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History of Computers

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• Bruce I. Blum 2  

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We are in the midst of a revolution in technology and in the way we process information. The computer is at the heart of this revolution. Where it will take us is unknown, but we do know that events are moving rapidly. In fact, virtually everything related to digital computers took place in my generation’s adult lifetime. And I am not old.

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Cited in Margaret Harmon, Stretching Man’s Mind: A History of Data Processing , Mason Charter, New York, 1975, p66, reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.

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Cited in Harmon, Op cit , p74.

Cited in Harmon, Op cit , p85.

Cited in Harmon, Op cit , p87.

Cited in Harmon, Op cit , pi03.

Adapted from S. Rosen, Digital Computers: History in Anthony Ralston, Edwin D. Reilly, Jr. (eds), Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering , Second Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1983, pp 538–9.

Conversation: Jay W. Forrester, Interviewed by Christopher Evans, Annals of the History of Computing (5,3) July 1983, pp 298–299.

John von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain , Yale University Press, 1958, Cited in J. Bernstein, The Analytical Engine , Random House, N.Y. 1966, p62, reprinted by permission.

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Blum, B.I. (1986). History of Computers. In: Clinical Information Systems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8593-6_1

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HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER

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The social and organizational history of humanity is intricately entangled with the history of technology in general and the technology of information in particular. Advances in this area have often been closely involved in social and political transformations. While the contemporary period is often referred to by such names as the Computing and Information Age, this is the culmination of a series of historical transformations that have been centuries in the making. This course will provide a venue for students to learn about history through the evolution of number systems and arithmetic, calculating and computing machines, and advanced communication technology via the Internet. Students who take this course will attain a degree of technological literacy while studying core historical concepts. Students who complete this course will learn the key vocabulary of the computing discipline, which is playing a significant role in modern human thought and new media communications. The Hist...

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The historicization of the computer in the second half of the 20th century can be understood as the effect of the inevitable changes in both its technological and narrative development. What interests us is how past futures and therefore history were stabilized. The development, operation, and implementation of machines and programs gave rise to a historicity of the field of computing. Whenever actors have been grouped into communities – for example, into industrial and academic developer communities – new orderings have been constructed historically. Such orderings depend on the ability to refer to archival and published documents and to develop new narratives based on them. Professional historians are particularly at home in these waters – and nevertheless can disappear into the whirlpool of digital prehistory. Toward the end of the 1980s, the first critical review of the literature on the history of computers thus offered several programmatic suggestions. It is one of the peculiar coincidences of history that the future should rear its head again just when the history of computers was flourishing as a result of massive methodological and conceptual input. The emergence of the World Wide Web in the 1990s, which caught historians totally by surprise, led to an ahistorical, anthropological, aesthetic-medial approach to digitization. The program for investigating the prehistory of the digital age was rewritten in favor of explaining the development of communication networks. Computer systems and their concepts dropped out of history. This poses a problem for the history of computers, insofar as the success of the history of technology is tied to the stability of its objects. It seems more promising to us to not attribute the problem to the object called computer or to the “disciplinary” field, but rather to focus entirely on substantive issues. An issue-oriented technological history of the 21st century should be able to do this by treating the history of computers as a refreshing source of productive friction.

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Course info.

• Dr. Slava Gerovitch

Departments

• Science, Technology, and Society

As Taught In

• Computer Science
• History of Science and Technology
• Modern History

Learning Resource Types

The history of computing, assignments.

This section includes reading response paper assignments in the  unstructured  and  structured  formats and a  final paper assignment.

Weekly Questions

Reading response paper assignment (sessions 2-6: the unstructured format).

Write a 1-2 page reading response paper addressing the issues raised in the readings. You may choose from the provided list of tentative questions, but you are encouraged to raise your own questions. Your paper must touch upon all the readings assigned for the upcoming session.

Strategies for Writing a Good Reading Response Paper

• Define your personal stance towards the issues raised in the readings.
• Avoid generalities, be specific.
• Focus on the points where you disagree, or where you can push the argument further.
• Cite examples from your personal experience or from other literature.
• Ask provocative questions, even if you do not know the answers.

Your paper will be made accessible to other members of the class after the deadline. It will be part of discussion in class.

Papers must be submitted in the morning before each class. No late papers are accepted.

Be creative and imaginative! Good luck!

Reading Response Paper Assignment (Sessions 7-13: The Structured Format)

Write a 1-2 page structured paper in response to your readings. The paper must focus on a single question; you may choose from the provided list, but you are encouraged to formulate your own question. Your paper must have the following format:

• Introduction: State your question; explain its significance; formulate your thesis.
• Background: Briefly give relevant historical information about the computing developments that you will analyze.
• Survey of literature: State the existing perspectives (more than one) on the subject of your analysis; these can be gauged from your readings or simply hypothesized (one could argue that…).
• Analysis: Give your own perspective and supporting argument.
• Conclusion: What is the lesson here? What are further lines of inquiry, new questions to ask?
• References: Use the format from the syllabus.

Devote no more than 1-2 paragraphs to each section. You may combine sections 2 and 3, if necessary. I realize that information in your readings may not be sufficient to fill all the sections; do the best you can. Your paper does not have to cite all the readings for the week, but you must read all of them. Spell-check and proof-read your paper before submission.

Final Paper Assignment

Write a 10-15 page paper (double-spaced, 1.25" margins, 12 pt font). You may choose any topic that addresses the use of the computer as a scientific instrument. You may choose something close to your own area of expertise, or something completely different. You can focus on one specific computer system and analyze its uses from different perspectives (designers’, users’, scientists’, humanists’, etc.), or you can address a larger issue that involves a certain category of computer systems (for example, expert systems) and perhaps a range of scientific disciplines. You may choose one of the topics we discussed in class, but you must significantly broaden the range of your sources. Your final paper must analyze both primary sources (participants’ accounts) and secondary sources (works by historians, sociologists, anthropologists, or other commentators). Choose an issue over which there has been (or should have been) some debate, and take a stand on that issue. Provide ample argumentation for your position and explain your objections to the alternative position(s). The final paper should follow the same structured format that is required for the Session 7-13 reading responses.

Final Paper Guide

Proposal for a Final Paper

Write a 1-2 page proposal for your final paper. The proposal should include: (1) the central question the final paper will address; (2) the historical significance of this question and how it relates to discussions in class; (3) a brief outline; and (4) a tentative bibliography, including both primary and secondary sources. Your proposal will receive the instructor’s feedback the following week. The proposal is due in class on Session 9.

Final Paper Guidelines

Write a 10-15 page paper (double-spaced, 1.25" margins, 12 pt font). You may choose any topic that addresses the use of the computer as a scientific instrument. You may choose something close to your own area of expertise, or something completely different. You can focus on one specific computer system and analyze its uses from different perspectives (designers’, users’, scientists’, humanists’, etc.), or you can address a larger issue that involves a certain category of computer systems (for example, expert systems) and perhaps a range of scientific disciplines. You may choose one of the topics we discussed in class, but you must significantly broaden the range of your sources. Your final paper must analyze both primary sources (participants’ accounts) and secondary sources (works by historians, sociologists, anthropologists, or other commentators). Choose an issue over which there has been (or should have been) some debate, and take a stand on that issue. Provide ample argumentation for your position and explain your objections to the alternative position(s). The final paper should follow the same structured format that is required for the Session 7-13 reading responses. The final paper is due in class on Session 14.

Sample Final Paper

Anthony Ronald Grue ( PDF )

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History of Computers

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• First Generation Of Computer
• Fifth Generation of Computers
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Before computers were developed people used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools. As technology advanced and the human mind improved with time more computing devices were developed like Abacus, Napier’s Bones, etc. These devices were used as computers for performing mathematical computations but not very complex ones. 

Some of the popular computing devices are described below, starting from the oldest to the latest or most advanced technology developed:

Around 4000 years ago, the Chinese invented the Abacus, and it is believed to be the first computer. The history of computers begins with the birth of the abacus.

Structure: Abacus is basically a wooden rack that has metal rods with beads mounted on them.

Working of abacus: In the abacus, the beads were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. In some countries like China, Russia, and Japan, the abacus is still used by their people.

Napier’s Bones

Napier’s Bones was a manually operated calculating device and as the name indicates, it was invented by John Napier. In this device, he used 9 different ivory strips (bones) marked with numbers to multiply and divide for calculation. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point system for calculation.

It is also called an Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. A French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal invented this between 1642 and 1644. It was the first mechanical and automatic calculator. It is invented by Pascal to help his father, a tax accountant in his work or calculation. It could perform addition and subtraction in quick time. It was basically a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. It is worked by rotating wheel like when a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighbouring wheel and a series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals.

Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel

A German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1673 developed this device by improving Pascal’s invention to develop this machine. It was basically a digital mechanical calculator, and it was called the stepped reckoner as it was made of fluted drums instead of gears (used in the previous model of Pascaline).

Difference Engine

Charles Babbage who is also known as the “Father of Modern Computer” designed the Difference Engine in the early 1820s. Difference Engine was a mechanical computer which is capable of performing simple calculations. It works with help of steam as it was a steam-driven calculating machine, and it was designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine

Again in 1830 Charles Babbage developed another calculating machine which was Analytical Engine. Analytical Engine was a mechanical computer that used punch cards as input. It was capable of performing or solving any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory (storage).

Tabulating Machine

Herman Hollerith, an American statistician invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating Machine was a mechanical tabulator that was based on punch cards. It was capable of tabulating statistics and record or sort data or information. This machine was used by U.S. Census in the year 1890. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company was started by Hollerith and this company later became International Business Machine (IBM) in the year 1924.

Differential Analyzer

Differential Analyzer was the first electronic computer introduced in the year 1930 in the United States. It was basically an analog device that was invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine consists of vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It was capable of doing 25 calculations in a few minutes.

In the year 1937, major changes began in the history of computers when Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform large calculations or calculations involving large numbers. In the year 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was also the first programmable digital computer marking a new era in the computer world.

Generations of Computers

First Generation Computers

In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the first generation of computers. These machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. Also, they were mainly dependent on the batch operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices. For example ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, etc.

Second Generation Computers

In the period of the year, 1957-1963 was referred to as the period of the second generation of computers. It was the time of the transistor computers. In the second generation of computers, transistors (which were cheap in cost) are used. Transistors are also compact and consume less power. Transistor computers are faster than first-generation computers. For primary memory, magnetic cores were used, and for secondary memory magnetic disc and tapes for storage purposes. In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are used as Assembly language and programming languages, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

For example IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.

Third Generation Computers

In the third generation of computers, integrated circuits (ICs) were used instead of transistors(in the second generation). A single IC consists of many transistors which increased the power of a computer and also reduced the cost. The third generation computers are more reliable, efficient, and smaller in size. It used remote processing, time-sharing, and multiprogramming as operating systems. FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were used which are high-level programming languages.

For example IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, IBM-370/168, etc.

Fourth Generation Computers

The period of 1971-1980 was mainly the time of fourth generation computers. It used VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated) circuits. VLSI is a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements and because of these chips, the computers of this generation are more compact, powerful, fast, and affordable(low in cost). Real-time, time-sharing and distributed operating system are used by these computers. C and C++ are used as the programming languages in this generation of computers.

For example STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, etc.

Fifth Generation Computers

From 1980 – to till date these computers are used. The ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology is used in fifth-generation computers instead of the VLSI technology of fourth-generation computers. Microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components are used in these computers. Parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software are also used in fifth-generation computers. The programming languages like C, C++, Java, .Net, etc. are used.

For example Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, UltraBook, etc.

Sample Questions

Let us now see some sample questions on the History of computers:

Question 1: Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine is used between ___________ years.

a. 1642 and 1644

b. Around 4000 years ago

c. 1946 – 1956

d. None of the above

Solution:  

a. 1642 and 1644 Explanation: Pascaline is also called as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. A French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal invented this between 1642 and 1644. 

Question 2: Who designed the Difference Engine?

a. Blaise Pascal

b. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 

c. Vannevar Bush

d. Charles Babbage 

Solution: 

d. Charles Babbage  Explanation: Charles Babbage who is also known as “Father of Modern Computer” designed the Difference Engine in the early 1820s.

Question 3: In second generation computers _______________ are used as Assembly language and programming languages.

a. C and C++.

b. COBOL and FORTRAN 

c. C and .NET

d. None of the above.

b. COBOL and FORTRAN  Explanation: In second generation computers COBOL and FORTRAN are used as Assembly language and programming languages, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

Question 4: ENIAC and UNIVAC-1 are examples of which generation of computers?

a. First generation of computers.

b. Second generation of computers. 

c. Third generation of computers. 

d. Fourth generation of computers.  

a. First-generation of computers. Explanation: ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, etc. are examples of the first generation of computers.

Question 5: The ______________ technology is used in fifth generation computers .

a. ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)

b. VLSI( very large scale integrated)

c. vacuum tubes

d. All of the above

a. ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) Explanation: From 1980 -to till date these computers are used. The ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology is used in fifth generation computers. 

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Title: chameleon: mixed-modal early-fusion foundation models.

Abstract: We present Chameleon, a family of early-fusion token-based mixed-modal models capable of understanding and generating images and text in any arbitrary sequence. We outline a stable training approach from inception, an alignment recipe, and an architectural parameterization tailored for the early-fusion, token-based, mixed-modal setting. The models are evaluated on a comprehensive range of tasks, including visual question answering, image captioning, text generation, image generation, and long-form mixed modal generation. Chameleon demonstrates broad and general capabilities, including state-of-the-art performance in image captioning tasks, outperforms Llama-2 in text-only tasks while being competitive with models such as Mixtral 8x7B and Gemini-Pro, and performs non-trivial image generation, all in a single model. It also matches or exceeds the performance of much larger models, including Gemini Pro and GPT-4V, according to human judgments on a new long-form mixed-modal generation evaluation, where either the prompt or outputs contain mixed sequences of both images and text. Chameleon marks a significant step forward in a unified modeling of full multimodal documents.

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