results term paper

Guide to Writing the Results and Discussion Sections of a Scientific Article

A quality research paper has both the qualities of in-depth research and good writing ( Bordage, 2001 ). In addition, a research paper must be clear, concise, and effective when presenting the information in an organized structure with a logical manner ( Sandercock, 2013 ).

In this article, we will take a closer look at the results and discussion section. Composing each of these carefully with sufficient data and well-constructed arguments can help improve your paper overall.

The results section of your research paper contains a description about the main findings of your research, whereas the discussion section interprets the results for readers and provides the significance of the findings. The discussion should not repeat the results.

Let’s dive in a little deeper about how to properly, and clearly organize each part.

How to Organize the Results Section

Since your results follow your methods, you’ll want to provide information about what you discovered from the methods you used, such as your research data. In other words, what were the outcomes of the methods you used?

You may also include information about the measurement of your data, variables, treatments, and statistical analyses.

To start, organize your research data based on how important those are in relation to your research questions. This section should focus on showing major results that support or reject your research hypothesis. Include your least important data as supplemental materials when submitting to the journal.

The next step is to prioritize your research data based on importance – focusing heavily on the information that directly relates to your research questions using the subheadings.

The organization of the subheadings for the results section usually mirrors the methods section. It should follow a logical and chronological order.

Subheading organization

Subheadings within your results section are primarily going to detail major findings within each important experiment. And the first paragraph of your results section should be dedicated to your main findings (findings that answer your overall research question and lead to your conclusion) (Hofmann, 2013).

In the book “Writing in the Biological Sciences,” author Angelika Hofmann recommends you structure your results subsection paragraphs as follows:

• Experimental purpose
• Interpretation

Each subheading may contain a combination of ( Bahadoran, 2019 ; Hofmann, 2013, pg. 62-63):

• Text: to explain about the research data
• Figures: to display the research data and to show trends or relationships, for examples using graphs or gel pictures.
• Tables: to represent a large data and exact value

Decide on the best way to present your data — in the form of text, figures or tables (Hofmann, 2013).

Data or Results?

Sometimes we get confused about how to differentiate between data and results . Data are information (facts or numbers) that you collected from your research ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

Whereas, results are the texts presenting the meaning of your research data ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

One mistake that some authors often make is to use text to direct the reader to find a specific table or figure without further explanation. This can confuse readers when they interpret data completely different from what the authors had in mind. So, you should briefly explain your data to make your information clear for the readers.

Common Elements in Figures and Tables

Figures and tables present information about your research data visually. The use of these visual elements is necessary so readers can summarize, compare, and interpret large data at a glance. You can use graphs or figures to compare groups or patterns. Whereas, tables are ideal to present large quantities of data and exact values.

Several components are needed to create your figures and tables. These elements are important to sort your data based on groups (or treatments). It will be easier for the readers to see the similarities and differences among the groups.

When presenting your research data in the form of figures and tables, organize your data based on the steps of the research leading you into a conclusion.

Common elements of the figures (Bahadoran, 2019):

• Figure number
• Figure title
• Figure legend (for example a brief title, experimental/statistical information, or definition of symbols).

Tables in the result section may contain several elements (Bahadoran, 2019):

• Table number
• Table title
• Row headings (for example groups)
• Column headings
• Row subheadings (for example categories or groups)
• Column subheadings (for example categories or variables)
• Footnotes (for example statistical analyses)

Tips to Write the Results Section

• Direct the reader to the research data and explain the meaning of the data.
• Avoid using a repetitive sentence structure to explain a new set of data.
• Write and highlight important findings in your results.
• Use the same order as the subheadings of the methods section.
• Match the results with the research questions from the introduction. Your results should answer your research questions.
• Be sure to mention the figures and tables in the body of your text.
• Make sure there is no mismatch between the table number or the figure number in text and in figure/tables.
• Only present data that support the significance of your study. You can provide additional data in tables and figures as supplementary material.

How to Organize the Discussion Section

It’s not enough to use figures and tables in your results section to convince your readers about the importance of your findings. You need to support your results section by providing more explanation in the discussion section about what you found.

In the discussion section, based on your findings, you defend the answers to your research questions and create arguments to support your conclusions.

Below is a list of questions to guide you when organizing the structure of your discussion section ( Viera et al ., 2018 ):

• What experiments did you conduct and what were the results?
• What do the results mean?
• What were the important results from your study?
• How did the results answer your research questions?
• Did your results support your hypothesis or reject your hypothesis?
• What are the variables or factors that might affect your results?
• What were the strengths and limitations of your study?
• What other published works support your findings?
• What other published works contradict your findings?
• What possible factors might cause your findings different from other findings?
• What is the significance of your research?
• What are new research questions to explore based on your findings?

Organizing the Discussion Section

The structure of the discussion section may be different from one paper to another, but it commonly has a beginning, middle-, and end- to the section.

One way to organize the structure of the discussion section is by dividing it into three parts (Ghasemi, 2019):

• The beginning: The first sentence of the first paragraph should state the importance and the new findings of your research. The first paragraph may also include answers to your research questions mentioned in your introduction section.
• The middle: The middle should contain the interpretations of the results to defend your answers, the strength of the study, the limitations of the study, and an update literature review that validates your findings.
• The end: The end concludes the study and the significance of your research.

Another possible way to organize the discussion section was proposed by Michael Docherty in British Medical Journal: is by using this structure ( Docherty, 1999 ):

• Discussion of important findings
• Comparison of your results with other published works
• Include the strengths and limitations of the study
• Conclusion and possible implications of your study, including the significance of your study – address why and how is it meaningful
• Future research questions based on your findings

Finally, a last option is structuring your discussion this way (Hofmann, 2013, pg. 104):

• First Paragraph: Provide an interpretation based on your key findings. Then support your interpretation with evidence.
• Secondary results
• Limitations
• Unexpected findings
• Comparisons to previous publications
• Last Paragraph: The last paragraph should provide a summarization (conclusion) along with detailing the significance, implications and potential next steps.

Remember, at the heart of the discussion section is presenting an interpretation of your major findings.

Tips to Write the Discussion Section

• Highlight the significance of your findings
• Mention how the study will fill a gap in knowledge.
• Indicate the implication of your research.
• Avoid generalizing, misinterpreting your results, drawing a conclusion with no supportive findings from your results.

Aggarwal, R., & Sahni, P. (2018). The Results Section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 21-38): Springer.

Bahadoran, Z., Mirmiran, P., Zadeh-Vakili, A., Hosseinpanah, F., & Ghasemi, A. (2019). The principles of biomedical scientific writing: Results. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(2).

Bordage, G. (2001). Reasons reviewers reject and accept manuscripts: the strengths and weaknesses in medical education reports. Academic medicine, 76(9), 889-896.

Cals, J. W., & Kotz, D. (2013). Effective writing and publishing scientific papers, part VI: discussion. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 66(10), 1064.

Docherty, M., & Smith, R. (1999). The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers: Much the same as that for structuring abstracts. In: British Medical Journal Publishing Group.

Faber, J. (2017). Writing scientific manuscripts: most common mistakes. Dental press journal of orthodontics, 22(5), 113-117.

Fletcher, R. H., & Fletcher, S. W. (2018). The discussion section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 39-48): Springer.

Ghasemi, A., Bahadoran, Z., Mirmiran, P., Hosseinpanah, F., Shiva, N., & Zadeh-Vakili, A. (2019). The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Discussion. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(3).

Hofmann, A. H. (2013). Writing in the biological sciences: a comprehensive resource for scientific communication . New York: Oxford University Press.

Kotz, D., & Cals, J. W. (2013). Effective writing and publishing scientific papers, part V: results. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 66(9), 945.

Mack, C. (2014). How to Write a Good Scientific Paper: Structure and Organization. Journal of Micro/ Nanolithography, MEMS, and MOEMS, 13. doi:10.1117/1.JMM.13.4.040101

Moore, A. (2016). What's in a Discussion section? Exploiting 2‐dimensionality in the online world…. Bioessays, 38(12), 1185-1185.

Peat, J., Elliott, E., Baur, L., & Keena, V. (2013). Scientific writing: easy when you know how: John Wiley & Sons.

Sandercock, P. M. L. (2012). How to write and publish a scientific article. Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal, 45(1), 1-5.

Teo, E. K. (2016). Effective Medical Writing: The Write Way to Get Published. Singapore Medical Journal, 57(9), 523-523. doi:10.11622/smedj.2016156

Van Way III, C. W. (2007). Writing a scientific paper. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 22(6), 636-640.

Vieira, R. F., Lima, R. C. d., & Mizubuti, E. S. G. (2019). How to write the discussion section of a scientific article. Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, 41.

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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

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Home » Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Results

Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

Results Section in Research

The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.

In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.

Structure of Research Results Section

The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:

• Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the study, its aims, and its research questions. It should also briefly explain the methodology used to conduct the study.
• Data presentation : This section presents the data collected during the study. It may include tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help readers better understand the data. The data presented should be organized in a logical and coherent way, with headings and subheadings used to help guide the reader.
• Data analysis: In this section, the data presented in the previous section are analyzed and interpreted. The statistical tests used to analyze the data should be clearly explained, and the results of the tests should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
• Discussion of results : This section should provide an interpretation of the results of the study, including a discussion of any unexpected findings. The discussion should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Limitations: This section should acknowledge any limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection methods, or other factors that may have influenced the results.
• Conclusions: The conclusions should summarize the main findings of the study and provide a final interpretation of the results. The conclusions should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Recommendations : This section may provide recommendations for future research based on the study’s findings. It may also suggest practical applications for the study’s results in real-world settings.

Outline of Research Results Section

The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:

I. Introduction

• A brief overview of the research objectives and hypotheses
• A statement of the research question

II. Descriptive statistics

• Summary statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) for each variable analyzed
• Frequencies and percentages for categorical variables

III. Inferential statistics

• Results of statistical analyses, including tests of hypotheses
• Tables or figures to display statistical results

IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals

• Effect sizes (e.g., Cohen’s d, odds ratio) to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
• Confidence intervals to estimate the range of plausible values for the effect size

V. Subgroup analyses

• Results of analyses that examined differences between subgroups (e.g., by gender, age, treatment group)

VI. Limitations and assumptions

• Discussion of any limitations of the study and potential sources of bias
• Assumptions made in the statistical analyses

VII. Conclusions

• A summary of the key findings and their implications
• A statement of whether the hypotheses were supported or not
• Suggestions for future research

Example of Research Results Section

An Example of a Research Results Section could be:

• This study sought to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students.
• Hypothesis : College students who report better sleep quality will have higher GPAs than those who report poor sleep quality.
• Methodology : Participants completed a survey about their sleep habits and academic performance.

II. Participants

• Participants were college students (N=200) from a mid-sized public university in the United States.
• The sample was evenly split by gender (50% female, 50% male) and predominantly white (85%).
• Participants were recruited through flyers and online advertisements.

III. Results

• Participants who reported better sleep quality had significantly higher GPAs (M=3.5, SD=0.5) than those who reported poor sleep quality (M=2.9, SD=0.6).
• See Table 1 for a summary of the results.
• Participants who reported consistent sleep schedules had higher GPAs than those with irregular sleep schedules.

IV. Discussion

• The results support the hypothesis that better sleep quality is associated with higher academic performance in college students.
• These findings have implications for college students, as prioritizing sleep could lead to better academic outcomes.
• Limitations of the study include self-reported data and the lack of control for other variables that could impact academic performance.

V. Conclusion

• College students who prioritize sleep may see a positive impact on their academic performance.
• These findings highlight the importance of sleep in academic success.
• Future research could explore interventions to improve sleep quality in college students.

Example of Research Results in Research Paper :

Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.

Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).

Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.

Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.

Example 3 :

Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem

Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.

Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.

Importance of Research Results

Research results are important for several reasons, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research results can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, whether it be in science, technology, medicine, social sciences, or humanities.
• Developing theories: Research results can help to develop or modify existing theories and create new ones.
• Improving practices: Research results can inform and improve practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and public policy.
• Identifying problems and solutions: Research results can identify problems and provide solutions to complex issues in society, including issues related to health, environment, social justice, and economics.
• Validating claims : Research results can validate or refute claims made by individuals or groups in society, such as politicians, corporations, or activists.
• Providing evidence: Research results can provide evidence to support decision-making, policy-making, and resource allocation in various fields.

How to Write Results in A Research Paper

Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:

• Organize the results section: Start by organizing the results section in a logical and coherent manner. Divide the section into subsections if necessary, based on the research questions or hypotheses.
• Present the findings: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data and make the presentation more engaging.
• Describe the data: Describe the data in detail, including the sample size, response rate, and any missing data. Provide relevant descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges.
• Interpret the findings: Interpret the findings in light of the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss the implications of the findings and the extent to which they support or contradict existing theories or previous research.
• Discuss the limitations : Discuss the limitations of the study, including any potential sources of bias or confounding factors that may have affected the results.
• Compare the results : Compare the results with those of previous studies or theoretical predictions. Discuss any similarities, differences, or inconsistencies.
• Avoid redundancy: Avoid repeating information that has already been presented in the introduction or methods sections. Instead, focus on presenting new and relevant information.
• Be objective: Be objective in presenting the results, avoiding any personal biases or interpretations.

When to Write Research Results

Here are situations When to Write Research Results”

• After conducting research on the chosen topic and obtaining relevant data, organize the findings in a structured format that accurately represents the information gathered.
• Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, and conclusions have been drawn, begin the writing process.
• Before starting to write, ensure that the research results adhere to the guidelines and requirements of the intended audience, such as a scientific journal or academic conference.
• Begin by writing an abstract that briefly summarizes the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
• Follow the abstract with an introduction that provides context for the research, explains its significance, and outlines the research question and objectives.
• The next section should be a literature review that provides an overview of existing research on the topic and highlights the gaps in knowledge that the current research seeks to address.
• The methodology section should provide a detailed explanation of the research design, including the sample size, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used.
• Present the research results in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and figures to illustrate the findings.
• Discuss the implications of the research results, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topic and what further research is needed.
• Conclude the paper by summarizing the main findings, reiterating the significance of the research, and offering suggestions for future research.

Purpose of Research Results

The purposes of Research Results are as follows:

• Informing policy and practice: Research results can provide evidence-based information to inform policy decisions, such as in the fields of healthcare, education, and environmental regulation. They can also inform best practices in fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
• Addressing societal problems : Research results can be used to help address societal problems, such as reducing poverty, improving public health, and promoting social justice.
• Generating economic benefits : Research results can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can create economic value and improve quality of life.
• Supporting academic and professional development : Research results can be used to support academic and professional development by providing opportunities for students, researchers, and practitioners to learn about new findings and methodologies in their field.
• Enhancing public understanding: Research results can help to educate the public about important issues and promote scientific literacy, leading to more informed decision-making and better public policy.
• Evaluating interventions: Research results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, such as treatments, educational programs, and social policies. This can help to identify areas where improvements are needed and guide future interventions.
• Contributing to scientific progress: Research results can contribute to the advancement of science by providing new insights and discoveries that can lead to new theories, methods, and techniques.
• Informing decision-making : Research results can provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed decisions. This can include decision-making at the individual, organizational, or governmental levels.
• Fostering collaboration : Research results can facilitate collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to new partnerships, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovative solutions to complex problems.

Advantages of Research Results

Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:

• Improved decision-making: Research results can help inform decision-making in various fields, including medicine, business, and government. For example, research on the effectiveness of different treatments for a particular disease can help doctors make informed decisions about the best course of treatment for their patients.
• Innovation : Research results can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and services. For example, research on renewable energy sources can lead to the development of new and more efficient ways to harness renewable energy.
• Economic benefits: Research results can stimulate economic growth by providing new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. For example, research on new materials or manufacturing techniques can lead to the development of new products and processes that can create new jobs and boost economic activity.
• Improved quality of life: Research results can contribute to improving the quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For example, research on the causes of a particular disease can lead to the development of new treatments and cures, improving the health and well-being of millions of people.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report
• INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" results section

Figures and Captions in Lab Reports

"Results Checklist" from: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper. Chris A. Mack. SPIE. 2018.

Additional tips for results sections.

• LITERATURE CITED
• Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
• Peer Review
• Presentations
• Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

This is the core of the paper. Don't start the results sections with methods you left out of the Materials and Methods section. You need to give an overall description of the experiments and present the data you found.

• Factual statements supported by evidence. Short and sweet without excess words
• Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data
• Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative)
• Use meaningful statistics
• Avoid redundancy. If it is in the tables or captions you may not need to repeat it

A short article by Dr. Brett Couch and Dr. Deena Wassenberg, Biology Program, University of Minnesota

• Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary.
• Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction. Evidence does not explain itself; the results must be presented and then explained. 
• Avoid: presenting results that are never discussed;  presenting results in chronological order rather than logical order; ignoring results that do not support the conclusions; 
• Number tables and figures separately beginning with 1 (i.e. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, etc.).
• Do not attempt to evaluate the results in this section. Report only what you found; hold all discussion of the significance of the results for the Discussion section.
• It is not necessary to describe every step of your statistical analyses. Scientists understand all about null hypotheses, rejection rules, and so forth and do not need to be reminded of them. Just say something like, "Honeybees did not use the flowers in proportion to their availability (X2 = 7.9, p<0.05, d.f.= 4, chi-square test)." Likewise, cite tables and figures without describing in detail how the data were manipulated. Explanations of this sort should appear in a legend or caption written on the same page as the figure or table.
• You must refer in the text to each figure or table you include in your paper.
• Tables generally should report summary-level data, such as means ± standard deviations, rather than all your raw data.  A long list of all your individual observations will mean much less than a few concise, easy-to-read tables or figures that bring out the main findings of your study.  
• Only use a figure (graph) when the data lend themselves to a good visual representation.  Avoid using figures that show too many variables or trends at once, because they can be hard to understand.

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion

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The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

• Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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How to Write an APA Results Section

Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee 

What to Include in an APA Results Section

• Justify Claims
• Summarize Results

Report All Relevant Results

• Report Statistical Findings

Include Tables and Figures

What not to include in an apa results section.

Psychology papers generally follow a specific structure. One important section of a paper is known as the results section. An APA results section of a psychology paper summarizes the data that was collected and the statistical analyses that were performed. The goal of this section is to report the results of your study or experiment without any type of subjective interpretation.

At a Glance

The results section is a vital part of an APA paper that summarizes a study's findings and statistical analysis. This section often includes descriptive text, tables, and figures to help summarize the findings.

The focus is purely on summarizing and presenting the findings and should not include any interpretation, since you'll cover that in the subsequent discussion section.

This article covers how to write an APA results section, including what to include and what to avoid.

The results section is the third section of a psychology paper. It will appear after the introduction and methods sections and before the discussion section.

The results section should include:

• A summary of the research findings.
• Information about participant flow, recruitment , retention, and attrition. If some participants started the study and later left or failed to complete the study, then this should be described. 
• Information about any reasons why some data might have been excluded from the study. 
• Statistical information including samples sizes and statistical tests that were used. It should report standard deviations, p-values, and other measures of interest.

Results Should Justify Your Claims

Report data in order to sufficiently justify your conclusions. Since you'll be talking about your own interpretation of the results in the discussion section, you need to be sure that the information reported in the results section justifies your claims.

When you start writing your discussion section, you can then look back on your results to ensure that all the data you need are there to fully support your conclusions. Be sure not to make claims in your discussion section that are not supported by the findings described in your results section.

Summarize Your Results

Remember, you are summarizing the results of your psychological study, not reporting them in full detail. The results section should be a relatively brief overview of your findings, not a complete presentation of every single number and calculation.

If you choose, you can create a supplemental online archive where other researchers can access the raw data if they choose.

How long should a results section be?

The length of your results section will vary depending on the nature of your paper and the complexity of your research. In most cases, this will be the shortest section of your paper.

Just as the results section of your psychology paper should sufficiently justify your claims, it should also provide an accurate look at what you found in your study. Be sure to mention all relevant information.

Don't omit findings simply because they failed to support your predictions.

Your hypothesis may have expected more statistically significant results or your study didn't support your hypothesis , but that doesn't mean that the conclusions you reach are not useful. Provide data about what you found in your results section, then save your interpretation for what the results might mean in the discussion section.

While your study might not have supported your original predictions, your finding can provide important inspiration for future explorations into a topic.

How is the results section different from the discussion section?

The results section provides the results of your study or experiment . The goal of the section is to report what happened and the statistical analyses you performed. The discussion section is where you will examine what these results mean and whether they support or fail to support your hypothesis.

Report Your Statistical Findings

Always assume that your readers have a solid understanding of statistical concepts. There's no need to explain what a t-test is or how a one-way ANOVA works. Your responsibility is to report the results of your study, not to teach your readers how to analyze or interpret statistics.

Include Effect Sizes

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association recommends including effect sizes in your results section so that readers can appreciate the importance of your study's findings.

Your results section should include both text and illustrations. Presenting data in this way makes it easier for readers to quickly look at your results.

Structure your results section around tables or figures that summarize the results of your statistical analysis. In many cases, the easiest way to accomplish this is to first create your tables and figures and then organize them in a logical way. Next, write the summary text to support your illustrative materials.

Only include tables and figures if you are going to talk about them in the body text of your results section.

In addition to knowing what you should include in the results section of your psychology paper, it's also important to be aware of things that you should avoid putting in this section:

Cause-and-Effect Conclusions

Don't draw cause-effect conclusions. Avoid making any claims suggesting that your result "proves" that something is true. 

Interpretations

Present the data without editorializing it. Save your comments and interpretations for the discussion section of your paper. 

Statistics Without Context

Don't include statistics without narration. The results section should not be a numbers dump. Instead, you should sequentially narrate what these numbers mean.

Don't include the raw data in the results section. The results section should be a concise presentation of the results. If there is raw data that would be useful, include it in the appendix .

Don't only rely on descriptive text. Use tables and figures to present these findings when appropriate. This makes the results section easier to read and can convey a great deal of information quickly.

Repeated Data

Don't present the same data twice in your illustrative materials. If you have already presented some data in a table, don't present it again in a figure. If you have presented data in a figure, don't present it again in a table.

All of Your Findings

Don't feel like you have to include everything. If data is irrelevant to the research question, don't include it in the results section.

But Don't Skip Relevant Data

Don't leave out results because they don't support your claims. Even if your data does not support your hypothesis, including it in your findings is essential if it's relevant.

More Tips for Writing a Results Section

If you are struggling, there are a few things to remember that might help:

• Use the past tense . The results section should be written in the past tense.
• Be concise and objective . You will have the opportunity to give your own interpretations of the results in the discussion section.
• Use APA format . As you are writing your results section, keep a style guide on hand. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the official source for APA style .
• Visit your library . Read some journal articles that are on your topic. Pay attention to how the authors present the results of their research.
• Get a second opinion . If possible, take your paper to your school's writing lab for additional assistance.

What This Means For You

Remember, the results section of your paper is all about providing the data from your study. This section is often the shortest part of your paper, and in most cases, the most clinical.

Be sure not to include any subjective interpretation of the results. Simply relay the data in the most objective and straightforward way possible. You can then provide your own analysis of what these results mean in the discussion section of your paper.

Bavdekar SB, Chandak S. Results: Unraveling the findings . J Assoc Physicians India . 2015 Sep;63(9):44-6. PMID:27608866.

Snyder N, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. How to write an effective results section .  Clin Spine Surg . 2019;32(7):295-296. doi:10.1097/BSD.0000000000000845

American Psychological Association.  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2019.

Purdue Online Writing Lab. APA sample paper: Experimental psychology .

Berkeley University. Reviewing test results .

Tuncel A, Atan A. How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper ? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):16-19. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.048

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Laura Moro-Martin, freelance scientific writer on Kolabtree, provides expert tips on how to write the results section of a research paper . 

You have prepared a detailed −but concise− Methods section . Now it is time to write the Results of your research article. This part of the paper reports the findings of the experiments that you conducted to answer the research question(s). The Results can be considered the nucleus of a scientific article because they justify your claims, so you need to ensure that they are clear and understandable. You are telling a story −of course, a scientific story− and you want the readers to picture that same story in their minds. Let’s see how to avoid that your message ends up as in the ‘telephone game’.

The Results Section: Goals and Structure

Depending on the discipline, journal, and the nature of the study, the structure of the article can differ. We will focus on articles were the Results and Discussion appear in two separate sections, but it is possible in some cases to combine them.

In the Results section, you provide an overall description of the experiments and present the data that you obtained in a logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary. The Results section should simply state your findings without bias or interpretation. For example, in your analysis, you may have noticed a significant correlation between two variables never described before. It is correct to explain this in the Results section. However, speculation about the reasons for this correlation should go in the Discussion section of your paper.

In general, the Results section includes the following elements:

• A very short introductory context that repeats the research question and helps to understand your results.
• Report on data collection, recruitment, and/or participants. For example, in the case of clinical research, it is common to include a first table summarizing the demographic, clinical, and other relevant characteristics of the study participants.
• A systematic description of the main findings in a logical order (generally following the order of the Methods section), highlighting the most relevant results.
• Other important secondary findings, such as secondary outcomes or subgroup analyses (remember that you do not need to mention any single result).
• Visual elements, such as, figures, charts, maps, tables, etc. that summarize and illustrate the findings. These elements should be cited in the text and numbered in order. Figures and tables should be able to stand on its own without the text, which means that the legend should include enough information to understand the non-textual element.

How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper: Tips

The first tip −applicable to other sections of the paper too− is to check and apply the requirements of the journal to which you are submitting your work.

In the Results section, you need to write concisely and objectively, leaving interpretation for the Discussion section. As always, ‘learning from others’ can help you. Select a few papers from your field, including some published in your target journal, which you consider ‘good quality’ and well written. Read them carefully and observe how the Results section is structured, the type and amount of information provided, and how the findings are exposed in a logical order. Keep an eye on visual elements, such as figures, tables, and supplementary materials. Understand what works well in those papers to effectively convey their findings, and apply it to your writing.

Your Results section needs to describe the sequence of what you did and found, the frequency of occurrence of a particular event or result, the quantities of your observations, and the causality (i.e. the relationships or connections) between the events that you observed.

To organize the results, you can try to provide them alongside the research questions. In practice, this means that you will organize this section based on the sequence of tables and figures summarizing the results of your statistical analysis. In this way, it will be easier for readers to look at and understand your findings. You need to report your statistical findings, without describing every step of your statistical analysis. Tables and figures generally report summary-level data (for example, means and standard deviations), rather than all the raw data.

Following, you can prepare the summary text to support those visual elements. You need not only to present but also to explain your findings, showing how they help to address the research question(s) and how they align with the objectives that you presented in the Introduction . Keep in mind that results do not speak for themselves, so if you do not describe them in words, the reader may perceive the findings differently from you. Build coherence along this section using goal statements and explicit reasoning (guide the reader through your reasoning, including sentences of this type: ‘In order to…, we performed….’; ‘In view of this result, we ….’, etc.).

In summary, the general steps for writing the Results section of a research article are:

• Check the guidelines of your target journal and read articles that it has published in similar topics to your study.
• Catalogue your findings in relation to the journal requirements, and design figures and tables to organize your data.
• Write the Results section following the order of figures and tables.
• Edit and revise your draft and seek additional input from colleagues or experts.

The Style of the Results Section

‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor’, Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann said. Although the scope of the Results section −and of scientific papers in general− is eminently functional, this does not mean that you cannot write well. Try to improve the rhythm to move the reader along, use transitions and connectors between different sections and paragraphs, and dedicate time to revise your writing.

The Results section should be written in the past tense. Although writing in the passive voice may be tempting, the use of the active voice makes the action much more visualizable. The passive voice weakens the power of language and increases the number of words needed to say the same thing, so we recommend using the active voice as much as possible. Another tip to make your language visualizable and reduce sentence length is the use of verbal phrases instead of long nouns. For example, instead of writing ‘As shown in Table 1, there was a significant increase in gene expression’, you can say ‘As shown in Table 1, gene expression increased significantly’.

Get a Second (And Even Third) Opinion

Writing a scientific article is not an individual work. Take advantage of your co-authors by making them check the Results section and adding their comments and suggestions. Not only that, but an external opinion will help you to identify misinterpretations or errors. Ask a colleague that is not directly involved in the work to review your Results and then try to evaluate what your colleague did or did not understand. If needed, seek additional help from a qualified expert.

Common Errors to Avoid While Writing the Results Section

Several mistakes frequently occur when you write the Results section of a research paper. Here we have collected a few examples:

• Including raw results and/or endlessly repetitive data. You do not need to present every single number and calculation, but a summary of the results. If relevant, raw data can be included in supplementary materials.
• Including redundant information. If data are contained in the tables or figures, you do not need to repeat all of them in the Results section. You will have the opportunity to highlight the most relevant results in the Discussion .
• Repeating background information or methods , or introducing several sentences of introductory information (if you feel that more background information is necessary to present a result, consider inserting that information in the Introduction ).
• Results and Methods do not match . You need to explain the methodology used to obtain all the experimental observations.
• Ignoring negative results or results that do not support the conclusions. In addition to posing potential ethical concerns on your work, reviewers will not like it. You need to mention all relevant findings, even if they failed to support your predictions or hypotheses. Negative results are useful and will guide future studies on the topic. Provide your interpretation for negative results in the Discussion .
• Discussing or interpreting the results . Leave that for the Discussion , unless your target journal allows preparing one section combining Results and Discussion .
• Errors in figures/tables are varied and common . Examples of errors include using an excessive number of figures/tables (it is a good idea to select the most relevant ones and move the rest to supplementary materials), very complex figures/tables (hard-to-read figures with many subfigures or enormous tables may confuse your readers; think how these elements will be visualized in the final format of the article), difficult to interpret figures/tables (cryptic abbreviations; inadequate use of colors, axis, scales, symbols, etc.), and figures/tables that are not self-standing (figures/tables require a caption, all abbreviations used need to be explained in the legend or a footnote, and statistical tests applied are frequently reported). Do not include tables and figures that are not mentioned in the body text of your Results .

In summary, the Results section is the nucleus of your paper that justifies your claims. Take time to adequately organize it and prepare understandable figures and tables to convey your message to the reader. Good writing!

• The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html – methods (accessed on 30th September 2020)
• Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results. https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931 (accessed on 30th September 2020)
• Kendra Cherry. How to Write an APA Results Section. https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-write-a-results-section-2795727 (accessed on 30th September 2020)
• Chapin Rodríguez. Empowering your scientific language by making it “visualizable”. http://creaducate.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/tipsheet36_visualizable-lang-tip-sheet.pdf (accessed on 1st October 2020)
• IMRaD Results Discussion. https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion (accessed on 1st October 2020)
• Writing the Results Section for a Research Paper. https://wordvice.com/writing-the-results-section-for-a-research-paper/ (accessed on 1st October 2020)
• Scott L. Montgomery. The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science , Chapter 9. Second edition, The University of Chicago Press, 2017.
• Hilary Glasman-Deal . Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English, Unit 2 . Imperial College Press, 2010.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology [or methodologies] you applied. The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence. The results section should always be written in the past tense. A section describing results [a.k.a., "findings"] is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Research results can only confirm or reject the research problem underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise, using non-textual elements, such as figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other material that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good rule is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper].

Bates College; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and organizing the results .

• Present the results followed by a short explanation of the findings . For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is correct to point this out in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists, and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening, belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a section and then discuss it, before presenting the next section then discussing it, and so on . This is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it can be helpful to provide a brief conclusion in the results section that ties each of the findings together and links to the discussion.

NOTE: The discussion section should generally follow the same format chosen in presenting and organizing the results.

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following elements:

• An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem that underpins the purpose of your study.
• A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate the findings, if appropriate.
• In the text, a systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation [remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology that you used to gather the data may be relevant].
• Use of the past tense when refering to your results.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem.

Using Non-textual Elements

• Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report--do one or the other but never do both.
• In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g.,  Table 1, Table 2; Chart 1, Chart 2; Map 1, Map 2].
• If you place non-textual elements at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.
• Regardless of placement, each non-textual element must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption [caption goes under the figure, table, chart, etc.]
• Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a heading [title with description goes above the figure, table, chart, etc.].
• In proofreading your results section, be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on its own, separate from the text.

III. Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save all this for the next section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings ; this should have been done in your Introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need to provide additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, often provides you with the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you feel the need to highlight something, you will have a chance to do that in the discussion section.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. If you are not sure, look up the term in a dictionary.

Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers . Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results . Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings from the study with a discussion about their implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two sections for each element in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your  paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret your data and answer the "so what?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you may want to meld the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

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• A Research Guide
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• Assignment Writing

How to Write a Term Paper

• Purpose of a term paper
• How to start a term paper
• Structure and outline

Step-by-step writing guide

Standard term paper format.

• Term paper examples
• Writing tips

What is the purpose of a term paper?

How to start a term paper correctly.

• Choose your topic by focusing on what inspires you unless you are already given a topic.
• Take time to research and analyze your subject.
• Start with a term paper outline (see our templates in the next sections).
• Come up with a strong thesis statement before writing anything for body paragraphs.
• Provide topic sentences and practical examples.
• Provide a strong lesson in the conclusion if it suits the subject you write about.
• Edit and proofread available information for trustworthiness.

Term paper structure and outline

• Introduction. This is where you talk about the subject and a problem you are researching. It helps to introduce your thesis statement and explain the objectives that have been set.
• Body Paragraphs. As a rule, in writing college term papers, one must write down several subheadings and headings to divide ideas and arguments into several (at least four) paragraphs. As done below, each body paragraph should contain one idea and a strong topic sentence.
• Heading 1: History of the argument and background.
• Heading 2: Extent of the problem that you write about.
• Heading 3: Effects of the problem and possible causes.
• Heading 4: Possible solutions and outcomes.
• Conclusion. The final part should represent a strong summary and a response to your thesis statement.

Step 1: Data collection

Step 2: explaining research relevance, step 3: introducing your subject, step 4: literature review preparation, step 5: offering results and conclusions, step 6: structural term paper evaluation, step 7: check your citations and references.

Helpful term paper examples

• Term paper examples that earned an A grade from the University of Delaware
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• Purdue Owl Lab Citation Formats Database
• Simon Fraser University Sample Term Paper

Term paper writing tips

• Choose a topic that inspires you if you have an opportunity. If you have been given an already existing prompt to write, research your subject online and ask about the use of course materials. It will help you to narrow things down and already have source materials for referencing purposes.
• If you can choose a subject to write a final paper for your course, think about something you can support with statistical data and some practical evidence.
• Most importantly, keep your term paper relevant to the main objectives of your study course.
• Keep your tone reflective and natural as you write.
• Double-check your grading rubric regarding limitations and obligatory requirements that must be met.
• Always proofread your term paper aloud!
• If you have an opportunity, consider editing your term paper with the help of a friend or a fellow college student.

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How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper?

The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and figures.

Introduction

Medical articles consist of review articles, case reports, and letters to the editor which are prepared with the intention of publishing in journals related to the medical discipline of the author. For an academician to be able to progress in carreer, and make his/her activities known in the academic environment, require preparation of the protocol of his/her academic research article, and acquiring sufficient information, and experience related to the composition of this article. In this review article, the information related to the writing of the ‘Results’ section, and use of tables, and figures will be presented to the attention of the readers.

Writing the ‘Results’ section

The ‘Results’ section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers. Renown British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) indicated his feelings as “The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.” which emphasizes the importance of accurately, and impressively written results.

In essence results provide a response for the question” What is found in the research performed?”. Therefore, it is the most vital part of the article. As a priority, while drafting the ‘Results’ section of a manuscript one should not firstly write down methods in the ‘Material and Method’ section. The first sentence should give information about the number of patients who met the inclusion criteria, and thus enrolled in the study. [ 1 ] Besides information about the number of patients excluded from the study, and the reasons for exclusion is very important in that they will enlighten the readers, and reviewers who critically evaluate the manuscript, and also reflect the seriousness of the study. On the other hand, the results obtained should be recorded in chronological order, and without any comments. [ 2 ] In this section use of simple present tense is more appropriate. The findings should be expressed in brief, lucid, and explicable words. The writing style should not be boring for the reader. During writing process of a research article, a generally ill-conceived point is that positive, and significant findings are more important, attractive, and valuable, while negative, and insignificant findings are worthless, and less attractive. A scientific research is not performed to confirm a hypothesis, rather to test it. Not only positive, and significant results are worth writing, on the other hand negative or statistically insignificant result which support fallacy of a widely accepted opinion might be valuable. Therefore, all findings obtained during research should be inclıuded in the ‘Results’ section. [ 1 ]

While writing the ‘Results’ section, the sequence of results, tabulated data, and information which will be illustrated as figures should be definitively indicated. In indicating insignificant changes, do not use expressions as “decreased” or “increased”, these words should be reserved for significant changes. If results related to more than one parameter would be reported, it is appropriate to write the results under the subheading of its related parameter so as to facilitate reading, and comprehension of information. [ 2 ] Only data, and information concerning the study in question should be included in the ‘Results’ section. Results not mentioned in this section should not be included in the ‘Discussion’ and ‘Summary’ sections. Since the results obtained by the authors are cited in the ‘Results’ section, any reference should not be indicated in this section. [ 3 ]

In the ‘Results’ section, numerical expressions should be written in technically appropriate terms. The number of digits (1, 2 or 3 digits) to be written after a comma (in Turkish) or a point (in especially American English) should be determined The number of digits written after the punctuation marks should not be changed all throughout the text. Data should be expressed as mean/median ± standard deviation. Data as age, and scale scores should be indicated together with ranges of values. Absolute numerical value corresponding to a percentage must be also indicated. P values calculated in statistical analysis should be expressed in their absolute values. While writing p values of statistically significant data, instead of p<0.05 the actual level of significance should be recorded. If p value is smaller than 0.001, then it can be written as p <0.01. [ 2 ] While writing the ‘Results’ section, significant data which should be recalled by the readers must be indicated in the main text. It will be appropriate to indicate other demographic numerical details in tables or figures.

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23) is presented below:

“A total of 9 (56.2%) female, and 7 (43.8%) male patients with were included in this study. Mean age of all the patients was 44.3±13.8 (17–65) years, and mean dimensions of the adrenal mass was 4.5±3.4 (1–14) cm. Mean ages of the male, and female patients were 44.1 (30–65), and 42.4 (17–64) years, while mean diameters of adrenal masses were 3.2 (1–5), and 4.5 (1–14) cm (p age =0.963, p mass size =0.206). Surgical procedures were realized using transperitoneal approach through Chevron incision in 1 (6.2%), and retroperitoneal approach using flank incision with removal of the 11. rib in 15 (93.7%) patients. Right (n=6; 37.5%), and left (n=2; 12.5%) adrenalectomies were performed. Two (12.5%) patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomy in the same session because of clinical Cushing’s syndrome persisted despite transsphenoidal hipophysectomy. Mean operative time, and length of the hospital stay were 135 (65–190) min, and 3 (2–6) days, respectively. While resecting 11. rib during retroperitoneal adrenalectomy performed in 1 patient, pleura was perforated for nearly 1.5 cm. The perforated region was drained, and closed intraoperatively with 4/0 polyglyctan sutures. The patient did not develop postoperative pneumothorax. In none of the patients postoperative complications as pneumothorax, bleeding, prolonged drainage were seen. Results of histopathological analysis of the specimens retrieved at the end of the operation were summarized in Table 1 .” Table 1. Histopathological examination results of the patients Histopathological diagnosis Men n (%) Women n (%) Total n (%) Adrenal cortical adenoma 5 (31.3) 6 (37.6) 11 (68.8) Pheochromocytoma 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) 2 (12.6) Ganglioneuroma 1 (6.2) - 1 (6.2) Myelolipoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Adrenal carcinoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Total 7 (43.7) 9 (56.2) 16 (100) Open in a separate window

Use of tables, and figures

To prevent the audience from getting bored while reading a scientific article, some of the data should be expressed in a visual format in graphics, and figures rather than crowded numerical values in the text. Peer-reviewers frequently look at tables, and figures. High quality tables, and figures increase the chance of acceptance of the manuscript for publication.

Number of tables in the manuscript should not exceed the number recommended by the editorial board of the journal. Data in the main text, and tables should not be repeated many times. Tables should be comprehensible, and a reader should be able to express an opinion about the results just at looking at the tables without reading the main text. Data included in tables should comply with those mentioned in the main text, and percentages in rows, and columns should be summed up accurately. Unit of each variable should be absolutely defined. Sampling size of each group should be absolutely indicated. Values should be expressed as values±standard error, range or 95% confidence interval. Tables should include precise p values, and level of significance as assessed with statistical analysis should be indicated in footnotes. [ 2 ] Use of abbreviations in tables should be avoided, if abbreviations are required they should be defined explicitly in the footnotes or legends of the tables. As a general rule, rows should be arranged as double-spaced Besides do not use pattern coloring for cells of rows, and columns. Values included in tables should be correctly approximated. [ 1 , 2 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23).is shown in Table 1 .

Most of the readers priorly prefer to look at figures, and graphs rather than reading lots of pages. Selection of appropriate types of graphs for demonstration of data is a critical decision which requires artist’s meticulousness. As is the case with tables, graphs, and figures should also disploay information not provided in the text. Bar, line, and pie graphs, scatter plots, and histograms are some examples of graphs. In graphs, independent variables should be represented on the horizontal, and dependent variables on the vertical axis. Number of subjects in every subgroup should be indicated The labels on each axis should be easily understandable. [ 2 ] The label of the Y axis should be written vertically from bottom to top. The fundamental point in writing explanatory notes for graphs, and figures is to help the readers understand the contents of them without referring to the main text. Meanings of abbreviations, and acronyms used in the graphs, and figures should be provided in explanatory notes. In the explanatory notes striking data should be emphasized. Statistical tests used, levels of significance, sampling size, stains used for analyses, and magnification rate should be written in order to facilitate comprehension of the study procedures. [ 1 , 2 ]

Flow diagram can be utilized in the ‘Results’ section. This diagram facilitates comprehension of the results obtained at certain steps of monitorization during the research process. Flow diagram can be used either in the ‘Results’ or ‘Material and Method’ section. [ 2 , 3 ]

Histopathological analyses, surgical technique or radiological images which are considered to be more useful for the comprehension of the text by the readers can be visually displayed. Important findings should be marked on photos, and their definitions should be provided clearly in the explanatory legends. [ 1 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned issues, graphics, and flow diagram in the ‘Results’ section of a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the World Journal of Urology in the year 2010 (World J Urol 2010;28:17–22.) are shown in Figures 1 , and ​ and2 2 .

a The mean SHIM scores of the groups before and after treatment. SHIM sexual health inventory for male. b The mean IPSS scores of the groups before and after treatment. IPSS international prostate symptom score

Flowchart showing patients’ progress during the study. SHIM sexual health inventory for male, IIEF international index of erectile function, IPSS international prostate symptom score, QoL quality of life, Q max maximum urinary flow rate. PRV post voiding residual urine volume

In conclusion, in line with the motto of the famous German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). ‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor .’ results obtained in a scientific research article should be expressed accurately, and with a masterstroke of a tailor in compliance with certain rules which will ensure acceptability of the scientific manuscript by the editorial board of the journal, and also facilitate its intelligibility by the readers.

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Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

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Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,248,239 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Term Paper - Tips for the perfect term paper in your studies

Importance of term papers in studies.

Term papers are one of the central elements of the study program and are an important part of the academic performance evaluation. They serve to apply and deepen the knowledge acquired in the course of study and to train the ability to work scientifically. A successful term paper is characterized by a clear research question, a systematic approach, appropriate argumentation and correct citation. Careful planning and structuring as well as thorough research are therefore essential for the success of a term paper. Even though writing a term paper can sometimes be tedious, it is worth investing time and effort - after all, a successful term paper not only contributes to your grade point average, but also to your personal development and competence enhancement.

Purpose and Goals of an Academic Thesis

An academic paper always has a specific purpose and clear goals to achieve. The purpose is to work on a specific topic in detail and to apply scientific methods. In this way, the author should show that he or she is able to penetrate and critically reflect on complex issues. The goals of an academic paper are very different: For example, it can be about gaining new knowledge in a certain field or summarizing and systematizing existing knowledge. The teaching of theoretical principles or the practical application of methods can also be important objectives. Therefore, it is important to be clear before starting the work exactly what purpose you are pursuing and what goals you want to achieve. This is the only way to write a structured and successful term paper.

An important basis for a perfect term paper is careful research. This is not only about finding suitable sources, but also about their evaluation and selection. A good method for this is to create a mind map or a cluster to capture different aspects of the topic and to establish connections between the sources. Using keywords when searching online can also be helpful. It is also important to critically examine the sources and make sure they are reputable and up-to-date. Solid research forms the basis for a sound term paper and is thus an indispensable step in the writing process.

The structure of a Term Paper

A term paper is an important part of your studies and requires a structured approach. The structure of a term paper consists of an introduction, a main part and a conclusion. In the introduction, the topic is introduced and the objective of the paper is defined. The main part is divided into several chapters in which the arguments and theses are presented. The individual chapters should build on each other logically and be well structured. In the conclusion, the results are summarized again and a conclusion is drawn. A clear structure not only helps the reader, but also helps you to maintain an overview and to present your thoughts in an orderly manner. It is also important that you adhere to the formal requirements of your university regarding scope, citations and formatting.

Introduction

The introduction is the first impression your term paper makes on the reader. That's why it's important to create a good image and arouse interest right from the start. In this ultimate guide to the perfect term paper in college, we want to show you how to write an introduction that makes you want to know more. It's not just about what you write, but also how you word it. A good introduction should be concise and clear and give the reader an overview of what your paper is about. With our tips, you will surely be able to write a good introduction for your term paper!

1. Relevance of the topic

The relevance of the topic of a term paper is crucial when it comes to achieving a good grade. A well thought out and relevant term paper shows the professor that the student has understood the topic and is able to analyze and interpret it at an academic level. It is important to take time to select a topic that is not only interesting, but also relevant to the course content and current debates in the discipline. It is also worthwhile to seek close collaboration with the professor or tutor to ensure that the topic chosen is appropriate and that all requirements are met. A relevant term paper can make the difference between a good grade and a bad grade and should therefore be taken seriously.

2. Research question and objective

In order to write a perfect term paper in college, it is essential to deal with the formulation of a research question and objective. A clear research question and a defined objective give structure to the paper and help in not losing focus. At the same time, the research question should be precise and specific to enable targeted research. In addition, the objective should be realistic and achievable to ensure that the research question is successfully addressed. A well formulated research question and objective are thus essential components of a successful term paper in the study.

3. Structure of the paper

A structured structure is the be-all and end-all of a successful term paper in your studies. Start with an introduction, in which you explain the topic and state your research question. In the main body of the paper, you go into the individual aspects of the topic and introduce your arguments and examples. In doing so, also remember to cite sources and document them carefully. In the concluding part, you can summarize your findings and give an outlook on possible further research questions. Do not forget to include proper formatting as well as a clear outline of your paper. A clear structure makes it easier for the reader to follow your argument and focus on the essentials. At the end, double-check the spelling and grammar of your paper - because again, first impressions count!

An important part of any term paper in college is citing sources. It is crucial that you are careful about this and that you include all the information used correctly and completely. Otherwise, this could be considered plagiarism and thus call your entire paper into question. A good way to ensure that you cite all sources correctly is to use citation software such as Zotero or Citavi. These programs allow you to quickly and easily gather all the necessary information and automatically cite it in your paper. Don't forget to pay attention to proper formatting as well - there can be differences depending on your discipline. If you are unsure, ask your lecturer or a librarian for help.

The main part of the paper is about presenting the argumentation and the content of the topic in detail. Here it is important to use a clear structure and pay attention to a logical sequence of arguments. The main body should focus on the essentials and avoid unnecessary information. A good way to structure the main body is by using subheadings. These make it easier for the reader to understand the text and provide orientation. Sources should also not be forgotten in the main body to support the credibility of the statements. Overall, you should take time to carefully prepare the main body and critically review it again and again. After all, a well-structured and argumentatively convincing term paper can make the difference between a good and an excellent grade.

1. Literature research and evaluation

An important step in creating a perfect term paper in college is thorough literature research and evaluation. Here, various sources such as books, scientific articles and online resources should be used to create a broad knowledge base. It is important to critically evaluate the quality and relevance of the sources found. Criteria such as timeliness, credibility of the source and its authority can help. The type of source should also be considered, as not every type of information is suitable for a scientific paper. A systematic approach to literature research and evaluation can help to ensure that the term paper is built on a sound basis and thus produces a high-quality result.

2. Methodology and data collection (if relevant)

An important step in writing a perfect term paper in college is choosing the right methodology and data collection. This is about which research methods should be used to answer the posed question. A distinction can be made between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research attempts to capture data in numbers and statistics. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with understanding phenomena and their interrelationships. Data collection can be done in various ways, such as interviews, observations or experiments. It is important here to choose an appropriate method in order to obtain meaningful results. The selection of the sample size as well as the validity and reliability of the collected data are also crucial for the validity of the results. Therefore, one should carefully consider in advance which methodology and data collection are best suited for one's own topic.

3. Analysis and interpretation of the results

In order to deliver a perfect term paper in college, it is crucial that you analyze and interpret your findings. This step is important not only to show that you understand the topic, but also to strengthen your argument. Successful analysis and interpretation requires a deep understanding of the data, as well as the ability to identify relationships and communicate them in a clear and concise style. It is helpful to try different methods of analysis and interpretation to find the best approach for your particular topic. Remember that it is important to present your findings in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. A well thought out analysis and interpretation of your results can make the difference between a good term paper and a great one.

4. Discussion and classification in the research context

An important component of a successful term paper is the placement of one's own work in the research context. This is not only about knowing and citing the relevant theories and research results, but also about a critical discussion of them. Discussions within the framework of the term paper should therefore always be based on sound knowledge and serve to gain one's own insights and to question the previous research situation. However, care should be taken that the discussion does not go beyond the scope of the paper and is limited to the essentials. A successful classification in the research context can help to distinguish one's own work from others and contribute to the further development of the research field.

A term paper in the study is a challenge that many students have to master. Proper citation also plays an important role. Proper citation of sources shows that one has studied the subject matter and avoids plagiarizing. The most common citation method in the academic field is the Harvard citation method. This involves citing the sources directly in the text and listing them in a bibliography at the end of the document. There are also other citation styles such as APA or MLA that can be used depending on the discipline or university. However, it is always important to follow the guidelines and properly cite all sources used. This is the only way to ensure that you do not make any mistakes and that you complete your work successfully.

An often underestimated, but nevertheless important, aspect of a term paper is the conclusion. In this last section of the paper, you should summarize your results and findings and clearly state once again which question you have answered and what conclusions result from it. There may also be room for an outlook on possible further research or areas of application here. A well-written conclusion not only rounds off your paper, but also gives the reader the feeling that you have thought through your work completely and thoroughly. Make sure that the conclusion is not simply a repetition of the introductory text, but shows that you have actually answered the question. Also, avoid introducing new topics or information in the conclusion - these belong in the body of your paper. A successful conclusion will help you achieve a good grade and show your instructor that you took the assignment seriously and worked on it thoroughly.

1. Summary of the most important results

In conclusion, the main findings of this guide to the perfect term paper in college can be summarized. Good planning and structuring are indispensable to save time and nerves. Thorough research and source analysis form the basis for a sound argument. When writing, attention should be paid to clear language and a common thread. In addition, it is advisable to pay attention to correct formatting and citation as well as to check the work carefully before handing it in. With these tips, nothing stands in the way of a successful term paper.

2. Conclusion and answer to the research question

At the end of the paper, we would like to draw a conclusion and answer the research question. In the previous chapters, we have dealt intensively with the topic and illuminated numerous aspects. In the process, we have determined that a good term paper requires, above all, a clear structure, careful research and precise formulation. Adhering to citation rules and avoiding plagiarism are also of great importance. In summary, it can be said that a perfect term paper must not only convince in terms of content, but should also meet formal criteria. Through thorough preparation and planning, as well as by adhering to time management techniques, you can make your own path to the perfect term paper easier.

3. Outlook for possible further investigations

After you have gone through all the important steps to create a perfect term paper in college, further research may still be necessary. There are several ways you can further improve and refine your paper. One option is to find and use additional sources to strengthen your argument or support your research findings. Another option would be to include expert opinions or interviews with people working in your field. Checking spelling and grammar, as well as careful formatting, can also help ensure that your term paper leaves a professional impression. Keep in mind, however, that it's important to strike a balance between attention to detail and efficiency. Ultimately, you should take the time to carefully revise your paper and ensure that it meets the requirements of your field.

When writing a term paper in college, it is important to have a clear structure and stick to it. One way to ensure this is to use outlines. These not only help to keep the thread of the paper, but also make it easier for the reader to understand. A clear outline can consist of different levels and should cover all important aspects of the work. It is advisable to prepare the outline before the actual writing process and adjust it as necessary during the course of the paper. Although it may be tempting to start writing right away, it is worth investing time in creating a good outline. This way, writing the term paper will be more effective and successful overall.

Tips for writing a successful term paper

Here are a few of our top tips for successfully completing a term paper:

Topic and research question

An important step in writing a term paper in college is choosing a suitable topic and research question. A good topic should not only be interesting, but also provide enough material to answer the research question. The research question should be precisely formulated and allow for a clear answer. A good way to find a topic and a research question is to research professional literature and scientific articles. Here, existing research can serve as a starting point or gaps in the research can be uncovered. It is important to take enough time to find a suitable topic in order to be able to work efficiently later on.

Literature research and evaluation

One of the most important steps in writing a perfect term paper is literature research and evaluation. In order to write a high-quality paper, you need to find relevant and up-to-date sources and analyze them critically. Start with a comprehensive search of libraries, online databases, and other relevant sources. Make sure your sources are trustworthy by focusing on reputable publishers and journals. Carefully read the articles you find and evaluate them based on criteria such as relevance, timeliness, and credibility. Note important information such as citations or summaries so that you can refer to them later. A thorough literature search and evaluation forms the basis for a successful term paper, as it helps you to support your argument and to formulate your thoughts clearly.

Structuring and outline of the work

A well-structured and organized term paper is the key to success in your studies. It not only provides a clear orientation for the reader, but also helps to clearly structure one's own thoughts and arguments. Before you start writing, you should therefore take time to develop a sensible outline and structure. Here, it can be helpful to orientate yourself on the requirements of the assignment and to divide it into individual sections. Creating a table of contents can also help to maintain an overview of the entire paper and ensure that all important aspects are covered. Clearly, structuring and outlining the term paper is thus an important part of any scientific work and should therefore not be neglected.

Writing process and scientific style

An important aspect of writing a perfect term paper in college is the writing process and scientific style. There are some basic rules that should be followed in order to provide the readers with a clear and understandable understanding of the topic. These include using precise phrases, avoiding colloquial expressions and adhering to formal writing. Another important aspect is the correct citation of sources in order to avoid plagiarism and to emphasize the scientific claim of the paper. Careful planning of the writing process can also help save time and provide a clear structure for the paper. By following these guidelines, students can ensure that their term paper is not only well written, but also meets the requirements of a scholarly text.

References and citation

An important aspect in the preparation of a perfect term paper in the study is the choice of the right topic. Here, one should not only be guided by one's own interests, but also by the relevance and topicality of the topic. A good option is to be inspired by current debates or research results and relate them to your own field of study. Choosing a suitable supervisor can also be helpful here, as he or she can provide valuable tips on finding a topic and also has contacts with experts in the field. A clear formulation of the topic as well as a precise question are also essential for a successful term paper. One should always keep in mind that the goal of a term paper is not only to get a good grade, but also to learn scientific work and to deal with current issues in the respective field.

Challenges and approaches to academic work

Writing an academic paper can be challenging, especially if you don't have much experience with it. One of the biggest challenges is narrowing down the topic and formulating a clear research question. Structuring the paper can also be difficult, especially if you are trying to fit in all the relevant information. Another difficulty is conducting a comprehensive literature review and critically evaluating the sources found. To overcome these challenges, it is helpful to take your time and do some careful planning. A clear outline and detailed timeline can help keep track of the work and make the writing process more effective. Getting feedback from instructors or fellow students can also help identify weaknesses in the paper and make improvements. Ultimately, it is important to focus on the goal of the paper and not get distracted by unnecessary details.

Time management and planning

Time management and planning are critical when completing academic work. As a student, it is important to manage your time effectively and have a clear plan for your assignments. Here are some tips and strategies that can help you do just that:

• Create a schedule : Start by creating a detailed schedule that takes into account both your academic commitments and other important activities. Set realistic goals and break your work into smaller, manageable tasks. Include buffer time for unforeseen events or additional research.
• Prioritize your tasks : Identify the most important tasks and prioritize them. Focus first on those that have a direct impact on your academic performance, such as preparing for exams or writing term papers. Rank your tasks by urgency and importance and work through them accordingly.
• Avoid procrastination : The temptation to put off tasks is often strong. However, it's important to resist this impulse and hold yourself accountable. Find strategies to motivate yourself, such as setting intermediate goals or rewarding your progress. Also, identify potential distractions and try to minimize them during your work hours.
• Use effective work techniques : Find out which work techniques work best for you. Some prefer working in short, focused intervals (e.g., the Pomodoro technique), while others prefer longer periods of work. Experiment and find out what helps you stay focused and productive the best.
• Be flexible and adaptable : Despite careful planning, unforeseen events can occur that disrupt your schedules. Be flexible and willing to make adjustments. Learn to reprioritize and adapt to new circumstances.

By practicing effective time management and planning, you can increase your productivity, reduce stress, and achieve a better balance between your academic obligations and your personal life. Stay consistent and disciplined to successfully navigate through your academic work.

Dealing with writer's block

Writer's block can affect any student and is often a very frustrating experience. When you're pressed for time and just can't seem to get the right words down on paper, it can become a real challenge. However, there are some strategies that can help overcome writer's block. One way, for example, is to take a break and clear your head. Writing bullet points or brainstorming ideas can also help get the writing process back on track. It's also important not to put too much pressure on yourself and realize that it's normal to have writer's block every now and then. With a little patience and perseverance, every student can successfully complete their term paper - even if it gets a little more difficult at times.

Revision and proofreading

An often neglected, yet crucial step in creating a perfect term paper is revision and proofreading. After the content has been carefully researched, organized and written down, you should take enough time to go through your paper. Start with a thorough revision of the content and make sure that your argument is coherent and your writing style is fluent and understandable. After that, you should focus on proofreading. Look for spelling and grammatical errors as well as misplaced punctuation marks. Stylistic errors can also be corrected in this step. To make revision and proofreading effective, it's a good idea to take breaks between passes or ask a second person for feedback. Careful revision and thorough proofreading are essential for a perfect term paper in college.

An important aspect of writing a perfect term paper in college is proper citation of sources. Plagiarism can not only lead to bad grades, but also to expulsion from the degree program. Therefore, it is important to familiarize yourself with the different citation styles and apply them consistently. Each university or college has its own guidelines regarding citation, so it is important to get accurate information in advance. Online tools such as Citavi or Zotero can also help you keep track of the sources you use and cite them correctly. Careful research and correct citation are essential components of every successful term paper in your studies.

Tools and resources for writing term papers

In order to write a perfect term paper in college, it is important to have access to tools and resources. One of the best sources of information is the library of the university or college. There are numerous books, journals, and online databases available here that can assist with research. The Internet can also be a valuable source, but care should be taken here to use reputable and trustworthy sources. In addition, there are special programs such as Citavi or EndNote that can help organize literature sources and insert citations correctly. The writing program Word also offers many useful features, such as automatically creating a table of contents or checking spelling and grammar. Together with good planning and structuring, this can create a perfect term paper.

Libraries and online databases

An important source for researching term papers during studies are libraries and online databases. In libraries, books, journals and other media relevant to one's own work can be borrowed. In addition, many libraries also offer workstations and rooms for concentrated work. Online databases provide access to a wide range of scientific articles and studies that are often not available in printed form. It is important to find out in advance about the quality of the database and, if necessary, to read literature reviews of the articles found. When using online databases, one should also be careful to cite them correctly and not violate any copyrights. Good research in libraries and online databases can help to write a sound and meaningful term paper.

Literature management programs

An important part of any term paper is an extensive literature search. But how do you keep track of all the different sources and citations? This is where literature management programs come into play. These practical tools make it possible to collect all the relevant information on books, articles and the like in one place and organize them clearly. Most programs also offer the option of inserting citations directly into the term paper and automatically creating a bibliography. Popular literature management programs include Citavi, Mendeley or Zotero. It is definitely worth looking into these programs to save time and nerves when writing the term paper.

Writing and formatting tools

To write a perfect term paper, it is important to pay attention to the writing and formatting tools. With the help of Word you'll be able to format and structure your work more easily. The "Styles" and "Styles" functions will help you maintain a consistent formatting and will make it easier to manage headings, body text and citations. In addition, there are other tools like Grammarly or Hemingway Editor that can help you correct your grammar and spelling mistakes as well as improve your writing style. Another useful tool is Zotero, which allows you to manage your source citations automatically. Using these writing and formatting tools will not only improve the quality of your work, but also reduce the amount of work you have to do.

One of the most important tasks when writing a term paper is researching suitable sources. Here, the Internet can be of great help, but it can also be a challenge. There are countless websites and online databases that can provide relevant material for the term paper. However, to ensure that one is accessing reputable and trustworthy sources, one should adhere to certain criteria. These include, for example, checking the authority and credibility of the source as well as its timeliness and relevance to the topic. Also, different sources should be compared to get a balanced picture. A good way to find high-quality sources is to use specialized search engines or library catalogs. Careful research can provide a solid foundation for a successful term paper.

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How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

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Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

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What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper.

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is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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Writing a Research Paper Conclusion | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on October 30, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 13, 2023.

• Restate the problem statement addressed in the paper
• Summarize your overall arguments or findings
• Suggest the key takeaways from your paper

The content of the conclusion varies depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument through engagement with sources .

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Table of contents

Step 1: restate the problem, step 2: sum up the paper, step 3: discuss the implications, research paper conclusion examples, frequently asked questions about research paper conclusions.

The first task of your conclusion is to remind the reader of your research problem . You will have discussed this problem in depth throughout the body, but now the point is to zoom back out from the details to the bigger picture.

While you are restating a problem you’ve already introduced, you should avoid phrasing it identically to how it appeared in the introduction . Ideally, you’ll find a novel way to circle back to the problem from the more detailed ideas discussed in the body.

For example, an argumentative paper advocating new measures to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture might restate its problem as follows:

Meanwhile, an empirical paper studying the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues might present its problem like this:

“In conclusion …”

Avoid starting your conclusion with phrases like “In conclusion” or “To conclude,” as this can come across as too obvious and make your writing seem unsophisticated. The content and placement of your conclusion should make its function clear without the need for additional signposting.

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Having zoomed back in on the problem, it’s time to summarize how the body of the paper went about addressing it, and what conclusions this approach led to.

Depending on the nature of your research paper, this might mean restating your thesis and arguments, or summarizing your overall findings.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

In an argumentative paper, you will have presented a thesis statement in your introduction, expressing the overall claim your paper argues for. In the conclusion, you should restate the thesis and show how it has been developed through the body of the paper.

Briefly summarize the key arguments made in the body, showing how each of them contributes to proving your thesis. You may also mention any counterarguments you addressed, emphasizing why your thesis holds up against them, particularly if your argument is a controversial one.

Don’t go into the details of your evidence or present new ideas; focus on outlining in broad strokes the argument you have made.

Empirical paper: Summarize your findings

In an empirical paper, this is the time to summarize your key findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth results and discussion already), but do clearly express the answers to the research questions you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones you expected or hoped for, and explain the overall conclusion they led you to.

Having summed up your key arguments or findings, the conclusion ends by considering the broader implications of your research. This means expressing the key takeaways, practical or theoretical, from your paper—often in the form of a call for action or suggestions for future research.

Argumentative paper: Strong closing statement

An argumentative paper generally ends with a strong closing statement. In the case of a practical argument, make a call for action: What actions do you think should be taken by the people or organizations concerned in response to your argument?

If your topic is more theoretical and unsuitable for a call for action, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Empirical paper: Future research directions

In a more empirical paper, you can close by either making recommendations for practice (for example, in clinical or policy papers), or suggesting directions for future research.

Whatever the scope of your own research, there will always be room for further investigation of related topics, and you’ll often discover new questions and problems during the research process .

Finish your paper on a forward-looking note by suggesting how you or other researchers might build on this topic in the future and address any limitations of the current paper.

Full examples of research paper conclusions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

While the role of cattle in climate change is by now common knowledge, countries like the Netherlands continually fail to confront this issue with the urgency it deserves. The evidence is clear: To create a truly futureproof agricultural sector, Dutch farmers must be incentivized to transition from livestock farming to sustainable vegetable farming. As well as dramatically lowering emissions, plant-based agriculture, if approached in the right way, can produce more food with less land, providing opportunities for nature regeneration areas that will themselves contribute to climate targets. Although this approach would have economic ramifications, from a long-term perspective, it would represent a significant step towards a more sustainable and resilient national economy. Transitioning to sustainable vegetable farming will make the Netherlands greener and healthier, setting an example for other European governments. Farmers, policymakers, and consumers must focus on the future, not just on their own short-term interests, and work to implement this transition now.

As social media becomes increasingly central to young people’s everyday lives, it is important to understand how different platforms affect their developing self-conception. By testing the effect of daily Instagram use among teenage girls, this study established that highly visual social media does indeed have a significant effect on body image concerns, with a strong correlation between the amount of time spent on the platform and participants’ self-reported dissatisfaction with their appearance. However, the strength of this effect was moderated by pre-test self-esteem ratings: Participants with higher self-esteem were less likely to experience an increase in body image concerns after using Instagram. This suggests that, while Instagram does impact body image, it is also important to consider the wider social and psychological context in which this usage occurs: Teenagers who are already predisposed to self-esteem issues may be at greater risk of experiencing negative effects. Future research into Instagram and other highly visual social media should focus on establishing a clearer picture of how self-esteem and related constructs influence young people’s experiences of these platforms. Furthermore, while this experiment measured Instagram usage in terms of time spent on the platform, observational studies are required to gain more insight into different patterns of usage—to investigate, for instance, whether active posting is associated with different effects than passive consumption of social media content.

If you’re unsure about the conclusion, it can be helpful to ask a friend or fellow student to read your conclusion and summarize the main takeaways.

• Do they understand from your conclusion what your research was about?
• Are they able to summarize the implications of your findings?
• Can they answer your research question based on your conclusion?

You can also get an expert to proofread and feedback your paper with a paper editing service .

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The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

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Term paper format.

Format for Term Papers

Below are some links and a general outline on how to write your term papers.   Depending on your topic you may want to rely on the scientific report style or literature review styles, or a combination of the two.  The choice is yours.   Links to these styles can be accessed by the buttons below.  Below the three buttons I outline the scientific report style.  More details can be found by clicking the scientific format button below.

Format for a Scientific Report

    Short (three-quarters of a page) description of the paper.   Describe what the issue or problem is, why it is important or interesting, and your findings.

Introduction

• What is the issue or problem?
• Literature review: what is current thinking, findings, and approaches on the problem?
• What is the significance of the problem?
• How do you plan to deal with the problem? What is your solution?
• How did you search for information or data on the topic?
• What is your impression of the ulility, relevance, or quality of the data you collected?
• What special steps did you take to select or utilize the data?
• What are your findings?
• Are their problems with your findings in terms of answering the questions posed in the introduction?
• What do your observations mean?
• Summarize the most important findings.
• What conclusions can you draw?
• How do your results fit into a broader context?

How to Write a Term Paper 101: A Tutorial to Takeover

As the end of the semester draws closer, many students are losing their sleep over the thought of writing a term paper. But you’re worrying pointlessly because  PaperPerk  has brought expert help to your doorstep! 

Our comprehensive guide on how to write a term paper is sure to help you with every step. So read this article thoroughly because we cover everything from definition to steps on composition and templates with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Term Paper?

A term paper is a written project required at the end of a semester. It is designed to evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. Typically, it takes the form of a discussion or analysis of an assigned topic. 

But it can also resemble a scientific report,  reflective essay , or even a research paper. As an essential component of a student’s academic journey, a term paper is characterized by its in-depth exploration of a specific subject matter.

Key Characteristics

One of the key features of a term paper is that it requires a significant amount of research , as it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic. This research-intensive nature of the term paper sets it apart from other academic assignments. 

Additionally, term papers demand technical writing skills, as they need to be well-organized, structured, and adhere to specific formatting requirements. A high-quality term paper should be well-written, thoroughly researched, and analytical. 

It should demonstrate critical thinking and provide valuable insights into the subject matter. With an Impactful term paper, a student showcases their ability to synthesize and analyze information, ultimately contributing to their overall academic success.

How to Write a Term Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

The biggest step in learning how to write a term paper is to understand the importance of creating a term paper outline. This  research paper outline  is the beacon that will guide through your writing process. The following part of this post contains steps on composing an outline and its component. 

How to Write a Term Paper: Outlining a Term Paper

Below are the essential components of an outline. Once you gather your information, you’ll incorporate it within these compartments to avoid creating a chaotic cluster of random data. 

Introduction

Let’s look at these a bit more closely and understand how to use these elements in the best way. 

Also known as the  title page , the cover page of a term paper is the first impression of the paper. It provides all the necessary information about the paper along with a neat and professional look. It should include the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Course name and code
• Instructor’s name
• Date of submission

Steps to compose a cover page:

• Centrally align the title of your paper in the middle of the page.
• Add your name, course name, and number below the title.
• Include your instructor’s name and the date of submission at the bottom.

You might be required to add more than these common elements if your professor asks you to. Many students additionally write the name of the university, department or other relevant details. 

The abstract is a brief summary of your term paper, usually between 150-250 words. It should highlight the main points, including the research question, methods, results, and conclusions. 

Using an  abstract  optimally allows readers to quickly grasp the main points and significance of your term paper. The abstract is usually placed at the beginning of the paper, right after the cover page. 

Steps to compose an abstract:

• Write a concise summary of your paper’s purpose and research question.
• Briefly describe the methods used in your research.
• Summarize the main findings or results.
• Conclude with a brief statement of your paper’s implications or significance.

Ensure that all the information you incorporate within your abstract accurately reflects the content and findings within your paper. Double-check that there is consistency between the abstract and the main body of the paper in terms of the research objectives, methodology, and conclusions. 

The  introduction  sets the stage for your term paper. It provides background information, states the research question, depicts the purpose of the study and explains the paper’s significance. 

Steps to compose an introduction:

• Begin with a hook to capture the reader’s attention.
• Provide background information on your topic.
• Clearly state your research question.
• Explain the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.

The body of your term paper is where you present your arguments , evidence, and analysis. It should be organized into sections or subheadings, each focusing on a specific aspect of your research.

Steps to compose the body:

• Organize your content into logical sections or subheadings.
• Present your arguments and support them with evidence from your research.
• Analyze the evidence and explain its relevance to your research question.
• Use appropriate citations to acknowledge the sources of your information.

The results section presents the outcomes and the findings of your research study. It should be clear, concise, and focused on the data collected during your study.

Steps to compose the results section:

• Summarize the data collected during your research.
• Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent your findings.
• Describe any patterns, trends, or relationships observed in the data.
• Ensure that your results are relevant to your research question.
• Avoid repetition of any information. 

The  discussion section  interprets the results of your term paper and explains their implications. It should also address any limitations of your research and suggest areas for future study.

Steps to compose the discussion section:

• Interpret your results and explain their significance.
• Discuss any limitations or weaknesses in your research.
• Compare your findings to previous studies and explain any differences.
• Suggest areas for future research based on your findings.

The  conclusion  brings your term paper to a close by summarizing the main points. This final section of your paper also restates the significance of your research.

Steps to compose a conclusion:

• Restate your research question and summarize the main points of your paper.
• Emphasize the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.
• Offer recommendations or suggestions for future research.
• End with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

By following this comprehensive guide, you can write a well-structured and impactful term paper that demonstrates your understanding of the subject and contributes valuable insights to the field.

How to Write a Term Paper Proposal: A Tutorial

A term paper proposal serves as a blueprint for your research. It helps in organizing your thoughts and ideas. Lets focus on the essential features of a term paper proposal and understand steps on how to compose each part.

Essential Features of a Term Paper Proposal

Relevance and importance.

The title of your term paper proposal should attract your readers and provide them with a clear idea of your work. It should be clear, concise, and accurately reflect the subject of your research.

Steps to compose a title:

• Identify the main topic or theme of your research.
• Choose relevant keywords that represent the key concepts of your research.
• Combine these keywords to create a clear and informative title.
• Ensure that your  title  is not too long or overly complex.
• Consider your audience’s ability to understand your title.

The objectives section outlines the specific goals of your research. These goals should be clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.

Steps to compose objectives:

• Begin by stating the general purpose of your research.
• Break down this purpose into specific, measurable objectives.
• Ensure that your objectives are achievable within the timeframe and resources available for your term paper.
• Keep your objectives focused and relevant to your research question.

The relevance and importance section demonstrates the significance of your research within the context of your field of study. It should explain why your research is necessary and how it contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

Steps to compose the relevance and importance section:

• Explain the context of your research by providing background information on the topic.
• Identify gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Explain how your research contributes to the field by offering new insights or perspectives.
• Emphasize the potential impact of your research on the broader academic community or society as a whole.

Putting It All Together: Writing a Term Paper Proposal

Now that you clearly understand the essential features of a term paper  proposal , it’s time to put it all together. Follow these steps to create a well-structured and compelling proposal:

• Begin by writing a clear and concise title that accurately reflects the subject of your research.
• Compose a brief introduction that overviews your research topic and its significance. This introduction should also include a clear statement of your research question.
• Outline the specific objectives of your research, ensuring that they are clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.
• Explain the relevance and importance of your research by demonstrating its significance within your field of study. Highlight the gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Provide a brief overview of your research methodology, including the methods you plan to use for data collection and analysis.
• Include a tentative timeline for your research, outlining the milestones and deadlines for each project stage.
• Conclude your proposal with a summary of the main points and a restatement of the significance of your research.

By following these comprehensive steps, you can create a well-structured and persuasive term paper proposal that demonstrates the importance of your research and sets the stage for a successful term paper.

How to Write a Term Paper: Formatting

A term paper format refers to the set of rules and standards that dictate the structure and presentation of a term paper. Formatting is essential to learn how to write a term paper as it ensures consistency, enhances readability, and maintains a professional appearance. 

A proper structure allows readers to concentrate on the content rather than the presentation. Several formatting styles are used in term papers, with the American Psychological Association (APA) style and the Modern Language Association (MLA) style being the most common.

Using APA Style in a Term Paper:

• Choose a standard font, such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 12-point Times New Roman.
• Apply double-spacing throughout the paper, including the abstract, main text, quotes, tables, figures, and references.
• Create a title page containing the paper’s title, author’s name, affiliated institution, and a running head.
• Organize the content using headings that adhere to  APA guidelines for different heading levels.
• Incorporate the author-date citation method for in-text citations and format the reference list according to APA guidelines.

Using MLA Style in a Term Paper:

• Opt for a standard font, such as 12-point Times New Roman.
• Double-space the entire paper, including the main text, quotes, and the Works Cited page.
• Include a header with the last name of the author and page number on the top right corner of all pages.
• Use parenthetical citations within the text and format according to  MLA guidelines .
• Follow MLA guidelines for formatting headings and subheadings, if applicable.

Adhering to the appropriate style guide when formatting term papers is crucial for maintaining academic integrity and ensuring that your work is easily comprehended and properly cited.

Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topics

Writing a term paper can be a daunting task, but choosing the right term paper topics can make all the difference. In this part, we will provide you with some useful tips and tricks to make the process as smooth as possible.

The Starting Point

In most cases, students are assigned term papers by their professors. These topics are related to course outline to assess pupil’s understanding of the course material. As well as their ability to think critically and conduct research on a specific subject. 

Other times, teachers provide students a chance to choose a topic of their liking. But before you go on and pick a topic for your term paper, put the following concerns at the forefront. 

• The course objective 
• Your own interest. 

The Course Objective

Your term paper is essentially assigned to assess your command on the subject. Prioritize your course outline or objective before picking your  research paper topics . This will ensure that your paper is relevant and reflects what you have learnt so far about the subject. 

Your Interests

Your personal interests play a significant role in the success of your term paper. When you choose a topic that genuinely interests you, you are more likely to engage in  writing a research paper . This enthusiasm will not only make the writing process more enjoyable but also result in a higher quality term paper. 

Before picking a specific topic, make sure to conduct thorough research and align your personal liking to your course objective. The following tips on how to pick the perfect term paper topic will assist you in acing your grade.

Tips for Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topic

While picking a topic for yourself, be mindful of certain things:

Adjusting Topic Length

Consider if the topic would adjust your required length for a term paper. Suppose you’re to write a  10-page research paper , what kind of topic would adjust within those 10 pages? Registering the narrowness or broadness of the topic can help.

Authentic Resources

The second thing you need to consider is the resources of your information. Check if the source you’re working with is authentic. Reliable  sources for a research paper  include academic journals, books, think tanks, and reputable websites.

Complexity of the Subject

To ensure the clarity of your topic, consider its complexity. It is important that the chosen subject can be effectively presented to your audience. Additionally, ensure that you have a solid understanding of the subject matter yourself.

By considering the length, resources, and complexity of your chosen topic, you can ensure that your term paper is engaging, informative, and well-researched. So, take the time to select the perfect topic and get ready to ace your term paper!

How to Write a Term Paper: A Template With Example

This template also contains examples that are highlighted in a different color. 

Title Page 

Abstract 

• Remember to never exceed the abstract more than 250 words.

1.1 Background

1.2 problem statement, 1.3 objectives, 2. literature review, 3. methodology, 5. discussion, 6. conclusion, 7. references.

• The references section uses the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

8. Appendices

• If necessary, this section includes additional material such as raw data, survey questionnaires, interview transcripts, or any other supplementary information that supports the research.

This guide on how to write a term paper must have been helpful to you. But we understand that wrapping your head around something so detailed can be difficult when you’re stressed out. And most students are stressed out by the end of the semester due to multiple deadlines.  That’s why we have brought you our  term paper writing service  so you can relax and focus more on your upcoming exams. Our experts are dedicated to helping students excel academically with quality content and on-time submission. Check us out today and bid goodbye to academic worries!

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What are Term Papers: A Comprehensive Guide for Success

Rebekah Marshall

May 29, 2024

Read Time: 4 min

You have to deal with various assignments when you’re a college or university student. These assignments are essential for gaining new knowledge, abilities, and experiences. While some activities may be rather simple, others may require much time and effort. Nevertheless, you should push yourself because it is the phase when you’re improving yourself and becoming better. Your professor may use different strategies to test your knowledge, and writing is one of them. It is not too challenging when it comes to standard essay writing. However, the majority of students are afraid of writing term papers. It is a large essay that summarizes all the material you studied for the semester. Term paper writing is a difficult task. We don’t want to sugarcoat it. Moreover, you’ve come to the perfect site if you don’t know how to compose college or university term papers.

In this blog, our experts who help students with their ‘ write my term paper ‘ requests will discuss what are term papers and how to write a term paper. Continue reading!

What are term papers?

A  term paper  is a research project that a lecturer assigns to students at the end of a semester or academic year. Writing a term paper aims mainly to examine the student’s understanding of what was covered and what lessons have been learned. A well-organized term paper requires you to perform thorough research and deliver results in a clear and analytical manner. Term papers contribute significantly to a subject’s overall grade.

How to Write a Term Paper: 7 Simple Steps

Before writing a term paper, always keep in mind the instructions provided to you. If you have any issues in understanding the instructions, don’t hesitate to ask your professor. Moreover, if you want to compose a top-notch term paper and secure an excellent grade, then plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Here are some necessary steps that one must take to write a term paper.

Topic selection

The first step in  term paper writing  is to select a topic relating to what you have learned throughout the semester. Sometimes, instructors assign topics themselves. To select the best topic for term paper writing, gather ideas by exploring the web, articles, news, and magazines. Moreover, it’s important to select a topic that aligns with your course objective and genuinely interests you. The research and writing processes are more enjoyable and natural when a topic piques your interest.

After selecting a topic, conduct thorough research to gather information and sources related to your topic. This helps make your term paper strong so your arguments are well-supported and convincing. 

Thesis Statement

Make a thesis statement that concisely summarizes your paper’s core argument or objective. A good thesis statement clearly tells everyone what your paper is about and why you’re writing it. You can set the direction of your paper with the help of the thesis. The structure and content of your term paper should be driven by your thesis.

Term paper outline

An essential step in the writing process that needs more focus is the outline. Make an outline that groups the key ideas and supporting details of your term paper. This will serve as a guide for your assignment. Additionally, you can write faster as a result. A term paper outline guarantees that your arguments are presented clearly and coherently. 

Start Writing

When writing your first draft, include citations for each of your main points. Keep in mind that your first draft doesn’t have to be perfect. Put all of your effort into writing down your ideas. In later drafts, you’ll have the chance to edit and polish your work.

Proofreading & editing

Check your term papers for clarity, punctuation, grammar, and spelling mistakes. Don’t rely on tools alone. Proofreading & editing are vital to guarantee that your paper is polished and delivers your ideas properly.

Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor. This can include font size, margin, line spacing, and other formatting components, as well as citation formats like APA and MLA.

Give Your Paper Final Review

Give your term paper a final look to check that all components are in place and that the document flows logically from start to end.

📕Reading suggestion: How to write a  Research Paper in APA Format

Importance of Term Paper

A term paper is a crucial component in evaluating the final grade of the student. Moreover, it is important for students to keep up with their education. When deadlines are looming and you’re feeling overwhelmed, seeking help to ‘ write my college paper ‘ can be a game-changer.

Clear Goals

Students can understand the importance of their studies with the help of assignments. In addition, assignments assist the students in achieving their academic goals. In order to give direction to their thoughts and actions, students should determine the course objectives. Term papers have defined objectives and deadlines. Having clear goals and a time frame to achieve them can motivate the students to stay on track and manage timelines. This clarity of purpose is essential not only for term papers but also for other  courseworks .

Students need motivation to do well. Without a plan and motivation, they can’t achieve their goals. In education, this is not a good way to go. When students are allowed to choose a topic, they are more likely to be motivated. A personal connection to the topic can pique interest. Writing term papers is a chance for students to show what they can do.

Overcoming the challenges of advanced lessons

Some students may not be able to grasp and keep up with depth understanding due to the difficulty of some advanced topics. Writing numerous term papers may help a student get beyond difficult academic challenges and find motivation to learn more about these curricular topics. To avoid the pressure and time required to compose term papers, you should think about hiring an essay writer.

Finding out the interest

One of the most challenging tasks a student will undertake during their academic career is determining their areas of interest. Students learn about their interests and how to pursue them through the many term papers they do. The students can choose their topic, and they will determine the approach based on their skill level.

Still Struggling With Term Paper Writing?

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Why Mayawati does not want Akhilesh Yadav as ally: In note to cadre, BSP chief cites past ‘snubs’

The bsp distributed mayawati's appeal to her cadre during last month's national executive meeting in lucknow where the former cm was re-elected party president for sixth consecutive term..

Samajwadi Party (SP) president Akhilesh Yadav was so upset with the 2019 Lok Sabha election outcome in Uttar Pradesh that he had stopped taking phone calls of his then ally Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) leaders including its supremo Mayawati.

This claim has been made by Mayawati in her long “appeal” that she has made to the BSP leaders and cadre to apprise them of the political situation and prepare them for multiple challenges facing the party.

Mayawati’s 59-page message was distributed to the BSP rank and file at the party’s national executive meeting held in Lucknow on August 27, where she was re-elected the party president for the sixth consecutive term.

In her appeal, Mayawati highlighted her “bad alliance experience” with the SP, tracing it from 1993 when they had forged it for the first time. “In the interest of the party and movement, it is necessary to remind that in 1993 UP Assembly polls then SP president Mulayam Singh Yadav had allied with BSP by convincing Kanshi Ram ji that Congress and BJP and other casteist parties do not want Dalits and OBCs to come together to become a political force and rule in the states and at the Centre. Trusting him, Kanshi Ram ji contested the 1993 polls in alliance with SP, although other parties had said it will not last long because of Mulayam. And that happened in the end,” she stated.

Mayawati said following alleged atrocities against Dalits , backwards and women on the watch of the Mulayam-led government, the BSP withdrew support from it on June 1, 1995, following which the Lucknow guest house attack on her was perpetrated the next day. On June 3, 1995, Mayawati formed the first BSP government with the support of “anti-SP” parties. Afterwards, the BSP maintained a distance from the SP for several years.

Referring to the 2019 Lok Sabha polls, Mayawati stated that the Akhilesh-led SP urged her party to “forget the past misdeeds of his party” and join hands again in order to “stop the BJP”. Under their seat-sharing pact, out of 80 seats the BSP contested 38 seats, bagging 10, while the SP contested 37 seats, winning only five seats.

In her message, Mayawati claimed that Akhilesh was so upset by the results that he shut their lines of communication. “Maintaining its self-respect, BSP then parted ways with SP,” she added.

Keeping her guns trained on Akhilesh, Mayawati said that in the 2024 Lok Sabha polls Akhilesh got “some success” by tying up with the Congress and by “misleading PDA (Pichde, Dalit, Alpsankhyak) in the name of protecting the Constitution and reservation”. “But PDA people will get nothing from that. They need to be cautious with SP,” she charged.

Mayawati has issued such an appeal for her party members and supporters after 10 years. BSP insiders said she stopped this practice after the 2014 Lok Sabha polls when the party drew a blank. The BSP has since been on a downward spiral in UP. In the 2022 Assembly polls, the party won only one seat out of 403 seats, with its vote share dipping to 12.88%. In the 2024 Lok Sabha polls, the party failed to open its account, with its votes plunging to just 9.39%.

BSP sources said Mayawati’s bid to renew this practice and launch a sharp attack on the SP is a “strategic move” ahead of 2027 UP Assembly polls for which the BSP will try to regain its lost ground by winning back a section of its Dalit vote base that shifted to the SP-Congress alliance in the recent Lok Sabha polls.

“This booklet of appeal is being sent to all BSP leaders and workers. They have to read it and communicate the message of Behanji (Mayawati) among Dalits and OBCs to convince them to support the BSP once again. They will be reminded about the Lucknow guest house incident to evoke sympathy for Mayawati ji and expose SP again,” said a party leader.

In her appeal, Mayawati said it is necessary to save the Constitution, B R Ambedkar’s movement and reservation from various “threats”, including from the ruling BJP-led NDA and the Opposition Congress-led INDIA.

Reaching out to the OBCs, Mayawati stated that they have suffered due to their “isolation”. “They (OBCs) will have to develop political power by uniting with Dalits and tribals. Only then they will be able to rule politically and uplift themselves,” she said.

She accused the Congress of “undermining” the Constitution by having amended it repeatedly during its long regime. At the same time, she also charged the BJP-led government with “attacking” the Constitution and even constituting a Commission to review it in the past, which, she added, was foiled by strong protests.

Mayawati added that the BSP governments in UP built memorials, parks, colleges, universities, hospitals and new districts to give respect to gurus, saints and great personalities from the Dalit and OBC communities. She alleged the names of several such places were changed by the SP government due to its “casteist mindset and political vendetta”, which was also, she added, not restored by the BJP government. “This proved SP-BJP collusion,” she claimed.

Referring to Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha Rahul Gandhi ’s recent interaction with a cobbler at his shop in UP, whom he later sent a shoe- stitching machine, Mayawati said, “That was highlighted in the media as a major step towards social change. In reality, this is the basic difference between the ideas of casteist parties, such as Congress, BJP and SP, and the BSP. They consider ensuring shoe repair with machines instead of hands as a major mark of social change. However, BSP’s social reform mission says why should the work of shoe repair or sanitation should be done only by people of one particular caste on the basis of their birth?”

Mayawati also stated that social reformers born in “sawarna samaj” (upper castes) have only shown “udarta” (leniency) and that they they “failed in ensuring jaati unmulan (eradication of caste) and samtamulak siddhant (principles of equality)”. “At best they can be called udarwadi but social transformation is not possible by them,” she said.

Describing the Congress members as “Gandhi-wadi” and the BJP members as “RSS-wadi”, the BSP chief questioned how could they be “ manavtawadi and samtamulak Ambedkarwadi (humanitarian and egalitarian Ambedkarites)”, claiming that they do not have a moral right to lead Dalits, tribals and OBCs.

She also said while that BJP and Congress dispensations appoint Dalit and Bahujan samaj people as President, Governor and national president of the party “just for their political interests”, they have not appointed a Dalit as the Prime Minister so far. And if due to any “political compulsion” they would do it in future, they would pick a Dalit person who would be their “yes man”, she claimed.

Without naming parties like Aazad Samaj Party (Kanshi Ram) – led by Chadrashekhar Aazad, who pulled off a win from UP’s Nagina seat in the Lok Sabha polls – Mayawati also alleged that the Congress and the BJP were encouraging outfits floated by “selfish leaders from Dalit communities” in a bid to “divide” the Dalit votes and undermine the BSP and its movement. She cautioned Dalits and Bahujans from “such leaders who invoke Ambedkar and Kanshi Ram to divide their followers”.

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Lalmani is an Assistant Editor with The Indian Express, and is based in New Delhi. He covers politics of the Hindi Heartland, tracking BJP, Samajwadi Party, BSP, RLD and other parties based in UP, Bihar and Uttarakhand. Covered the Lok Sabha elections of 2014, 2019 and 2024; Assembly polls of 2012, 2017 and 2022 in UP along with government affairs in UP and Uttarakhand. ... Read More

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South Africa’s economy needs a shot in the arm, not austerity: 3 key areas where more public spending would get results

Research Manager, University of the Witwatersrand

Research Fellow, African Centre of Excellence for Inequality Research (ACEIR), University of Cape Town

Disclosure statement

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of the Witwatersrand provides support as a hosting partner of The Conversation AFRICA.

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For the past 11 years the South African government has pursued a policy of austerity . In recent years, government has reduced per capita spending (adjusted for inflation) by significant amounts. Spending on public services, for example, health and education, for each member of the population has fallen since 2019, from about R30,000 (about US$1,689) to about R28,000 (about US$1,576) in 2023 .

National Treasury has confirmed the deterioration in public spending and investment.

But the austerity approach hasn’t worked. Unsurprisingly, the government has little to show for it. Per capita debt service costs continue to constrain the resources available for funding the works of the state. Government debt service costs are estimated to average R412.4 billion (about US$23 billion) per year over the next three years, which is more than other spending areas such as health and education.

In light of this, it is important that the government moves away from the old approaches. Now is not the time for more austerity.

The creation of a government of national unity after the country’s recent elections presents the perfect opportunity for a new approach.

To frame our argument, we quote the renowned economist John Maynard Keynes:

The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the treasury.

South Africa is in a slump, having experienced more than a decade of weak economic growth. GDP growth has averaged only 0.8% annually since 2012 , entrenching high levels of unemployment and poverty. As a result the government must reflect on the allocation of public resources for the wellbeing and future of all South Africans.

Enoch Godongwana, the finance minister, will have such an opportunity in October when he tables the unity government’s first medium-term budget policy statement. The statement outlines government fiscal policy and the choices the government has made about what to invest in and what to borrow.

Budgets matter. Increasing public investment in key sectors can boost employment, support economic growth, provide a way out of an economic slump and protect people’s wellbeing (a necessary condition for any economy to grow sustainably).

Based on research by the Southern Centre for Inequality Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand over the past two years, we argue that the government should draw on evidence that investment in key sectors – care (health, education and childcare and social development), green economy and public infrastructure – can help to deliver on the promise of 1994 when the country became a democracy. That of healing the injustices of the past and improving the quality of life of all citizens.

These three forms of investment could generate new jobs and help build a more equitable society. They are the basis for the future of South Africa. Without taking care of the country’s children, the economy will not grow. Without thinking about the environment, money won’t buy clean air. Without infrastructure and service delivery, sustainable economic growth will not happen.

What needs fixing

South Africa continues to grapple with unemployment, inequality, poverty and shocks associated with climate change. In the second quarter of 2024, unemployment climbed to 33.5% and, when using Statistics South Africa’s expanded definition, which includes discouraged job seekers, the unemployment rate increased to a staggering 42.6% .

Then there are concerns about economic growth. Real gross domestic product (GDP) grew only narrowly in the second quarter of this year, at 0.6% . The costs of living increased by 5.3% in the same time period.

Why austerity isn’t the answer

Warnings of public debt and public expenditure are often used as an argument to justify why fiscal stimulus (the term used to refer to public investment) cannot be pursued. South Africa is no exception.

However, the logic of austerity would mean that we choose not to invest in South African citizens, contrary to the mandate of the constitution .

Cutting the social wage – spending on health, education, social protection, community development and employment programmes – is against the evidence of existing demands on social programmes in the country. It also flies in the face of evidence that cuts to public investment can lead to higher public debt, undermine development, and lead to unrest. The concerns about public debt, in and of themselves, do not justify cutting the social wage and investments in the future.

Failing service delivery is one of the symptoms of the deterioration in public spending and investment in the capacity to run governments. That’s due to budget reductions and, in some cases, corruption. This creates a vicious cycle, worsening unemployment, poverty and inequality.

Making the state work cannot mean imposing austerity alone (opportunists, corrupt actors and the like will adjust to any ideology). Instead there’s a need to move away from austerity to make the state work for the wellbeing of South Africans. This should be the goal of any national unity budget.

South Africa has examples of beneficial public investment. For example, social grants have had positive effects. They protect people’s livelihoods. They also create an economic baseline from which individuals can contribute to society. The Presidential Employment Stimulus – which provides work and livelihood support opportunities for young unemployed South Africans – has shown promising outcomes for employability and positive effects on the economy .

The case for more spending

Our call for an increase in expenditure is not a proposal to support more “tenderpreneurs” – a South African term for business people who secure government contracts through political connections, or other money-capturing elites.

Rather, we’re making the case for using fiscal policy for the big push required to mobilise enough public investment to tackle the intersecting crises facing South Africa.

Research by Ozlem Onaran and Cem Oyvat, both economists at the University of Greenwich, shows that investment in care, green economies and public infrastructure is expected to have a strong positive effect on GDP and employment in both emerging and high-income economies.

Just 1% of yearly investment (as a ratio of GDP) in the care economy for five years is estimated to increase GDP by 6.9% and total employment by 8.8% over a five-year period.

Education, health, social development and childcare are at the core of the care economy. A green economy includes renewable energy, energy efficiency and public transport. Public infrastructure refers to gross fixed capital formation: investments in long-term assets like hospitals, clinics, roads and equipment that will help improve services.

Investing in care, the green economy and infrastructure would be mostly self-financing because it could generate revenues.

The way forward

Cuts to public investment can actually lead to higher public debt, undermine development avenues and democracy, and lead to unrest.

If South Africa’s government of national unity is serious about addressing the economic and social challenges facing the country in the quest for a better future for all, it should heed the evidence.

• Unemployment
• Infrastructure
• Fiscal policy
• Economic growth
• Green economy
• South Africa
• Service delivery
• Public spending
• fiscal stimulus

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Dynamic bim adoption impact on contract cost variance factors using pls-sem techniques.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. studies of ccv factors, 2.2. partial least square-structure equation model (pls-sem), 2.3. bim adoption, 2.4. dynamic evaluation, 3. methodology, 3.1. develop the causal model using the pls-sem model (component 1), 3.1.1. procedure of pls-sem assessment, measurement model assessment, structure model assessment, 3.1.2. build the causal model.

• Step 1: Select any two latent groups as exogenous latent groups to the CCV.
• Step 2: Test the two hypotheses (hypothesis for one latent group). ○ Step 2.1: If the two p -values of the two hypotheses were less than 0.1, the hypothesis was significant (acceptance relationship), and the model was satisfied and stored. ○ Step 2.2: If one hypothesis had a p -value of more than 0.1 (insignificant relationship or reject relationship), the insignificant relationship redirected from CCV to another latent group. ○ Step 2.3: Test the hypothesis of the redirect relationship using the p -value; if its p -value is insignificant ( p -value > 0.1), then the model will be omitted, or otherwise ( p -value ≤ 0.1), the model is satisfied and stored.
• Step 1: Select the best model from the twenty Stage 2 models based on the minimum p -value. Assume there are three latent groups: CCV (first latent group), second latent group, and third latent group.
• Step 2: Add an extra latent group (fourth latent group) to the selected model as exogenous to the CCV (first latent group). The added latent group should not be found in the selected model. As a result, a revised model was created with four latent groups (three relationships).
• Step 3.3.3.2: Otherwise, a new model that consisted of four latent groups was created.
• Step 4: Another extra latent group was added to the new model, and the previous procedure was repeated. The above process and steps continued until all the latent group relationships were tested.

3.1.3. Validation the Causal Model Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

3.2. estimating the adopting rate of bim in projects both in the past and in the future (component 2), 3.3. evaluating the impact of bim adoption on ccv factors over time (component 3), 4. results and discussion, 4.1. significant ccv factors with their interdependencies using a developed causal model, 4.2. the pca assessment results and discussion of the pls-sem model, 4.3. bim adoption results, 4.4. dynamic impact of bim adoption on ccv factors over time, 5. conclusions, author contributions, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Al-Gahtani, K.S.; Alsanabani, N.M.; Alsugair, A.M.; Aljadhai, S.I.; Alotaibi, H.F. Dynamic BIM Adoption Impact on Contract Cost Variance Factors Using PLS-SEM Techniques. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 8017. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14178017

Al-Gahtani KS, Alsanabani NM, Alsugair AM, Aljadhai SI, Alotaibi HF. Dynamic BIM Adoption Impact on Contract Cost Variance Factors Using PLS-SEM Techniques. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(17):8017. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14178017

Al-Gahtani, Khalid S., Naif M. Alsanabani, Abdullah M. Alsugair, Saad I. Aljadhai, and Hatim F. Alotaibi. 2024. "Dynamic BIM Adoption Impact on Contract Cost Variance Factors Using PLS-SEM Techniques" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 8017. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14178017

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Long-Term Effects of Childhood Exposure to War on Domestic Violence

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• Published: 22 August 2024

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• Joseph B. Ajefu 1 , 2 &
• Daniela Casale 3  

This paper highlights the scarring effects of early life exposure to civil war, by examining the impact of exposure to conflict in childhood on the incidence of domestic violence in adulthood among married women. To estimate these effects, we use a difference-in-differences model which exploits variation in exposure to Nigeria’s 30-month-long civil war by year of birth and ethnicity. Our results, based on the 2008 Nigerian Demographic Health Survey, show that women exposed to the war during childhood are more likely to be victims of domestic violence in adulthood compared to those not exposed to the war, with larger effects observed for those exposed at younger ages. Additionally, we explore the mechanisms through which exposure to civil war might affect domestic violence and find some support for both the normalisation of violence and weakened bargaining power hypotheses. Understanding the root causes of domestic violence is important given the high prevalence in developing countries and the deleterious consequences for women and their children.

Ce document met en évidence les effets cicatrisants d'une exposition précoce à la guerre civile, en examinant l'impact de l'exposition au conflit pendant l'enfance sur l'incidence de la violence domestique à l'âge adulte chez les femmes mariées. Pour estimer ces effets, nous utilisons un modèle de différences en différences qui exploite la variation de l'exposition à la guerre civile nigériane de 30 mois en fonction de l'année de naissance et de l'ethnicité. Nos résultats, basés sur l'Enquête démographique de santé nigériane de 2008, montrent que les femmes exposées à la guerre pendant l'enfance sont plus susceptibles d'être victimes de violence domestique à l'âge adulte par rapport à celles qui n'ont pas été exposées à la guerre, avec des effets plus importants observés pour celles exposées à des âges plus jeunes. De plus, nous explorons les mécanismes par lesquels l'exposition à la guerre civile pourrait affecter la violence domestique et trouvons un certain soutien pour les hypothèses de normalisation de la violence et d'affaiblissement du pouvoir de négociation. Comprendre les causes profondes de la violence domestique est important étant donné la prévalence élevée dans les pays en développement et les conséquences délétères pour les femmes et leurs enfants.

Este documento destaca los efectos perjudiciales de la exposición en los primeros años de vida a la guerra civil, examinando el impacto de la exposición al conflicto en la infancia sobre la incidencia de la violencia doméstica en la adultez entre mujeres casadas. Para estimar estos efectos, utilizamos un modelo de diferencias en diferencias que explota la variación en la exposición a la guerra civil de Nigeria de 30 meses de duración por año de nacimiento y etnia. Nuestros resultados, basados en la Encuesta de Salud Demográfica de Nigeria 2008, muestran que las mujeres expuestas a la guerra durante la infancia tienen más probabilidades de ser víctimas de violencia doméstica en la adultez en comparación con aquellas que no estuvieron expuestas a la guerra, con efectos mayores observados para aquellas expuestas a edades más tempranas. Además, exploramos los mecanismos a través de los cuales la exposición a la guerra civil podría afectar la violencia doméstica y encontramos cierto apoyo tanto para las hipótesis de normalización de la violencia como para el debilitamiento del poder de negociación. Comprender las causas fundamentales de la violencia doméstica es importante dado su alta prevalencia en los países en desarrollo y las consecuencias perjudiciales para las mujeres y sus hijos.

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Introduction

Since World War II, almost one-third of all countries have experienced civil war, and the incidence of armed conflict has been on the rise (Gleditsch et al. 2002 ). In Sub-Saharan Africa specifically, nearly three-fourths of countries in the region have experienced civil war (Gleditsch et al. 2002 ). These conflicts have often led to considerable loss of lives, deterioration of physical and human capital, erosion of institutional capacity, and reduced economic growth (Akbulut-Yuksel and Yuksel 2017 ). It has been estimated, for instance, that between 2012 and 2017, the global economic costs of conflict increased from $12.62 trillion to $14.76 trillion, with many of the conflict-torn countries trapped in a perpetual cycle of violence (World Development Report 2011 ; World Humanitarian Data and Trends Report 2017 ; Institute for Economics and Peace 2018 ).

While the macroeconomic costs of war have long been studied in economics, literature on the microeconomic impacts of civil war, particularly in developing countries, has grown in the last 20 years especially, perhaps as more data have become available (Verwimp et al 2019 ). Studies have shown that exposure to conflict is negatively associated with educational attainment (Singh and Shemyakina 2016 ; Chamarbagwala and Moran 2011 ; Shemyakina 2011 ; Swee 2015 ), health outcomes (Akresh et al. 2012a , 2012b ; Grimard and Laszlo 2014 ; Weldeegzie; 2017 ), social trust (Kijewski and Freitag 2018 ), and labour market outcomes (Galdo 2013 ; Islam et al. 2016 ).

In this paper, we add to this literature by exploring how exposure to conflict in childhood affects experiences of domestic violence among women in adulthood, using the case of the Nigerian civil war. Recent work suggests that exposure to war increases women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence across a range of contexts. La Mattina ( 2017 ) finds that exposure to the genocide in Rwanda increased the incidence of domestic violence among women who married after 1994 compared to those who married before the genocide occurred, with a larger effect for women in areas with high genocide intensity. Kelly et al ( 2018 ) match district-level information on conflict-related fatalities during the civil war in Liberia from 1999 to 2003 to data on post-conflict intimate partner violence from the 2007 Demographic Health Survey (DHS). They find a strong effect of fatalities on the incidence of intimate partner violence, with 4–5 years of cumulative exposure having the strongest effect. In a similar vein, Østby et al ( 2019 ) analyse the experiences of women in Peru during and after the civil war from 1980 to 2000 and find that those living in areas with higher exposure to conflict-related violence are at increased risk of violence in the home. Svallfors ( 2023 ) analyses DHS data from 2005 to 2015 for Columbia and shows that local-level exposure to armed conflict events in the previous year especially, increased women’s likelihood of experiencing intimate partner violence.

In all these studies, the focus has been on the association between conflict exposure and domestic violence in adulthood, or on temporally proximate relationships. In our reading of the literature, we could find only one very recent published paper by Torrisi ( 2023 ) which tries to uncover whether the timing of exposure matters, and particularly whether exposure to armed conflict during childhood has long-lasting consequences for domestic violence in adulthood. Torrisi ( 2023 ) combines DHS data with geo-referenced information on the armed conflicts that occurred in four ex-Soviet countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, and Tajikistan) soon after the break-up of the USSR. She finds that women who were exposed to conflict by age 19 were more likely to experience domestic violence than those never exposed or not exposed by age 19, and that this effect is driven largely by exposure in the sensitive childhood period from 0 to 10 years of age (with no significant effect for those exposed at ages 11 to 15 or 16 to 19).

We also found two working papers that explore the relationship between childhood exposure and domestic violence in adulthood (Gutierrez and Gallegos 2016 ; La Mattina and Shemyakina 2017 ). Gutierrez and Gallegos ( 2016 ) use DHS data from Peru coupled with information on geographical variation in exposure to violent conflict to show that both women who were exposed at ages 0 to 8 and 9 to 16 experienced a higher incidence of domestic violence in adulthood compared to those not exposed. La Mattina and Shemyakina ( 2017 ) use the DHS data on selected Sub-Saharan African countries and exploit both temporal and geographical variation in conflict intensity between 1946 and 2006 across sub-national regions. Their results suggest that women who live in a region where there was an armed conflict when they were 6 to 10 years old are more likely to experience domestic violence than individuals not exposed to conflict by age 20, but they do not observe similar effects for individuals who were exposed to conflict at ages 0 to 5 or 11 to 20.

There is a common methodological thread that runs throughout all these studies: they use geo-referenced data on conflict-related violence combined with post-conflict data on domestic violence from the DHS surveys. In addition to imperfect matching at the sub-national or district level due to differences in levels of geographical disaggregation or demarcation between the two sources of data, a key concern with this approach is endogenous migration. The DHS only has information on the individual’s current place of residence and not on their residence in childhood or at the time of conflict. There is therefore no guarantee that the women who are currently living in a previously conflict-exposed area were also living there during childhood when the conflict took place. Indeed, endogenous migration is likely to be more of a concern during times of conflict, and the direction of the effect is difficult to predict. It is possible that the most vulnerable women (and men) may be displaced or forced to flee with their families during times of conflict, but it is also possible that the least vulnerable, those with better economic resources and social networks, are the ones who can more easily relocate to places of safety. To try and address this problem, many of the studies listed above restrict their samples to those who had never moved since birth or who had not moved in the previous five years, depending on the data available in the DHS. In doing so, however, they tend to lose 50 percent or more of their initial sample (Gutierrez and Gallegos 2016 ; La Mattina and Shemyakina 2017 ; Torrisi 2023 ), likely leading to biassed results.

Our paper makes a useful methodological contribution to this growing literature on the long-term effects of war exposure by using what we consider to be a more robust method of identifying exposure than the commonly used geographical approach. We use ethnicity and birth cohort to identify exposure to conflict in childhood during the Nigerian civil war (following the approach adopted in Akresh et al 2012a , 2023 ). We are able to adopt this approach because of the very specific nature of the Nigerian civil war, which occurred from 6 July 1967 to 15 January 1970, and which was restricted to the south-eastern region of Nigeria inhabited by the Igbos and other minority ethnic groups (which we will describe in more detail below). This strategy mitigates the problem of selective migration associated with the use of geography-based variables to identify exposure, a problem which is likely to be more pronounced during times of conflict.

In addition, we examine exposure in early childhood using more granular age ranges than have currently been explored, namely those exposed in utero, between the ages of 0 to 4, 5 to 8, and 9 to 12. In doing so, we add to the growing body of literature in economics which recognises that there are long-run implications of early life shocks and that adverse circumstances during the sensitive early period of childhood can impact a range of later life outcomes (Case et al. 2005 ; Cunha and Heckman 2007 ; Almond and Currie 2011 ; Currie 2020 ). This includes increasing evidence that in utero exposure to shocks such as war, disease, and famine have long-term negative consequences on physical and mental health, educational attainment, earnings, and other socio-economic outcomes (Almond 2006 ; Camacho 2009 ; Almond and Currie 2011 ; Comfort 2016 ; Almond et al. 2018 ).

Finally, we try to unpack the mechanisms through which early life exposure to conflict affects experiences of domestic violence in adulthood, using the rich data available in the Nigerian Demographic Health Survey. We explore two possible channels. The first, the normalisation of violence hypothesis, relies on the well-known finding that children who witness violence at home are more likely to become a victim or perpetrator of domestic violence themselves in adulthood (Schwab-Stone et al. 1995 ; Gage 2005 ; Yount and Li 2009 ; Cesur and Sabia 2016 ; Jin et al. 2017 ). If war results in more intimate partner violence among married couples, as the evidence presented earlier suggests, we would expect children growing up during war to witness more violence among their parents than observably similar children. Even if children do not witness violence within their own homes, one might expect that children exposed to community-level violence through war during their formative years might also be more likely to view violence as a justifiable response to certain problems (Barnett et al. 2005 ; Fowler et al. 2009 ; Gutierrez and Galegos 2016 ). To examine whether exposure to violence in childhood might have affected the formation of beliefs during the critical early years, we use data in the DHS on whether war-exposed women witnessed domestic violence in their homes as children and on women’s and men’s attitudes towards wife-beating in adulthood (Huber 2023 ).

The second hypothesis we explore is reduced bargaining power in the household, which would affect women’s options outside of the marriage and in turn increase their likelihood of being victims of domestic violence (Bhattacharyya et al. 2011 ; Heath 2014 ; La Mattina 2017 ). There are a number of reasons why women exposed to war may have fewer outside options. For instance, a number of studies in a range of countries have found evidence that civil conflict results in poorer educational outcomes (Akresh and Walque 2008 ; Leon 2012 ; Shemyakina 2011 ; Chamarbagwala and Moran 2011 ; and Dabalen and Paul 2014 ), and there is some evidence that exposure to conflict negatively affects girls more than boys (Singh and Shemyakina 2016 ). Women with lower education have fewer out-of-marriage options given their weaker labour market outcomes and increased financial dependence on their husbands, raising the likelihood of domestic violence (Lundberg and Pollak 1996 ; Farmer and Tiefenthaler 1997 ; Aizer 2010 ; Bhattacharyya et al. 2011 ; Eswaran and Malhotra 2011 ; Galdo 2013 ; Heath 2014 ). Moreover, war exposure can affect marriage, reproductive and health outcomes, which would have consequences for women’s intra-household bargaining power (Verwimp and van Bavel 2005 ; Aizer 2011 ; Akresh 2012a ; Islam et al 2016 ; Cetorelli and Khawaja 2017 ; La Mattina 2017 ). To measure women’s bargaining power in adulthood, we use the information in the DHS on women’s decision-making power in the household across a number of domains (Ajefu and Casale 2021 ).

Our main findings are as follows. We find that women exposed to the Nigerian civil war during childhood are more likely to be victims of domestic violence in adulthood compared to women not exposed to the civil war. Specifically, we find that exposure to the civil war is associated with an increase in the likelihood of being a victim of domestic violence of 1.2 percentage points compared to non-exposed cohorts (or 6% given the sample mean incidence of 19.7%). These effects appear to be more pronounced the earlier on one is exposed in childhood, with particularly large effects for those exposed in utero. While it is far more difficult to identify the channels through which exposure to the civil war affects domestic violence (particularly across the cohorts), in our exploratory work, we find some evidence to support both the normalisation of violence and bargaining power hypotheses.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides background information on the Nigerian civil war. Section 3 discusses the data and the empirical identification strategy, and presents some descriptive statistics. Section 4 presents the estimation results, and Sect. 5 concludes.

Background on the Nigerian Civil War

Under British colonial rule, Nigeria comprised three regions, namely the northern, western, and eastern regions. Footnote 1 Each of these regions had a predominant ethnic group, with the Hausa in the North, the Yoruba in the West, and the Igbo in the East. Like many countries in Africa, political and social conflict in Nigeria bore both ethnic and regional dimensions (Simpson 2014 ). In less than seven years after becoming an independent nation (on 1 October 1960), some of these long-standing tensions between the different groups intensified and the country was plunged into a civil war, also known as the Biafran War.

While the underlying geo-political causes of the war are too complex to explain here, some of the immediate causes of the Nigerian Civil War were the military coup on 15 January 1966, organised by primarily Igbo army officers, the counter-coup of 28 July 1966, and the subsequent persecution and killing of the Igbos in the Northern part of the country (Kirk-Greene 1971 ; Nafziger 1972 ). In response to this, there was a massive return migration of Igbos seeking refuge (estimated to involve around 1.5 million people) to their homeland in the south-eastern region (Aall 1970 ; Akresh et al 2012a ). On 30 May 1967, the south-eastern region declared itself the Republic of Biafra and this led to a full-blown civil war that began on 6 July 1967 (see Fig.  1 ).

Map of Nigeria indicating the south-east states. The civil war was restricted to the south-east region that declared itself the Biafra republic

Nigeria’s Federal Military Government fiercely resisted the breakaway republic for two and a half years, using both their military might and their ability to impose a blockade of the landlocked territory (preventing the inflow of food, medicine, and other essential supplies). It has been estimated that between 1 and 3 million people died from the violence and mass starvation that ensued, in what was considered one of the bloodiest wars in sub-Saharan Africa (Akresh et al. 2012a ; Simpson 2014 ). The war ended on 15 January 1970 after the Republic of Biafra surrendered to the Nigerian troops.

Two key features of this devastating conflict are salient to our empirical strategy. First, because of the military blockade (which prevented movement of both people and supplies), the war was fought in the south-eastern region with direct civilian exposure largely restricted to this area (Akresh et al. 2012a ). Second, at the time of the war, most Igbos were living in their native states in the south-east, and many of those living outside the area returned there before the war to seek refuge in the mass migration that occurred just before secession was declared (Aall 1970 ). We can therefore use ethnicity and birth cohort to identify exposure to the civil war. This identification strategy is similar to that used by Akresh et al ( 2012a ) in their study on the impact of exposure to the Nigerian civil war on women’s stature in adulthood. This strategy is preferred to using current geographical demarcation, as is the case in other studies exploring the relationship between war exposure and domestic violence, as it circumvents the problem of selective migration (ethnicity is invariant to migration).

To investigate the impact of the Nigerian civil war on women’s experience of domestic violence in adulthood, we use the 2008 Nigerian Demographic Health Survey (DHS). The DHS is a large nationally representative cross-sectional survey conducted in a number of developing countries. It provides information on women between the ages of 15 and 49 years on a large number of demographic and socio-economic factors. The 2008 Nigerian DHS covered 34,070 households and 33,385 women. Footnote 2 We use the 2008 survey in this study for two main reasons: it is the first wave of the Nigerian DHS to collect information on the incidence of domestic violence among women; and given the timing of the war, this particular survey covers the largest sample of war-exposed women, allowing us to explore the effects of exposure in utero through to exposure at 12 years of age. Footnote 3

The information on domestic violence was collected through a specially designed questionnaire that was administered to one randomly selected woman in each household. Footnote 4 Women who were (or had been) married or cohabiting were asked in private about incidents of domestic violence as follows: “(Does/did) your (last) husband ever do any of the following things to you: (a) slap you? (b) twist your arm or pull your hair? (c) push you, shake you, or throw something at you? (d) punch you with his fist or with something that could hurt you? (e) kick you, drag you or beat you up? (f) try to choke you or burn you on purpose? (g) threaten or attack you with a knife, gun, or any other weapon? (h) physically force you to have sexual intercourse with him even when you did not want to? (i) force you to perform any sexual acts you did not want to?” We measure domestic violence using a binary variable that takes the value of 1 if a woman suffered any of the above-mentioned aggressive behaviours from her husband or partner and 0 otherwise.

Empirical Identification Strategy

To estimate the causal impact of exposure to the civil war in childhood on experiences of domestic violence in adulthood, we adopt a difference-in-differences strategy. As described above, our identification strategy exploits variation in exposure to the civil war by birth cohort and ethnicity. This estimation strategy minimises the problem of selective migration associated with the use of geographical variation in conflict exposure and helps to circumvent one of the limitations of the Nigerian DHS, namely, that it only has information on the current residence of respondents but no information on their place of birth or their place of residence during the war.

We define the treatment or war-exposed group as those Igbo and other minority ethnic groups (who would have been in the south-eastern region when the war was fought) born between 1958 and October 1970. These women were between 0 and 12 years old (including in utero) when the war took place between July 1967 and January 1970, and are aged 38 to 49 years in 2008 when we observe their experiences of domestic violence.

We present two distinct control groups: i) one across time, i.e. women from the war-exposed ethnicities but born in the six-year period following the war, namely from November 1970 to December 1976 (and aged 32 to 38 years in 2008), Footnote 5 and ii) one across ethnicity, i.e. the same birth cohorts (1958–1976) but from the non-war-exposed ethnicities (predominant in the other regions of Nigeria). Table 1 summarises birth cohorts for the war-exposed and non-exposed groups, respectively.

We estimate Eq. ( 1 ) below:

where \({\text{Y}}_{\text{ijt}}\) is equal to one (zero otherwise) if individual i belonging to ethnicity j and born in year t was a victim of domestic violence in adulthood. \(wa{r}_{ethnicity}\) denotes Igbo or other minority ethnic groups in the south-east region and \({Cohort}_{it}\) includes four cohorts, namely those exposed to war in utero (born between February and October 1970), those exposed between 0 and 4 years (born 1966–1970), those exposed between 5 and 8 years (born 1962–1965), and those exposed between 9 and 12 years (born 1958–1961), where the omitted category is those born between November 1970 (i.e. nine months after the war) and December 1976. The interactions of war ethnicity with each of the four cohorts are the variables of interest and capture the effect of an individual’s exposure to the civil war on the incidence of domestic violence. \({X}_{ij}\) is a vector of individual and household characteristics, which includes age at first marriage, religion, education, urban residence, and household wealth; \({\delta }_{r}\) is a state fixed effect; and \({\varepsilon }_{ijt}\) is a random, idiosyncratic error term. We estimate the regressions using ordinary least squares (OLS) (although the results are robust to using probit regressions), and standard errors are clustered at the ethnicity level to account for serial correlation (Bertrand et al. 2004 ).

Summary Statistics

Table 2 reports the summary statistics for our sample of married/cohabiting women from whom domestic violence data were collected. The average age of women in this sample was 39 years, the average age at first marriage was 19 years, around 47% of women in the sample had completed at least primary education, and 32% were resident in urban areas. Among the women who were surveyed, 20% said they had experienced at least one type of domestic violence from their partner.

To explore the normalisation of violence and bargaining power hypotheses as potential mechanisms through which exposure to conflict affects the incidence of domestic violence, we also examine data on attitudes towards domestic violence, domestic violence among parents, and decision-making in the household. The summary statistics for these variables are also shown in Table  2 . On average, 34% of the women in the sample responded that domestic violence is justified if the woman goes out without informing the husband/partner, 32% felt it was justified if a woman neglects the children, 29% felt it was justified if a woman argues with her husband/partner, 26% felt it was justified if a woman refuses to have sex with her husband/partner, and 17% justified violence if a woman burns the food. Nearly 13% percent of women reported witnessing domestic violence among their own parents. In terms of household decision-making, 12% of women reported having the final say on own health care, 7% reported having the final say on large household purchases, 20% reported having the final say on household purchases for daily needs, and 14% reported having the final say on visits to family or relatives.

Table 3 shows that are large and significant differences in these variables by war exposure. Just under 18% of the non-exposed group reported being victims of domestic violence, compared to 27% of the war-exposed group. Moreover, 11% of the non-exposed group witnessed domestic violence among their parents, compared to 19% of the war-exposed group. There are also statistically significant differences in attitudes towards domestic violence, with war-exposed women more likely to report that wife-beating was justified in certain circumstances. For example, 15% of the non-exposed group justified wife-beating if a woman refuses to have sex with her partner compared to 30% of the war-exposed group. In terms of household decision-making, statistically significant differences are observed in three out of the four domains, with war-exposed women less likely to report having the final say on own health care, purchases for daily needs and visits to family and friends.

Figure  2 presents a box plot of our main variable of interest, the incidence of domestic violence, across the cohorts. Within each birth cohort, the incidence of domestic violence is clearly higher for the war-exposed ethnic groups compared to the non-exposed ethnic groups, and the difference between the two appears larger for those exposed at younger ages. However, these are unconditional estimates, and it remains to be seen whether these effects will hold in the multivariate difference-in-differences analysis, which we present in the next section.

Box plot showing the incidence of domestic violence across the cohorts for the exposed and non-exposed ethnicities

Exposure to Civil War and Domestic Violence

Table 4 presents the results from a series of equations which estimate the effect of exposure to the civil war in childhood (in utero to age 12) on the incidence of domestic violence in adulthood, without disaggregating by birth cohort. The coefficients on the interaction term suggest a positive and significant effect of war exposure in childhood on the incidence of domestic violence among women in adulthood. The size of the coefficient tends to fall as an increasing number of controls are added between columns 1 and 4. The regression in column 4 includes controls for individual and household characteristics and fixed effects for state, ethnicity, and cohort, and is our preferred specification. The coefficient from this regression suggests that exposure to the civil war increases the likelihood of being a victim of domestic violence by 1.2 percentage points (or 6% given the sample mean incidence of 19.7%). Footnote 6

In Table  5 , we disaggregate exposure to the civil war by birth cohort to test whether the effects of civil war exposure on domestic violence vary by the age at which the women were exposed to the war in childhood. The categories represent those exposed in utero (born between February 1970 and October 1970), those exposed between the ages of 0–4 (born 1966–1970), those exposed between the ages of 5–8 (born 1962–1965), and those exposed between the ages of 9–12 (born 1958–1961). From the estimates, we find that the effects are largest for those exposed at younger ages. Specifically, exposure to the civil war in utero increases the probability of experiencing domestic violence in adulthood by 7.4 percentage points, and exposure to the civil war between 0 and 4 years increases the probability of experiencing domestic violence by 1.7 percentage points (specification 4).

These results are consistent with the increasing evidence described earlier that there are long-run implications of early life shocks and that adverse circumstances during the sensitive early period of childhood impact later life outcomes (Case et al. 2005 ; Cunha and Heckman 2007 ; Currie 2020 ). This includes a growing body of literature showing that in utero exposure to shocks such as war, drought, and famine have long-term negative consequences.

This literature draws on the ‘fetal origins’ hypothesis, which proposes that conditions in utero, particularly nutrition, ‘program’ the foetus with particular metabolic features that can result in disease later on in life (Barker; 1990 , 1995 ). Studies have found evidence to link events or circumstances in utero to birth weight, adult height, disability, heart disease, and obesity, suggesting latent and long-lasting consequences on health outcomes (Ravelli et al 1976 ; Dunn 2007 ; Camacho 2009 ; Almond and Currie 2011 ; Comfort 2016 ). In addition, there is evidence to suggest negative effects on mental health and cognitive function as well as on education, employment, and adult earnings, implying potential neurological involvement (Hoek et al 1998 ; Almond 2006 ; Almond et al. 2018 ).

Almond et al ( 2018 ) summarise a number of ‘biological’ or direct mechanisms through which foetal-origin effects can be generated, including nutritional insults, infectious disease, maternal stress, and alcohol and tobacco use, all of which would likely be more prevalent during times of war. In addition to the direct biological mechanisms, there may be social and economic factors at play that reinforce the negative outcomes. However, as Almond and Currie ( 2011 ) and Almond et al ( 2018 ) point out in their extensive reviews of this wide-ranging literature, more work is needed to disentangle the biological from the more indirect socio-economic mechanisms. Some of examples of these during war could include lack of access to health and policing services, disruption of markets and other key institutions, disturbance of family life, established norms and social networks, and changes to parenting behaviour. We reflect on some of these issues further below when looking at the mechanisms through which exposure to war might affect domestic violence in adulthood.

Robustness Checks

To test the robustness of our difference-in-differences strategy which assumes parallel trends, we estimate two placebo regressions (using similar methods to for e.g. Akresh et al. 2012a ; Gutierrez and Gallegos 2016 and Weldeegzie 2017 ). In the first test (column 1 of Table  6 ), we exclude the main war-exposed ethnicities (Igbo and other ethnic minorities) and placebo-treat the ethnic groups in the northern part of the country (Kanuri, Hausa, and Fulani), with the remaining ethnicities used as the control group. We choose the northern part of the country given the geographical distance from the area where the war was fought. In the second test (column 2), we placebo-treat the cohort born immediately after the civil war (from 1971 to 1976), with the cohort born from 1977 to 1980 used as the control group. Footnote 7 We would not expect an effect for women born after the civil war. Neither of the coefficients on the placebo-treated interaction term in Table  6 is statistically significant, providing support in favour of our identification strategy. Footnote 8

Although we chose to use the DHS 2008 for this study, as it provides the largest sample of women exposed to the war in childhood (from in utero to age 12), we also check whether our main results hold using the later round of the DHS from 2013. Column 1 of Table  7 shows the estimated effect of war exposure in childhood (without disaggregating across the cohorts) when only the 2013 sample is used, and column 2 of Table  7 shows the estimated effect when the 2008 and 2013 samples are pooled. The results remain robust, with the effect even larger at 5.4 percentage points in column 1 and 4.7 percentage points in column 2 (compared to the 1.2 percentage points estimated in column 4, Table  4 , using the same specification).

In column 3 of Table  7 , we disaggregate the war-exposed women into the four birth cohorts using the pooled sample from 2008 and 2013. Footnote 9 Again, we find the strongest effect from exposure in utero of 5.1 percentage points (compared to 7.4 percentage points in column 4 of Table  5 , using the same specification). However, in the pooled sample, we also find a significant effect of exposure by those exposed between 8 and 12 years. On the whole, though, our robustness checks support our main findings, namely that war exposure in childhood results in a higher incidence of domestic violence among women in adulthood, and that exposure in utero appears to have the strongest effect.

Potential Mechanisms Through Which Civil War Affects Domestic Violence

Normalisation of violence.

This section explores two potential mechanisms through which exposure to civil war during childhood may affect the incidence of domestic violence in adulthood. The first is the normalisation of violence hypothesis, which has also been referred to as the intergenerational transmission of violence hypothesis or the model of social learning. Exposure to violence at home during a child’s formative years is known to result in a greater likelihood of being a victim or perpetrator of domestic violence in adulthood (Schwab-Stone et al. 1995 ; Gage 2005 ; Mihalic and Elliott 2007; Yount and Li 2009 ; Cesur and Sabia 2016 ; Jin et al. 2017 ). Along the same lines, one might expect that children exposed to community-level violence during war might also be more likely to view violence as a justifiable response to certain problems (Barnett et al. 2005 ; Fowler et al. 2009 ). In Table  8 , we estimate the effect of women’s exposure to the civil war on the justification of domestic violence to test whether women who were exposed to the conflict in childhood have different attitudes towards domestic violence in adulthood.

Most of the coefficients are positive, many are statistically significant, and some are quite large. In general, the results suggest that, across the birth cohorts, women exposed to the war in childhood are more likely to justify the use of wife-beating than non-exposed women, particularly if the woman argues with her husband, refuses to have sex with him, or burns the food. For example (from row 1), women exposed to war in utero were 2.4 percentage points more likely to justify wife-beating if the woman argues with her husband and 6 percentage points more likely to justify wife-beating if she burns the food, compared to the non-exposed group. The effects are similarly large (and in some cases larger) among those exposed between the ages of 0–4, 5–8, and 9–12, depending on the question asked.

In Table  9 , we use the matched couple’s recode data from the DHS Footnote 10 to investigate the effect of husbands’ exposure to the civil war on the justification of domestic violence in adulthood. This recognises that domestic violence involves both a perpetrator and a victim. Given the high degree of assortative mating by ethnicity in Nigeria, the majority of women who were exposed to the civil war are married to men who were also exposed to the civil war. Indeed, the DHS data indicate that 93.4% of war-exposed women were married to war-exposed men (with only 6.3% of non-exposed women married to war-exposed men). Footnote 11 Because the DHS interviews men aged 15–59, we can disaggregate exposure into in utero, between the ages of 0–4 (born 1966–1970), between the ages of 5–8 (born 1962–1965), between the ages of 9–12 (born 1958–1961), and between the ages of 13–22 (born 1948–1957). The results suggest that compared to non-exposed men, war-exposed men are more likely to justify the use of wife-beating. Although the pattern is not entirely consistent across the five columns, the effect is largest for cohorts of men exposed in utero and between the ages of 9–12 and 13–22.

In addition to being exposed to more community-level violence growing up during war, and marrying men similarly exposed as children, the women exposed to war in childhood may also have been witness to more domestic violence in their own childhood homes or more violent forms of parenting. This could be the case if the stresses and violence of war and the disruption to social norms and family life in turn led to more violence among the parents. The literature summarised in the introduction certainly suggests that intimate partner violence rises during times of war and conflict among married or partnered couples (La Mattina 2017 ; Kelly et al. 2018 ; Østby et al 2019 ; Svallfors 2023 ). The questionnaire asks women if they were aware of domestic violence among their parents, specifically whether the father ever ‘beat’ the mother. We find that 11 percent of women not exposed to the war in childhood were aware of domestic violence among their parents, compared to 19 percent of war-exposed women. This is a substantial and significant difference.

We include this variable as an explanatory variable in the regression and we also interact this variable with the war exposure variables to test whether the effect is stronger for those growing up in the midst of the war. Indeed, in Table  10 , we find a strong positive effect of witnessing domestic violence among one’s parents on the likelihood of becoming a victim oneself in adulthood, and particularly for those exposed to the war in utero. This is a striking result and could suggest that the levels of violence in those war-exposed families where the mother was pregnant were particularly severe, as the combined stresses of war and having another child on the way took their toll. It is also possible that the final months of the war (when these exposed women would have been in utero) were particularly intense, and so the effect on family life more substantial. Finally, disruptions during war to the resources that would ordinarily help mitigate the negative effects of intimate partner violence, such as health and policing services and established social networks, might have exacerbated the experiences of pregnant mothers in particular.

Bargaining Power Hypothesis

The second mechanism we explore is the intra-household bargaining power hypothesis. Women with limited resources tend to have fewer outside options which can result in an increased likelihood that they will be victims of domestic violence (Gelles 1976 ; Aizer 2010 ). The literature on the effects of conflict provides a number of reasons why women exposed to war may have fewer outside options. Civil conflict results in poorer educational outcomes (Akresh and Walque 2008 ; Leon 2012 ; Shemyakina 2011 ; Chamarbagwala and Moran 2011 ; and Dabalen and Paul 2014 ), and there is evidence that exposure to conflict negatively affects girls more than boys in terms of educational outcomes (Singh and Shemyakina 2016 ). Women with lower education have fewer out-of-marriage options given their weaker labour market outcomes and increased financial dependence on their husbands (Lundberg and Pollak 1996 ; Farmer and Tiefenthaler 1997 ; Aizer 2010 ; Bhattacharyya et al. 2011 ; Eswaran and Malhotra 2011 ; Galdo 2013 ; Heath 2014 ). Furthermore, war exposure can affect marriage, reproductive and health outcomes, which would have consequences for women’s intra-household bargaining power and experiences of domestic violence (Verwimp and van Bavel 2005 ; Akresh 2012a; Grimard and Laszlo 2014 ; Islam et al 2016 ; Cetorelli and Khawaja 2017 ; La Mattina 2017 ).

We test whether war-exposed women have lower bargaining power compared to non-exposed women using the information on decision-making in the household as a proxy. Specifically, we examine whether war-exposed women are less likely to have the final say on certain key decisions in the household compared to non-exposed women. The results in Table  11 show that while most of the coefficients are negative, as predicted, not all are significant. The strongest results are for those exposed in utero; exposure to the civil war decreases the probability of these women having a final say on their own health care by 5.4 percentage points, and on household purchases of daily needs by 8 percentage points. There are also some significant effects, ranging between 3.6 and 5.6 percentage points, for those exposed to the war between the ages of 5–8 and 9–12 for a number of the outcomes.

Conclusions and Policy Implications

In this paper, we examine the impact of exposure to war during childhood on women’s experience of domestic violence in adulthood. Unlike other studies that use current geography-based variables to identify exposure to conflict, we are able to use ethnicity and birth cohort given the nature of the Nigerian civil war, thereby mitigating concerns of selective migration. Our results indicate that exposure to the Nigerian civil war during childhood increases the likelihood of women being victims of domestic violence in adulthood, with larger effects for those exposed at younger ages, and particularly large effects for those exposed in utero. This is consistent with evidence to suggest that the early childhood period, including the time in utero, is particularly important for later life outcomes and that shocks during this period can have long-lasting effects.

Understanding the mechanisms through which civil war affects domestic violence is equally as important as identifying the effect itself, especially if effective post-war policies are to be designed to mitigate the deleterious consequences of conflict in developing countries. However, identifying the mechanisms is a much more difficult task with the data available, and therefore, our results can only be interpreted as suggestive.

First, we find that both the women in our sample and their husbands who were exposed to the war during childhood are more likely to perceive domestic violence to be an acceptable behaviour in adulthood than those not exposed to the war. This is in line with the normalisation of violence hypothesis that predicts that those exposed to violence in childhood are more likely to become either perpetrators or victims of domestic violence in adulthood. In addition, we find war-exposed women were more likely to witness domestic violence in their own childhood homes than non-exposed women, and that witnessing domestic violence among their parents is positively correlated with experiencing domestic violence themselves in adulthood particularly among those exposed in utero. It is possible that the combined stresses of war and having another child on the way led to more violent behaviour in the home, or that the final months of war (when these exposed women would have been in utero) were particularly intense, and so the effect on family life more marked. Footnote 12

Second, our findings suggest that women who were exposed to the war in childhood also have lower intra-household bargaining power compared to non-exposed women, which would make them more vulnerable to incidents of domestic violence. Relative to the non-exposed group, we found women who were exposed to the conflict in childhood have less decision-making power in their households in adulthood, and again the effect appears stronger among those in utero (although there is evidence also for the other cohorts). This might be the case if war exposure affected women’s educational, health, and reproductive outcomes in ways that placed them in a more precarious position relative to men in the marriage market.

However, this is a subject for further study given the complexity of the potential pathways and mechanisms. The large effects measured for children who were exposed to the war in utero in particular warrant further investigation. These results are consistent with the evidence from a large literature showing that conditions and events in utero can have long-lasting consequences for the individual’s physical and mental health as well as their education, employment, and earnings outcomes (Ravelli et al 1976 ; Hoek et al 1998 ; Almond 2006 ; Dunn 2007 ; Camacho 2009 ; Almond and Currie 2011 ; Comfort 2016 ). However, much more work is needed to disentangle the biological from the social mechanisms in order to better understand both the direct and more indirect channels through which foetal-origin effects are generated (Almond and Currie 2011 ; Almond et al. 2018 ).

The relevance of our study and the need for further work in this area is underscored by the pervasiveness of domestic violence. A recent study estimated the global prevalence of intimate partner violence to be around 30%, and for the sub-Saharan African region specifically, closer to 37% (WHO 2017 ). Moreover, the consequences of domestic violence, both human and economic, are substantial. Domestic violence results in direct physical and mental harm to women, with research pointing to poorer health outcomes and a greater likelihood of depressive symptoms and substance abuse among victims (Coker et al. 2002 ; Silverman et al. 2006 ; Ackerson et al. 2008 ; Ellsberg et al. 2008 ; Meekers et al. 2013 ). Domestic violence can also result in substantial economic costs related to policing, health expenditure, and reduced economic productivity (Walby 2004 ). Lastly, children of women who experience domestic violence have worse outcomes, such as lower birth weight, lower IQ scores, a greater likelihood of emotional and behavioural problems, and a higher probability of acquiring HIV (Sternberg et al. 1993 ; Koenen et al. 2003 ; Aizer 2011 ; WHO 2013 ; Rawlings and Siddique 2014 , 2018 ; Currie et al 2022 ). Understanding both the causes and longer-term implications of domestic violence is imperative to designing appropriate policy responses and support mechanisms.

Data availability

The dataset used to obtain the results for this paper can be made available upon request.

These three main regions were subsequently demarcated into six geopolitical regions, namely the northeast, northwest, north-central, south-south, south-east, and south-west, the latter being the region where the civil war was fought (Alapiki 2005 ). These six regions are further divided into 36 states.

The 2008 Nigerian Demographic Health survey also interviewed men aged 15 to 59 to provide information on health and other related issues, but it did not collect information on their experiences of domestic violence.

We were unable to analyse exposure after age 12 (or among cohorts born pre-1958) because the DHS contains information only on women aged 15 to 49 years old. In the 2008 DHS wave, the oldest woman in the sample (aged 49) therefore was born in 1958. If we use later waves of the DHS, we can only analyse a smaller sample of war-exposed women. Specifically, if we used the 2013 DHS, we would only be able to estimate the effect for those exposed in utero to age 7, and if we used the 2018 DHS, we would only be able to estimate the effect for those exposed in utero to age 2.

The DHS captures information on experiences of domestic violence using the World Health Organization’s ethical and safety guidelines (Kishor and Kiersten 2004 ). Interviewers are trained to deal with the sensitive nature of the questions and there are strict protocols to ensure privacy during the interview. To try to minimise under-reporting of domestic violence, the DHS domestic violence questionnaire uses a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). Women are asked a number of separate questions on different types of violence which reduces confusion as to what constitutes domestic violence, and gives women multiple opportunities to reveal their experiences (Kishor 2005 ).

We limit our control group to the six-year period following the war, as too broad a window of comparison increases potential confounding effects (Akresh et al 2012a ). Moreover, our results are consistent when, following Akresh et al ( 2012a ), we use an even shorter control period, namely 1970 (Nov) to 1974.

If the immediate post-war environment in the south-eastern region did not experience a full recovery, then these impacts of war exposure would be underestimated, and our findings would represent a lower-bound effect.

To validate the placebo result, we conducted further robustness checks using equal intervals of years for the treatment and control groups (1971–1974 and 1975–1978). We find statistically insignificant effects of exposure to civil war on domestic violence in these additional checks.

Akresh et al ( 2012a ) run slightly different placebo tests on ethnic group and cohort but similarly find no significant effects. They also use estimated ethnic mortality during the war instead of ethnicity itself in their regressions to test for the validity of the identification strategy and find remarkably similar results. This leads them to conclude that the strategy to use ethnicity to identify exposure “while simple, is accurate and powerful” (Akresh et al. 2012a : 275).

Because the DHS only interviews women aged 15 to 49, the oldest women included in the 2013 survey would have been born in 1964, and therefore, we can only capture war exposure from in utero through to age 7. To estimate the exposure by birth cohort, we therefore only show the results using the pooled 2008 and 2013 datasets. We did not attempt to include the 2018 DHS in the robustness checks, as the sample of war-exposed women would have shrunk even further to those women who were exposed in utero through to 2 years of age.

The DHS couple’s recode data contain information on the husbands/partners (aged 15–59) for the sample of women who were married/cohabiting and living with their partners during the interview.

The high level of intra-ethnic marriage is consistent with low levels of migration across states, with most migration in Nigeria occurring within states from rural to urban areas (Federal Office of Statistics 1999 ; 2000).

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Ajefu, J.B., Casale, D. Long-Term Effects of Childhood Exposure to War on Domestic Violence. Eur J Dev Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-024-00659-4

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