changes in states of matter experiments

States of Matter Experiments

What’s the matter with matter? Matter is all around us, and here are some fun and easy science experiments to explore the three states of matter. From chemical reactions to examples of reversible change to ice melt activities, there are states of matter project ideas for kids of all ages.

States of Matter for Kids

What is matter? In science, matter refers to any substance that has mass and takes up space. Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms , and it has different forms depending on how the atoms are arranged. This is what we call states of matter .

What are the three states of matter?

The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Although a fourth state of matter exists, plasma, it’s not shown in any demonstrations.

Solid: A solid has tightly packed particles in a specific pattern, which cannot move about. You will notice a solid keeps its shape. Ice or frozen water is an example of a solid.

Liquid: In a liquid, the particles have some space between them with no pattern. Therefore, they are not in a fixed position. A liquid has no distinct shape but will take the shape of a container it is put into. Water is an example of a liquid.

Gas: In a gas, the particles move freely from one another. You can also say they vibrate! Gas particles spread out to take the shape of the container they are put in. Steam or water vapor is an example of a gas.

WATCH THE STATES OF MATTER VIDEO!

States of Matter Worksheet

Start with this free states of matter worksheet pack and free science experiment.

States of Matter Science Experiments

Next, try a fun state of matter experiment. Below, you will find lots of great examples of states of matter. Some of these experiments involve a chemical change, such as adding a liquid and a solid together to produce a gas. Other experiments demonstrate a physical change . Look for helpful teaching tips below.

Combine Baking Soda and Vinegar

Hands down, baking soda and vinegar are our favorite chemical reactions for kids! Check out states of matter in action. All that fizzing fun is a gas!

💡 Explore a variety of Baking Soda and Vinegar Science Experiments for Kids.

Blow Up A Balloon Experiment

Blow up a balloon with an easy chemical reaction. This experiment is perfect for demonstrating how a gas spreads out and fills the space.

Make Butter In A Jar

Science you can eat! Turn a liquid into a solid with a bit of shaking!

Explore A Cloud In A Jar

Cloud formation involves the change of water from a gas to a liquid. Check out this simple science demonstration.

Try Crushing A Soda Can

Who would have thought the condensation of water (gas to liquid) could crush a soda can!

Set Up a Freezing Water Experiment

Will it freeze? What happens to the freezing point of water when you add salt.

Make Frost On A Can

It’s a fun winter experiment for any time of the year. Turn water vapor into ice when it touches the surface of your cold metal can.

Grow Crystals

Make a supersaturated solution with borax powder and water. Observe how you can grow solid crystals as the water evaporates (changes from liquid to gas) over a few days.

Also, try growing salt crystals and sugar crystals .

Freezing Bubbles

This is a fun state of matter experiment to try in the winter. Can you turn liquid bubble mixture into a solid?

Churn Ice Cream In A Bag

Turn milk and sugar into a yummy frozen treat with our easy ice cream in a bag recipe.

Play with Ice Melt Activities

Here you will find over 20 fun theme ice melt activities which make for playful science for preschoolers. Turn solid ice into liquid water!

Microwave Ivory Soap

What happens to ivory soap when you heat it? It’s all because water changes from a liquid to a gas.

Make Your Own Soap

Making soap from a simple glycerin base involves several states of matter. Even better, you end up with a fun surprise at the end!

Recycle with Melting Crayons

With our easy instructions, you can recycle your old crayons into new crayons. Melting crayons is also a great example of a reversible phase change from solid to liquid to solid.

Edible States with Melting Chocolate

A super simple science activity that you get to eat at the end!

Combine Mentos and Coke

Another fun chemical reaction between a liquid and solid that produces a gas.

Get Messy with Oobleck

There is always an exception to the rule! Is it a liquid or a solid? Just two ingredients, this is a fun activity to set up and discuss how oobleck can fit the description of both a liquid and a solid.

Try the Soda Balloon Experiment

Salt in soda is a great example of a change of states of matter, the carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid soda moves to a gaseous state.

Put Together a Water Cycle In A Bag

Not only is the water cycle important for all life on earth, it is also a great example of phase changes of water, including evaporation and condensation.

Make a DIY Water Filtration

Separate a liquid from solids with this water filtration lab you can build yourself.

What Makes Ice Melt Faster

Start with a solid, ice and explore different ways to change it to a liquid. Fun ice melting experiment!

Tips and Tricks for Explaining States of Matter

Teaching states of matter to kids can be a fun and engaging experience, especially with hands-on activities and interactive lessons.

Changing States of Matter

When matter changes from one state to another, it’s called a phase change. Phase changes are examples of physical changes. Learn more about physical changes here .

Some examples of phase changes are melting (changing from a solid to a liquid), freezing (changing from a liquid to a solid), evaporation (from a liquid to a gas), and condensation (from a gas to a liquid).

Does one phase take more energy than another? The change to gas takes the most energy because the bonds between the particles have to separate to change completely.

The bonds in a solid only have to loosen up a bit to change phase, such as a solid ice cube changing to liquid water.

💡Check out our solid, liquid, gas experiment for an easy way to demonstrate phase change for kids.

Helpful Science Resources To Get You Started

Here are a few resources that will help you introduce science more effectively to your kiddos or students and feel confident when presenting materials. You’ll find helpful free printables throughout.

• Best Science Practices (as it relates to the scientific method)
• Science Vocabulary
• 8 Science Books for Kids
• All About Scientists
• Free Science Worksheets
• Science Supplies List
• Science Tools for Kids
• Scientific Method for Kids
• Easy Science Fair Projects
• Citizen Science Guide
• Join us in the Club

Printable Science Projects For Kids

If you’re looking to grab all of our printable science projects in one convenient place plus exclusive worksheets and bonuses like a STEAM Project pack, our Science Project Pack is what you need! Over 300+ Pages!

• 90+ classic science activities  with journal pages, supply lists, set up and process, and science information.  NEW! Activity-specific observation pages!
• Best science practices posters  and our original science method process folders for extra alternatives!
• Be a Collector activities pack  introduces kids to the world of making collections through the eyes of a scientist. What will they collect first?
• Know the Words Science vocabulary pack  includes flashcards, crosswords, and word searches that illuminate keywords in the experiments!
• My science journal writing prompts  explore what it means to be a scientist!!
• Bonus STEAM Project Pack:  Art meets science with doable projects!
• Bonus Quick Grab Packs for Biology, Earth Science, Chemistry, and Physics

Subscribe to receive a free 5-Day STEM Challenge Guide

~ projects to try now ~.

Science in School

States of matter & phase transitions teach article.

This article was originally published as a CERN teaching module .

Explore phase transitions between different states of matter through a series of engaging hands-on experiments.

Matter occurs in different states: solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma. When external conditions (such as temperature or pressure) change, the state of matter might change as well. For example, a liquid such as water starts becoming a gas when it is heated to its boiling point or starts to freeze when it is cooled to its freezing point. A state of matter with very high energy is plasma. Here, some of the orbital electrons are not bound to atoms or molecules anymore. Hence, plasma is a gas of free electrons and ions.

Phase transitions often occur in nature, but they are also used in many technologies. In particular, several particle detectors rely on phase transitions. Furthermore, high-energy physics research can create an even more energetic state of matter, the so-called quark-gluon-plasma.

Therefore, high-energy physics provides a fruitful and exciting context to discuss states of matter and phase transitions with your students. Moreover, there are several fun experiments that allow students to study phenomena on their own. Below, we highlight some of our favourite experiments and explain how to link them to CERN physics and technologies. When using these experiments with students, make sure to let them predict the outcome of the experiment first, before conducting the experiment and observing the result.

Vaporization – liquid to gas

When you heat water up to its boiling point, bubbles of water vapour start to form as water changes from a liquid to a gaseous state. Similarly, when opening a bottle of sparkling water, bubbles start to form. Here, the decrease in pressure caused by opening the lid starts the vaporization process.

An interesting effect can be observed at surfaces that provide tiny impurities, for example, cellulose fibres inside a glass. These impurities provide starting points for bubbles to form, so-called nucleation sites. When pouring sparkling water into a glass, small amounts of gas get trapped inside or around small dust particles such as cellulose fibres.

A very similar principle forms the basis of the bubble chamber particle detection technique. Bubble chambers are filled with a superheated liquid that basically really wants to turn into a gas. Therefore, any small disturbance or impurity will start the bubble formation process inside a bubble chamber. Indeed, when ionizing particles fly through this superheated liquid, they will ionize the molecules on their way. These ions will then act as nucleating sites and bubbles will form around them. In this way, the track of an ionizing particle leaving a trail of ions can be visualized when taking photographs of the bubble trails at the right moment. (Find out more about bubble chambers  here .)

Today, bubble chambers are no longer used for research at CERN. However, they have recently found a new role in dark matter research, for example, in the  PICO project in Canada .

Hands-on experimentation with vaporisation: dancing raisins in sparkling water

One of our favourite experiments is the ‘dancing raisins experiment’ that allows students to study the role of nucleation sites in sparkling water.

• Sparkling water (or any other sparkling and transparent drink)
• A few raisins
• Fill a glass with a sparkling liquid.
• Add a few raisins.
• Observe the raisins, in particular, their movement.

Modifications

• You can also study other types of potential ‘dancers’ or other types of sparling liquids for example, different types of noodles, frozen blueberries, lentils, corn etc. Try to find the best combination.
• Add the raisins directly to a bottle of sparkling water and compare their movement with the lid on and off.

Explanation

The raisins will soon start moving up and down in the sparkling water. What happens? The surface of the raisins is not as flat at the surface of the glass. Instead, the surface of raisins includes many tiny fibres that act as nucleation sites. Hence, tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas form at the surface of the raisins. When enough gas bubbles are attached to the surface of a raisin, it will start to rise to the surface (buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle). Once the raisins reach the top, the bubbles pop because they are exposed to the air. Without their ‘floating devices’ the raisins will sink again.

Melting – solid to liquid

When the internal energy of a substance increases, e.g. by applying heat or pressure, a solid will eventually become a liquid. For example, ice cubes or a wax candle start melting when applying heat, whereby the pressure remains constant. However, solids such as ice or wax differ in their melting points. Whereas ice melts at a temperature of about 0°C, wax melts at about 40°C. When a substance reaches its melting point, the temperature of the substance does not increase further even if constant heat is applied, as long as there is some solid left to melt. Thus, the applied heat for melting a solid is also referred to as latent heat. Only when all the solid has turned into a liquid state does the temperature begin to rise again.

Hands-on experimentation with melting: cooling bath

Among all the experiments in which students can study the melting process, making a cooling bath may be the coolest. All joking aside, it’s indeed really cool! In addition, cooling is essential for running the LHC. Check out CERN’s  cryogenics webpage  for more information.

The minimum temperature of a regular ice-water mixture is the melting point of ice at 0°C. You could use such a mixture as a cooling bath, e.g., for cooling a bottle of lemonade. However, there is one trick to make your cooling bath even cooler, i.e. to cool your lemonade more efficiently. The melting point of a substance such as ice can be depressed by adding a salt such as sodium chloride. Hence, an ice-water-salt mixture ends up at a lower temperature than an ice-water mixture.

• Water, cold
• Crushed ice (alternatively: ice cubes, plastic bag, and hammer), the ratio salt : ice must be 1 : 3
• Thermometer (alternatively: multimeter with a temperature sensor, up to -20°C)
• Beaker glass, 600 ml
• Beaker glass, 400 ml

Safety Note

• Use a cold-resistant glass.
• Supervise younger students when working with cooling baths.
• Put the 400 ml beaker glass in the 600 ml beaker glass to create an insulating container.
• Add crushed ice to the internal beaker glass.
• Add enough cold water to cover the ice.
• Measure the temperature of the water-ice-mixture (should be about 0°C).
• Add salt (remember, the ratio salt : ice must be 1 : 3).
• Stir the mix until the ice melts.
• Measure the temperature of the water-ice-salt-mixture (should be up to -20°C).

Hands-on experimentation with melting: buoyancy of ice

Another really cool experiment is to study how melting icebergs affect sea level or how melting ice cubes affect the level of your sugary summer drink.

Since salt (or sugar) water is denser than water, the buoyant force exerted on ice is bigger. Thus, ice cubes don’t sink as much in salt (or sugar) water as they would in water. Therefore, the level of the salt (or sugar) water rises, when the ice cubes melt, whereas it remains the same for water. This effect occurs, for example, when the ice cubes in your sugary summer drink melt. Unfortunately, it also reinforces the negative effects of climate change: Icebergs are large chunks of ice that break off from glaciers (e.g. in Greenland). They are made of water, not salt water. Thus, sea level rises not only when icebergs drift into the sea, but also when they melt. However, the additional effect of the melting ice is comparatively small. [1] 

• water, cold
• Salt (or sugar)
• 6 ice cubes
• 2 Beaker glasses, 50ml
• Fill the 2 beaker glasses half full with water.
• Add 3-4 tea spoons of salt (or sugar) in one beaker glass and stir.
• Put 3 ice cubes in each beaker glass.
• Add water to the salt (or sugar) water until the liquid level is the same in both beaker glasses and stir.
• Mark the liquid level on both beaker glasses.
• Wait until the ice cubes have melted.

Additional information

One can also observe that the ice cubes melt slower in salt (or sugar) water than in water. This is another consequence of the higher density of salt (or sugar) water in comparison to water.

Did you know that CERN is engaged with the  Sustainable Development Goals ? Find out more about how CERN contributes to a better planet on the  CERN knowledge transfer website .

Condensation – gas to liquid

The cloud chamber was one of the first particle detectors. Here, the most important aspect is a supercooled supersaturated alcohol vapour, which is essentially a very cold and very wet gas, that really wants to become a liquid. Indeed, any disturbance of this vapour might start the condensation process. When high-energy ionising particles fly through this vapour layer, they leave a trail of ions behind. These ions then trigger the condensation process acting as condensation nuclei. Therefore, the trail of ions turns into a trail of small drops that can be observed with your eyes or a camera under the right lighting conditions. This relatively easy principle allowed particle physicists to record particle tracks already 100 years ago.

Today, the CLOUD experiment at CERN investigates cloud formation to find out more about climate change. Interested?  Watch a TEDEd lesson by Kirby, Richer, & Comes (2016): Cloudy climate change: How clouds affect Earth’s temperature.

Hands-on experimentation with condensation: cloud in a bottle

There are several experiments in which your students can study condensation. The cloud in a bottle experiment shows in an impressive way, how a rapid decrease in pressure can trigger the phase transition condensation. There are several videos and instructions on how to make a cloud a bottle online. Depending on the effort and equipment, the effect will be impressive to observe even as a demonstration or easy to do in a safe way as a hands-on experiment. Thus, we highlight our favourite two methods below. If you have access to dry ice, you can also let your students  build their own cloud chamber using dry ice and isopropanol alcohol .

1. Impressive demonstration

• 30 ml of disinfectant (about 70% alcohol, or purer alcohol)
• A bottle of spray duster
• A 1 l transparent PET bottle
• Water and flour

Safety note

• Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes against splashes of alcohol and unforeseen expansions of your PET bottle.
• You should also wear gloves to protect your skin from alcohol, especially, if you use very pure alcohol.
• Make a small hole into the lid of the bottle to squeeze in the tube of the spray duster.
• Use a flour-water mixture to seal the opening (alternatives: blue tack, playdoh, glue …).
• Add 30 ml of disinfectant (or relatively pure alcohol) into the PET bottle and turn the bottle to make sure the inner surface is covered with alcohol.
• Put on the lip carefully, all connections need to be airtight.
• Add about 20 pumps of spray duster into the sealed bottle.
• Carefully open the lids (attention, pressure build-up!).
• Now you should see a very dense cloud consisting of drops of alcohol in your bottle.
• You can also use a ball or bike pump to increase the pressure inside the bottle – however, you might need to add some additional condensation nuclei in this case.
• Additional condensation nuclei: open the lid, squeeze the bottle gently and blow out a match in front of the lid, release the pressure of the bottle to soak in some of the smoke particles (the smoke will provide additional condensation nuclei).
• It also works with water instead of alcohol, but it’s not that impressive.

2. Easy hands-on experiment

• 10 ml of disinfectant (about 70% alcohol, or purer alcohol)
• A 0.5 l transparent PET bottle
• Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes against splashes of alcohol.
• Wear safety gloves to protect your skin from alcohol, especially, if you use very pure alcohol.
• Make sure to monitor students during this activity.
• If the students are young, only the tutor or teachers uses the matches to make sure no student accidentally sets the alcohol inside the bottle on fire.
• Add the disinfectant (or pure alcohol) into the PET bottle.
• Close the bottle with the lid.
• Turn the bottle to make sure the inner surface is covered with alcohol.
• Now, open the lid, squeeze the bottle gently and blow out a match in front of the lid.
• Release the pressure of the bottle to soak in some of the smoke particles (the smoke will provide additional condensation nuclei).
• Close the lid.
• Squeeze the bottle as much as you can and release the pressure of your hands suddenly.
• Now, you should see a cloud appearing inside the bottle.

The melting of ice floating on the sea introduces a volume of water about 2.6% greater than that of the originally displaced sea water: Noerdlinger PD, Brower KR (2007)  The melting of floating ice raises the ocean level . Geophysical Journal International , 170: 145-150. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03472.x

• Watch a video of the raisins experiment on  Twitter  or  Facebook .
• You can download the video of the raisins experiment from  CERN CDS Videos .
• States of matter and supercooling: an  overview .
• More experiments on  phase transitions and states of matter .

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States of Matter Science Experiments

Are you using states of matter science experiments? Matter has three states; solid, liquid, and gas. Most students know and can identify the three states of matter in isolation. Still, to test their knowledge, they should experience hands on activities that allow them to see how the three states of matter interact with one another. If you do not include science experiments in your states of matter unit , your students miss this critical part of the scientific process. Including hands on activities does not have to be complicated. Read about five easy activities that you can incorporate into your states of matter unit.

Five Hands on Activities to Teach States of Matter

States of matter experiment #1 raisins dance :.

How much fun is it to dance? While it might be difficult to throw an upper elementary science dance party, making your science experiment dance doesn’t have to be as hard. 

This activity requires three materials: 

• Clear soda, such as Sprite

This simple states of matter experiment will allow students to see how solid, liquid, and gas substances react. 

To perform the activity, fill the glass 3/4 full of the clear soda. Then, add the raisins. Watch what happens. 

The science behind this experiment : Students will see the raisins “dancing” in the soda. The raisins will fall to the bottom of the glass and then float back up to the top. They will then fall again. What is happening in the carbonation gas from the soda adheres to the raisin. This causes the raisins to float to the top. Once the bubble pops at the surface, the raisin then falls to the bottom again.

States of Matter Experiment #2 Shaving Cream: 

Shaving cream is a peculiar substance as it can be difficult to distinguish whether it is a solid or a liquid. This activity is also reasonably easy; however, it will take several days for students to fully process their observations and inferences . 

Materials needed for this activity are: 

• Shaving cream
• Paper towel

For this activity, you will put a blob of shaving cream on each student’s paper towel. Allow students to observe the shaving cream up close. If you have magnifying glasses, you may want students to use them to try to get as close a look as possible. 

After students have had time to observe, allow them to hypothesize which state of matter they think shaving cream falls into. 

The science behind the experiment : Shaving cream is a unique substance because its characteristics do not neatly fall into a solid, liquid, or gas category. When in a can, the shaving cream is a mixture of soap and water compressed as a gas. When the can is sprayed, the shaving cream is released as a solid, which eventually condenses to a liquid. 

This activity is fun because it shows students how substances can change their state of matter over time. Even though the materials are simple, students love this activity.  

States of Matter Experiment #3 Ice Cream in a Bag : 

Who doesn’t love ice cream? No matter what time of year, this is a fun activity to show your students how temperature can affect the state of matter. 

Materials needed : 

• Vanilla extract
• Half and half
• Kosher or rock salt
• Ziploc bags
• Thermometer

Before the states of matter experiment, have a discussion with students about the characteristics of each substance and which state of matter it falls into. Combine the vanilla extract and half and half. Pour the mixture into a small Ziploc bag. Place the smaller bag into a larger one filled with ice and the Kosher or rock salt. Then SHAKE! Students can take turns shaking as this experiment can take up to ten minutes of shaking. After that time, the liquid should turn into a solid for a delicious treat. 

The science behind this experiment : The salt lowers the temperature of the ice, which allows the half and half and vanilla to freeze. Be sure to use enough rock salt and ice, or the mixture will not freeze.  

Grab the Ice Cream in a Bag activity for FREE by clicking the button below. 

States of Matter Experiment #4 Air Balloons: 

It can be challenging for students to understand that gases have mass and are spread out to fill their containers. This states of matter experiment will allow students to visualize this concept as the balloon fills up with carbon dioxide.

• One liter soda bottle
• Triple beam balance

Your science students will enjoy this simple states of matter experiment. All that needs to be done is to open the soda bottle cap and then place the balloon around its opening. Now, you will have to wait. 

While you are waiting, indulge in a classroom conversation about the characteristics of states of matter. 

The science behind this experiment : After about ten minutes, you should be able to observe the carbon dioxide gas fill the balloon. 

To show students that the gas in the balloon has mass, place it on the triple beam balance to measure its mass. Compare this mass to an empty balloon to signify the difference.

States of Matter Experiment #5 Soapy States : 

Teach students that states of matter are all around us. Pointing out real-life examples of a solid, liquid, or gas will help students make deeper connections to the content. 

One everyday object that we can use to illustrate this point is soap. While it is super easy to distinguish that soap is solid, what happens when you put soap in the microwave? 

• Two other brands of soap
• Bin of water

For this activity, students will observe differences between the different brands of soap. Placing the soaps into the water bin will allow students to see what the Ivory brand will float while the other brands sink. 

The science behind this experiment : It is imperative to use Ivory soap as this is the only soap brand on the market that has air whipped into it. The air created little pockets of gas which allow this brand of soap to float in water.

It also allows this brand to expand when it is put into the microwave. When placed in the microwave for 30 seconds, gas pockets will expand, which creates an incredible visual for the students. 

Your students will love these science activities to enhance your states of matter unit. Want these activities ready to go? Check them out here . 

Need more ideas to teach your states of matter unit? Click the button below to learn how I teach this unit to my students. 

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Exploring States of Matter: 4 Must-Try Activities for Kids

Aug. 14, 2019

School is starting up once again, and as a parent, you might be wondering how to get your kids back into a more structured learning routine. While kids are learning new routines at school, take this opportunity to explore exciting science projects at home to set the right tone for the academic year. With children always on the search for something fun to do after school, jumping into some science fun is the perfect way activate growing minds. One endlessly fascinating topic to explore is the three states of matter. 

Younger kids should learn about the basic three types of matter, while older students should study how matter can change, and the conditions under which those changes occur. Using common household supplies and materials, experiments can be set up in no time, with cleanup oftentimes meaning eating or drinking the end result! 

Below, we’ll discuss what children need to learn about this intriguing topic before getting started; keep reading to find four fantastic ideas for at-home experiments that can easily be adapted for the classroom!  

Examples of States of Matter for Kids

How can one even describe the term matter? Simply put, matter is any substance that takes up space and has mass. Look around you and think about how everything you see (and even things you can’t- like air) is made up of some form of matter! Not everything is made up of matter, like types of energy. This includes sound and light. But it can be used to generate energy, which is important for fueling our modern world. 

Kids learn a variety of early physical science facts starting from preschool, but most kids start studying the states of matter by kindergarten or 1st grade. Chances are, if you have a child around ages 6-7, he or she has already learned about it, but might not have done much experimenting in school. The first thing little learners should master is the three basic types: solids, liquids, and gasses. 

It’s easy to review the three types of matter with young kids because there are so many examples that are easily accessible in your very own home! The following are household examples of matter to point out to your early learners: 

• Anything that emits a odor- and the smell itself! 
• Play Dough 

Help your child notice that some of substances on the list could change from one type of matter to another. For example, when ice cubes are frozen, they are solids, but can easily melt into liquids if left outside of the freezer. Likewise, if that ice cube is in a cup that stands on the counter for a number of days or weeks, your child will notice that the water evaporates because it turned into a gas that entered the air! 

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Chemistry for older elementary students.

Older children are better able to understand more about concepts that involve a change of state of matter. It’s easy to see ice cubes melt into water, but it takes much more patience to wait for it to evaporate to observe the change. It’s also simple enough to heat a pan of boiling water to see the steam rise from the pot, but older kids should know that matter can change under a variety of conditions depending on the substance involved. 

Some concepts to explore with your older child include the following: 

• Condensation 
• Plasma- another type of matter
• Sublimation
• Vaporization
• Boiling Points
• Deposition or Desublimation

A perfect complement to your student-centered classroom, the Talented and Gifted app reinforces projects and concepts as kids work at their own pace. Download today and try it free for 30 days!  

States of matter activities.

Regardless if you have a beginner or older child at home, the activities below won’t disappoint! Easily adaptable to the classroom, the following experiments are great for exploring the different states of matter and how they change for a summer filled with science fun! 

Chocolate Chip Experiment

This simple experiment is great for a hot sunny day and easily demonstrates how a solid can be converted to a liquid, and then back to a solid using a bit of energy. 

Supplies Needed:

• 1 quart-sized Ziploc bag per child or group of kids
• ½ cup of chocolate chips for each bag
• A heat source

What to Do:

Help kids take the chocolate chips and add them to the bag. Be sure to zip the bag securely and ask your child to brainstorm of ways to make the chocolate melt. Explain that heat will make the chips melt into its liquid form, but a source of heat is needed to make this happen. 

One popular solution is to pop that bag into the microwave, and while this can be done, it could easily make the chips burn. Using a stovetop would require the child to remove the chips from the bag, and if this is done in a classroom, a kitchen is most likely inaccessible. Instead, guide children to think of natural heat sources and it won’t be long before kids realize that the sun generates a lot of warmth! 

Head outside on a sunny day and place the bag of chocolate chips in the sun, laying it on pavement for the best exposure to heat. Go back inside and set a time, and check it again in about 5 minutes, noting any observations. Keep checking every 5 minutes until the bag of chips are melted into liquid and record further notes and talk about what happened as the chips melted and why. 

Bring the bag of liquid chocolate back inside. Put the bag in the fridge, or in a cool location nearby. What does your child think will happen over time to the chocolate? Write down any predictions and wait for the chocolate to reform into a solid mass! After the experiment is over, record final observations, discuss, and eat! 

Play & Learn Science

Make a Self-Inflated Balloon

Blowing up a balloon can be hard work! Let a chemical reaction do it for you using this cool project that produces a gas to blow up your balloon! 

Supplies Needed:  

• Baking Soda
• Empty plastic water bottle

To start, pour 2 tablespoons of baking soda into the balloon carefully using the funnel. Next, pour 1 cup of vinegar into the empty plastic bottle. Attach the lip of the balloon to the top of the bottle, leaving the bulk of the balloon along with the baking soda hanging down. 

When ready, pick up the balloon so that the baking soda falls into the bottle of vinegar and watch as the balloon fills up with the gas created from the reaction! Talk to your children about what caused the balloon to fill, and feel free to do it again! In short, when the vinegar mixes with baking soda, it creates a carbon dioxide gas, which fills the balloon because it has nowhere else to go. Discuss this reaction before trying it again. When repeating the experiment, be sure to have fresh supplies on hand, as the balloon will need fresh vinegar to produce the same reaction.  

Make Art Sculptures or Pictures from Slime 

If your kids are like most, they love to make and play with slime! Transform old slime into a work of art with this experiment that changes a liquid to a solid! 

• Slime- use one or more colors of slime 
• Non-porous surface space, like a glass table or granite countertop 

For this easy experiment, take the slime and spread it onto the surface space in a thin layer. If you use multiple colors, press them together as they will blend later on in the process. Next, be patient! Depending on the humidity level in your home, it might take as long as 2-4 days to dry out. Use a fan to speed up the process and to make slight waves in the artwork. The objective is to dry out the slime so that the water contents evaporate and make the liquid slime into a solid piece. 

When slime starts to dry around the edges, carefully pull the sides up to increase airflow to the rest of the slime. When fully dry, the dried-out product can look like plastic or glass structures! Experiment with making pictures using the slime to create unique decorations! 

Make a Refreshing Root Beer Float

Experiment with creating a gaseous foam from root beer and ice cream in this simple, yet tasty experiment! 

• Vanilla Ice Cream 
• Clear plastic cup
• Observation sheet or log 

First, pour about a cup of root beer into the clear plastic cup. Using a spoon or an ice cream scoop, drop a dollop of vanilla ice cream into the soda. Next, watch the reaction! Help your little learner write down any observations onto a printable observation worksheet or a log that you are using as notes. What are the bubbles that form near the top of the cup? Your child will notice that the bubbles are filled with gas. 

Explain to kids that the root beer is a liquid, while the ice cream is a solid. When adding the ice cream to the soda, it makes the carbonation inside the liquid fizz to create a gas. After talking about the science behind the reaction, start eating this refreshing summer treat! 

If you’re out of ideas for making the last days of summer worthwhile for your children, look no further than the above experiments! Exploring the changing states of matter is not only educational, but it’s a fun-filled way to enjoy a tasty treat on before a new school year starts! 

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Science Projects for Kids: States of Matter

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Trying to comprehend the science of matter may seem complicated, but Science Projects for Kids: States of Matter makes understanding it easy and interesting. Explore transitions between solid and liquid by making ice pops and rock candy.

See what happens to soda pop gas in a balloon, and make a cloud in a bottle. Learn about the concept of surface tension by blowing soap bubbles, stretching the surface of water, and cutting and connecting water drops.

You'll be surprised at how much you can learn about states of matter with these simple experiments. Gather a few materials from around the house, round up the kids, and have some science fun.

Follow the links below to get started with science projects for kids that explain the states of matter:

Solid to Liquid to Solid

One of the easiest ways to understand how states of matter change is to make yummy ice pops.

Sugar Crystals on a String

Enjoy the sweet rewards of this evaporation test.

Homemade Water Purifier

Create a very simple water purification system.

Soda Pop in a Balloon

Before drinking that soda, see what happens when the gas leaves the bottle.

Cloud in a Bottle

Create your very own piece of the sky with this project.

Soap Bubble Shapes

Have fun blowing bubbles while learning about surface tension.

Water Surface Stretch

See how far you can stretch the surface of water.

Cut and Connect Water Drops

Try your luck at splicing and reconnecting water.

Go to the next page to explore changes in states of matter -- and make something good to eat.

For more fun science projects for kids, check out:

• Science Projects for Kids: The Incredible Universe
• Science Projects for Kids: Density and Volume
• Science Projects for Kids: Current Electricity

Stretch the Surface of Water

Watch the transition from solid to liquid to solid in this science project for kids on states of matter -- and make something good to eat. Solids can change into liquids, and liquids can change into solids. Make ice pops with orange juice, and you can see both transformations.

What You'll Need:

• Can of frozen orange juice
• Large spoon
• Wooden craft sticks

Step 1: Open a can of frozen orange juice, and spoon it into a large pitcher. Touch the frozen juice to feel that it is both solid and cold.

Step 2: Add water according to the package directions to make orange juice.

Step 3: Fill several paper cups about 2/3 of the way with orange juice.

Step 4: Put a craft stick into the liquid in each paper cup.

Step 5: Being careful not to spill, put the cups of juice into the freezer.

Step 6: Check them after two hours. Can you gently pull out the craft stick, or has the liquid orange juice frozen solid around the stick?

Step 7: Once the orange juice has frozen, peel off the paper cups. You and your friends can enjoy a frozen treat!

See the next page to learn how to conduct a science experiment that always has sweet results.

Sugar crystals on a string can be fun to watch grow and delicious to eat. When liquids evaporate into gases, they can leave material behind. That material can be very tasty, as shown by this science project for kids on states of matter. But note that this project requires adult supervision!

• Measuring spoon

Step 1: Bring a small pan of water to a boil on the stove, and turn off the heat.

Step 2: Add one tablespoon of sugar, and stir until it dissolves.

Step 3: Continue adding sugar, one tablespoon at a time, letting each tablespoonful dissolve completely before adding the next. When no more sugar will dissolve in the water, allow the saturated solution to cool.

Step 4: Tie a string to the middle of a pencil, and set the pencil across the rim of a glass. Cut the string so that it just touches the bottom of the glass. Tie a button onto the bottom of the string.

Step 5: Pour the cooled sugar water into the glass. Rest the pencil across the rim of the glass so that the string and button are in the solution.

Step 6: Allow the glass to sit in a warm place without being disturbed for several days so that the water evaporates. As the water evaporates, it will leave sugar crystals on the string. You've just made rock candy.

Go to the next page to learn how you can make a simple water purification system.

Try this homemade water purifier to see how suspended matter can be filtered from water. You may be surprised by how this science project for kids on states of matter works.

• Eight-inch-tall cardboard box

Step 1: Set an eight-inch-tall cardboard box on a table. Set a bowl of clean water on top of the box.

Step 2: Gently drop a small handful of dirt into the water. Much of the dirt will remain suspended in the water, and the water in the bowl will be discolored.

Step 3: Set an empty bowl on the table right next to the cardboard box.

Step 4: Twist together several one-foot strands of wool yarn to make a rope.

Step 5: Put one end of this rope, or wick, into the bottom of the bowl of dirty water. Place the other end of the wick in the empty bowl. After a while, drops of clear water will drip off of the free end of the wick into the empty bowl.

What Happened?

The material in your rope absorbs water and draws it from the bowl. It leaves the dirt behind, however, so the water that drips into the second bowl is clean.

What happens when the gas in soda pop escapes into a balloon? See the next page to find out.

Gases can dissolve in a liquid, as this example of soda pop in a balloon shows. But they won't stay there if you release the pressure that holds them. Try this science project for kids on states of matter, and see what happens.

• Bottle of soda pop

Step 1: Open a bottle of soda pop, and set it on a table.

Step 2: Immediately slip the end of a balloon over the neck of the bottle. Pull the balloon's end well down over the bottle so that it fits tightly.

Step 3: Check on the balloon about every 10 minutes for any changes.

Soda pop is carbonated. This means that carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved in the liquid under high pressure.

Opening the bottle releases the pressure, and the carbon dioxide gas begins to escape from the liquid. The balloon trapped the carbon dioxide gas as it left the bottle, and then the gas inflated the balloon.

Tired of the weather outside? Go to the next page, and learn how you can make a little weather of your own.

Make a little weather of your own with a cloud in a bottle. Clouds form when warm, particle-rich air meets cool, moist air. This science project for kids on states of matter can help you understand just how the process works.

• Clear glass two-liter bottle

Step 1: On a cool day with little or no wind, head for your backyard and find a table.

Step 2: Have a child light a candle, with help from an adult.

Step 3: Turn the two-liter glass bottle upside down, and hold the candle inside the mouth of the jar for about 10 seconds. Don't use a plastic jar. The mouth of a plastic jug could melt.

Step 4: Once the bottle's mouth has cooled a little, form a seal around the bottle with your mouth and blow. Once you pull your mouth away, you should see a cloud form inside the bottle -- just like in the skies above your home.

Learn about surface tension on the next page, and have fun blowing bubbles of different shapes and sizes.

Who knew something as fun and as simple as blowing soap bubble shapes could also be an easy science project for kids on states of matter? See what shapes and sizes of bubbles your kids can blow while they learn about surface tension.

• Dish-washing liquid
• Measuring cup and spoon
• Large container
• Pipe cleaners
• Plastic soda pop ring
• Wooden sticks

Step 1: Add 1/2 cup of dish-washing liquid and two teaspoons of glycerin to 1/2 gallon of water in a large container.

Step 2: Mix the materials together, and let them sit overnight.

Step 3: The next day, pour the mixture into a plastic dishpan outdoors.

Step 4: Shape pipe cleaners into circles of different sizes.

Step 5: Cut a circle of plastic from a soda pop ring, and staple it to a wooden stick.

Step 6: Dip these devices into the bubble solution, and gently blow through the circles to make bubbles. Circles of different sizes will make bubbles of different sizes.

Can you stretch the surface of water? Go to the next page for instructions, and give it a try!

It may be hard to believe, but you can stretch the surface of water. See just how far you can stretch it in this science project for kids on states of matter.

• Small plastic cup

Step 1: Fill a small plastic cup all the way to the top with water.

Step 2: Hold an eyedropper filled with water close to the surface of the water in the plastic cup, and gently release the water drop by drop.

How many drops can you add to the plastic cup after it is "full"? Can you see that the water level actually rises above the top of the cup? Water molecules attract one another strongly so that the water holds together.

Water drops are more elastic than you think. Go to the next page to find out how you can splice and reconnect them.

Try to cut and connect water drops in this science project for kids on states of matter. You can split a water drop into smaller drops, and you can put small water drops together. Give it a try, and you'll learn more about the surface tension of liquids.

• Waxed paper
• Drinking straw

Step 1: Put a drop of food color into a glass of water; stir until all of the water is evenly colored.

Step 2: Using an eyedropper, gently put several drops of the colored water onto a sheet of waxed paper. Look at the circular shape of the drops.

Step 3: With a toothpick, try to cut a water drop in half. Can you do it?

Step 4: With a drinking straw, blow gently to try to put two water drops together. Can you do it?

The surface tension of water pulls the water molecules in a drop toward each other. The molecules in the outer layer are drawn in toward the center of the drop, giving the drop its round shape. The surface tension that holds the water in that shape affected how the water acted when you exerted force on it with the toothpick and the straw.

ABOUT THE DESIGNERS

Cloud in a Bottle by Maria Birmingham, Karen E. Bledsoe, and Kelly Milner Halls

States of Matter FAQ

What are the different states of matter, what is an easy state of matter experiment for fifth grade students, what phase change takes the most energy.

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Experiments on States of Matter for Kids

Easy & Simple Science Projects on Matter for Kids

Everything in the world is comprised of matter. The three main states of matter are solids, liquids and gases. Chemistry can seem challenging to some children but by using hands-on experiments geared for younger students you can help your child grasp the properties of each state of matter.

Solid to Liquid to Solid

You can alter states of matter using external variables like temperature. Make your child a tasty treat while teaching him a basic chemistry lesson with this experiment. Using frozen juice, make homemade fruit juice pops and explain the different states of matter during each phase of the experiment. Allow your child to touch and feel as you progress through the steps to learn some of the properties of a solid and liquid. The initial frozen can of juice represents the solid. Once the content of the can mixes with water to make juice the solid turns into a liquid. After placing the juice in cups with sticks and freezing, the liquid has returned back to a solid. The freezing, thawing and re-freezing of the juice represents variations in temperatures which affects the state of matter.

Properties of States of Matter

Teach your child some of the various properties of each state of matter. Place an example of each state of matter in a plastic baggie. Fill the bags with water for liquid, your breath for gas and a pencil or other handy school supply for solid. Allow the children to investigate each bag including the shape, weight and form of the contents. Open the bag of water and pour it into a cup. Identify and describe the physical properties of each state of matter. Point out the invisibility of gases, the changing shape of liquid and the invariability of solids.

Gelatin: Three States of Matter

During the process of making gelatin all three states of matter are revealed. Turn a simple recipe into a tasty science experiment. Begin by pouring water into the kettle to boil. The water represents a liquid. Once the water starts to boil, the heat causes a change in matter to form steam. The steam represents a gas. Finally, mix the prepackaged crystals, representing a solid, with the boiling water to form another liquid. Place the mixture into the fridge until it sets. The change in temperature forms a solid once again.

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• Beacon Learning Center: Freeze Pops
• Illinois Institute of Technology: States of Matter

About the Author

Crystal Lee began her freelance writing career in 2008. She has published multiple articles in "The Student Magazine" and for various online publications. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in women's studies and sociology from the University of Windsor.

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Mom For All Seasons

January 31, 2020 · 2 Comments

15 States of Matter Science Experiments for Kids

Freebies · homeschool

As a homeschooling mom, I want to give my children the best education possible. I want to give them hands-on experiences that will not only help them to learn important material, but that will also produce memories that last a lifetime. Sometimes though, I struggle with figuring out how to make certain topics and/or subjects not so dry and actually fun for them. Science was one of those areas for me. I LOVE science, but my children didn’t naturally share my enthusiasm. When I set out in their elementary years to try to teach them about the States of Matter , they seemed pretty bored…until I introduced some fun states of matter science experiments.

Trying to teach your kids about the states of matter can be kind of difficult for them to comprehend. Sometimes the best way to learn is by doing a hands-on activity that can show them these concepts in action! While you can observe as water becomes evaporated or watch rain turn to ice, sometimes the weather isn’t in your favor. For those times when you want to teach your kids about the states of matter, you can’t go wrong with a science experiment!

These will not only make learning the states of matter fun, but also teach them in a hands-on and visual way! These experiments go perfectly with my States of Matter Chemistry Study Pack ! Get your copy here! 

• Oobleck Science 
• Sink or Float Experiment
• Experiment with Solids, Liquids, and Polymers
• Disappearing Egg Activity
• Ice Melting Science
• Dry Ice Experiment
• Orange Soda Science Experiment
• Lava Lamp Science
• Salt and Ice Activity
• Homemade Water Fountain
• Dancing Raisins
• Oil and Water Science Experiment
• Borax Bouncy Ball
• Making Slush
• Water Science Experiment

Looking for more hours of hands-on Science fun? Check out my Science of Slime Activity Pack ! It’s filled with unique slime recipes and experiments that your children will LOVE!

Head on over here and download this {free} STEM Activities Challenge pack, too!

You might also want to try these Halloween Parts of Speech flashcards

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15 Creative Ways to Teach About States of Matter

Make root beer floats in the name of science!

Understanding the various states of matter is one of the key concepts kids need for exploring chemistry and physics. These states of matter activities help them learn the physical changes that take place as matter converts from solid to liquid to gas. They’ll enjoy the hands-on aspects as they get to see science in action!

1. Start with an anchor chart

An anchor chart like this gives students something to reference as they learn the concepts and complete states of matter activities.

Learn more: Terra Palmer/Pinterest

2. Read books about the states of matter

Read a book or two to introduce younger learners to the concepts of solids, liquids, and gases. Here are a few of our favorites to try.

• What Is The World Made Of? (Weidner Zoehfeld/Meisel)
• What’s the Matter in Mr. Whisker’s Room? (Elsohn Ross/Meisel)
• Matter: Physical Science for Kids (Diehn/Li)
• Bartholomew and the Oobleck (Seuss)

3. Sort and match states of matter

Grab the free printable cards at the link, or cut pictures out of magazines. Then have kids sort them by states of matter.

Learn more: Gift of Curiosity/Sort and Match States of Matter

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4. Discover the states of matter with water

All you need is water for one of the easiest states of matter activities. Start with ice cubes, melt them down to water, then bring them to boiling to watch steam form.

Learn more: Gift of Curiosity/States of Matter using Water

5. Color and learn about states of matter

Kids who love to color will enjoy these free printable worksheets. As they color in the pictures, talk about the differences between the states of matter.

Learn more: This Reading Mama

6. Use cereal to represent atoms

Use Cheerios (or M&Ms, or raisins… you get the idea) to diagram the action of atoms in the various states of matter. Snack on the “atoms” when you’re done!

Learn more: Mrs. Thompsons’s Treasures

7. Drink root beer floats

Speaking of delicious science, root beer floats are one of our favorite states of matter activities! We guarantee this one will be a hit.

Learn more: Learning Lab Resources

8. Churn ice cream in a bag

If you’re really feeling ambitious, make your own ice cream for the floats! It’s a fun way to explore the change from liquid to solid too.

Learn more: Around the Kampfire

9. Harvest water from fog

Simulate fog by spraying water from a bottle. Use a piece of nylon stocking to catch the fog and turn it back into water.

Learn more: Science Buddies/Fog Catcher

10. Explore liquids and solids with crayons

This experiment explores the change from solid to liquid and back again using heat. And at the end, kids have “new” crayons to color with!

Learn more: Life Over Cs

11. Make a cup of hot chocolate

Ready for another edible experiment? Hot chocolate is a cool way to explore the states of matter. (Don’t forget the solids: marshmallows!)

Learn more: Cool Progeny

12. Try cotton swab painting

Use cotton swabs dipped in paint to make illustrations of how atoms move in solids, liquids, and gases.

Learn more: Inspire Me ASAP

13. Make a batch of butter

This experiment not only explores solids and liquids, but also the process known as emulsion . You get double the science, and a yummy treat!

Learn more: Playdough to Plato

14. Fill balloons with solids, liquids, and gases

Fill balloons with water (liquid and frozen) and air, then talk about the properties of each. This is a good way to prove that gas is there, even though you can’t always see it.

Learn more: Fit Kids Clubhouse

15. Explore the properties of Oobleck

Just when kids think they understand the states of matter, along comes a non-Newtonion fluid like oobleck to confuse matters! This is one science demo that never fails to amaze.

Learn more: Science Buddies/Oobleck

Like these state of matter activities? Try these 28 Edible Science Experiments You’ll Actually Want To Eat .

Plus, 50 Easy Science Experiments Kids Can Do At Home .

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States of Matter and Phase Changes

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Science Experiment – States of Matter

Updated:  04 Oct 2023

A science experiment that investigates how a substance's state of matter can be changed.

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Matter makes up all substances in the physical universe. Substances can exist in three states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas. The state of a substance can be changed by changing its temperature. Turning a liquid into a solid is called freezing . So, if a liquid is put in a freezer, will that always make it a solid? Let’s investigate!

This  Chemical Sciences  experiment allows students to investigate changing  states of matter .

Students follow the  scientific method  to conduct the  experiment , then complete the  worksheets  provided.

States of Matter Vocabulary

• States of matter
• temperature
• condensation
• chemical symbol
• kinetic energy
• vapourisation
• physical change
• chemical change
• sublimation
• melting point
• chemical property
• boiling point
• physical properties
• freezing point

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Experiments Kids can do with States of Matter

Are you looking for some fun and educational activities to do with your kids? Look no further! In this article, we will explore some exciting experiments kids can do to learn about the states of matter. From making homemade ice cream to creating a cloud in a bottle, these experiments will not only be enjoyable for kids, but they will also help them learn about the properties of different states of matter and how they can change under different conditions. Grab your lab coat and let’s explore!

Jump to your favorite activity: Phases of Water Create a Cloud in a Jar Make Homemade Ice Cream Growing Crystals

 States of Matter Explained

Observe the phases of water.

We see matter changing states all the time without giving it a second thought.  We can make some easy science lessons just by observing the different things we commonly do with water.

Liquid to Solid

We transform water from a liquid to a solid form all the time, probably without even thinking about it.  By simply exposing water to a temperature below its freezing point of 32°F (0°C), it will turn into ice.  Ice is nothing more than frozen water.

Liquid to Gas

It’s simple to create the conditions to watch.  

This happens because the molecules in the liquid are moving faster as the water temperature increases. This causes the molecules to break away from each other and expand.  When the temperature reaches the boiling point of 212°F (100°C), the water changes state from liquid to gas, which we see as steam.

Gas to Liquid

We’ve seen water change from liquid to a gas by applying heat.  Changing it back is as simple as cooling down the steam.  

Solid to Liquid

Create a cloud in a jar.

Have you ever looked at the sky and wondered how clouds form or what they’re made up of?  You can create the conditions to make a small cloud at home or in your classroom.  This experiment demonstrates how a change in temperature can cause a change in the state of matter, in this case from a gas to a liquid.

To create your very own cloud, you will need the following materials:

The particles from the aerosol (we used some disinfectant spray) give the water molecules something to cling onto, must like dust or pollen in our atmosphere.  The water vapor condensing on the particles forms clouds.  This happens on a grand scale in our sky, though we can create similar conditions to observe in our jar or bottle.

Make Homemade Ice Cream

Our kids loved this fun activity and loved the ice cream even more.  They had some science fun and a delicious treat.

You’ll need 2 bags; one should be large enough to fit the other inside.  With just some milk, sugar, and flavoring of choice (we used vanilla) as ingredients, we can use the chemical reaction between ice and salt to drop the temperature enough to make ice cream.

Growing Crystals

Growing crystals is a cool experiment for kids that demonstrates how the state of matter can change from liquid to solid. Crystals are solid materials that are made up of a repeating pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules. They can form through a process called crystallization, which occurs when a substance changes from a liquid to a solid.

Here is an overview of the steps for this experiment:

Non-Newtonian Fluids and States of Matter

In this case, when atoms are impacted or under pressure, they become densely packed and hold their form; when not under pressure, the molecules relax and separate so they flow like a liquid.

Wrap Up – Science Experiments for Kids on States of Matter

Teaching kids about states of matter can be a fun and interactive experience through hands-on science experiments.  These experiments can help kids learn about the properties of different states of matter and how they can change under different conditions.

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What is it about snot and farts that makes kids laugh? If it gets them to learn science, just go with it. Try these gross science experiments and activities.

CERN Accelerating science

States of matter, states of matter & phase transitions.

Matter occurs in different states: solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma. When external conditions (such as temperature or pressure) change, the state of matter might change as well. For example, a liquid such as water starts becoming a gas when it is heated to its boiling point or starts to freeze when it is cooled to its freezing point. A state of matter with very high energy is plasma. Here, some of the orbital electrons are not bound to atoms or molecules anymore. Hence, plasma is a gas of free electrons and ions.

Phase transitions often occur in nature, but they are also used in many technologies. In particular, several particle detectors rely on phase transitions. Furthermore, high-energy physics research can create an even more energetic state of matter, the so-called quark-gluon-plasma.

Therefore, high-energy physics provides a fruitful and exciting context to discuss states of matter and phase transitions with your students. Moreover, there are several fun experiments that allow students to study phenomena on their own. Below, we highlight some of our favourite experiments and explain how to link them to CERN physics and technologies. When using these experiments with students, make sure to let them predict the outcome of the experiment first, before conducting the experiment and observing the result. 

Vaporisation - liquid to gas

When you heat water up to its boiling point, bubbles of water vapour start to form as water changes from a liquid to a gaseous state. Similarly, when opening a bottle of sparkling water, bubbles start to form. Here, the decrease in pressure caused by opening the lid starts the vaporization process.

An interesting effect can be observed at surfaces that provide tiny impurities, for example, cellulose fibres inside a glass. These impurities provide starting points for bubbles to form, so-called nucleation sites. When pouring sparkling water into a glass, small amounts of gas get trapped inside or around small dust particles such as cellulose fibres. 

A very similar principle forms the basis of the bubble chamber particle detection technique. Bubble chambers are filled with a superheated liquid, that basically really want to turn into a gas. Therefore, any small disturbance or impurity will start the bubble formation process inside a bubble chamber. Indeed, when ionizing particles fly through this superheated liquid, they will ionize the molecules on their way. These ions will then act as nucleating sites and bubbles will form around them. In this way, the track of an ionizing particle leaving a trail of ions can be visualized when taking photographs of the bubble trails at the right moment. (Find out more about bubble chambers here .)

Today, bubble chambers are no longer used for research at CERN. However, they have recently found a new role in dark matter research, for example, in the PICO project in Canada . 

Hands-on experimentation with vaporisation: dancing raisins in sparkling water

One of our favourite experiments is the ‘dancing raisins experiment” that allows students to study the role of nucleation sites in sparkling water.

• sparkling water (or any other sparkling and transparent drink)
• a few raisins 
• other types of potential dancers: different types of noodles, frozen blueberries, lentils, corn, …

Instructions:

• fill a glass with a sparkling liquid
• add a few raisins
• observe the raisins, in particular, their movement

Modifications: 

• You can also study other types of potential ‘dancers’ or other types of sparling liquids. Try to find the best combination.
• Add the raising directly to a bottle of sparkling water and compare their movement with the lid on and off.

Explanation: The raisins will soon start moving up and down in the sparkling water. What happens? The surface of the raisins is not as flat at the surface of the glass. Instead, the surface of raisins includes many tiny fibres that act as nucleation sites. Hence, tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas form at the surface of the raisins. When enough gas bubbles are attached to the surface of a raisin, it will start to rise to the surface (buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle). Once the raisins reach the top, the bubbles pop because they are exposed to the air. Without their ‘floating devices’ the raisins will sink again. 

Watch a video of this experiment on Twitter or  Facebook

Today, we are raising a raisin question. 🍇 + 🚰 = ❔ pic.twitter.com/2JygnRJjBK — CERN (@CERN) May 27, 2020

You can download this video from CERN CDS Videos

Melting - solid to liquid

When the internal energy of a substance increases, e.g. by applying heat or pressure, a solid will eventually become a liquid. For example, ice cubes or a wax candle start melting when applying heat, whereby the pressure remains constant. However, solids such as ice or wax differ in their melting points. Whereas ice melts at a temperature of about 0°C, wax melts at about 40°C. When a substance reaches its melting point, the temperature of the substance does not increase further even if constant heat is applied, as long as there is some solid left to melt. Thus, the applied heat for melting a solid is also referred to as latent heat. Only when all the solid turned into a liquid state does the temperature begin to rise again.

Hands-on experimentation with melting: cooling bath

Among all the experiments in which students can study the melting process, making a cooling bath may be the coolest. All joking aside, it’s indeed really cool! In addition, cooling is essential for running the L HC. Check out CERN's cryogenics webpage for more information.

The minimum temperature of a regular ice-water-mixture is the melting point of ice at 0°C. You could use such a mixture as a cooling bath, e.g., for cooling a bottle of lemonade. However, there is one trick to make your cooling bath even cooler, i.e. to cool your lemonade more efficiently. The melting point of a substance such as ice can be depressed by adding a salt such as sodium chloride. Hence, an ice-water-salt-mixture ends up at a lower temperature than an ice-water-mixture.

• Water, cold
• Crushed ice (alternatively: ice cubes, plastic bag, and hammer), the r atio salt : ice must be 1 : 3
• Thermometer (alternatively: multimeter with a temperature sensor, up to -20°C)
• Beaker glass, 600 ml
• Beaker glass, 400 ml

Safety instructions:

• Use a cold-resistant glass
• Supervise younger students when working with cooling baths
• Put the 400 ml beaker glass in the 600 ml beaker glass to create an insulating container
• Add crushed ice to the internal beaker glass
• Add enough cold water to cover the ice
• Measure the temperature of the water-ice-mixture (should be about 0°C)
• Add salt (remember, the ratio  salt : ice must be 1 : 3)
• Stir the mix until the ice melts
• Measure the temperature of the water-ice-salt-mixture (should be up to -20°C)

Watch a video of this experiment on Twitter or Facebook

Do you like cold summer drinks? 🍹🏖 Today, we show you how to use supercool thermodynamics to create your own cryogenic system in your kitchen. pic.twitter.com/FJedCTv0HU — CERN (@CERN) May 20, 2020

Hands-on experimentation with melting: buoyancy of ice

Another really cool experiment is to study how melting icebergs affect sea level or how melting ice cubes affect the level of your sugary summer drink.

Since salt (or sugar) water is denser than water, the buoyant force exerted on ice is bigger. Thus, ice cubes don’t sink as much in salt (or sugar) water as they would in water. Therefore, the level of the salt (or sugar) water rises, when the ice cubes melt, whereas it remains the same for water. This effect occurs, e.g. when the ice cubes in your sugary summer drink melt. Unfortunately, it also reinforces the negative effects of climate change: Icebergs are large chunks of ice that break off from glaciers (e.g. in Greenland). They are made of water, not salt water. Thus, sea level rises not only when icebergs drift into the sea, but also when they melt. However, the additional effect of the melting ice is comparatively small.*

• Salt (or sugar)
• 6 ice cubes
• 2 Beaker glasses, 50ml

• Fill the 2 beaker glasses half full with water
• Add 3-4 tea spoons of salt (or sugar) in one beaker glass and stir
• Put 3 ice cubes in each beaker glass
• Add water to the salt (or sugar) water until the liquid level is the same in both beaker glasses and stir
• Mark the liquid level on both beaker glasses
• Wait until the ice cubes have melted

Additional information:

One can also observe that the ice cubes melt slower in salt (or sugar) water than in water. This is another consequence of the higher density of salt (or sugar) water in comparison to water.

Did you know that CERN is engaged with the Sustainable Development Goals ? Find out more about how CERN contributes to a better planet on the CERN knowledge transfer website .

* ) The melting of ice floating on the sea will introduce a volume of water about 2.6% greater than that of the originally displaced sea water. [Noerdlinger, P. D., & Brower, K. R. (2007). The melting of floating ice raises the ocean level. Geophysical Journal International , 170 (1), 145-150.]

Do you enjoy hot summer days? ☀️🏖 Today, we show you how melting icebergs affect sea level 🌊 and how melting ice cubes affect your sugary summer drink 🍹 pic.twitter.com/Y685KO7D3m — CERN (@CERN) July 15, 2020

Condensation - gas to liquid

The cloud chamber was one of the first particle detectors. Here, the most important aspect is a supercooled supersaturated alcohol vapour, which is essentially a very cold and very wet gas, that really wants to become a liquid. Indeed, any disturbance of this vapour might start the condensation process. When high-energy ionising particles fly through this vapour layer, they leave a trail of ions behind. These ions then trigger the condensation process acting as condensation nuclei. Therefore, the trail of ions turns into a trail of small drops that can be observed with your eyes or a camera under the right lighting conditions. This relatively easy principle allowed particle physicists to record particle tracks already 100 years ago.

Today, the CLOUD experiment at CERN investigates cloud formation to find out more about climate change. Interested? Watch a TEDEd lesson by Kirby, Richer, & Comes (2016): Cloudy climate change: How clouds affect Earth's temperature.

Hands-on experimentation with condensation: cloud in a bottle

There are several experiments in which your students can study condensation. The cloud in a bottle experiment shows in an impressive way, how a rapid decrease in pressure can trigger the phase transition condensation. There are several videos and instructions on how to make a cloud a bottle online. Depending on the effort and equipment, the effect will be impressive to observe even as a demonstration or easy to do in a safe way as a hands-on experiment. Thus, we highlight our favourite two methods below. If you have access to dry ice, you can also let your students  build their own cloud chamber using dry ice and isopropanol alcohol . 

1. Impressive demonstration

• 30 ml of disinfectant (about 70% alcohol, or purer alcohol)
• a bottle of spray duster
• a 1 l transparent PET bottle
• water and flour

• wear safety goggles to protect your eyes against splashes of alcohol and unforeseen expansions of your PET bottle
• you should also wear gloves to protect your skin from alcohol, especially, if you use very pure alcohol
• make a small hole into the lid of the bottle to squeeze in the tube of the spray duster
• use a flour-water mixture to seal the opening (alternatives: blue tack, playdoh, glue ...)
• add 30 ml of disinfectant (or relatively pure alcohol) into the PET bottle and turn the bottle to make sure the inner surface is covered with alcohol
• put on the lip carefully, all connections need to be airtight
• add about 20 pumps of spray duster into the sealed bottle
• carefully open the lids (attention, pressure build-up!)
• now you should see a very dense cloud consisting of drops of alcohol in your bottle

Modifications:

• you can also use a ball or bike pump to increase the pressure inside the bottle - however, you might need to add some additional condensation nuclei in this case
• additional condensation nuclei: open the lid, squeeze the bottle gently and blow out a match in front of the lid, release the pressure of the bottle to soak in some of the smoke particles (the smoke will provide additional condensation nuclei)
• it also works with water instead of alcohol, but it's not that impressive

2. Easy hands-on experiment

• 10 ml of disinfectant (about 70% alcohol, or purer alcohol)
• a 0.5 l transparent PET bottle
• wear safety goggles to protect your eyes against splashes of alcohol
• wear safety gloves to protect your skin from alcohol, especially, if you use very pure alcohol
• make sure to monitor students during this activity
• always close the alcohol container right after filling the PET bottle!
• CAUTION: Keep the burnig match away from the alcohol! There is a risk of igniting the alcohol vapour if the match is brought too close to the bottle before blowing it out. In case of younger students, only the tutor/teacher should do this experiment.
• add the disinfectant (or pure alcohol) into the PET bottle
• close the bottle with the lid
• turn the bottle to make sure the inner surface is covered with alcohol
• now, open the lid, squeeze the bottle gently and blow out a match in front of the lid
• release the pressure of the bottle to soak in some of the smoke particles (the smoke will provide additional condensation nuclei)
• close the lid
• squeeze the bottle as much as you can and release the pressure of your hands suddenly
• now, you should see a cloud appearing inside the bottle

Annoyed by the 🌞 while you are stuck inside? Today, it’s your turn to make a ☁️ in your kitchen. pic.twitter.com/ttoBBNYxJq — CERN (@CERN) May 6, 2020

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Last updated by Linda Kamp on December 10, 2022 • 17 Comments

Ice Cream in a Bag: Changing Matter Experiment for Second Grade

In second grade science, students investigate ways that matter can change and whether these changes are reversible.  In this post, I’ll show you a fun changing matter experiment you can easily do at school by making ice cream in a bag! It’s a delicious demonstration of how temperature can change matter from a liquid to a solid that students can eat once they finish!

Changing Matter Experiment for Second Grade

Did you know that ice cream is a solid, a liquid, and a gas all at once? It’s true. Ice cream is a combination of solid ice crystals, liquid milk fat, and air bubbles. Making ice cream is a fun and easy way for students to investigate how matter is changed by heating and cooling. As they make their ice cream, students also gain experience in carrying out investigations , making observations, and collecting and analyzing data.

To get started you will need a few inexpensive items that are readily available at any grocery store. I even found a half gallon size jug of half-and-half.

Materials per student:

• 1 cup half-and-half per student
• 2 Tbs. sugar
• 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract
• 1/3 cup rock salt or kosher salt
• sandwich size zipper bag
• 1 gallon size zipper bag per 2 students
• plastic spoons
• student lab sheet

Multiply the recipe by the number of students you have.  I recommend making a large batch of this recipe in a pitcher ahead of time.

1. Mix the half-and-half, sugar, and vanilla extract together in a pitcher.

2. Pour about a cup of the mixture in each student’s sandwich bag.

3. Fill a gallon size Ziploc bag about half full of ice. Add 1/3 cup of salt.

4. Place 2 sealed, sandwich bags with the mixture in each large bag. Seal the bag firmly.

5. Students take turns shaking the bag vigorously for about 7-10 minutes, pausing to record changes they observe on their lab sheet.

 Source: Changing Matter Experiment

Analyzing the Changing Matter

Have students describe the state of their mixture at the start. Next, they record changes they observed after cooling and shaking the mixture for 1 minute, 5 minutes, and 10 minutes. After the investigation, have students compare their data with other students to determine an average time it takes to freeze the mixture. Have students discuss whether they think the amount of shaking is a factor.

As students are completing their lab sheets, encourage them to describe the properties of their ice cream including color, shape (the mixture takes the shape of its container while liquid), and texture.

I recommend making an extra bag of ice cream to demonstrate reversing the change. This can be done by placing the ice cream bag in a sunny window or  leaving it out on a counter to melt.

The Science Behind Ice Cream

Adding salt to ice lowers its melting point. The ice absorbs heat from its surroundings (the bag of ice cream mixture) which allows the ice cream mixture to freeze. Since the mixture isn’t water it needs to be a little below 32 degrees to freeze. Adding salt allows the temperature around the mixture to get colder.

Find more properties of matter science activities in this unit: Properties of Matter unit for 2nd grade .

Get Free Science Activities

Try these engaging science lessons at home or in the classroom!  This FREE science mini-unit includes both printable + digital activities on Google Slides that make it easy to learn science no matter where you are!

I hope you will try this changing matter experiment and give your students hands-on experience in demonstrating a reversible change.  Be sure to pin this post for later so you have it when you plan!

Visit these posts for more hands-on, high engagement science activities:

Marvelous Ways to Teach Matter  

Plant Life Cycle Activities

Sharpie Solubility Experiment  

Happy teaching!

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Reader Interactions

17 comments.

April 10 at 9:34 am

Hi! Student teacher here. Is there any way I can purchase just this ice cream activity? Thank you in advance! Would love to do this with my second grade class.

March 23 at 6:35 am

Hi! I have a student who is dairy free. Do you know if this would work with dairy-free half and half? Thanks!

March 23 at 7:12 am

Hi Sarah, I haven’t tried making ice cream with dairy free half and half. If you do try it, I’d love to know if it works!

March 8 at 3:27 pm

Is there a printable with this for collecting the data for the ice cream experiment?

January 3 at 11:47 am

Hi. Where can I get a copy of the lab sheet?

November 8 at 7:55 am

Thanks for sharing this interactive and hands-on experiment!

November 13 at 10:08 am

You’re welcome Esther! I hope your students enjoy it!

March 24 at 9:47 am

Is there any way to buy the ice cream recording sheets and not the entire matter unit? We already taught matter but it was when we were virtual. I want to do this experiment after field day next week! (Trying to make this year as normal as possible!)

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I’m Linda Kamp, a 20 year primary grade teacher with a passion for creating educational materials that excite students and make learning fun! I'm so glad you're here!

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Year 4: States of Matter

This list consists of lesson plans, activities and video clips to support the teaching of states of matter in Year Four. It contains tips on using the resources, suggestions for further use and background subject knowledge. Possible misconceptions are highlighted so that teachers may plan lessons to facilitate correct conceptual understanding. Designed to support the new curriculum programme of study it aims to cover many of the requirements for knowledge and understanding and working scientifically. The statutory requirements are that children are taught to:

• compare and group materials together, according to whether they are solids, liquids or gases

•  observe that some materials change state when they are heated or cooled, and measure or research the temperature at which this happens in degrees Celsius (°C)

• identify the part played by evaporation and condensation in the water cycle and associate the rate of evaporation with temperature.

Visit the primary science  webpage to access all lists.  

Selenia in Escaping From Dinosaurs

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: University of the West of England (Bristol)

This colourful comic, which children will love, is an inventive way of introducing an investigation on gases. 

Carbon dioxide is a commonly known gas which is used in the production of fizzy drinks. As children will most likely have tried fizzy drinks it is a great experiement which will excite them to understand more about the properties of gases.

Ask children to observe what happens when a sweet is dropped into a fizzy drink. The resulting explosion may be explained as follows: the sweet helps the gas form more bubbles in the drink as the sweet sinks to the bottom of the container so the gas bubbles must rise through the liquid. If there is enough gas trying to escape, it forces some of the liquid (the drink) out of the bottle.

Understanding Reversible Change

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Yes Programme

This short clip helps children see that chocolate changes from a solid to a liquid when heated and back to a solid when cooled. Children will love seeing how chocolates are made and how the science of changing state has applications in the real world. Making crispy cakes or even chocolates if you are more adventurous is a great activity, which children will enjoy whilst helping them learn more about changing state. 

Drama: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Association for Science Education (ASE)

The concept of a gas is difficult for young children and one which may take time to develop. Physically representing gas molecules may help them to understand the properties of gases. It can also help them develop an understanding of changing state.  

Solid ice which is composed of closely packed molecules is heated and melts to form a liquid in which molecules move around more freely. The liquid water is then heated to boiling point and some molecules change to a gas and float off around the classroom. 

This is a fun activity for all children, which could be used as a starter or a plenary with either the whole class or with smaller groups. Children could explain what is happening as they role-play which would help reinforce their learning. 

At what temperature does chocolate melt?

Quality Assured Category: Careers Publisher: Royal Society

This resource provides a set of videos and a practical investigation aimed at supporting experimental science in the classroom and relating it to real world experiences. In the first video Professor Brian Cox joins a teacher to find out how to set up and run an investigation to find out the time it takes for different types of chocolate to melt. In the next video he then joins the class carrying out their investigation. Further videos show Brian Cox visiting a chocolate factory and a factory which produces parts for jet engines to find out more about the melting of different materials and how this can be applied to real world contexts. A written resource guides teachers on how to run the investigation in class.

What Stuff Does

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Teachers TV

This series of short clips may be used as a starter to introduce children to the properties of solids, liquids and gases. 

Melting Moments which begins at 8:41 looks what happens to ice when it is heated.

Rainy days from 9:33 discusses the water cycle and the part played by evaporation and condensation.  

Water for Industry

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC)

Handy guides and activities on using a thermometer and properties of liquids.

A Question of Cooling

Some good activities and resources linked to heating and cooling.

The water cycle

Quality Assured Category: Climate Change Publisher: Environment Agency

This activity   provides the opportunity for pupils to learn about the water cycle by asking them to discuss and think about whether they are drinking the same water as the dinosaurs did, and then think about the concept of recycling. Pupils then work collaboratively to create a model of the water cycle.

Water everywhere - working wall

This resource gives a teacher the materials to be able to create a working wall on the topic of water which they can build and add to over a series of lessons.

How much water do we waste?

This investigation  has been designed to make pupils realise how much water they are wasting. The task highlights the importance of teeth brushing and the gets pupils to recreate cleaning their teeth and measure the water wasted during this daily task.

Water resources

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Geological Society

These fact sheets explore the how fresh water is needed for every part of our lives, and how access to clean water is becoming increasingly difficult with a growing population and changing climate so discovering new supplies and managing water carefully is more important than ever.

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Physicists take molecules to a new ultracold limit, creating a state of matter where quantum mechanics reigns

by Ellen Neff, Columbia University

There's a hot new BEC in town that has nothing to do with bacon, egg, and cheese. You won't find it at your local bodega, but in the coldest place in New York: the lab of Columbia physicist Sebastian Will, whose experimental group specializes in pushing atoms and molecules to temperatures just fractions of a degree above absolute zero.

Writing in Nature , the Will lab, supported by theoretical collaborator Tijs Karman at Radboud University in the Netherlands, has successfully created a unique quantum state of matter called a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) out of molecules.

Their BEC, cooled to just five nanoKelvin, or about -459.66°F, and stable for a strikingly long two seconds, is made from sodium-cesium molecules. Like water molecules , these molecules are polar, meaning they carry both a positive and a negative charge. The imbalanced distribution of electric charge facilitates the long-range interactions that make for the most interesting physics, noted Will.

Research the Will lab is excited to pursue with their molecular BECs includes exploring a number of different quantum phenomena, including new types of superfluidity, a state of matter that flows without experiencing any friction. They also hope to turn their BECs into simulators that can recreate the enigmatic quantum properties of more complex materials, like solid crystals.

"Molecular Bose-Einstein condensates open up whole new areas of research, from understanding truly fundamental physics to advancing powerful quantum simulations," he said. "This is an exciting achievement, but it's really just the beginning."

It's a dream come true for the Will lab and one that's been decades in the making for the larger ultracold research community.

To go colder, add microwaves

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with a long history at Columbia. In the 1930s, physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi, who would go on to the Nobel Prize in Physics, did pioneering work on microwaves that led to the development of airborne radar systems.

"Rabi was one of the first to control the quantum states of molecules and was a pioneer of microwave research," said Will. "Our work follows in that 90-year-long tradition."

While you may be familiar with the role of microwaves in heating up your food, it turns out they can also facilitate cooling. Individual molecules have a tendency to bump into each other and will, as a result, form bigger complexes that disappear from the samples. Microwaves can create small shields around each molecule that prevent them from colliding, an idea proposed by Karman, their collaborator in the Netherlands.

With the molecules shielded against lossy collisions, only the hottest ones can be preferentially removed from the sample—the same physics principle that cools your cup of coffee when you blow along the top of it, explained author Niccolò Bigagli. Those molecules that remain will be cooler, and the overall temperature of the sample will drop.

The team came close to creating molecular BEC last fall in work published in Nature Physics that introduced the microwave shielding method. But another experimental twist was necessary. When they added a second microwave field, cooling became even more efficient and sodium-cesium finally crossed the BEC threshold—a goal the Will lab had harbored since it opened at Columbia in 2018.

"This was fantastic closure for me," said Bigagli, who graduated with his Ph.D. in physics this spring and was a founding lab member. "We went from not having a lab set up yet to these fantastic results."

In addition to reducing collisions, the second microwave field can also manipulate the molecules' orientation. That in turn is a means to control how they interact, which the lab is currently exploring. "By controlling these dipolar interactions, we hope to create new quantum states and phases of matter," said co-author and Columbia postdoc Ian Stevenson.

A new world for quantum physics opens

Ye, a pioneer of ultracold science based in Boulder, considers the results a beautiful piece of science. "The work will have important impacts on a number of scientific fields, including the study of quantum chemistry and exploration of strongly correlated quantum materials," he commented. "Will's experiment features precise control of molecular interactions to steer the system toward a desired outcome—a marvelous achievement in quantum control technology."

The Columbia team, meanwhile, is excited to have a theoretical description of interactions between molecules that have been validated experimentally. "We really have a good idea of the interactions in this system, which is also critical for the next steps, like exploring dipolar many-body physics," said Karman. "We've come up with schemes to control interactions, tested these in theory, and implemented them in the experiment. It's been really an amazing experience to see these ideas for microwave 'shielding' being realized in the lab."

There are dozens of theoretical predictions that can now be tested experimentally with the molecular BECs, which co-first author and Ph.D. student Siwei Zhang noted, are quite stable. Most ultracold experiments take place within a second—some as short as a few milliseconds—but the lab's molecular BECs last upwards of two seconds. "That will really let us investigate open questions in quantum physics," he said.

One idea is to create artificial crystals with the BECs trapped in an optical lattice made from lasers. This would enable powerful quantum simulations that mimic the interactions in natural crystals, noted Will, which is a focus area of condensed matter physics.

Quantum simulators are routinely made with atoms, but atoms have short-range interactions—they practically have to be on top of one another—which limits how well they can model more complicated materials. "The molecular BEC will introduce more flavor," said Will.

That includes dimensionality, said co-first author and Ph.D. student Weijun Yuan. "We would like to use the BECs in a 2D system. When you go from three dimensions to two, you can always expect new physics to emerge," he said. 2D materials are a major area of research at Columbia; having a model system made of molecular BECs could help Will and his condensed matter colleagues explore quantum phenomena including superconductivity, superfluidity, and more.

"It seems like a whole new world of possibilities is opening up," Will said.

Journal information: Nature Physics , Nature

Provided by Columbia University

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Changing State—Condensation

Instructions, simulations.

Youtube ID: bOoMCiv5FYE

Lesson Summary Video for teachers

Note: This video is designed to help the teacher better understand the lesson and is NOT intended to be shown to students. It includes observations and conclusions that students are meant to make on their own.

Key Concepts

• Condensation is the process in which molecules of a gas slow down, come together, and form a liquid.
• When gas molecules transfer their energy to something cooler, they slow down, and their attractions cause them to join together to become a liquid.
• Making water vapor colder increases the rate of condensation.
• Increasing the concentration of water vapor in the air increases the rate of condensation.

Students investigate the condensation of water vapor on the inside of a plastic cup. Then they design an experiment to see if cooling water vapor even more affects the rate of condensation. Students also relate evaporation and condensation to the water cycle.

Students will be able to describe on the molecular level how cooling water vapor causes condensation. Students will also describe the roles evaporation and condensation play in the water cycle.

Be sure you and the students wear properly fitting goggles.

Materials for Each Group

• 1 short wide-rimmed clear plastic cup
• 1 tall smaller-rimmed clear plastic cup
• Hot water (about 50 °C)

Materials for the Demonstration

• 2 clear plastic cups
• Room-temperature water
• Gallon-size zip-closing plastic bag

About this Lesson

Try the demonstration before presenting it to your students. It will not work if the humidity is too low. You could instead show students the following video:

Condensation Cup

The activity for the students will work no matter how dry or humid the air.

Download All 2.3 Lesson Resources

Get the entire lesson plan and Student Activity Sheet for "Lesson 2.3 - Changing State—Condensation."

Download PDF DOCX | Google Doc

Online Assignments

Supplement in-class learning with interactive, multimedia-rich Google Forms lesson modules, perfect for reinforcing key chemistry concepts and scientific investigation skills.

Explore Online Assignments

Standards Alignment

2.3 Next Generation Science Standards (PDF) 2.3 Common Core State Standards (PDF)

More about Standards Alignment

Step 1 Prepare for the demonstration about 5–10 minutes before class.

Materials for the demonstration

• Place water and ice cubes into two identical plastic cups.
• Immediately place one of the cups in a zip-closing plastic bag and get as much air out of the bag as possible. Close the bag securely.
• Allow the cups to sit undisturbed for about 5–10 minutes.

Expected results

The cup inside the bag should have very little moisture on it because not much water vapor from the air was able to contact it. The cup exposed to air should have more moisture on the outside because it was exposed to the water vapor in the air, which condensed on the outside of the cup.

Step 2 Show students the two cold cups of water and ask why water appears on the outside of only one of them.

Show students the two cups you prepared and ask:

• Which cup has the most moisture on the outside of it? Students should realize that the cup exposed to more air has the most moisture on the outside of it.
• Why do you think the cup that is exposed to more air has more water on the outside of it? Make sure students understand that this moisture came from water vapor in the air that condensed on the outside of the cup. Remind students that water vapor is one of the gases that makes up air. The cup in the bag has very little to no moisture on it because it is exposed to much less air. Less air means less water vapor.
• Some people think that the moisture that appears on the outside of a cold cup is water that has leaked through the cup. How does this demonstration prove that this idea is not true? Because there is little to no moisture on the outside of the cup in the bag, students should conclude that water could not have leaked through the cup. If the moisture came from leaking, there would be water on the outside of both cups.

Step 3 Introduce the process of condensation.

If students do not know what the process of condensation is, you can tell them it is the opposite of evaporation. In evaporation, a liquid (like water) changes state to become a gas (water vapor). In condensation, a gas (like water vapor) changes state to become a liquid (water).

Explain that as water molecules in the air cool and slow down, their attractions overcome their speed and they join together, forming liquid water. This is the process of condensation .

Ask students:

• What are some examples of condensation? Coming up with examples of condensation is a bit harder than examples of evaporation. One common example is water that forms on the outside of a cold cup or the moisture that forms on car windows during a cool night. Other examples of condensation are dew, fog, clouds, and the fog you see when you breathe out on a cold day.
• You may have made a cold window “cloudy” by breathing on it and then drawn on the window with your finger. Where do you think that cloudiness comes from? Help students realize that the moisture on the window, and all of the examples of condensation they gave, comes from water vapor in the air.
• A real cloud is made up of tiny droplets of water. Where do you think they come from? The water in a cloud comes from water vapor in the air that has condensed.

Give each student an activity sheet.

• Lesson 2.3 Student Activity Sheet  PDF  |  DOCX  |  Google Doc
• Lesson 2.3 Activity Sheet Answers  PDF  |  DOCX  |  Google Doc

Download the student activity sheet, and distribute one per student.

All Downloads

The activity sheet will serve as the “Evaluate” component of each 5-E lesson plan. The activity sheets are formative assessments of student progress and understanding. A more formal summative assessment is included at the end of each chapter.

Have students answer questions about the demonstration on the activity sheet. They will also record their observations and answer questions about the activity. The Explain It with Atoms & Molecules and Take It Further sections of the activity sheet will either be completed as a class, in groups, or individually depending on your instructions. Look at the teacher version of the activity sheet to find the questions and answers.

Step 4 Have students collect a sample of water vapor and observe the process of condensation.

Question to investigate

What happens when water vapor condenses?

Materials for each group

• Hot water (about 50°C)

• Fill a wide clear plastic cup about 2/3 full of hot tap water. Place the tall cup upside down inside the rim of the bottom cup as shown.
• Watch the cups for 1–2 minutes.
• Use a magnifier to look at the sides and top of the top cup.
• Take the top cup off and feel the inside surface.

The top cup will become cloudy-looking as tiny drops of liquid water collect on the inside surface of the cup.

Step 5 Discuss with students what they think is happening inside the cups.

• What do you think is on the inside of the top cup? Students should agree that the inside of the top cup is coated with tiny drops of liquid water.
• How do you think the drops of water on the inside of the top cup got there? Students should realize that some of the water in the cup evaporated, filling the inside of the top cup with invisible water vapor. Some of this water vapor condensed into tiny drops of liquid water when it condensed on the inside of the top cup.

Explain that water vapor leaves the hot water and fills the space above, contacting the inside surface of the top cup. Energy is transferred from the water vapor to the cup, which cools the water vapor. When the water vapor cools enough, the attractions between the molecules bring them together. This causes the water vapor to change state and become tiny drops of liquid water. The process of changing from a gas to a liquid is called condensation .

Step 6 Show an animation to help students understand what happens when gases condense to their liquid state.

Show the animation Condensation . 

Condensation

Explain that the fast-moving molecules of water vapor transfer their energy to the side of the cup, which is cooler. This causes the water vapor molecules to slow down. When they slow down enough, their attractions overcome their speed and they stay together as liquid water on the inside surface of the cup.

Read more about evaporation and condensation in the Teacher Background.

• Lesson 2.3 Teacher Background  PDF

Step 7 Discuss how to design an experiment to find out whether increased cooling of the water vapor affects the rate of condensation.

The goal of this discussion is to help students better understand the experimental design outlined in the procedure.

How could we set up an experiment to see if making water vapor even colder affects the rate of condensation?

• How can we get the water vapor we need for this experiment? Students may suggest collecting water vapor as in the previous activity or collecting it over a pot of boiling water or some other way.
• Will we need more than one sample of water vapor? Should we cool one sample of water vapor, but not the other? Help students understand that they will need 2 samples of water vapor, only one of which is cooled.
• How will we cool the water vapor? Students may have many ideas for cooling water vapor, like placing a sample in a refrigerator or cooler filled with ice or placing a sample of water vapor outside if the weather is cool enough.
• How will you know which sample of water vapor condensed faster? By comparing the size of the drops of water formed in both samples, students can determine whether cooling water vapor increases the rate of condensation.

Step 8 Have students do an activity to find out whether cooling water vapor increases the rate of condensation.          

Does making water vapor colder increase the rate of condensation?

• 2 short wide-rimmed clear plastic cups
• 2 tall smaller-rimmed clear plastic cups

• Fill two wide clear plastic cups about 2/3 full of hot tap water.
• Quickly place the taller cups upside down inside the rim of each cup of water, as shown.
• Place a piece of ice on top of one of the cups.
• Wait 2–3 minutes.
• Remove the ice and use a paper towel to dry the top of the cup where the ice may have melted a bit.
• Use a magnifier to examine the tops of the two upper cups.

There will be bigger drops of water on the inside of the top cup below the ice.

Step 9 While waiting for results, have students predict whether increased cooling will increase the rate of condensation.

Ask students to make a prediction:

• What effect do you think adding the ice cube will have on the rate of condensation?
• Explain on the molecular level, why you think extra cooling might affect the rate of condensation.

Step 10 Discuss students’ observations and draw conclusions.

• Which top cup appears to have more water on it? The cup with the ice.
• Why do you think the cup with the ice has bigger drops of water on the inside than the cup without ice? When the water vapor is cooled by the ice, the water molecules slow down more than in the cup without the ice. This allows their attractions to bring more molecules together to become liquid water.
• Does cooling water vapor increase the rate of condensation? Yes. What evidence do you have from the activity to support your answer?  Students should realize that the bigger drops of water on the top cup with the ice indicate a greater amount of condensation. Because the water vapor in both sets of cups was condensing for the same length of time, the water vapor in the cup with the bigger drops must have condensed at a faster rate.

Step 11 Explain examples of condensation on the molecular level.

• Fogging up a cold window When you breathe out, there is water vapor in your breath. When you breathe on a cold window in the winter, the window gets tiny droplets of moisture on it or “fogs up.” What happens to the molecules of water vapor as they get near the cold window? The water molecules in your breath are the gas water vapor. They slow down as they transfer some of their energy to the cold window. The attractions between the slower-moving water vapor molecules bring them together to form tiny droplets of liquid water.
• Warm breath in cold air When you breathe out in the winter, you see “smoke,” which is really a fog of tiny droplets of liquid water. What happens to the molecules of water vapor from your breath when they hit the cold air? The water vapor in your breath is warmer than the outside air. The water vapor molecules transfer energy to the colder air. This makes the water vapor molecules move more slowly. Their attractions overcome their motion and they join together or condense to form liquid water.

Step 12 Explain to students that the evaporation and condensation occur naturally in the water cycle.

Project the image Water Cycle from the activity sheet.

One common place you see the results of evaporation and condensation is in the weather. Water vapor in the air (humidity), clouds, and rain are all the result of evaporation and condensation. What happens to the water molecules during the evaporation and condensation stages of the water cycle?

Energy from the sun causes water to evaporate from the land and from bodies of water. As this water vapor moves high into the air, the surrounding air cools it, causing it to condense and form clouds. The tiny droplets of water in clouds collect on bits of dust in the air. When these drops of water become heavy enough, they fall to the ground as rain (or hail or snow). The rain flows over the land towards bodies of water, where it can evaporate again and continue the cycle

Step 13 Introduce the idea that the amount of water vapor in the air affects the rate of condensation.

Ask students if they know what a terrarium is. Tell students that a terrarium is a closed container with moss or other plants in which water continually evaporates and condenses. At first, the evaporation rate is higher than the rate of condensation. But as the concentration of water molecules increases in the container, the rate of condensation increases. Eventually, the rate of condensation equals the rate of evaporation, and the water molecules go back and forth between the liquid and the gas.

Show the animation Evaporation & Condensation 

Evaporation and Condensation

Explain that the animation moves up through a sample of water to the surface. Water molecules evaporate (leave the liquid) and condense (reenter the liquid) at the same time.

The animation shows the beginning of the process where water molecules evaporate at a faster rate than they condense. Explain to students that if the process were to continue, the rate of evaporation and condensation would become equal.

So, temperature isn’t the only factor that affects condensation. The concentration of water molecules in the air is also an important factor. The higher the concentration of water molecules in the air (humidity), the higher the rate of condensation.

This is why clothes dry more slowly on a humid day. The high concentration of water vapor in the air causes water to condense on the clothes. So even though water is evaporating from the clothes, it is also condensing on them and slowing down the drying.

Read more about evaporation and condensation equilibrium in the Teacher Background.

Step 14 Have students design an activity to see why wind helps things dry more quickly.

Explain to students that when water evaporates from something like a paper towel, the area in the air immediately above the paper towel has a little extra water vapor in it from the evaporating water. Some of this water vapor condenses back onto the paper so the paper doesn’t dry as quickly. If that water vapor is blown away by moving air like wind, there will be less condensation and the paper will dry more quickly.

• How would you design an experiment that can test whether a paper towel dries more quickly if the air around the paper towel is moving?

As you listen to suggestions from students, be sure that they identify and control variables. The paper should be in the same situation except for air moving over one piece but not the other. It is not a good idea to blow on one because the breath could be a different temperature than the surrounding air and also contains water vapor. These are both variables that would affect the experiment. It is better to wave one of the paper towels back and forth for a few minutes and have someone else hold the other or tape it so it hangs freely.

• 2 pieces of brown paper towel
• Place one drop of water on two pieces of brown paper towel.
• Have your partner hold one paper while you swing the other one through the air.
• After about 30 seconds compare the paper towels to see if you can see any difference in how wet or dry the papers are.
• Repeat step 3 until you notice a difference between the wet spots on the paper towels.

The water on the paper towel with more air moving over it should dry faster than the other paper towel on the table. The paper towel on the table had air with a little more humidity over it condensing back onto the paper. This slowed down the drying process. The paper waved in the air didn’t have humid air around it and condensing back on it as much, so it dried more quickly.

6 Extra Extend

Step 15 use the processes of evaporation and condensation to purify water..

Evaporation and condensation can be used to purify water. Imagine what might happen if colored water evaporates and then condenses.

If colored water evaporates and condenses, will there be any color in the water that is produced?

• Food coloring
• White napkin or paper towel

• Add hot tap water to a wide clear plastic cup until it is about 2/3 full.
• Add 1 drop of food coloring and stir until the water is completely colored.
• Turn another clear plastic cup upside down on the cup of hot water as shown. Place an ice cube on the top cup to make condensation happen faster.
• Wait 1–3 minutes for water vapor to condense to liquid water on the inside surface of the top cup.
• Use a white paper towel to wipe the inside of the cup to check for any color.

The water that collects on the inside of the top cup will be colorless. The color will remain in the bottom cup. Explain that the process described in the procedure is called distillation . In distillation, water containing dissolved substances can be purified (as long as these substances don’t easily evaporate). When the water evaporates and condenses, the food coloring is left behind and the pure water can be collected and used.

What is the 5-E format?

The 5-E instructional model is an approach to teaching and learning that focuses on active engagement, inquiry-based learning, and collaboration.

Simulations for Lesson 2.3

For Students

For Teachers

• Lesson 2.3 Lesson Plan  PDF  |  DOCX  |  Google Doc
• Lesson 2.3 Teacher Background PDF 

Resources for the entire Chapter 2

• Chapter 2 Student Reading  PDF  |  DOCX  |  Google Doc
• Chapter 2 Test Bank  PDF  |  DOCX  |  Google Doc

More from Chapter 2

Interactive Lesson Modules

• Lesson 2.3 Online Assignments  Google Form

Have Questions? Visit Help Center

This lesson is part of:  Chapter 2: Changes of State

Lesson 2.2: Changing State—Evaporation

Lesson 2.4: Changing State—Freezing

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Exploring the Unknown: A Unique Quantum State of Matter Emerges at Columbia

By Ellen Neff, Columbia University June 5, 2024

Researchers at Columbia University have created a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) using sodium-cesium molecules, cooled to just five nanoKelvin and stable for two seconds. This achievement opens up possibilities for exploring various quantum phenomena and simulating complex materials’ quantum properties. Credit: SciTechDaily.com

Physicists at Columbia University have taken molecules to a new ultracold limit and created a state of matter where quantum mechanics reigns.

There’s a hot new BEC in town that has nothing to do with bacon, egg, and cheese. You won’t find it at your local bodega, but in the coldest place in New York: the lab of Columbia physicist Sebastian Will, whose experimental group specializes in pushing atoms and molecules to temperatures just fractions of a degree above absolute zero .

Writing in Nature , the Will lab, supported by theoretical collaborator Tijs Karman at Radboud University in the Netherlands, has successfully created a unique quantum state of matter called a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) out of molecules.

Breakthrough in Bose-Einstein Condensates

Their BEC, cooled to just five nanoKelvin, or about -459.66 °F, and stable for a strikingly long two seconds, is made from sodium-cesium molecules. Like water molecules, these molecules are polar, meaning they carry both a positive and a negative charge. The imbalanced distribution of electric charge facilitates the long-range interactions that make for the most interesting physics, noted Will.

Research the Will lab is excited to pursue with their molecular BECs includes exploring a number of different quantum phenomena, including new types of superfluidity, a state of matter that flows without experiencing any friction. They also hope to turn their BECs into simulators that can recreate the enigmatic quantum properties of more complex materials, like solid crystals.

With the help of microwaves, Columbia physicists have created a Bose-Einstein Condensate, a unique state of matter, from sodium-cesium molecules. Credit: Will Lab, Columbia University/Myles Marshall

“Molecular Bose-Einstein condensates open up whole new areas of research, from understanding truly fundamental physics to advancing powerful quantum simulations,” he said. “This is an exciting achievement, but it’s really just the beginning.”

It’s a dream come true for the Will lab and one that’s been decades in the making for the larger ultracold research community.

Ultracold Molecules, a Century in the Making

The science of BECs goes back a century to physicists Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein. In a series of papers published in 1924 and 1925, they predicted that a group of particles cooled to a near standstill would coalesce into a single, larger superentity with shared properties and behaviors dictated by the laws of quantum mechanics. If BECs could be created, they would offer researchers an enticing platform to explore quantum mechanics at a more tractable scale than individual atoms or molecules.

It took about 70 years from those first theoretical predictions, but the first atomic BECs were created in 1995. The achievement was recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001, just around the time Will was getting his start in physics at the University of Mainz in Germany. Labs now routinely make atomic BECs from several different types of atoms. These BECs have expanded our understanding of concepts such as the wave nature of matter and superfluids and led to the development of technologies such as quantum gas microscopes and quantum simulators, to name a few.

From left to right: Associate Research Scientist Ian Stevenson; PhD student Niccolò Bigagli; PhD student Weijun Yuan; Undergraduate student Boris Bulatovic; PhD student Siwei Zhang; and Principal Investigator Sebastian Will. Not shown: Tijs Karman. Credit: Columbia University

But atoms are, in the grand scheme of things, relatively simple. They are round objects and usually do not feature interactions that may arise from polarity. Since the first atomic BECs were realized, scientists have wanted to create more complicated versions made from molecules. But even simple diatomic molecules made of two atoms of different elements bonded together had proved tricky to cool below the temperature needed to form a proper BEC.

The first breakthrough came in 2008 when Deborah Jin and Jun Ye, physicists at JILA in Boulder, Colorado, cooled a gas of potassium-rubidium molecules down to about 350 nanoKelvin. Such ultracold molecules have proved useful to perform quantum simulations and to study molecular collisions and quantum chemistry in recent years, but to cross the BEC threshold, even lower temperatures were needed.

In 2023, the Will lab created the first ultracold gas of their molecule of choice, sodium-cesium, using a combination of laser cooling and magnetic manipulations, similar to Jin and Ye’s approach. To go colder, they brought in microwaves.

Innovations With Microwaves

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with a long history at Columbia. In the 1930s, physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi, who would go on to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics, did pioneering work on microwaves that led to the development of airborne radar systems. “Rabi was one of the first to control the quantum states of molecules and was a pioneer of microwave research,” said Will. “Our work follows in that 90-year-long tradition.”

While you may be familiar with the role of microwaves in heating up your food, it turns out they can also facilitate cooling. Individual molecules have a tendency to bump into each other and will, as a result, form bigger complexes that disappear from the samples. Microwaves can create small shields around each molecule that prevent them from colliding, an idea proposed by Karman, their collaborator in the Netherlands. With the molecules shielded against lossy collisions, only the hottest ones can be preferentially removed from the sample—the same physics principle that cools your cup of coffee when you blow along the top of it, explained author Niccolò Bigagli. Those molecules that remain will be cooler, and the overall temperature of the sample will drop.

The team came close to creating molecular BEC last fall in work published in Nature Physics that introduced the microwave shielding method. But another experimental twist was necessary. When they added a second microwave field, cooling became even more efficient, and sodium-cesium finally crossed the BEC threshold—a goal the Will lab had harbored since it opened at Columbia in 2018.

“This was fantastic closure for me,” said Bigagli, who graduated with his PhD in physics this spring and was a founding lab member. “We went from not having a lab set up yet to these fantastic results.”

In addition to reducing collisions, the second microwave field can also manipulate the molecules’ orientation. That in turn is a means to control how they interact, which the lab is currently exploring. “By controlling these dipolar interactions, we hope to create new quantum states and phases of matter,” said co-author and Columbia postdoc Ian Stevenson.

A New World for Quantum Physics Opens Up

Ye, a pioneer of ultracold science based in Boulder, considers the results a beautiful piece of science. “The work will have important impacts on a number of scientific fields, including the study of quantum chemistry and exploration of strongly correlated quantum materials,” he commented. “Will’s experiment features precise control of molecular interactions to steer the system toward a desired outcome—a marvelous achievement in quantum control technology.”

The Columbia team, meanwhile, is excited to have a theoretical description of interactions between molecules that have been validated experimentally. “We really have a good idea of the interactions in this system, which is also critical for the next steps, like exploring dipolar many-body physics,” said Karman. “We’ve come up with schemes to control interactions, tested these in theory, and implemented them in the experiment. It’s been really an amazing experience to see these ideas for microwave ‘shielding’ being realized in the lab.”

There are dozens of theoretical predictions that can now be tested experimentally with the molecular BECs, which co-first author and PhD student Siwei Zhang noted, are quite stable. Most ultracold experiments take place within a second—some as short as a few milliseconds—but the lab’s molecular BECs last upwards of two seconds. “That will really let us investigate open questions in quantum physics,” he said.

One idea is to create artificial crystals with the BECs trapped in an optical lattice made from lasers. This would enable powerful quantum simulations that mimic the interactions in natural crystals, noted Will, which is a focus area of condensed matter physics. Quantum simulators are routinely made with atoms, but atoms have short-range interactions—they practically have to be on top of one another—which limits how well they can model more complicated materials. “The molecular BEC will introduce more flavor,” said Will.

That includes dimensionality, said co-first author and PhD student Weijun Yuan. “We would like to use the BECs in a 2D system. When you go from three dimensions to two, you can always expect new physics to emerge,” he said. 2D materials are a major area of research at Columbia; having a model system made of molecular BECs could help Will and his condensed matter colleagues explore quantum phenomena including superconductivity, superfluidity, and more.

“It seems like a whole new world of possibilities is opening up,” said Will.

Reference: “Observation of Bose–Einstein condensation of dipolar molecules” by Niccolò Bigagli, Weijun Yuan, Siwei Zhang, Boris Bulatovic, Tijs Karman, Ian Stevenson and Sebastian Will, 3 June 2024, Nature . DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07492-z

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2 comments on "exploring the unknown: a unique quantum state of matter emerges at columbia".

It doesn’t seem to be a quantum scale phenomenon. Isn’t it just a typical molecular scale rotine change.

Hooray for Columbia; I wonder how many Palestinian lives were lost in that endeavor?

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Real Teenagers, Fake Nudes: The Rise of Deepfakes in American Schools

Students are using artificial intelligence to create sexually explicit images of their classmates..

Hosted by Sabrina Tavernise

Featuring Natasha Singer

Produced by Sydney Harper and Shannon M. Lin

Edited by Marc Georges

Original music by Marion Lozano ,  Elisheba Ittoop and Dan Powell

Engineered by Chris Wood

Listen and follow The Daily Apple Podcasts | Spotify | Amazon Music | YouTube

Warning: this episode contains strong language, descriptions of explicit content and sexual harassment

A disturbing new problem is sweeping American schools: Students are using artificial intelligence to create sexually explicit images of their classmates and then share them without the person depicted even knowing.

Natasha Singer, who covers technology, business and society for The Times, discusses the rise of deepfake nudes and one girl’s fight to stop them.

On today’s episode

Natasha Singer , a reporter covering technology, business and society for The New York Times.

Background reading

Using artificial intelligence, middle and high school students have fabricated explicit images of female classmates and shared the doctored pictures.

Spurred by teenage girls, states have moved to ban deepfake nudes .

There are a lot of ways to listen to The Daily. Here’s how.

We aim to make transcripts available the next workday after an episode’s publication. You can find them at the top of the page.

The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Mike Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, John Ketchum, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Summer Thomad, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Sam Dolnick, Paula Szuchman, Lisa Tobin, Larissa Anderson, Julia Simon, Sofia Milan, Mahima Chablani, Elizabeth Davis-Moorer, Jeffrey Miranda, Maddy Masiello, Isabella Anderson, Nina Lassam and Nick Pitman.

Natasha Singer writes about technology, business and society. She is currently reporting on the far-reaching ways that tech companies and their tools are reshaping public schools, higher education and job opportunities. More about Natasha Singer

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