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Respiratory system

Author: Gordana Sendić, MD • Reviewer: Roberto Grujičić, MD Last reviewed: October 30, 2023 Reading time: 16 minutes

The respiratory system , also called the pulmonary system , consists of several organs that function as a whole to oxygenate the body through the process of respiration (breathing) . This process involves inhaling air and conducting it to the lungs where gas exchange occurs, in which oxygen is extracted from the air, and carbon dioxide expelled from the body. The respiratory tract is divided into two sections at the level of the vocal cords ; the upper and lower respiratory tract.

• The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity , paranasal sinuses , pharynx and the portion of the larynx above the vocal cords.
• The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx below the vocal cords, the trachea , bronchi , bronchioles and the lungs.

The lungs are most often considered as part of the lower respiratory tract, but are sometimes described as a separate entity. They contain the respiratory bronchioles , alveolar ducts , alveolar sacs and alveoli . 

This article will discuss the anatomy and function of the respiratory system.

Nasal cavity

Paranasal sinuses, lower respiratory tract, microanatomy, upper respiratory tract infections, lower respiratory tract infections.

Upper respiratory tract

The upper respiratory tract refers to the parts of the respiratory system that lie outside the thorax , more specifically above the cricoid cartilage and vocal cords. It includes the nasal cavity , paranasal sinuses , pharynx and the superior portion of the larynx . Most of the upper respiratory tract is lined with the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, also known as the respiratory epithelium . The exceptions are some parts of the pharynx and larynx.

The upper respiratory tract begins with the nasal cavity . The nasal cavity opens anteriorly on the face through the two nares, and posteriorly into the nasopharynx through the two choana e. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the hard palate , while the roof consists of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone posteriorly, and the frontal and nasal bones anteriorly. The nares and anterior portion of the nasal cavity contain sebaceous glands and hair follicles that serve to prevent any larger harmful particles from passing into the nasal cavity. 

The lateral walls of the nasal cavity contain three bony projections called nasal conchae (superior, middle and inferior), which increase the surface area of the nasal cavity. The nasal conchae also disrupt the laminar flow of air, making it slow and turbulent, thereby helping to humidify and warm up the air to body temperature. 

The roof of the nasal cavity contains the olfactory epithelium which consists of specialized sensory receptors. These receptors pick up airborne odorant molecules and transform them into action potentials that travel via the olfactory nerve to the cerebral cortex , allowing the brain to register them and provide a sense of smell.

Another pathway for the entry of air is the oral cavity . Although it is not classified as a part of the upper respiratory tract, the oral cavity provides an alternative route in the case of obstruction of the nasal cavity. The oral cavity opens anteriorly on the face through the oral fissure, while posteriorly, it opens into the oropharynx through a passage called the oropharyngeal isthmus. 

Several bones that form the walls of the nasal cavity contain air-filled spaces called the paranasal sinuses, which are named after their associated bones; maxillary , frontal , sphenoidal and ethmoidal sinuses .

The paranasal sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity via several openings, and thereby also receive the inhaled air and contribute to its humidifying and warming. In addition, the mucous membrane and respiratory epithelium that lines both the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses traps any harmful particles, dust or bacteria.

After passing through the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the inhaled air exits through the choanae into the pharynx. The pharynx is a funnel-shaped muscular tube that contains three parts; the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx . 

• The nasopharynx is the first and superiormost part of the pharynx, found posterior to the nasal cavity. This part of the pharynx serves only as an airway, and is thus lined with respiratory epithelium. Inferiorly, the uvula and soft palate swing upwards during swallowing to close off the nasopharynx and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity.
• The oropharynx is found posterior to the oral cavity and communicates with it through the oropharyngeal isthmus. The oropharynx is a pathway for both the air incoming from the nasopharynx and the food incoming from the oral cavity. Thus, the oropharynx is lined with the more protective non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium .
• The laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) is the most inferior part of the pharynx. It is the point at which the digestive and respiratory systems diverge. Anteriorly, the laryngopharynx continues into the larynx, whereas posteriorly it continues as the esophagus . 

Following the laryngopharynx, the next and last portion of the upper respiratory tract is the superior part of the larynx . The larynx is a complex hollow structure found anterior to the esophagus. It is supported by a cartilaginous skeleton connected by membranes, ligaments and associated muscles. Above the vocal cords, the larynx is lined with stratified squamous epithelium like the laryngopharynx. Below the vocal cords, this epithelium transitions into pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells ( respiratory epithelium ). 

Besides its main function to conduct the air, the larynx also houses the vocal cords that participate in voice production. The laryngeal inlet is closed by the epiglottis during swallowing to prevent food or liquid from entering the lower respiratory tract.

If you want to learn more about the anatomy and function of the larynx, take a look at the study unit below!

The lower respiratory tract refers to the parts of the respiratory system that lie below the cricoid cartilage and vocal cords, including the inferior part of the larynx , tracheobronchial tree and lungs .

Tracheobronchial tree

The tracheobronchial tree is a portion of the respiratory tract that conducts the air from the upper airways to the lung parenchyma. It consists of the trachea and the intrapulmonary airways (bronchi and bronchioles).The trachea is located in the superior mediastinum and represents the trunk of the tracheobronchial tree. The trachea bifurcates at the level of the sternal angle (T5) into the left and right main bronchi, one for each lung.

• The left main bronchus passes inferolaterally to enter the hilum of the left lung. On its course, it passes inferior to the arch of the aorta and anterior to the esophagus and thoracic aorta.
• The right main bronchus passes inferolaterally to enter the hilum of the right lung. The right main bronchus has a more vertical course than its left counterpart and is also wider and shorter. This makes the right bronchus more susceptible to foreign body impaction.

As they reach the lungs, the main bronchi branch out into increasingly smaller intrapulmonary bronchi. The left main bronchus divides into two secondary lobar bronchi , while the right main bronchus divides into three secondary lobar bronchi that supply the lobes of the left and right lung, respectively.

Each of the lobar bronchi further divides into tertiary segmental bronchi that aerate the bronchopulmonary segments . The segmental bronchi then give rise to several generations of intrasegmental (conducting) bronchioles, which end as terminal bronchioles . Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to several generations of respiratory bronchioles . Respiratory bronchioles extend into several alveolar ducts, which lead into alveolar sacs, each of which contains many grape-like outpocketings called alveoli . Since they contain alveoli, these structures mark the site where gas exchange begins to occur.

The lungs are a pair of spongy organs located within the thoracic cavity. The right lung is larger than the left lung and consists of three lobes (superior, middle and inferior), which are divided by two fissures; oblique and horizontal fissure . The left lung has only two lobes (superior and inferior), divided by one oblique fissure. 

Each lung has three surfaces , an apex and a base . The surfaces of the lung are the costal, mediastinal and diaphragmatic surface, which are named after the adjacent anatomical structure which that surface faces. The mediastinal surface connects the lung to the mediastinum via its hilum . The apex of the lung is where the mediastinal and costal surfaces meet. It is the most superior portion of the lung, that extends into the root of the neck. The base is the lowest concave part of the lung that rests upon the diaphragm.

Each hilum of the lung contains the following:

• Principal bronchus
• Pulmonary artery
• Two pulmonary veins
• Bronchial vessels
• Pulmonary autonomic plexus
• Lymph nodes and vessels

On the microscopic level, the lower respiratory tract is characterized by several changes of epithelial lining, serving different purposes. Beginning from the inferior part of the larynx to the tertiary segmental bronchi, the lower respiratory tract is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells . The goblet cells produce mucus that lubricates and protects the airway by trapping any inhaled harmful particles. These trapped particles are then propelled towards the upper respiratory tract by the cilia of the epithelial cells and eventually expelled by coughing. 

As the larger tertiary segmental bronchi divide into smaller bronchi, the epithelium begins to change from respiratory epithelium to a simple columnar ciliated epithelium . This epithelium is continued in the larger terminal bronchioles, and transitions into a simple cuboidal epithelium in smaller terminal bronchioles. The epithelium of the terminal bronchioles contains exocrine bronchiolar cells called club cells , formerly known as Clara cells. These are non-ciliated cuboidal cells that contribute to the production of surfactant. In addition, the terminal bronchioles contain smooth muscle in their walls, that allows for bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation to occur. 

Terminal bronchioles then branch into respiratory bronchioles, which are also lined by simple cuboidal epithelium . The walls of the respiratory bronchioles extend into alveoli, and the epithelium changes into a simple squamous epithelium composed of type I and type II pneumocytes. Type I pneumocytes are thin, squamous cells that carry out the gas exchange, while type II pneumocytes are larger cuboidal cells that produce surfactant.

The main function of the respiratory system is pulmonary ventilation , which is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the lung by inspiration and expiration driven by the respiratory muscles. The respiratory system works as a whole to extract the oxygen from the inhaled air and eliminate the carbon dioxide from the body by exhalation. The upper respiratory mainly has an air-conducting function, while the lower respiratory tract serves both the conducting and respiratory functions. 

Besides its main function to conduct the air to the lower respiratory tract, the upper respiratory also performs several other functions. As mentioned earlier, the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses change the properties of the air by humidifying and warming it in order to prepare it for the process of respiration. The air is also filtered from dust, pathogens and other particles by the nasal hair follicles and the ciliary epithelium.  

The portion of the lower respiratory tract, starting from the respiratory bronchioles, is the place where gas exchange begins to occur. This process is also known as external respiration , in which the oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses from the alveoli into the adjacent capillaries , while the carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli to be exhaled. The newly oxygenated blood then goes on to supply all the tissues in the body and undergoes internal respiration . This is the process in which the oxygen from the systemic circulation exchanges with carbon-dioxide from the tissues. Overall, the difference between external and internal respiration is that the former represents gas exchange with the external environment and takes place in the alveoli, while the latter represents gas exchange within the body and takes place in the tissues.

Test your knowledge on the respiratory system with this quiz.

To learn more about the complex respiratory system and solidify what you already learned in this article, head over to our respiratory system quizzes and labeled diagrams !

Clinical aspects

Upper respiratory tract infections are contagious infections that can be caused by a variety of bacteria and viruses. The most common causing agents are influenza virus (the flu), rhinoviruses and streptococcus bacteria. Depending on which part of the upper respiratory tract is affected, these infections may have different types, such as rhinitis , sinusitis , pharyngitis , epiglottitis , laryngitis and others. 

The common cold is the most common type of upper respiratory tract infection. It is a viral infection that usually involves the nose and throat, but other parts can be affected as well. The symptoms usually include sore throat,‎ coughing, sneezing, runny nose, headache, and fever.

Lower respiratory tract infections are infections that affect the parts of the respiratory tract below the vocal cords. These infections can affect the airways and manifest as bronchitis or bronchiolitis , or they can affect the lung alveoli and present as pneumonia . These can also occur in conjunction as bronchopneumonia. 

The most common cause of lower respiratory tract infections are bacteria, but they can also occur due to viruses, mycoplasma, rickettsiae and fungi. These agents invade the epithelial lining, causing inflammation, increased mucus secretion, and impaired mucociliary function. The inflammation and build-up of fluid in the lungs and airways may result in symptoms such as coughing, fever, sputum production, difficulty breathing or in severe cases, airway obstruction and impaired gas exchange.

References:

• Moore, K. L., Dalley, A. F., & Agur, A. M. R. (2014). Clinically Oriented Anatomy (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Netter, F. (2019). Atlas of Human Anatomy (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
• Standring, S. (2016). Gray's Anatomy (41st ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
• Dasaraju PV, Liu C. Infections of the Respiratory System. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th edition. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996. Chapter 93.
• Jeremy P. T. Ward; Jane Ward; Charles M. Wiener (2006). The respiratory system at a glance. Wiley-Blackwell.

Illustrators:

• The respiratory system (Systema respiratorium) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Organs of the respiratory system (overview) - Begoña Rodriguez
• Bronchi and alveoli (overview) - Paul Kim
• Medial view of the lung (overview) - Yousun Koh

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human respiratory system

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• Pressbooks Create - Human Biology - Respiratory System
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human respiratory system , the system in humans that takes up oxygen and expels carbon dioxide .

The design of the respiratory system

The human gas-exchanging organ, the lung , is located in the thorax, where its delicate tissues are protected by the bony and muscular thoracic cage. The lung provides the tissues of the human body with a continuous flow of oxygen and clears the blood of the gaseous waste product, carbon dioxide . Atmospheric air is pumped in and out regularly through a system of pipes, called conducting airways, which join the gas-exchange region with the outside of the body. The airways can be divided into upper and lower airway systems. The transition between the two systems is located where the pathways of the respiratory and digestive systems cross, just at the top of the larynx .

The upper airway system comprises the nose and the paranasal cavities (or sinuses ), the pharynx (or throat), and partly also the oral cavity , since it may be used for breathing. The lower airway system consists of the larynx, the trachea , the stem bronchi , and all the airways ramifying intensively within the lungs, such as the intrapulmonary bronchi, the bronchioles, and the alveolar ducts. For respiration, the collaboration of other organ systems is clearly essential. The diaphragm , as the main respiratory muscle, and the intercostal muscles of the chest wall play an essential role by generating, under the control of the central nervous system , the pumping action on the lung. The muscles expand and contract the internal space of the thorax, the bony framework of which is formed by the ribs and the thoracic vertebrae. The contribution of the lung and chest wall (ribs and muscles) to respiration is described below in The mechanics of breathing . The blood, as a carrier for the gases, and the circulatory system (i.e., the heart and the blood vessels ) are mandatory elements of a working respiratory system ( see blood ; cardiovascular system ).

Morphology of the upper airways

The nose is the external protuberance of an internal space, the nasal cavity . It is subdivided into a left and right canal by a thin medial cartilaginous and bony wall, the nasal septum . Each canal opens to the face by a nostril and into the pharynx by the choana. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the palate , which also forms the roof of the oral cavity. The complex shape of the nasal cavity is due to projections of bony ridges, the superior, middle, and inferior turbinate bones (or conchae), from the lateral wall. The passageways thus formed below each ridge are called the superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatuses.

On each side, the intranasal space communicates with a series of neighbouring air-filled cavities within the skull (the paranasal sinuses ) and also, via the nasolacrimal duct , with the lacrimal apparatus in the corner of the eye . The duct drains the lacrimal fluid into the nasal cavity. This fact explains why nasal respiration can be rapidly impaired or even impeded during weeping: the lacrimal fluid is not only overflowing into tears, it is also flooding the nasal cavity.

The paranasal sinuses are sets of paired single or multiple cavities of variable size. Most of their development takes place after birth, and they reach their final size toward age 20. The sinuses are located in four different skull bones—the maxilla, the frontal, the ethmoid, and the sphenoid bones. Correspondingly, they are called the maxillary sinus , which is the largest cavity; the frontal sinus; the ethmoid sinuses ; and the sphenoid sinus , which is located in the upper posterior wall of the nasal cavity. The sinuses have two principal functions: because they are filled with air, they help keep the weight of the skull within reasonable limits, and they serve as resonance chambers for the human voice.

The nasal cavity with its adjacent spaces is lined by a respiratory mucosa . Typically, the mucosa of the nose contains mucus-secreting glands and venous plexuses; its top cell layer, the epithelium , consists principally of two cell types, ciliated and secreting cells. This structural design reflects the particular ancillary functions of the nose and of the upper airways in general with respect to respiration. They clean, moisten, and warm the inspired air, preparing it for intimate contact with the delicate tissues of the gas-exchange area. During expiration through the nose, the air is dried and cooled, a process that saves water and energy.

Two regions of the nasal cavity have a different lining. The vestibule , at the entrance of the nose, is lined by skin that bears short thick hairs called vibrissae . In the roof of the nose, the olfactory bulb with its sensory epithelium checks the quality of the inspired air. About two dozen olfactory nerves convey the sensation of smell from the olfactory cells through the bony roof of the nasal cavity to the central nervous system .

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Respiratory System Anatomy and Physiology POWER POINT

Subject: Biology

Age range: 15 - 17

Resource type: Visual aid/Display

Last updated

29 December 2023

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This 69 slide power point presentation will help your students to learn about the Respiratory system. Topics include: anatomy/function of respiratory system, the respiration process, gas transport, respiratory volumes and capacities, and factors affecting respiratory rate.

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The Human Respiratory System

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Presentation on theme: "The Human Respiratory System"— Presentation transcript:

The Respiratory System

Human Respiratory System

Respiratory System.

Respiratory system Function – to bring about the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood, the air, and tissues.

Nutrient Absorption left lung has two lobes instead of three (heart takes up space)

Respiratory System Navasota Junior High.

Mechanism of Breathing

Respiratory System Page 956

Respiratory System IN comes the OXYGEN, OUT goes the CARBON DIOXIDE!

The Respiratory System Chapter 18, Section 1

End Show Slide 1 of 37 Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall 37-3 The Respiratory System.

Respiratory System. Air sac air-filled spaces in the body alveoli very small air sacs; where air breathed in goes.

2.2 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. Function The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the Red blood cells and the lungs The circulatory system transports.

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Respiratory Physiology

Lecture Outline

• Basics of the Respiratory System
• Functions & functional anatomy

Ventilation

• Diffusion & Solubility
• Gas Exchange
• Gas Transport in Blood
• Regulation of Ventilation & Impacts on
• Gas levels, pH

Basics of the Respiratory System� General Functions

• Exchange of gases
• Directionality depends on gradients!
• Atmosphere to blood
• Blood to tissues
• Regulation of pH
• Dependent on rate of CO 2 release
• Vocalization

Basics of the Respiratory System� Respiration

• What is respiration?
• Respiration = the series of exchanges that leads to the uptake of oxygen by the cells, and the release of carbon dioxide to the lungs

Step 1 = ventilation

• Inspiration & expiration

Step 2 = exchange between alveoli (lungs) and pulmonary capillaries (blood)

• Referred to as External Respiration

Step 3 = transport of gases in blood

Step 4 = exchange between blood and cells

• Referred to as Internal Respiration
• Cellular respiration = use of oxygen in ATP synthesis

External Respiration

Internal Respiration

Schematic View of Respiration

Basics of the Respiratory System� Functional Anatomy

• What structural aspects must be considered in the process of respiration?
• The conduction portion
• The exchange portion
• The structures involved with �ventilation
• Skeletal & musculature
• Pleural membranes
• Neural pathways
• All divided into
• Upper respiratory tract
• Entrance to larynx
• Lower respiratory tract
• Larynx to alveoli (trachea �to lungs)
• Bones, Muscles & Membranes
• Function of these Bones, Muscles & Membranes
• Create and transmit a pressure gradient
• the attachments of the �muscles to the ribs �(and overlying tissues)
• The attachment of the �diaphragm to the base �of the lungs and associated �pleural membranes
• The cohesion of the parietal �pleural membrane to the �visceral pleural membrane
• Expansion & recoil of the lung �and therefore alveoli with the� movement of the overlying �structures
• Pleural Membrane Detail
• Cohesion between parietal and visceral layers is due to serous fluid in the pleural cavity
• Fluid (30 ml of fluid) creates an attraction between the two sheets of membrane
• As the parietal membrane expands due to expansion of the thoracic cavity it “pulls” the visceral membrane with it
• And then pulls the underlying structures which expand as well
• Disruption of the integrity of the pleural membrane will result in a rapid equalization of pressure and loss of ventilation function = collapsed lung or pneumothorax
• The Respiratory Tree
• connecting the external environment to the exchange portion of the lungs
• similar to the vascular component
• larger airway = higher flow & velocity
• small cross-sectional area
• smaller airway = lower flow & velocity
• large cross-sectional area
• Upper respiratory tract is for all intensive purposes a single large conductive tube
• The lower respiratory tract starts after the larynx and divides again and again…and again to eventually get to the smallest regions which form the exchange membranes
• Primary bronchi
• Secondary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Terminal bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles with �start of alveoli outpouches
• Alveolar ducts with outpouchings �of alveoli

conductive portion

exchange portion

• What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?

Raises incoming air to 37 Celsius

Raises incoming air to 100% humidity

Forms mucociliary escalator

• What is the function of the lower respiratory tract?
• Exchange of gases …. Due to
• Huge surface area = 1x10 5 m 2 of type I alveolar cells (simple squamous epithelium)
• Associated network of pulmonary capillaries
• 80-90% of the space between alveoli is filled with blood in pulmonary capillary networks
• Exchange distance is approx 1 um from alveoli to blood!
• Free alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
• Surfactant produced by type II alveolar cells (septal cells)
• Characteristics of exchange membrane
• High volume of blood through huge capillary network results in
• Fast circulation through lungs
• Pulmonary circulation = 5L/min through lungs….
• Systemic circulation = 5L/min through entire body!
• Blood pressure is low…
• Filtration is not a main theme here, we do not want a net loss of fluid into the lungs as rapidly as the systemic tissues
• Any excess fluid is still returned via lymphatic system
• Sum-up of functional anatomy
• Ventilation?
• Vocalization?
• Protection?

Respiratory Physiology� Gas Laws

• Basic Atmospheric conditions
• Pressure is typically measured in mm Hg
• Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg
• Atmospheric components
• Nitrogen = 78% of our atmosphere
• Oxygen = 21% of our atmosphere
• Carbon Dioxide = .033% of our atmosphere
• Water vapor, krypton, argon, …. Make up the rest
• A few laws to remember
• Dalton’s law
• Fick’s Laws of Diffusion
• Boyle’s Law
• Ideal Gas Law
• Dalton’s Law
• Law of Partial Pressures
• “each gas in a mixture of gases will exert a pressure independent of other gases present”
• The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the individual gas pressures.
• What does this mean in practical application?
• If we know the total atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) and the relative abundances of gases (% of gases)
• We can calculate individual gas effects!
• P atm x % of gas in atmosphere = Partial pressure of any atmospheric gas
• P O2 = 760mmHg x 21% (.21) = 160 mm Hg
• Now that we know the partial pressures we know the gradients that will drive diffusion!
• Things that affect rates of diffusion
• Distance to diffuse
• Gradient sizes
• Diffusing molecule sizes
• Temperature
• What is constant & therefore out of our realm of concern?
• So it all comes down to partial pressure gradients of gases… determined by Dalton’s Law!
• Describes the relationship between pressure and volume
• “the pressure and volume of a gas in a system are inversely related”
• P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2
• How does Boyle’s Law work in us?
• As the thoracic cavity (container) expands the volume must up and pressure goes down
• If it goes below 760 mm Hg what happens?
• As the thoracic cavity shrinks the volume must go down and pressure goes up
• If it goes above 760 mm Hg what happens
• Ideal Gas law
• The pressure and volume of a container of gas is directly related to the temperature of the gas and the number of molecules in the container
• n = moles of gas
• T = absolute temp
• R = universal gas constant @ 8.3145 J/K·mol
• Do we care?
• Can’t forget about poor Charles and his law or Henry and his law
• Aptly named … Charles’s Law & Henry’s Law

As the temp goes up in a volume of gas the volume rises proportionately

At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.�OR�the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a particular temperature is proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid.

*also has a constant which is different for each gas

• Terminology
• Inspiration = the movement of air into the respiratory tracts (upper & lower)
• Expiration = movement of air out of the respiratory tracts
• Respiratory cycle is one inspiration followed by an expiration
• Cause of Inspiration?
• Biological answer
• Contraction of the inspiratory muscles causes an increase in the thoracic cavity size, thus allowing air to enter the respiratory tract
• Physics answer
• As the volume in the thoracic cavity increases (due to inspiratory muscle action) the pressure within the respiratory tract drops below atmospheric pressure, creating a pressure gradient which causes molecular movement to favor moving into the respiratory tract
• Cause of Expiration?

Besides the diaphragm (only creates about 60-75% of the volume change) what are the muscles of inspiration & expiration?

What is the relationship between alveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure and the volume of air moved?

• What are the different respiratory patterns?
• Quiet breathing (relaxed)
• Forced inspirations & expirations
• Respiratory volumes follow these respiratory patterns…
• Inspiration
• Occurs as alveolar pressure drops below atmospheric pressure
• For convenience atmospheric pressure = 0 mm Hg
• A (-) value then indicates pressure below atmospheric P
• A (+) value indicates pressure above atmospheric P
• At the start of inspiration (time = 0),
• atmospheric pressure = alveolar pressure
• No net movement of gases!
• At time 0 to 2 seconds
• Expansion of thoracic cage and corresponding pleural membranes and lung tissue causes alveolar pressure to drop to -1 mm Hg
• Air enters the lungs down the partial pressure gradient
• Occurs as alveolar pressure elevates above atmospheric pressure due to a shrinking thoracic cage
• At time 2-4 seconds
• Inspiratory muscles relax, elastic tissue of corresponding structures initiates a recoil back to resting state
• This decreases volume and correspondingly increases alveolar pressure to 1 mm Hg
• This is above atmospheric pressure, causing…?
• At time 4 seconds
• Atmospheric pressure once again equals alveolar pressure and there is no net movement
• Both inspiration and expiration can be modified
• Forced or active inspiration
• Forced or active expiration
• The larger and quicker the expansion of the thoracic cavity, the larger the gradient and
• The faster air moves down its pressure gradient
• Things to consider
• surfactant effect
• airway diameter
• Minute volume respiration (ventilation rate times tidal volume) & anatomical dead space
• Leading to a more accurate idea of alveolar ventilation rates
• Changes in ventilation patterns
• Surfactant is produced by the septal cells
• Disrupts the surface tension & cohesion of water molecules
• prevents alveoli from sticking together during expiration

Airway diameter & other factors that affect airway resistance?

The relationship between minute volume (total pulmonary ventilation) and alveolar ventilation & the subsequent “mixing” of air

• Diffusion and Solubility
• Gas composition in the alveoli
• Gas exchange
• Gas transport in blood
• Regulation of pulmonary function

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Lungs and Respiratory System

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Human Respiratory System

Sep 29, 2014

150 likes | 304 Views

Human Respiratory System. By: D. Reis. The Respiratory System. Air enters the respiratory system through both the nasal cavity and mouth. The nasal cavity is lined with tiny hairs and mucus to trap foreign particles. The air is warmed and moistened. Respiration and Gas Exchange.

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• air pressure
• thoracic cavity
• respiratory system
• air pressure decreases
• external intercostal muscles muscles

Presentation Transcript

Human Respiratory System By: D. Reis

The Respiratory System • Air enters the respiratory system through both the nasal cavity and mouth. • The nasal cavity is lined with tiny hairs and mucus to trap foreign particles. • The air is warmed and moistened.

Respiration and Gas Exchange

The Respiratory System • Pharynx – where the nasal cavity and oral cavity meet • Epiglottis – flap that closes over the top of the trachea(glottis) due to reflexive action while eating • Trachea – the windpipe through which air passes Supported by cartilage rings

The Respiratory System • Larynx – voicebox located in the trachea containing vocal cords. The vocal cords vibrate producing sounds. • Adam’s Apple – thick band of cartilage protecting larynx.

The Respiratory System • Bronchi – extend from the trachea also contains cartilage • Bronchioles – the smallest passageways of the respiratory tract • Alveoli – tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs between the air and the blood

Alveoli • Each lung is made up of 150 million alveoli. • Capillaries surround each cluster of alveoli and ensure gas diffusion between the air and blood occurs. • Oxygen moves from the air inside the lungs to the alveoli while carbon dioxide moves from the alveoli into the air inside the lungs. • Lipoprotein prevents alveoli from sticking together

Goblet cells • Goblet cells – mucus secreting cells lining the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles to trap foreign particles. • Cilia- hair like structures that sweep the foreign particles up towards the mouth

Thoracic Cavity • External intercostal muscles – muscles between the ribs that raise the rib cage, increasing volume and reducing air pressure in chest. • Diaphragm – muscle that separates organs of the chest from abdominal cavity.

Pleural membrane – thin fluid-filled membrane surrounding lungs and inner wall of chest cavity that reduces friction during inhalation.

The Movement of Air • Air moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. • Air will move into the lungs when the air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air pressure outside the body. • Air will move out of the lungs when the air pressure inside the lungs is______ than the air pressure outside the body.

Inspiration (Inhaling) • The diaphragm contracts and moves down • External intercostal musclesexpand rib cage upward and outward • Volume of thoracic cavityincreases therefore air pressure decreases. • Movement of air into the lungs.

Expiration (Exhaling) • The diaphragm relaxes and moves up • External intercostal muscles move rib cage inward and downward. • Volume of thoracic cavitydecreases therefore air pressure increases. • Movement of air out of the lungs.

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