruelty has been on the rise for the last two decades due to the increase of human population globally. The competition between animals and human beings for survival has influenced animal cruelty. In most cases, animals are trained through intimidation as they are severely beaten up like they don’t have feelings. A good example is presented in animals performing in circuses like the elephants that spend close to 23 hours every day in chains.

American scientists subject animals into dangerous complications while they use them to test new inventions especially in the medical arena. Like 25 million vertebrates in America are used to perform medical tests per year (Lockwood, 1998). Various researches indicate an increased rate in animal cruelty thus necessitating the need for viable measures to be taken accordingly by the relevant authorities.

In this paper I will discuss the different cause’s animal cruelty and their impacts on social, culture as well as environment. Animal cruelty is an ethical question as well as being of potential economic concern. This will be deliberated upon in this paper to determine how cruelty affects the economic growth and undermines ethical standards. In the body also I will be tackling and providing evidences concerning general causes of animal cruelty.

In the second part of the body, I will be more specific on the effects of animal cruelty in respect to ethics. I will base my argument on the number of unnecessary deaths in animal parks and reserves. I will show the dangers of neglecting animals including the most prevalent one where extinction can be a possible result.

Other general effects of animal cruelty will also feature in my discussion. The third part of my research involves solutions and recommendations to address the issues of animal cruelty. I will split my recommendations into social, cultural, environmental and ethical solutions to solve the issue. I will also offer legal solutions that can be used to deal with this issue.

Animal cruelty includes every aspect of human behaviors that have a negative impact on animals or threaten the life and wellbeing of an animal. This encompasses intentional and unintentional behaviors that affect the animals. Human activities most of the time undermine the harmonious existence of animals in so many aspects.

Animal cruelty can be described as physically causing harm to an animal or deprive an animal of the basics needs such as food, water, shelter the freedom to interact with other animals that is animal socialization and subjecting an animal to torture ( Ingrid, 1999). Other ways through which animal cruelty can take effect are when animals are denied veterinary care. Animal cruelty has been categorized as a form of disorder and unstable behavior seen in people who have been subjected to violence.

Some of the abuses animals are subjected to include dog fighting and cock fighting. Animals are subjected to painful identification marks which are put using extremely hot metals on the surface of their bodies. This is done without a pain relievers or anesthesia. Animal cruelty is seen especially while an animal is being taken to the slaughter house. If the animal is injure on the way or it becomes tired, they ear bitten up and moved unassisted due to the fact that they are headed to death.

Other abuses included breading animals for food consumption. A good example is that of broiler chicken that are raised to grow fat through genetic modifications. This is done not considering the effects it has on the birds and animals generally but with the selfish human ambition to impress buyers. Electric cattle prods have been in use for a long time now. This is an electric gadget that used to induce an electric shock on cattle to make them move.

This gadget transmits electric currents on the animal’s body and even though the voltage is very low to kill, it is enough to cause pain on the animal. Social causes of cruelty are the most reported forms of animal cruelty. People with mental disorders are mostly prone to mishandling animals though most of time unknowingly. This may include causing harm to the animal without really intending to do so.

For example, due to mental inability to weigh and reason out, a mentally challenged person may chain his or her pet dog with a very short chain. What the person does not understand is the fact that the dog needs to move freely around the compound. This kind of behavior is quit cruel and unfair to the pet.

Immaturity is another cause of cruelty where by children goes around throwing stones at animals on the way. Small boys are especially notorious with this behavior. Whenever a child sees a strolling dog or cat for that matter, the first thing that goes into their minds is to pick a stone and chase the animal away.

However there are other individuals who will intentionally cause harm for various reasons with the cruelest one being to derive satisfaction. The most vulnerable animals are the small domesticated animals which most of the times cannot defend themselves. Most of these offenders just enjoy the feeling of dominance hence they keep on harming the animals. With the current increase in population, there has been mounting pressure on land.

Humans are pushing away animals from their habitats due to lack or limited space for human existence. The human race is encroaching into land set out to host wild animals. The population of wild animals is also growing with their land growing smaller due to human encroachment.

This is also mounting pressure on the animal’s existence since they too are growing in numbers. In the process of encroachment, humans are destroying animals shelter and to some extent sources of food (Matas, 2008). This is cruelty and if allowed to go on it will pose a very negative effect to the existence and survival of wild animals. Domesticated animals as well are living in difficult conditions that do not favor their wellbeing at all costs.

Most of the domesticated animals include dogs, cats, chicken, cattle, goats and many others. These animals really require space to play and exercise in an open air. But instead, they are confined in small structured holding where they not even play or move around. This limits and infringes their rights as animals. Some extreme conditions are that the structures used to hold the animals are not well taken care of in terms of decency and cleanliness.

Most of them are unventilated dark places in the back yards where no living thing can confidently survive. In the event that an animal gets sick or feels unwell, medical attention is not easily accorded and sometimes the animal might even die out of an illness that could have been otherwise dealt with. However, animal credulity is not always intentional and in some instances, it happens due to economic factors that are beyond the owner’s ability to solve.

In a situation where an individual owns a pet but he or she cannot afford to provide the medical attention and nutrition needs of the dog, then cruelty may occur though it would be beyond the owner’s ability to address the issue. This is most likely to be seen in the third world countries where the people are not financially capable of financing some the required rights of an animal.

Veterinary services are normally very expensive and may be out of reach to many people in the third world countries. Poverty levels in these countries cannot allow an owner of a pet to even think about thee pets health needs as he or she has enough already to think about with regards to his or her financial needs that are even hard for him.

Animal cruelty has many adverse effects on both the environment and human existence. Focusing mostly on ethical effects, I will base my focus on the use of animals in general. My fundamental objection to the use of animals is influenced by the rampant genetic modification of animals to achieve scientific discoveries.

I specially target this practice considering the fact that the use of animals for such practices contravenes the whole idea of ethics in general not to mention professional and social ethics. Animals just like humans have interests and reasons to live. Compromising the lives of animals to satisfy human interests is just unethical and cruel in all angle of justification. I do not believe that human interests should be put above the interests of animals.

Causing animal’s pain is unacceptable and very cruel to even think about. Genetic modification has been the worst activity that has seen the suffering of animals at the expense of human interest. Genetic modification is unnatural way of altering the DNA formula in an individual living thing. With the widely accepted reasoning that justifies the DNA modification of animals to achieve solutions to human problems, there is one major setback; the results and long-term effects of the modification to the modified animal.

The harm that the modified animal will be exposed to is the main concern of ethics. Changing the genetic makeup of an animal goes as far as to replicate the alterations to its progeny and so on and so forth. This may even give rise to totally different species’ characteristics changing the whole identity of the animal. This might cause other accrued effects that may have global effects. Genetic engineering undermines the integrity of animals with the practice causing welfare problems in animals.

Techniques used to genetically modified animals are to greater extents harmful to the animals. This includes gene deletion which alters the general characteristics of an animal. Animal cruelty has many negative effects on human the animals themselves. Causing injury to animals can adversely affect the animal by increasing aggression (Pierce, 2007).

A dog for example that has been mistreated becomes more aggressive and unfriendly to people due to fear. This makes the animal very hostile and hence affecting its normal welfare.

By physically assaulting animals, several harms can occur; the animal may lose reproductive fitness if its reproductive parts are tampered with during the assault, the animal might develop digestive malfunctioning and nutrition disorders due to loss desire for food, physically assaulting an animal can also result into increased stress hormones in the animal as well as increased heart rate and consequently blood pressure goes up.

Although more than 42 states have in recent times prepared some systems to define animal abuse crimes, anti-cruelty laws are varying extensively from state to state. In the meantime, most public prosecutors are reluctant to charge or impeach animal cruelty offenses equated to other crimes, with the exception of situations where the crimes are extreme.

The unwillingness emanates from a range of aspects comprising of real or apparent inadequate means to do so; inexperienced staff; partial or substandard investigations; pressure from the public to pay attention on other crimes; and prejudice against taking animal exploitation seriously as a violent crime.

Social education on how to treat and handle animals with care should be incorporated in schools and strict measures should be taken to ensure that students uphold them. The authorities should provide the public with toll free numbers for reporting cases of animal cruelty. Most of the time people can see offenders carry out a crime but people do not know what cause of action they can take in regards to reporting the felony.

Sometimes an offender is mistreating his or her own pet but no one can ask them to stop. This can be averted if the relevant authorities can offer help by providing the public with ways and means through which the public can reach them with ease. The public can be more alert and vigilant to watch around the neighborhood for such law offenders. Animal cruelty in most circumstances happens because nobody is watching around and stopping offender.

It is evident even on the streets you can see children throwing stone on a dog and no body passing by can stop them of caution them let alone calling the relevant authorities. Some of the abuses animals are subjected to include dog fighting and cock fighting. Animals are subjected to painful identification marks which are put using extremely hot metals on the surface of their bodies (Weisner & Sheard1993).

This is done without a pain relievers or anesthesia. Animal cruelty is seen especially while an animal is being taken to the slaughter house. If the animal is injure on the way or it becomes tired, they ear bitten up and moved unassisted due to the fact that they are headed to death. Other abuses included breading animals for food consumption. A good example is that of broiler chicken that are raised to grow fat through genetic modifications.

This is done not considering the effects it has on the birds and animals generally but with the selfish human ambition to impress buyers. Electric cattle prods have been in use for a long time now. This is an electric gadget that used to induce an electric shock on cattle to make them move (Weisner & Sheard1993). This gadget transmits electric currents on the animal’s body and even though the voltage is very low to kill, it is enough to cause pain on the animal.

Social causes of cruelty are the most reported forms of animal cruelty. People with mental disorders are mostly prone to mishandling animals though most of time unknowingly. This may include causing harm to the animal without really intending to do so. For example, due to mental inability to weigh and reason out, a mentally challenged person may chain his or her pet dog with a very short chain. What the person does not understand is the fact that the dog needs to move freely around the compound (Reimer, 2007).

This kind of behavior is quit cruel and unfair to the pet. Immaturity is another cause of cruelty where by children go around throwing stones at animals on the way. Small boys are especially notorious with this behavior. Whenever a child sees a strolling dog or cat for that matter, the first thing that goes into their minds is to pick a stone and chase the animal away. However there are other individuals who will intentionally cause harm for various reasons with the cruelest one being to derive satisfaction.

The most vulnerable animals are the small domesticated animals which most of the times cannot defend themselves. Most of these offenders just enjoy the feeling of dominance hence they keep on harming the animals. With the current increase in population, there has been mounting pressure on land. Humans are pushing away animals from their habitats due to lack or limited space for human existence. The human race is encroaching into land set out to host wild animals.

The population of wild animals is also growing with their land growing smaller due to human encroachment. This is also mounting pressure on the animal’s existence since they too are growing in numbers. In the process of encroachment, humans are destroying animals shelter and to some extent sources of food. This is cruelty and if allowed to go on it will pose a very negative effect to the existence and survival of wild animals.

Domesticated animals as well are living in difficult conditions that do not favor their wellbeing at all costs. Most of the domesticated animals include dogs, cats, chicken, cattle, goats and many others. These animals really require space to play and exercise in an open air. But instead, they are confined in small structured holding where they not even play or move around.

This limits and infringes their rights as animals. Some extreme conditions are that the structures used to hold the animals are not well taken care of in terms of decency and cleanliness (Gruen, 2011). Most of them are unventilated dark places in the back yards where no living thing can confidently survive. In the event that an animal gets sick or feels unwell, medical attention is not easily accorded and sometimes the animal might even die out of an illness that could have been otherwise dealt with.

However, animal credulity is not always intentional and in some instances, it happens due to economic factors that are beyond the owner’s ability to solve. In a situation where an individual owns a pet but he or she cannot afford to provide the medical attention and nutrition needs of the dog, then cruelty may occur though it would be beyond the owner’s ability to address the issue. This is most likely to be seen in the third world countries where the people are not financially capable of financing some the required rights of an animal.

Considering the numerous scientific studies, it is imperative to note that emotional harm actually hurts more than the physical harm does and this is true also to animals as well. Animal cruelty has many adverse effects on both the environment and human existence. Focusing mostly on ethical effects, I will base my focus on the use of animals in general.

My fundamental objection to the use of animals is influenced by the rampant genetic modification of animals to achieve scientific discoveries. I specially target this practice considering the fact that the use of animals for such practices contravenes the whole idea of ethics in general not to mention professional and social ethics. Animals just like humans have interests and reasons to live. Compromising the lives of animals to satisfy human interests is just unethical and cruel in all angle of justification.

I do not believe that human interests should be put above the interests of animals. Causing animal’s pain is unacceptable and very cruel to even think about. Genetic modification has been the worst activity that has seen the suffering of animals at the expense of human interest. Genetic modification is unnatural way of altering the DNA formula in an individual living thing.

With the widely accepted reasoning that justifies the DNA modification of animals to achieve solutions to human problems, there is one major setback; the results and long-term effects of the modification to the modified animal. The harm that the modified animal will be exposed to is the main concern of ethics.

Changing the genetic makeup of an animal goes as far as to replicate the alterations to its progeny and so on and so forth. This may even give rise to totally different species’ characteristics changing the whole identity of the animal.

Social education on how to treat and handle animals with care should be incorporated in schools and strict measures should be taken to ensure that students uphold them.

Gruen, L. (2011). Ethics and animals: an introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ingrid, N. (1999). You can save the animals: 251 ways to stop thoughtless cruelty /Ingrid newkirk. Rocklin, CA: Prima publishing.

Lockwood, R. (1998). Cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence: readings in Research and application / edited by Randall Lockwood and frank R. ascione. West Lafayette, Ind: Purdue University Press.

Matas, R. (2008). Man found guilty of microwaving a cat . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Pierce, J. (2012). Emotional Pain in Animals: An Invisible World of Hurt . Recognizing the psychological effects of animal abuse. Psychology today. Web.

Reimer, K. (2007). Cruelty. Cruelty to animals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Weisner, B.P., & Sheard, N.M. (1993) maternal behavior in the rat . Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

Reasons Why Ferrets Should Be Legalized as Home Pets in California
Selling Pets and Pets’ Products: The Ethical Considerations Raised.
Laws that Protect Animal Cruelty
Cosmetic Testing on Animals
Do Non-Human Animals Have Rights?
Nonhuman Animals in Moral Equality Theories
Animal Liberation vs. Environmentalism
Do Animals Possess Moral Rights?
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Ethics — Animal Cruelty in the United States

Animal Cruelty in The United States

Categories: Animal Cruelty Ethics

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Published: Jun 6, 2024

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Understanding animal cruelty, legislation and its limitations, the role of public awareness and advocacy.

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Recognizing and responding to cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect: what the veterinarian needs to know

National Link Coalition – The National Resource Center on The Link Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence, Stratford, NJ, USA, ten.pins@stepwokra

The identification of a “battered pets” syndrome, which put the veterinary profession on a parallel footing with its counterparts in human medicine who respond to battered children, women, and elders, expanded the veterinarian’s role as an advocate for animals’ welfare to include the recognition of, response to, and prevention of animal abuse. Professional policies and legislation in several nations have been amended to define these responsibilities and delineate appropriate responses when animal maltreatment or other forms of family violence are suspected. This article reviews these changes, discusses abuse as a matter of animal welfare and public health, and summarizes research describing animal abuse as a possible indicator and predictor of interpersonal violence. Five steps that helped build human health care’s response to child abuse, domestic violence, and elder abuse, and that are analogous to forces in contemporary veterinary practice, are described. It familiarizes practitioners with terminology used in animal cruelty investigations. It describes clinical presentations, client profiles and behaviors, and environmental conditions that may raise a practitioner’s index of suspicion of possible animal maltreatment. It reviews protocols that practitioners may employ to respond compassionately and effectively to suspected animal abuse and enhance successful law enforcement investigations and prosecutions. Such responses can unite human and veterinary medicine in a common concern for vulnerable, victimized, and at-risk populations and position veterinarians as an essential part of public health approaches to break the cycles of violence affecting animals and human members of the family and community.

Introduction: the role of the veterinary professional in the prevention of abuse

An expansion of the veterinarian’s role as an advocate for animals’ welfare has emerged in recent years moving beyond the treatment of injury and disease to include the recognition of, response to, and prevention of animal abuse. Munro’s identification in 1996 of a “battered pets” syndrome 1 put the veterinary medical profession on a parallel footing with its counterparts in human medicine. These counterparts recognize child abuse and neglect, 2 domestic violence, 3 – 6 and elder abuse 7 , 8 as definable and preventable clinical conditions in which physicians have a duty and responsibility to evaluate the problem fully and strive to ensure that such trauma will not be repeated. 9

Veterinarians’ responsibilities to protect animal welfare and alleviate animal suffering are embedded in policies and legislation extant in several nations. The New Zealand’s Code of Professional Conduct lists animal welfare as the first of seven fundamental principles calling it “a special responsibility” and “an over-riding professional duty”. Veterinarians must act immediately to remedy situations in which they have cause to suspect unreasonable or unnecessary pain or distress or possible breaches of animal welfare legislation. If the animal’s caregiver is a client, the veterinarian should discuss the situation and develop an action plan to relieve the concerns. The matter must be reported to an animal welfare inspector:

if issues cannot be discussed with the caregiver;
if the action plan’s improvements are not achieved; or
if the case involves severe cruelty or neglect.

Valid and justifiable reasons allow disclosure of personal information. An explanatory note within the Code acknowledges research linking animal abuse with human violence and encourages veterinarians to consider whether people within the home might also be at risk. If this is the case, practitioners should use their best judgment to determine whether police or Child, Youth and Family authorities should be informed. 10

Great Britain’s Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons’ Guide to Professional Conduct encourages veterinarians to include non-accidental injury (NAI) in the differential diagnosis. If the examination of the animal leads to a suspicion of abuse, the veterinarian should first attempt to discuss these concerns with the client. When this would be inappropriate or the client’s reaction increases rather than allays concerns, the veterinarian should contact the relevant authorities. Serious circumstances justify breaching obligations of client confidentiality. The Guide similarly extends veterinary response to report suspected child abuse and domestic violence. 11

The Canadian Veterinary Medical Association declares that veterinarians have a “moral obligation” to report suspected cases of animal maltreatment. In return, “society has an obligation to support those veterinarians who report in good faith using their professional judgment”. Canadian Veterinary Medical Association encourages veterinary schools to train students in recognizing and reporting animal abuse. It urges veterinary associations to lobby their provincial governments to make the reporting of animal abuse mandatory with immunity from civil and criminal liability when reports are made using professional judgment and in good faith. Canadian Veterinary Medical Association likewise recognizes animal abuse as an important social issue affecting families and communities due to the link between animal abuse and human violence. Veterinarians may help break the cycle of family violence and create safe, humane communities by reporting suspected animal abuse. 12 As of this writing, veterinarians in five of Canada’s 13 provinces and territories are required to report suspected cruelty. They join other professionals who are granted civil and criminal immunity for reporting animals in distress or for assisting in the enforcement of animal protection laws.

The American Veterinary Medical Association in 2010 amended the Veterinarian’s Oath to include the protection of animal welfare and the prevention of animal suffering. 13 The American Veterinary Medical Association Policy on Animal Abuse and Neglect issued in 2012 recognized that veterinarians may observe cases of animal abuse or neglect as defined by laws. The Policy declares that it is their responsibility to report cases promptly to appropriate authorities to protect the health and welfare of animals and people, regardless of whether reporting is mandated by law. 14 As of this writing, 20 of America’s 50 states have enacted legislation mandating or permitting veterinarians to report suspected animal maltreatment with immunity from civil and criminal liability. Two states require veterinarians to report suspected child abuse. One state mandates reporting suspected abuse of elders and vulnerable adults. 15

Animal abuse as a health concern

Animal abuse is part of the spectrum of family and community violence which should be viewed as a leading worldwide public health problem. 16 Two US Surgeons-General have called violence a matter best resolved through public health interventions rather than through sociological or law enforcement approaches. 17 , 18 Family physicians in Australia have been advised that animal cruelty impacts human health in disparate ways, is an important sentinel for domestic violence and child abuse, and raises important questions about the type of society we wish to live in. 19

Pets that are well cared for have long been seen as protective factors for human physiologic and behavioral health. Animal-assisted therapy programs incorporate this concept through occupational, physical, and speech therapy interventions with at-risk populations, therapeutic horseback riding, service animals to assist the disabled, and obesity control. 20 While acts of animal cruelty have traditionally been considered important to the animals’ well-being but of only marginal significance to human interests, research describes animal abuse as potentially indicative and predictive of interpersonal violence and as adverse experiences impacting human health as well as animal welfare. Abuse of companion and farm animals is often a component of intimidating behaviors utilized by perpetrators of intimate partner violence and child sexual abuse. Such abuse serves to dominate, control, and induce fear and subservience in their victims and to deter battered women and their children from leaving abusive situations. 20 – 27

In a study of Women’s Refuge clients and staff in New Zealand, Roguski 27 described pets as “pawns” and animal cruelty as complex and multifaceted in households marked by domestic violence. Animal abuse:

creates a culture of normalized violence and psychological and emotional abuse;
is conducted purposefully by batterers who believe that police will not see animal cruelty as warranting taking action;
occasionally includes forced use of pets as sexual objects;
occurs as a result of the perpetrator’s jealousy of his partner’s or a child’s affections directed elsewhere; and
is also directed against animals belonging to friends and family members who abet her escape.

Orchestrated harm to animals creates a level of intimidation that secures families’ obedience. It is a barrier that delays women’s leaving abusive situations for a median amount of time of 2 years. Emotional abuse involving animals is one of the first indications of escalated and broadened physical violence toward family members. In all, 32.7% of survey participants with children reported that one or more of their children had witnessed threats to injure or kill an animal. An additional 24.5% had witnessed actual killing or injury. 27

Comparable findings have been reported in the US, 28 Canada, 29 , 30 Australia, 31 , 32 the Bahamas, 33 and Ireland. 34 , 35 Partners of women living in domestic violence shelters were reported to be 11 times more likely to hurt or kill pets than were a comparison group of partners of non-abused women. 36 Batterers who also abuse animals were described as more dangerous and used more forms of violence than batterers who do not harm animals. 37 A history of pet abuse was reported to be one of the four most significant risk factors of becoming a batterer. 38 In all, 41% of intimate partner violence offenders were reported to have committed an act of animal abuse compared to a community incidence rate of animal cruelty of 1.5%. 39

Other research links histories of animal abuse with dog bite fatalities. Patronek et al reported that 21.1% of 256 canine attacks resulting in human deaths involved dogs that had been abused. 40 DeViney et al reported that families under investigation for child abuse experienced 11 times more dog bites than did non-abusing households. 41

Neglect of animals may be a marker for elderly persons’ co-occurring self-neglect and a variety of mental health disorders. 42 – 44 Animal hoarders, who are statistically overrepresented by older women, may live in unhealthy and squalid environments surrounded by dozens or hundreds of living and dead animals in a self-fulfilling cycle of social isolation. Three distinct types of animal hoarders have been identified. 45 – 48

Veterinarians as sentinels: building a professional response to suspected abuse

Five steps were necessary to institutionalize human health care’s response to child abuse, domestic violence, and elder abuse. These steps, which removed personal, professional, peer, and organizational normative barriers, are analogous to forces currently active in veterinary medicine. These five steps may be summarized as follows. 9

Build awareness that these are matters of significant professional interest

More than 1,000 journal and mainstream publications address animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect as linked to human health and safety and as worthy of a multidisciplinary professional response. 49 Over 100 of these are specific to veterinary recognition and reporting issues. 50 – 61 Varying findings were reported in several surveys of veterinarians’ knowledge of animal abuse and other family violence and their attitudes toward reporting suspected abuse. 62 – 66 In one survey of New Zealand practitioners, a majority of respondents reported having seen cases of animal abuse within the previous 5 years and felt a strong ethical duty to deal with cases of animal abuse. Respondents were less comfortable about issues of human abuse even though awareness of the link between abuse of animals and abuse of humans was relatively high. 67

This awareness is being augmented by training programs in colleges of veterinary medicine and continuing veterinary medical education.

Assist professionals to resolve contentious ethical dilemmas

Practitioners and their staffs often experience confounding dilemmas with cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse, or neglect 9 and an emotional block against wanting to recognize the potential of abuse. 68 They need to balance economic, safety, confidentiality, legal, and management concerns with ethical principles, personal beliefs, and professional standards while attempting to respond compassionately and effectively to individual animals and society. Additional pressure is exerted when egregious or spectacular cases generate extensive news media coverage. With increasing public, legislative, and prosecutorial interest in animal welfare, failure to respond appropriately places the profession at risk of adverse criticism and litigation. 69 A cruelty case can bring into question what Rollin 70 called a fundamental dilemma of veterinary medicine: whether the primary responsibility is to the patient or client.

Robertson 71 distinguished between ethical duties (ie, what a veterinarian should do as judged by the profession’s authorities) and legal duties (ie, what a veterinarian must do as specified by the profession and the law). While veterinarians remain divided on whether reporting suspected abuse should be mandated and numerous reasons for this division have been identified, 9 it may be argued that a mandate required by law eliminates the contentious moral dilemma 72 by making the decision automatic and explainable to the client. Once a decision has been made, the issue becomes how to appropriately implement a reporting process to comply with the duty.

Provide guarantees of legal protection

As noted above, many political and organizational bodies have approved mandatory or permissive reporting processes which reduce exposure to civil and/or criminal liability. This protection may be limited (in effect only if the report was made in good faith). Conversely, it may be absolute (applicable even if the report was made negligently or fraudulently). 73

The confidentiality of patient records and whether they may be released to the client and/or outside agencies with or without a court order varies widely. The practitioner is advised to check with legal counsel for the most current information. 73 New Zealand’s Privacy Act 1993 allows veterinarians to provide personal and private information about a client and his or her animals to an inspector if they believe the information is necessary to prevent, detect, investigate, and prosecute offenses under the Animal Welfare Act. 74

Penalties for failure to report are common in laws governing physicians’ reporting of suspected child abuse. Although similar provisions might be inferred in veterinary animal abuse reporting laws, 71 they have not been widely included to date. Practitioners in New Zealand who do nothing, allow unnecessary or unreasonable pain or distress to continue, or who take actions that exacerbate animal welfare issues may be investigated as a party to an offense, depending on the circumstances. 74

As recognized authorities on animal health, veterinarians may be called to testify in court proceedings as a witness of fact or as an expert witness, and to issue a professional opinion as to whether an animal has been injured or is in pain. 60 Training in this area is available through the International Veterinary Forensic Sciences Association ( http://www.ivfsa.org ). The distance education MS degree and graduate certificate in veterinary forensics at the University of Florida’s Maples Center for Forensic Medicine ( http://forensics.med.ufl.edu/distance-education/ ) provides additional training. Such training helps practitioners to identify clinical conditions that indicate NAI and to conduct evidence-gathering and record-keeping procedures that will withstand legal scrutiny should cases result in prosecution.

Provide training in identification of clinical indicators of abuse as a differential diagnosis

The definitions of animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect vary widely across geographic, cultural, and professional boundaries and can shift from time to time and situation to situation. In a culture that institutionalizes such accepted practices as hunting and intensive livestock production while simultaneously revering its companion animals, achieving a universal definition of such a subjective and abstract concept as animal maltreatment is highly problematic. 75

Each jurisdiction’s statutes vary in the specificity of proscribed behaviors. Most statutory language is necessarily vague: for example, a law may require that an animal have an “adequate” shelter. This allows the investigator to make a common-sense value judgment based upon ambient environmental conditions and an animal’s metabolic needs. However, a skilled defense attorney could argue that without specific criteria regarding temperature, shade, exposure to the elements, and so on, one cannot know whether cruelty actually occurred. Cruelty is frequently defined with such ambiguous language that courts may not perceive an incident to violate statutes unless it is extreme and outrageous. 76

Animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect generally imply socially unacceptable actions or omissions that inflict unnecessary pain or distress. What constitutes “unnecessary” varies between countries and from time to time in each country and the prevailing standard can be determined only by the courts. 77

The following terms in law enforcement investigations most commonly describe socially unacceptable conduct toward animals. 75 These terms may or may not match statutory language in any given jurisdiction.

Animal cruelty: the most prevalent term, implying a deliberate infliction of pain from which the offender derives enjoyment or amusement.
Animal abuse: a more neutral term, modeled after the child protection field, describing willful or negligent maltreatment regardless of the perpetrator’s intent, motivation, or mental state.
Animal neglect: an act of omission signifying a lack of care, the most common form of maltreatment.
Animal hoarding: neglect on a significant scale involving large numbers of animals often kept in deteriorating conditions below minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation, and veterinary care.
Animal physical abuse: a wide range of injurious acts requiring active engagement such as beating, kicking, suffocating, throwing, shaking, poisoning, and burning. The clinical presentation includes injuries to the skeleton, soft tissue, or organs sustained as a result of beating or repeated maltreatment.
NAI: a term borrowed from the child protection field as a synonym for physical abuse. 78 – 81
Animal sexual abuse: abusive acts or sexual conduct with an animal involving the rectum, anus, or genitalia. The term is preferred over the more archaic bestiality (in which sexual intercourse must occur) and zoophilia (a strong erotic preference for animals).
Emotional abuse: a concept prevalent in the lexicon of interpersonal violence generally absent from animal cruelty laws.

Detailed descriptions of clinical conditions that should raise an index of suspicion of the above conditions are too exhaustive for this limited review. They have been discussed more extensively in several key guidances. 68 , 73 , 74 , 78 – 83 They may be summarized as follows.

Presenting clinical factors

Unexplained or repetitive injuries to an animal, which may show up on examination, ultrasound or X-ray
History of unexplained or repetitive injuries to multiple animals
Evidence of rib injuries, either current or from previous trauma
Low weight or low body condition scores
Unexplained poisoning, burns, bruising, and stab wounds
◦ Presence of multiple fractures
◦ Fractures occurring on more than one region of the body
◦ Transverse fractures
◦ Fractures presenting at a later stage of healing
◦ Multiple fractures at different stages of healing
Gunshot wounds
Ingrown collar
Scars, wounds, and traumas consistent with animals used in dog- or cock-fighting competitions
Obvious severe neglect: this may include heavy ectoparasite infestation, dental disease, severely matted fur, failure to treat adverse medical conditions, dehydration, emaciation, or overgrown claws, horns, or hooves
Signs of disease, pain, distress, or injuries needing treatment, such as blood from orifices, vocalization, vomiting, lameness, shivering, or diarrhea
Sexual abuse
The animal displays fear of its owner or of people in general
The animal displays an unexplained change in behavior.

Client profile factors

The client is new to the practice or visits several clinics to avoid raising suspicion
Discrepancies in names, addresses, and ownership of animals
Prior history with the client has raised concerns
History of high turnover of animals, especially with repetitive histories of behavioral problems
Family is known to be under economic, marital, substance abuse, family violence, or other pressures
The client’s knowledge, skills, and attitude compromise the ability for proper animal husbandry.

Client behavior factors

History as presented by the client is inconsistent with the nature of the injuries
Family members present changing or discrepant histories
The Client lacks concern and is indifferent to the animal’s injuries
The client repeatedly fails to follow-up on the treatment of serious medical conditions
Weak emotional attachment to the animal
Unexplained delay in seeking medical attention
The client is argumentative or aggressive; other family members may appear intimidated, apprehensive, or deferential
The client expresses not feeling safe at home
The client blames someone else or unknown causes for the trauma
The client’s methods of disciplining or housebreaking animals raise concerns
Children’s responses to questions about their pets raise concerns
Munchausen syndrome by proxy involving the animal. 81

Environmental factors

Hoarding excessive number of animals under substandard care
Animals’ living environment is unsuitable
Availability, nutritional composition, and quality of feed are insufficient for animals’ metabolic needs
High incidence of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, heavy intestinal or heartworm burdens, or dermatitis or other skin conditions indicative of flea infestations or sarcoptic and demodectic mange
The animal has been abandoned by owners who have departed.

As shown in Table 1 , the Colorado Veterinary Medical Association 85 summarized suspicious patterns of NAI. More detailed descriptions of these and similar traumas may be found in several textbooks that review veterinary pathology, crime scene investigation, evidence collection, and recording techniques employed in forensic animal cruelty investigations. 86 – 90

Patterns of non-accidental injury

Type of injury	Examine for	Diagnostic process or test
Head trauma	Asymmetry from contusions or fractures Petechiae Ruptured tympanic membranes	Radiographs Inner ear exam
Abrasions or bruising	Evidence of healing bruises or cuts (indicative of repetitive abuse) Embedded debris in skin or fur that can indicate dragging or throwing Fractured bones or ribs, including evidence of past injuries	Radiographs Note location, size, and shape to connect to potential weapon
Feet injuries	Frayed nails Torn pads Debris caught between pads and fur or within frayed nail	Swipe feet across paper to preserve trace evidence; in deceased animals, remove nail DNA
Burns	Smell wound for accelerant, oils, or chemicals	Swab the wound before and after treatment for analysis of chemical Photograph burn pattern
Starvation	Evidence of pica Gastric ulcers Occult fecal blood Melena	Bone marrow fat analysis Routine profile Examine stomach content and feces
Embedded collar	Visible signs of trauma Foul odor from infection and necrosis	Take pictures before and after shaving Measure width and depth of wound Save the collar
Dog fighting	Characteristic puncture wounds on face, neck, and front legs Evidence of starvation and beatings Evidence of heavy chain used as collar	Test for use of steroids, analgesics, hormones, or diuretics
Gunshot wounds	Fur forced in or out at entrance and exit wounds Singed fur or coat Abrasion rings Gunshot residue on or inside the wound	Remove bullets with fingers or cotton-wrapped forceps Photograph each wound before and after cleaning Shave and note powder patterns
Ligature injuries	Crushing injury to skin, blood vessels, and tissue Surrounding tissue may be inflamed and infected	Characteristic bruising pattern Trace evidence
Knife wounds	Length and type of blade Note tapers on one or both ends of wound	Measure external wounds Measure wound depth, swab for DNA, both human and animal

Note: Data from Colorado Veterinary Medical Association. 97

The practitioner is reminded that it is not necessarily a single incident that leads to a raised index of suspicion, but rather a variable combination of factors, pattern of actions, and behaviors, or injuries which are not clearly or adequately explained. The person presenting the animal may not be the perpetrator or may be under some coercion from the person who caused the injury.

Develop standardized protocols for responses that balance the interests of the practice, clients, patients, and other animals in the household

The complexities of animal cruelty cases and their inherent ethical dilemmas are challenging, particularly for junior members of the clinical team, nurses, receptionists, and technicians if the senior members do not believe abuse has occurred. A practice-specific decision-making protocol should be established in advance. This must protect the interests of the patient, other animals, the veterinary staff and practice, the client, and other family members whenever a staff member is concerned for an animal’s welfare.

Administering a client questionnaire 73 that describes family members’ relationships with and attitudes toward their animals may uncover patterns of abusive behaviors and inability to provide proper animal husbandry. This questionnaire could be administered when welcoming a new client to the practice or whenever an abusive etiology is suspected.

A victim may be presented by a perpetrator, another family member (who may be a victim himself/herself), or a third party. The situation is best handled by an experienced clinician with a firm policy in place. It is important to remain calm, polite, and objective, indicating that the inquiries are in the animal’s best interests. If the suspicions are allayed, brief notes should be kept in the clinical file. If the inquiry suggests that a second opinion, further examination, or possible reporting to authorities is indicated, comprehensive, contemporaneous, and accurate note-taking or tape recording is essential especially if the case will lead to a formal investigation. Explanations from the owner or presenter should be recorded as fully as possible. If no explanation is offered, this should be noted as well. 68

The assessment of the animals and their environment is essential for potential prosecution. This will enhance the veterinarian’s credibility with the client, animal welfare investigators, police, and the courts. 74 Notes should be signed and dated. If possible, another veterinarian should conduct a second, documented examination, which may support or contradict the findings. If a report is made to law enforcement, it is not realistic to expect to remain anonymous. Nor will the veterinarian be expected to make a determination of cruelty: the investigating authority will make this determination. 85

When writing notes for the client’s file, consider how you would describe the scene and the animal’s condition to best portray the scale of the incident and severity of the animals’ pain and distress to a third party several months hence. The notes should include the following. 74 , 85

Base information

Who engaged you
Date, location, time, and duration of visit(s)
Other parties present
Number, class, species, breed, and sex of the animal(s)
Chief complaint by the client
Statements made by the client or others, which may include incriminating conduct: try to write down exactly what is said
Document the timeliness of seeking veterinary care and how the animal was presented (walking on own, limping, carried in)
Identifiable risk factors, including the client’s financial issues, client’s decision-making authority, physical environment, nutrition type and availability, and animal husbandry concerns.

The assessment undertaken

Nature and number of physical examination(s), radio-graphs, and laboratory tests noting any abnormalities or unusual findings
Description of injuries: a wound diagram using a silhouette drawing may be helpful
Body condition: be specific as to which score scale you use and be very descriptive
Coat condition, including suspected parasites or foreign material
Dental condition
Observations of normal/abnormal behavior
Discussion of levels of pain and distress
Photographs or videos taken, including “before and after”, full-body shots, and close-ups; remember that fur or feathers may conceal injuries.

Diagnosis, advice, and treatment

All steps that lead up to the diagnosis.
Processes or considerations adopted to rule out all other possible contributing factors
Details of all advice given to the client
Treatment(s) administered
Outcome achieved for the animal(s)
Details of subsequent follow-up examinations and treatments
Specific literature or other materials used to support your opinions.

If euthanasia is indicated, document the reasons for this decision (eg, “in extreme pain and suffering” or “injured past recovery”). Take care to maintain all records and notes as a “chain of evidence” for potential prosecution. Keep a chronological record of the movement or transfer of any sample (ante- or post-mortem) or physical evidence from the diagnostic processes (eg, X-rays, ultrasound, photographs, laboratory results), including any courier services utilized, from the time it was taken until the production of the evidence in a courtroom. Such materials must be securely and appropriately packaged and stored, including storing the body in a freezer or refrigerator for necropsy by a forensic pathologist so as to not contaminate or deteriorate the evidence.

Several factors determine whether the most appropriate course of action is to educate the client, monitor the situation further, or report to an animal welfare inspector or law enforcement agency. These include the following. 68 , 73 , 74 , 83

Statutory mandates or permissions to report with protection from exposure to civil or criminal liability
Number of problems, severity, frequency, and duration of injuries
The client’s intentionality, motivations, and attitude regarding the injuries, and willingness and ability to correct adverse situations
Whether the situation is normal and acceptable under applicable laws and contemporary standards
Medical histories of the patient and the client’s other animals
Appearance and attitude of other family members and witnesses
Availability of procedures for follow-up on questionable cases
Indications of co-occurring domestic violence or child abuse.

The flowchart in Figure 1 , 10 developed in New Zealand, may serve as a model adaptable in other nations to guide practitioners to an appropriate response.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is vmrr-6-349Fig1.jpg

A flow diagram of actions following observation of an animal welfare case.

Notes: * Animal cruelty law enforcement authority varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Adapted with permission from the Veterinary Council of New Zealand. 98

Abbreviation: SPCA, Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

When in doubt, seek clarification from your veterinary association or legal counsel. Whichever decision is made, staff members should be fully briefed on the situation and understand the implications for the clients’ future visits. Remember that it is not up to the veterinarian to establish any offense, but to report the situation to those who have the legal power to investigate. They will make a determination whether filing of criminal charges is warranted.

Animal maltreatment is one of the most challenging diagnoses in clinical work requiring time, experience, emotional energy, sensitivity, tact, and not a small measure of courage. Practitioners may be reluctant to admit that a client would present abused animals for treatment. Nevertheless, most practitioners will be presented at some time in their careers with cruelty cases. 63 , 78 – 81 , 91 – 95 While such cases may not be seen regularly, they are invariably problematic and difficult to resolve. 52

Veterinarians’ reluctance to report suspected maltreatment is outweighed by the profession’s sense of responsibility to animal welfare, satisfaction of helping abused animals, and opportunity to stop escalation into interpersonal violence. A proactive response has the potential to save human lives and reduce animal suffering.

Animal cruelty cases are being treated with more respect than at any time in the past. With 99% of Americans perceiving animals as close companions or family members, 96 animal abuse should be described as a form of family violence. We are witnessing increased public concern for animals, a proliferation of university courses in human–animal studies and animal law, a growing number of animal-assisted therapy programs, and extensive empirical evidence for animal abuse as a precursor to human violence. These are generating a renaissance of interest in animal well-being as an indicator of human health.

This increased attention is helping veterinarians to address animal welfare more fully and to fulfill the oath to use their skills for the betterment of society. Veterinarians are ideally placed as sentinels to identify and treat abuse and to report it to appropriate authorities as necessary. Practitioners can be an essential part of public health approaches to break the cycles of violence affecting animals and human members of the family and community.

Animal cruelty is a crime. Specialized veterinary pathology and veterinary forensics laboratories are being established in more developed areas. Elsewhere, the services of human forensic specialists are being utilized to help document animal cruelty. This improved capability to document and present clinical findings, combined with increased awareness of the impact of animal abuse on human well-being, has led to more aggressive prosecution of animal cruelty cases. Recognizing and reporting suspected animal abuse are the first steps to resolve unhealthy situations and make communities safer for all. In so doing, veterinarians can work within a One Health approach that unites human and veterinary medicine in a common concern for the vulnerable, victimized, and at-risk.

The author reports no conflicts of interest in this work.

A woman and dog sitting in a dar room next to a window

Studying violence toward women and animals can help us develop strategies to prevent both

Research assistant, PAWSitive Connections Lab, University of Saskatchewan

Professor and Research Chair in One Health & Wellness, University of Saskatchewan

Postdoctoral Fellow, University of Saskatchewan

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We live in a world where not everyone feels safe and respected, especially women. Sexual violence and abuse are significant global health issues.

Intimate partner violence continues to be a problem in Canada. According to Statistics Canada , of the 117,093 victims of police-reported intimate partner violence in 2022, almost 80 per cent were women and girls. More than half of women in the United States have experienced sexual violence involving physical contact.

Given these high rates of sexual abuse, it is imperative that we improve upon what we currently know about violence prevention and intervention strategies.

Some have suggested there is a connection between abuse of animals and abuse of women. That might not seem immediately obvious, but the way a person treats animals can be an indication of how they are likely to treat women.

Notions of masculinity

Part of the concern revolves around traditional notions of masculinity , which dictate how men are expected to think and act. Considering the link between traditional masculinity and attitudes toward women and animals could provide valuable insights for developing new prevention and intervention strategies for sexual violence against women.

A woman with her arms folded sitting, a man wearing a shirt and tie sits behind her.

Traditional notions surrounding masculinity are often based on ideas about men being strong, heterosexual and avoiding roles and behaviours seen as feminine. The good news is that these ideas about masculinity are increasingly being challenged and changed. One example is the American Psychological Association’s guidelines for working with boys and men that confront masculine stereotypes.

Ideas about how men should think and behave often impact how women are perceived and treated. People who adopt traditional masculinities are more likely to support sexist ideas and disagree with gender equality. Research has shown that men who believe in traditional gender roles are more likely to justify and commit violence against women , including sexual violence .

Abuse of animals

Researchers have found that people who view animals in a negative way are more likely to support traditional masculinity . A connection has also been established between how men treat animals and how they treat women. This connection reflects underlying similar attitudes toward power, control and empathy .

Research has shown there is a specific link between violence against women and violent behaviours towards animals, and specifically pets living in the same home . There is also evidence to suggest that some people who hurt animals likewise act violently toward women and girls. Women who report that their male partners are mistreating their pets are more likely to report being psychologically, physically and sexually assaulted by the same partners .

There are not many studies addressing the role traditional masculinity plays in violence against animals or sexual violence against women. However, the general link between violence against women and animals suggests it is important to examine further.

Animals are often viewed as resources for human use, subjected to exploitation and mistreatment in industries like entertainment. Research indicates men who think of women as objects are more likely to engage in sexual violence. The lack of agency and autonomy afforded in both cases reflects broader systemic inequalities. Recognizing this can be important for many reasons, such as identifying situations of violence.

Improving prevention strategies

Acknowledging how attitudes toward animals are intertwined with those toward women can help improve prevention and intervention strategies for sexual violence. Exploring these attitudes could provide meaningful insights about the link between traditional masculinity and violence against animals that can inform our understanding of sexual violence against women.

We can also gain greater insight into prevention and intervention strategies by tapping into the wealth of resources available on the link between violence against humans and violence against animals. These include the well-being of pets during relationship breakdowns , animal safekeeping programs for individuals experiencing partner violence, emotional support animals for survivors of violence and integrating understanding about the human-animal bond in service provision for violence survivors.

Exploring violence towards animals and sexual violence toward women might initially seem far-fetched. However, child protection legislation in the United States originated from animal cruelty legislation. Understanding the connection between the abuse of women and animals can make our communities safer and respectful spaces for all.

Domestic violence
Sexual abuse
Masculinity
Domestic abuse
Sexual violence
animal abuse
Toxic masculinity

Head of School, School of Arts & Social Sciences, Monash University Malaysia

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2022 Articles

Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research

Childers, Chad

Photo by Sandy Millar on Unsplash INTRODUCTION On November 25, 2019, the federal law H.R. 724 – the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT) prohibiting the intentional harm of “living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians” was signed.[1] This law was a notable step in extending protections, rights, and respect to animals. While many similar state laws existed, the passing of a federal law signaled a new shift in public tone. PACT is a declaration of growing societal sentiments that uphold the necessity to shield our fellow creatures from undue harm. Protecting animals from the harm of citizens is undoubtedly important, but PACT does nothing to protect animals from state-sanctioned harm, particularly in the form of research, which causes death and cruelty. It is time to extend and expand protections for animals used in research. BACKGROUND There is a long history of animal experimentation in the US, but no meaningful ethical protections of animals emerged until the 20th century. Proscription of human experimentation and dissection led to animals bearing the brunt of harm for scientific and medical progress. For instance, English physician William Harvey discovered the heart did not continuously produce blood but instead recirculated it; he made this discovery by dissecting and bleeding out living dogs without anesthesia.[2] Experiments like this were considered ethically tenable for hundreds of years. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant, Thomas Aquinas, and Rene Descartes held that humans have no primary moral obligations to animals and that one should be concerned about the treatment of an animal only because it could indicate how one would treat a human.[3] During the 20th century, as agriculture became more industrialized and government funding for animal research increased, the social demand for ethical regulations finally began to shift. In 1966, the Animal Welfare Act (Public Law 89-544) marked the first American federal legislation to protect laboratory animals, setting standards for use of animals in research.[4] ANALYSIS There has been progress in the field of animal research ethics since Harvey’s experiments, but much work remains. In the US alone, there are an estimated 20 million mice, fish, birds, and invertebrates used for animal research each year that are not regulated by the Animal Welfare Act.[5] Instead, the “3Rs Alternatives” approach (“reduce, replace, and refine”)[6] is one framework used to guide ethical treatment of animals not covered by federal protections. Unfortunately, unpacking the meaning and details of this approach only leads to ambiguity and minimal actionable guidance. For instance, an experimenter could reduce the number of animals used in research but subsequently increase the number of experiments conducted on the remaining animals. Replace could be used in the context of replacing one species with another. Refining is creating “any decrease in the severity of inhumane procedures applied to those animals, which still have to be used.”[7] The vague “any” implies that even a negligible minimization would be ethically acceptable.[8] An experimenter could technically follow each of the “3Rs” with minimal to no reduction in harm to the animals. One must also consider whether it is coherent to refer to guidelines as ethical when they inevitably produce pain, suffering, and death as consequences of research participation. Other ethical guides like Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing[9] encourage researchers to euthanize animals that undergo intractable pain or distress. This is a fate that an estimated one million animals face yearly in the US.[10] However, to use the word “humane” in this context contradicts the traditional meaning and undermines the integrity of the word. Taking living creatures, forcing them to experience intractable pain and suffering for human benefit, and killing them is the antithesis of what it means to be humane. During one of my Animal Ethics classes as a graduate student, our cohort visited an animal research facility to help inform our opinions on animal research. We observed one of the euthanasia chambers for lab mice – an enclosed metal lab bench with a sign above describing methods for euthanasia if CO2 asphyxiation were to fail. The methods included decapitation, removal of vital organs, opening of the chest cavity, incision of major blood vessels, and cervical dislocation.[11] Behind us were rows and rows of see-through shoebox-sized containers housing five mice in each little box. Thousands of mice were packed together in this room for the sole purpose of breeding. If the mice were not the correct “type” for research, then they were “humanely” euthanized. “Humane,” in this context, has been deprived of its true meaning. One can acknowledge that animal research was historically necessary for scientific progress, but those that currently claim these practices are still required must show empirically and undoubtedly this is true. As of now, this is not a settled issue. In the scientific community, there is contention about whether current animal research is actually applicable to humans.[12] Many drug researchers even view animal testing as a tedious barrier to development as it may be wholly irrelevant to the drug or medical device being tested. Since 1962, the FDA has required preclinical testing in animals; it is time to question whether this is necessary or helpful for drug development. CONCLUSION The scientific community should stop viewing animal testing as an unavoidable evil in the search for medical and technological innovation. PACT should be amended and extended to all animals and the FDA should modify the requirement for preclinical animal testing of all drugs and medical devices. It is time to encourage the scientific community to find alternative research methods that do not sacrifice our fellow animals. We use animals as test subjects because, in some sense, they resemble humans. But, if they are indeed like humans, they should receive similar protections. Science builds a better world for humans, but perhaps it is time for science to be more inclusive and build a better world for all creatures. - [1] Theodore E. Deutch, “Text - H.R.724 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act,” legislation, November 25, 2019, 2019/2020, https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/724/text . [2] Anita Guerrini, “Experiments, Causation, and the Uses of Vivisection in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the History of Biology 46, no. 2 (2013): 227–54. [3] Bernard E. Rollin, “The Regulation of Animal Research and the Emergence of Animal Ethics: A Conceptual History,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27, no. 4 (September 28, 2006): 285–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-006-9007-8 ; Darian M Ibrahim, “A Return to Descartes: Property, Profit, and the Corporate Ownership of Animals,” LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS 70 (n.d.): 28. [4] Benjamin Adams and Jean Larson, “Legislative History of the Animal Welfare Act: Introduction | Animal Welfare Information Center| NAL | USDA,” accessed November 3, 2021, https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislative-history-animal-welfare-act-introduction . [5] National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Patterns of Animal Use, Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (National Academies Press (US), 1988), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218261/ . [6] Robert C. Hubrecht and Elizabeth Carter, “The 3Rs and Humane Experimental Technique: Implementing Change,” Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI 9, no. 10 (September 30, 2019): 754, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100754 . [7] Hubrecht and Carter. [8] Hubrecht and Carter. [9] William S. Stokes, “Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing,” ILAR Journal 43, no. Suppl_1 (January 1, 2002): S31–38, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.43.Suppl_1.S31 . [10] Stokes. [11] “Euthanasia of Research Animals,” accessed April 21, 2022, https://services-web.research.uci.edu/compliance/animalcare-use/research-policies-and-guidance/euthanasia.html . [12] Neal D. Barnard and Stephen R. Kaufman, “Animal Research Is Wasteful and Misleading,” Scientific American 276, no. 2 (1997): 80–82.

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Studying violence toward women and animals can help us develop strategies to prevent both

by Laleh Dadgardoust, Colleen Dell and Renata Roma, The Conversation

We live in a world where not everyone feels safe and respected, especially women. Sexual violence and abuse are significant global health issues.

Intimate partner violence continues to be a problem in Canada. According to Statistics Canada , of the 117,093 victims of police-reported intimate partner violence in 2022, almost 80% were women and girls. More than half of women in the United States have experienced sexual violence involving physical contact.

Given these high rates of sexual abuse, it is imperative that we improve upon what we currently know about violence prevention and intervention strategies.

Notions of masculinity

Traditional notions surrounding masculinity are often based on ideas about men being strong, heterosexual and avoiding roles and behaviors seen as feminine. The good news is that these ideas about masculinity are increasingly being challenged and changed. One example is the American Psychological Association's guidelines for working with boys and men that confront masculine stereotypes.

Abuse of animals

Research has shown there is a specific link between violence against women and violent behaviors towards animals, and specifically pets living in the same home . There is also evidence to suggest that some people who hurt animals likewise act violently toward women and girls. Women who report that their male partners are mistreating their pets are more likely to report being psychologically, physically and sexually assaulted by the same partners .

Improving prevention strategies

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Animal Breeding and Testing Company Pleads Guilty to Animal Welfare and Pollution Crimes and Will Pay More than $35M, Including Record Fine in an Animal Welfare Case

In 2022, Justice Department Secured Surrender of Over 4,000 Beagles from Envigo’s Cumberland, Virginia Facility

June 3, 2024

WASHINGTON – Today, June 3, 2024, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced that Envigo RMS LLC pleaded guilty to conspiring to knowingly violate the Animal Welfare Act, and Envigo Global Services Inc. pleaded guilty to a felony of conspiring to knowingly violate the Clean Water Act. Both pleas are in relation to a dog breeding facility located in Cumberland County, Virginia, from which the Justice Department secured the surrender of over 4,000 beagles in 2022.

As part of the resolution, Inotiv – of which Envigo RMS and Envigo Global Services are subsidiaries – will guarantee more than $3 5 million in payments, be subject to increased animal care standards, and be subject to a compliance monitor. This resolution marks the largest ever fine in an Animal Welfare Act case.

“Envigo compounded the heartbreaking nature of its animal welfare crimes by committing egregious Clean Water Act violations that undermined public health and the wellbeing of the animals in their care,” said David M. Uhlmann, Assistant Administrator of EPA’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance . “Everyone victimized in this precedent-setting animal welfare case deserved better: the workers, the beagles, the environment and the community. Envigo deserves every dollar of its record fine.”

“Our nation’s animal welfare and clean water laws exist to prevent suffering and harm,” said Assistant Attorney General Todd Kim of the Justice Department’s Environment and Natural Resources Division . “That’s why we secured the transfer of thousands of beagles from Envigo’s Cumberland facility into adoption, and that’s why today’s plea agreement is so significant. The plea agreement includes the largest ever fine in an animal welfare case as well as heightened standards of care for facilities across the country.”

“Envigo promoted a business culture that prioritized profit and convenience over following the law. This callous approach led to dire consequences: the inhumane treatment of animals and the contamination of our waterway,” said United States Attorney Christopher R. Kavanaugh . “The historic monetary penalties and significant compliance measures as part of these guilty pleas send a clear message: every company, in every industry, must have compliance and corporate responsibility as a critical part of their business model.”

According to court documents, Envigo RMS conspired to knowingly violate the Animal Welfare Act by failing to provide, among other things, adequate veterinary care, adequate staffing and safe living conditions for dogs housed at the Cumberland County facility.

In addition, Envigo Global Services conspired to knowingly violate the Clean Water Act by failing to properly operate and maintain the wastewater treatment plant at the Cumberland County facility that exposed the facility workers and dogs to insufficiently treated wastewater contaminated with fecal matter, which was also discharged into a local waterway. In addition, the investigation into the environmental violations found that contaminated well water was provided to the dogs for drinking water and was used to power wash kennels, creating an increased risk of disease.

Under the terms of the plea agreement, the entities will serve from three to five years of probation and pay a total criminal fine of $ 22 million – that is, $1 1 million for each violation. In addition, the entities will pay approximately $1.1 million to the Virginia Animal Fighting Task Force and approximately $1.9 million to the Humane Society of the United States for direct assistance provided to the investigation.

An additional $3.5 million will be paid to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to benefit and restore the environment and ecosystems in Cumberland County, at least $500,000 of which will be spent on purchasing riparian wetland or riparian land located in or near Cumberland.

The entities will spend at least $7 million to improve their facilities and personnel beyond the standards imposed by the Animal Welfare Act.

Finally, the entities will pay all costs associated with a compliance monitor, which will oversee the entities’ compliance with these enhanced animal welfare standards, the Animal Welfare Act, the Clean Water Act, a nationwide compliance plan and additional terms of the agreements and probation.

The EPA’s Criminal Investigation Division and the USDA’s Office of Inspector General investigated the case. The Virginia State Police provided security assistance during a multi-day federal search in May 2022 of the dog breeding facility. Senior trial attorneys in the Environmental Crimes Section of DOJ’s Environmental and National Resources Division, and assistant and special assistant U.S. attorneys prosecuted the case.

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(PDF) Animal Cruelty: A Review
To animal activists, a much wider range of harms is referred to as Cruelty. Animal rights activists would argue that cruelty is cruelty, regardless of how common or legal the harm is. 1.1.2 Animal ...
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The primary goal of this paper is to introduce the bioecological systems model and propose that professionals addressing and/or treating an animal or a human being who have been subjected to abuse are uniquely situated to act in the role of 'first responders' when they suspect or recognize animal abuse, human abuse, and family violence ...
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Simple Summary. Preventing animal cruelty and neglect is the goal of animal protection. But it is hard to effectively address a problem without a good understanding of its prevalence and nature. While 55,000-60,000 reports of mistreatment are made to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) in Australia each year, we ...
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1.1. Animal Cruelty and Human Relationships/Domestic Violence. The relationship between animal cruelty and domestic violence has been extensively studied [].Forty-seven to seventy one percent of women in domestic violence shelters indicated that their partners had abused or threatened their pets [].Research comparing women that had and had not been abused found that cruelty to pets was ...
Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research
On November 25, 2019, the federal law H.R. 724 - the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT) prohibiting the intentional harm of "living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians" was signed. [1] This law was a notable step in extending protections, rights, and respect to animals. While many similar state laws existed ...
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Cruelty to animals is a widespread phenomenon with serious implications for animal welfare, individual and societal well-being, veterinary medicine in general, and veterinary pathology in particular. 65 Extensive research has identified acts of animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect as crimes that may be indicators and/or predictors of crimes of ...
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2016). The FBI's justification for separating animal cruelty into an independent category was to identify possible patterns between animal abuse and other offenses (FBI, 2016). At the time of this research, animal cruelty data had only been reported to the FBI's NBIRS for 2016, 2017, and 2018.
Understanding and Conceptualizing Childhood Animal Harm: A Meta
The second strand of research into CAC comes from studies in social work demonstrating "The Link" between harm to animals and harm to people, including the associations between animal abuse and child abuse (Deviney et al., Citation 1983), animal abuse and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV; Ascione, Citation 2007), and witnessing animal cruelty ...
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When conducting animal abuse research, all researchers must first confront the definitional problem (Agnew 1998)—what is animal abuse?Many studies focus on behaviours prohibited in law (e.g. bestiality, dog fighting) and this, I will argue, is an inherently problematic approach due to the lack of consensus on what constitutes abuse and the omission of many victims and harms.
Recognizing and responding to cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse
Citation 20 While acts of animal cruelty have traditionally been considered important to the animals' well-being but of only marginal significance to human interests, research describes animal abuse as potentially indicative and predictive of interpersonal violence and as adverse experiences impacting human health as well as animal welfare ...
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An Evaluative Review of Theories Related to Animal Cruelty
animal cruelty, including severe animal torture and killing, in childhood and adolescence. In much of their work, Felthous and Kellert (Felthous, 1980; Felthous & Kellert, ... prevalent in the animal cruelty group. In addition to the research investigations examining the link between childhood ani - mal cruelty and adult violence toward humans ...
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1. Introduction. Animal cruelty, maltreatment, and abuse began to emerge as socially important issues in industrialized cities of the West in the 18th century [1,2], and include a wide variety of harmful behavior towards animals, from unintentional neglect to malicious killing [].The definition of these terms can vary among countries and research/review papers, or sometimes are used as ...
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Animal cruelty in children has been very sparsely researched: Few studies have worked with children directly (Hawkins et al., 2017; Longobardi & Badenes-Ribera, 2019) and even fewer have taken a qualitative approach (McDonald et al., 2018).As a result of this overreliance on mostly adult and quantitative data, little is known about how children experience cruelty, how to approach this ...
People and Animals, Kindness and Cruelty: Research Directions and
People and animals, kindness and cruelty: Research directions and policy implications. Journal of Social Issues, 65(3), 569-587. This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact.
Animal cruelty: a multidisciplinary approach to understanding
Academia.edu is a platform for academics to share research papers. Animal cruelty: a multidisciplinary approach to understanding ... , and Youth Violence Four Main Areas of Animal-Human Research Animal Abuse as Part of the Continuum of Abuse within the Family and Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Child Abuse The Therapeutic Potential of Animals ...
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Animal Cruelty, Its Causes and Impacts Research Paper. Research has proved that animal cruelty has been on the rise for the last two decades due to the increase of human population globally. The competition between animals and human beings for survival has influenced animal cruelty. In most cases, animals are trained through intimidation as ...
PDF Animal Cruelty and Rights: Review and Recommendations
empty those cages. This paper aims to familiarise the reader about the plight of the non-humans while appealing for stricter, more stringent measures to counter the prevailing systems of animal exploitation. 2.0 Human Cruelty on Non-Humans Cruelty against animals is a cognizable offence under Section 428 and Section 429 of the Indian
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the prevention of cruelty to animals act 1960 73 importance of constitutional provisions 78 empirical study: analysis 82 conclusion 94 6. judiciary in protecting animal rights 95 introduction 95 various case laws pertaining to animal cruelty 96 101 conclusion 109 7. conclusions & suggestions 110 8. annexure 1 - empirical questions 116 9 ...
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The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) of 1966 is the primary federal law regulating the treatment of animals in research, exhibition, transport, and by dealers. Additionally, the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture (PACT) Act of 2019 made certain acts of animal cruelty federal crimes.
Recognizing and responding to cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse
An explanatory note within the Code acknowledges research linking animal abuse with human violence and encourages veterinarians to consider whether people within the home might also be at risk. ... Swipe feet across paper to preserve trace evidence; in deceased animals, remove nail DNA: Burns: Smell wound for accelerant, oils, or chemicals:
Studying violence toward women and animals can help us develop
Understanding the connection between the abuse of women and animals can make our communities safer and respectful spaces for all. Evidence suggests that some individuals who hurt animals likewise ...
Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research
Photo by Sandy Millar on Unsplash INTRODUCTION On November 25, 2019, the federal law H.R. 724 - the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT) prohibiting the intentional harm of "living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians" was signed.[1] This law was a notable step in extending protections, rights, and respect to animals. While many similar state laws existed, the ...
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Research has shown there is a specific link between violence against women and violent behaviors ... child protection legislation in the United States originated from animal cruelty legislation.
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Browse Calls for Papers beta. Browse 5,060 journals and 35,600 books. A; A Review on Diverse Neurological Disorders. Pathophysiology, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutics. Book ... Research in the Occurrence, Causation, and Prevention of Road Accidents. Book • 1971. Accident-Tolerant Materials for Light Water Reactor Fuels. Book
Animal Breeding and Testing Company Pleads Guilty to Animal Welfare and
WASHINGTON - Today, June 3, 2024, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced that Envigo RMS LLC pleaded guilty to conspiring to knowingly violate the Animal Welfare Act, and Envigo Global Services Inc. pleaded guilty to a felony of conspiring to knowingly violate the Clean Water Act. Both pleas are in relation to a dog breeding facility located in Cumberland County, Virginia ...

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Recognizing and responding to cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect: what the veterinarian needs to know

Introduction: the role of the veterinary professional in the prevention of abuse

Animal abuse as a health concern

Veterinarians as sentinels: building a professional response to suspected abuse

Build awareness that these are matters of significant professional interest

Assist professionals to resolve contentious ethical dilemmas

Provide guarantees of legal protection

Provide training in identification of clinical indicators of abuse as a differential diagnosis

Presenting clinical factors

Client profile factors

Client behavior factors

Environmental factors

Develop standardized protocols for responses that balance the interests of the practice, clients, patients, and other animals in the household

Base information

The assessment undertaken

Diagnosis, advice, and treatment

Studying violence toward women and animals can help us develop strategies to prevent both

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Notions of masculinity

Abuse of animals

Improving prevention strategies

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Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research

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Studying violence toward women and animals can help us develop strategies to prevent both

Notions of masculinity

Abuse of animals

Improving prevention strategies

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