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Crime evokes a wide variety of reactions in people: fear, anger, fascination, curiosity. In this free course, An introduction to crime and criminology , you have considered the relatively common-place problem of vandalism in the form of graffiti as one example through which to explore your own views about an everyday sort of crime.

You were also invited to consider how social scientists and criminologists, in particular, study and seek to understand problems of crime. Finally, you were introduced to the idea of the criminological imagination. This, in part, involved viewing criminological issues or problems from multiple perspectives but also suggested that private troubles and social issues are often linked together.

In summary, you have learned that:

• crimes are acts which break the law of the land
• graffiti is a crime that is not always seen as one
• in different circumstances, graffiti can be viewed as a crime, as art, as a form of freedom of expression, or as social protest.
• crime is a contested concept and graffiti is an example of this
• criminology is a social science, which means it involves the systematic study of human society and social relationships as they relate to problems of crime and criminal justice
• crime, justice, victimisation and the study of criminology can all be emotive areas of study. As a result, the criminologist needs to be aware of the biases, value judgements and opinions that they bring with them into their field of study
• using your criminological imagination involves trying to think about criminological problems by considering how ‘private troubles connect with public issues.’

This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open University course  DD105 Introduction to criminology [ Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. ( Hide tip ) ] .

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice — Criminal Behavior

Essays on Criminal Behavior

Serial killers: a product of nature or nurture, rational choice and decision making theories to explain criminal behavior, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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The Relationship Between Psychopathy and Criminal Behaviour

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The Theories and Explanations About Crime Behaviour

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Psychological Analysis of John Wayne Gacy Using Trait Theories

How poverty is the main cause of crime, the night stalker richard ramirez, criminological concepts of crime and deviance, the use of routine activities theory and psychopathy to explain criminal behavior, serial killers: born or made evil, the making of a serial killer: nature vs. nurture, discussion of whether serial killers are born or made criminals, discussion of whether criminal profiling is still relevant, serial killers: born evil or the result of upbringing, the notorious serial killer robert pickton, an overview of criminal profiling and its evolution, fraud detection in legal metrology, rational choice theory and the effects of illegal immigrants on crime, crime behavior as a result of anomie in society, the reasoning behind why serial killers kill, analysis of different offender mindsets, aileen wuornos: story of one killer, analysis of the case of kyle unger, the influence of different society factors in encouraging the commission of unlawful acts, relevant topics.

• Juvenile Delinquency
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1.7 Conclusion

This book will cover how crime is measured and why that matters as criminologists try to figure out criminal behavior; early criminological theories that set the stage for all those that came later; theories of society’s influence on criminal behavior; theories of individual characteristics that may influence criminal behavior; and society’s reaction to crime and how behavior changes over the span of someone’s lifetime. Then, we will dig deeper into different types of crime. We will explore crimes against people, property crimes, crimes against the public order, white collar crime, cybercrime, organized crime, hate crimes, mass murder, terrorism, and homeland security. All in all, this book will give you a good foundational understanding of criminology.

1.7.1 Application Exercises

• How might a criminologist look at the crime problem during the pandemic in other areas outside of Oregon? Look at the crime rates at https://econofact.org/crime-in-the-time-of-covid or other sources you may find for comparison. Put on your criminologist hat and explain why  crime may have gone up during this time.
• Criminologist Craig Pinkney discusses in his TEDxBrum Talk “The Real Roots of Youth Violence” some possible root causes of youth violence. Watch his presentation here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWNTMmktoCQ&t=277s and discuss his recommendations for intervening in youth violence.
• Choose a recent local, state, or national news story about crime and brainstorm some possible criminogenic factors that played a role in leading to the criminal behavior. Is there anything that could possibly have been done to address the criminogenic factors and stop the crime from happening?

1.7.2 Discussion Questions

• Former Portland City Commissioner Jo Ann Hardesty said, “I do not believe Portland has a gang problem. I think Portland has a problem in investing in our youth.” What does she mean by that and how is that related to criminology and criminogenic factors? (Gazaway, 2021).
• Can you think of some other examples of spuriousness like the ice cream/murder rate example in the chapter?
• As asked in the chapter: Interestingly, although all these theories and research exist, we have not yet stopped crime. Consider some reasons this may be the case. If we know the problem, why might we not be working on the solutions? Give some thought to what forces may be standing in the way of addressing the causes of crime identified by criminologists, particularly in contemporary history (over the last 150 years). In this amount of time, one could argue we could have fixed this problem if we really wanted to. What do you think?
• Looking at the timeline of 50 of the most prominent criminology theories, why do you think they are so clustered in the last 150 years? Can you guess any possible trends in the field based solely on the names and dates of the theories in the timeline?

1.7.3 Key Terms

• Criminal justice
• Criminogenic
• Criminogenic factors
• Criminology
• Logical consistency
• Operational definition
• Spuriousness

1.7.4 Summary

Criminology is the study of crime and why it happens. Criminologists look at both individual and societal factors to figure out what drives criminal behavior. It is important for criminal justice and criminology to work hand in hand to have a positive impact on public safety. A theory is an attempt to explain what is happening and in criminology that means explaining what is happening in terms of crime and criminal behavior. A theory begins with a hypothesis that is tested through research. Criminology as a science is dynamic and involves a lot of different perspectives that do not always agree on what they are seeing. For this reason, we have to always be aware of potential biases that may be affecting how we see what we think we see. Any claims of a new theory must go through multiple levels of evaluation before they are to be considered valid. A criminological theory must have logical consistency, scope, parsimony, testability, empirical validity, and usefulness. Theories look at who is most likely to commit crime (biological theories), or what happened to them that made them commit a crime (psychological theories), and sometimes they look at outside forces that led to someone committing crime (sociological theories). Through these theories, we can identify risks (criminogenic factors) that make it more likely a crime will happen. Through criminology, we can also get a better understanding of the goals of different laws, the courts, and law enforcement.

1.7.5 Resources

• The American Society of Criminology (ASC) offers a lot of resources to its members, and anyone interested in criminology research. Find out more at asc41.com .
• CriminologyWeb  on YouTube has lots of helpful videos explaining different theories and important information that are a great supplement to this book. Check it out at https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCY8HnjAb_RYmQNGJPn0bPwg .
• “Criminology” is a true crime podcast on Apple Podcasts. Every episode takes a deep dive into different crimes, going into great detail to understand what happened.

1.7.6 Licenses and Attributions for Conclusion

“Conclusion” by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

 Introduction to Criminology Copyright © by Taryn VanderPyl. All Rights Reserved.

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Criminal Behavior Theories and Contributing Factors

Introduction, theories of criminal behavior, types of factors contributing to crime.

Crime, as it is known, is a social phenomenon that accompanies the humanity for as long as there is society itself. In the world, there is a certain evolution of criminogenic factors, both socio-economic and socio-cultural. For example, the first ones include the general tendency of the uneven distribution of resources, income and wealth, that is, the progressive exacerbation of the poverty problem. It is essential to understand the direction in which behavioral norms change and to find out the mechanisms for consolidating those foundations that reflect human values. It will help to not only provide an opportunity to understand the sociality of behavioral norms but also to find the factors contributing to crime today. As the basis for discussion, some criminological theories will be mentioned with a view to explaining criminal behavior.

The analysis of criminal behavior is the topic that has been extensively studied in the works of different authors. For example, Anderson and Anderson (2014) note that one of the concepts that can be applied to the analysis of deviant behavior is the theory of differentiated association the essence of which is that crime is the result of influence on the individual of those social groups that are in his or her close contact. In the process of this communication, an imitative element becomes important, as a result of which the individual develops an impulse to commit a crime (Anderson & Anderson, 2014). People gradually learn the basics of criminal behavior and show increasing disrespect for the law.

There is another approach to the definition of a criminal way of life. Downes, Rock, and McLaughlin (2016) claim that the theory of stigmatization, or symbolic interactionism, has a strong influence on the human nature. According to the authors, this theory has the potential to associate antisocial behavior with the fact that the person that is officially affiliated with a particular stigma of the delinquent begins to associate himself or herself with a corresponding social group and behave in accordance with this designation (Downes et al., 2016). Based on this statement, conclusions are drawn about a cautious approach to an official stigmatizing reaction.

Finally, there is one more concept that helps to interpret certain deviations in behavior. Lindberg, Fugett, Adkins, and Cook (2017) mention the tension theory that, one the one hand, explains the reasons for a deviant way of life in the gap between cultural norms and the goals of society, and on the other hand, describes created opportunities and means to achieve them. This approach is directly related to the social norms of morality and implies the neglect of the prevailing stereotypes of behavior. Thus, all the mentioned theories in their own way convey the causes of criminal behavior and explain the prerequisites for its occurrence.

Today, there are a number of categories of factors that determine criminal behavior and can serve as the reason for deviations from the norms of the law. Thus, according to Cook and Winfield (2013), there are various economic criteria that determine crime. The authors mention such causes as the degree of socio-economic differentiation and inequality, privatization, nationalization, globalization, migration, as well as the inadequate ability of law enforcement and financial-economic boards to timely respond to changes in economic relations (Cook & Winfield, 2013). Also, it can be attributed to the lack of the vast majority of citizens’ skills of behavior in a contemporary market economy.

Psychological factors can be identified among the most significant ones. They often play an essential role and act as a catalyst for deviant behavior. Thus, Reid (2015) considers crime the manifestation of deep subconscious natural instincts and inclinations that are peculiar to people. It can be a person’s an attempt to overcome the banality of his or her existence, go beyond the strict framework of social standards, and self-actualize (Reid, 2015). This theory has made a significant contribution to understanding the internal psychological mechanisms of criminal behavior, and the personal meaning of many committed crimes has become more understandable.

There is another factor that deserves particular attention. Livingston, Kearns, and Bannister (2014) mention the residential criterion and claims that the place of residence plays a significant role in the process of forming criminal behavior. According to the authors, in countries with a high level of economic development, the crime rate is less than in the underdeveloped countries (Livingston et al., 2014). This factor may partially be a stereotype; nevertheless, as the world practice shows, disadvantaged regions appear in those cities and towns where the population does not have sufficient means of subsistence and is forced to resort to criminal measures to ensure their needs.

Thus, a number of scientific criminological theories confirm different sources of the origin of criminal behavior and explain the motives for deviations. Factors contributing to crime have a different background and help to interpret the concept of crime from different points of view. Deviant behavior can be partially reduced by taking appropriate measures and reforms to improve the status of people’s lives and reconsider the political direction of development.

Anderson, J. F., & Anderson, R. (2014). Criminological theories: Understanding crime in America (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Downes, D., Rock, P., & McLaughlin, E. (2016). Understanding deviance: A guide to the sociology of crime and rule-breaking (7th ed.). Ne York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Cook, S., & Winfield, T. (2013). Crime across the States: Are US crime rates converging? Urban Studies , 50 (9), 1724-1741.

Lindberg, M. A., Fugett, A., Adkins, A., & Cook, K. (2017). Tests of theories of crime in female prisoners: Social bond and control, risk taking, and dynamic systems theories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology , 61 (3), 282-309.

Livingston, M., Kearns, A., & Bannister, J. (2014). Neighbourhood structures and crime: The influence of tenure mix and other structural factors upon local crime rates. Housing Studies , 29 (1), 1-25.

Reid, S. T. (2015). Crime and criminology (14th ed.). New York, NY: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business.

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Best topics on Criminal Behavior

1. Poverty is the Mother of Crime: Understanding the Claim

2. Exploring How Unemployment Leads to Increase in Crime Rates

3. Why Juveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults

4. Drugs and Drug Policy In America: Relationship Between Drugs and Crime

5. Classicism Beliefs and Crime With Rational Punishment

6. Psychological Crime Causations in Al Capone’s Criminal History

7. Causes Of Psychopathy And Possible Treatment Solutions

8. Analysis Of The Movie City Of God By Applying Criminal Theories

9. Value Versus Ethical Concerns: Psychological Profiling

10. Definition of Forensic Psychiatry and the Qualities Needed for a Psychiatrist

11. Power And Violence In “A Clockwork Orange” Novel And Film

12. Narcissistic Personality Disorder and the Criminal Mind

13. The Cult of Charles Manson and the Later Turnaround

14. The Reasons for the Popular Reactions to the Activities of Bonnie and Clyde in the US

15. Catch Me if You Can: The Story of the Collar Criminal

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Criminal Behavior: Role of Environment and Genetics Essay

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Introduction

The environment, biological explanation.

In a nation where everyone has the opportunity to make something out of life, it is a puzzle why many Americans are in prison. In the Information age where a person has access to more knowledge about the folly of being involved in criminal activities and the negative impact of having a prison record, it is a mystery why there are still many who opted to lead a life of crime. The high crime rate continues to challenge social scientists and psychologists to find a way to prevent or at least curb the crisis. But since the modern age, many have attempted to not only discover a method preventing crime but also to find out the root-cause of criminal behavior.

There are various theories dealing with the causes of crime but for this study, two major theories will be discussed in detail. The first theory that will be analyzed is a subset of an environmental theory of crime causation which is known as the social structure theory. This theory asserts that the social environment plays a major role as to whether a child living in such conditions will grow up to be a criminal or not. The second theory that will be analyzed is a subset of the biological theory of crime causation which is known as the extra chromosome theory. This theory asserts that the extra chromosome in the genetic make-up of some individuals is the main reason why they are prone to commit crime.

The claim that there is a high crime rate in the United States of America is supported by the following statistics. In a study of US prisons in the 21 st century, found out that, “In 2003, 22 states and the federal prison system reported operating at or above capacity. The federal system was estimated to be operating at 39 percent, and overall the state systems were operating at 14 percent above capacity” (Clear, Cole, & Reisig 2005). This simply means that an increasing number of people turning into a life of crime and that the federal government is running out of facilities to rehabilitate them.

Michael Jacobson the former Commissioner of the New York City Department of Correction, the largest city jail system in the U.S. pointed out that America is experiencing a crisis in its criminal justice system. Jacobson added, “The United States now locks up a higher percentage of its population than any country in the world. The more than 2 million people who are incarcerated today make up roughly eight times the number in 1975” (Jacobson, 2005).

Many are saying that overcrowded prison is due to tougher laws. New policies were ratified due to the belief that habitual offenders must be locked up for good – that they may feel the full force of the law. But would it be better for all Americans if crime can be prevented?

In order to answer that query it must first be established that crime just like other social phenomenon has a root-cause. This is not hard to argue in society that believes in cause and effect. Therefore since the beginning of the scientific age, scientists in various disciplines came up with various theories regarding the causation of crime. It can be argued that there are two major groupings: biological and environmental. The biological theory of crime causation simply states that a criminal is born. While the environmental theory promotes the idea that a criminal is made – by various social forces such as the family, race, economy, etc.

The following is a list of subgroups that are linked to the two major theories described above (Wrobleski, & Hess, 2006):

Biological Theories

• Biochemical – Crime is a function of diet, vitamin intake, hormonal imbalance foodallergies.
• Neurological – Criminals and delinquents suffer from a form of brain impairment; braindysfunction is linked to antisocial behavior.
• Genetic – Delinquent traits are inherited. Also, the genetic make-up of the personinfluences his or her behavior. A good example would be the extra chromosome theory of criminal behavior.

Environmental Theories

• Social Structure – The conflicts and problems of urban social life control the crime rate. There are also those who accept that society expects something from them and yet they are well-aware of the fact that the do not have the means to prove that they are productive citizens and therefore they turn to a life of crime to attain respect in the community.
• Social Process – People learn to commit crime through exposure to antisocial behavior. This is especially true when deviant behavior is rewarded.

For those who support the idea that criminals are not born but made, the task of proving that the environment plays a major role in criminal behavior will not be an easy one. This is because there are so many aspects of the environment that must be considered. Isolating these factors will be an impossible endeavor. There is no way that a scientist can devise an experiment that will isolate the natural environment from the social environment for instance. To separate the impact of the squalor of the living conditions from the impact of having an alcoholic father would be impossible. Thus, the general theory that the environment creates criminals is further broken down into a myriad of related theories.

If the root-cause of crime is not inherent in the individual then it simply means that the cause can be found outside the person. This means that if the problem is not genetic then it must be the environment. The next step is to find a correlation between location and crime. According to criminologists there is indeed a connection and they label this site as criminal places (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007). Studies have shown that most crime is highly concentrated in and around a relatively small number of such places. Criminologists assert that in the case of the United States, 10% of “criminal places” are consistently the site of about 60% of all crimes (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007).

This is the reason why most convenience stores are seldom hit by robbers while a few are favorites of stick-up men and they hit it again and again. This is also the reason why there are residential areas that are burglarized on a regular basis. Again, this is the explanation given why there are some bars that are the scene of violence while others operate without incident.

Taking a closer look at these “criminal places”, criminologists discovered that many environmental factors have been identified as contributing factors to crime and this includes, poverty, unemployment, the disintegrating family and drug and alcohol abuse.

But among all these, “Poverty is the pervasive, persistent, devastating threat to many of our nation’s families, particularly to youths. Poverty encompasses a host of problems, including overcrowded and unhealthy living condition in unsafe, crime-ridden neighborhoods; inadequate schools; limited access to healthcare; and single and/or teen parenthood” (Wrobleski & Hess 2006). Social structure theory is an example of an environmental theory that attempts to explain this phenomenon.

Social structure theory argues that the conflicts and problems of urban social life significantly impact the crime rate. Proponents of this theory stress that aside from the commonly attributable factors to crime such as overcrowded housing, high illiteracy rates, drug addicts living in the neighborhood, etc., there is another single important factor and it is the desire for success as defined in the American Dream. According to criminologists, “The American Dream is a broad cultural ethos that entails a commitment to the goal of material success, to be pursued by everyone in society, under condition of open, individual competition” (Wrobleski & Hess 2006).

When the main goal is money, pushing everything into the background, people will begin to think that nothing is more important than getting rich and therefore poor people from the ghettos as well as rich people living in gated communities will not hesitate to commit crime. Yet again there is a problem with this theory since not all poor and illiterate individuals end up behind bars.

For many decades criminologists believe that criminality is linked to biology. According to Vito, Maahs, and Holmes the reason why this mindset is prevalent in the early part of the 20 th century can be explained by the fact that most of the criminologists in that era were physicians (2006). Thus, there was a time when physical features are enough to condemn a person. When scientific tools began to improve, biological theories explaining crime also became sophisticated. One popular example is the extra chromosome theory. Anderson provides the scientific basis for this theory:

…humans carry their genetic material in their chromosomes which are found in the nucleus of every cell in the body. Each chromosome consists of strings of genes. The human species has 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Twenty-two of the pairs are somatic and one pair are sex chromosomes … The sex chromosomes are noted as XX if you are female and XY if you are male (Anderson, 2007).

It was discovered that some individuals have an extra chromosome; for instance some females have an XXX structure while some males have an XXY structure, also known as Klinefelter’s syndrome (Vito, Maahs, & Holmes 2006). In 1965 Patricia Jacobs discovered that the incidence of the XYY disorder was 20 times higher among inmates in a Scottish prison than in the general Scottish population (Hunter & Dantzker 2006).

She also found out that the extra chromosome cause the males to be unusually tall, aggressive, and violent (Vito, Maahs, & Holmes, 2006). In 1969 Lawrence Hannel was acquitted of murder after using extra chromosome theory as part of his defense (Hunter & Dantzker 2006). In 1966 Richard Speck murdered eight nurses and then went on to use the same theory for his defense. This time it did not work. It was later discovered that Speck did not carry an extra chromosome.

In later year the popularity of the above-mentioned theory began to wane. Aside from the unreliability of scientific tests as seen in the case of Speck there was another more important reason why criminologists abandoned the extra chromosome theory. Extensive research revealed that most violent offenders did not have the XYY structure. This simply means that if the extra chromosome is the root cause of crime then the abnormality should be evident in most criminals. Since this is not the case there is a need to look somewhere else.

It is understandable why the first generation of criminologists would focus on biological factors as the main cause of crime. After all it is easy to see antisocial behavior in families, in certain communities and in certain geographical areas. There are families of alcoholics and there are well-documented examples of sons following the criminal exploits of their fathers. A sophisticated theory that sought to explain the seemingly hereditary aspect of crime is the extra chromosome theory. But this was dismissed later due to the lack of consistency and the fact that not all violent criminals carry the extra chromosome in their genetic make-up.

Thus other theories began to be developed and when social science began to become popular in the West, criminologists began to focus on the impact of the environment on criminal behavior. This was further strengthened by the fact that high crime rates are evident in certain areas where poverty, high illiteracy rates, and single parents seem to abound. But it is difficult to isolate environmental factors therefore different yet related theories were developed to address this issue.

On of the most popular is the social structure theory that not only attempts to explain criminal behavior in terms of social factors such as poverty but also by stating that social values exert tremendous pressure upon individuals so that they are ultimately forced to perform deviant behavior. Proponents of this theory assert that the American Dream, the need to succeed is partly to be blamed as to why the poor as well as the rich will not hesitate to break the law as long as they can get ahead of others.

The debate whether criminals are born or made will go on for some time. While others say that there is no use in trying to separate the environmental factors from the biological factors. There are many criminologists who believe that the, “…relationship between genes and the environment is often viewed as synergistic; the genes alone won’t cause the behavior, nor will the environment alone” (Wrobleski & Hess 2006). For now there is nothing wrong with this view.

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Wrobleski, H. & K. Hess. (2006). Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

• Major Theories of Crime Causation
• Mitosis in Onion Root and Whitefish Blastula
• Sex Determination in Amphibians
• Course Summation: Understanding of Criminality
• Financial Cost of Crime to Society
• Criminal Behavior: Psychology and Theories
• War on Drugs in the United States
• Crime and Subcultures in the Urban Area
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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A better path forward for criminal justice: Conclusion

Subscribe to governance weekly, rashawn ray and rashawn ray senior fellow - governance studies @sociologistray brent orrell brent orrell senior fellow - american enterprise institute @orrellaei.

Below is the conclusion from “A Better Path Forward for Criminal Justice,” a report by the Brookings-AEI Working Group on Criminal Justice Reform. You can access other chapters from the report here .

As we write this report, the high-profile failures of the criminal justice system remain front and center in news coverage and the nation’s public policy agenda. The trial of former Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin in the killing of George Floyd draws our attention to how police authority continues to be a frequent threat to life and well-being, especially for low-income individuals and people of color. The police killing of Daunte Wright in a Minneapolis suburb further fuels community distrust and racial division in the Twin Cities and around the country.

At the same time, we are seeing a sudden and disturbing spike in criminal activity and violent offenses in our major urban areas. This spike has variously been attributed to social stress related to the pandemic, a declining willingness of police forces (in the wake of the Floyd death and subsequent civil unrest) to risk potentially dangerous confrontations with individuals committing crimes, and a growing unwillingness among prosecutors to try lower-level offenses thus implicitly encouraging worse ones.

As we prepare to exit pandemic conditions, we recommend a strategic pause to gather data that will help us understand why criminal activity has gone up and inform both immediate responses as well as longer-term reform initiatives. There will be a temptation – on both sides – to argue that the recent spike confirms their prior understandings and policy preferences; either that the recent burst of crime can be effectively controlled by a ratcheting up “tough-on-crime” policies and practices or that it is exactly these practices that create the predicate for crime surges by disrupting lives, families, and neighborhoods through excessive reliance on force and incarceration. We should resist both of these views while we strive for a better understanding of the forces driving and shaping patterns of criminal offenses. It is entirely possible, given the unprecedented conditions of the past 12 months, we will find ourselves surprised by what we learn.

As is often the case, we may need an “and” approach rather than an “or” approach. Policies need to address recent rises in crime and overpolicing. This is why our report focuses on the criminal justice as a whole. Policing is the entree to the criminal justice system that sorts people based on race, social class, and place. Most people do not want less policing. They want equitable policing, and equitable treatment once interacting with the criminal justice system, either as a victim or perpetrator.

Research-informed innovation that builds a more flexible and effective toolbox of responses is needed to move us towards the more peaceful, flourishing, and just society that is the shared objective of conservatives and progressives alike.

The sources of criminal activity and public safety challenges are multifaceted while our responses to them are often singular: more and tougher policing, prosecution, and incarceration. Not every public order challenge is a nail in need of a hammer. If we are to honor the dignity of every person and respect the sanctity of human life, we need a more balanced and diversified approach that recognizes confrontation and coercion are not the only, and often not the best, strategies for protecting our communities. Research-informed innovation that builds a more flexible and effective toolbox of responses is needed to move us towards the more peaceful, flourishing, and just society that is the shared objective of conservatives and progressives alike.

The essays in this volume and the recommended supplemental readings provide much food for thought about the major areas of criminal justice reform that should be at the top of the nation’s agenda. The recommendations are varied and informed by differing perspectives on how to better balance the requirements of community safety, civil liberty, policing and procedural protections, and supporting and achieving lasting changes in attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes among justice-involved individuals as befits a nation committed to the idea of rehabilitation and not just retribution. The authors in this volume will continue convening to discuss, debate, and research these complex issues, with a shared goal of identifying ways to improve our country’s criminal justice system. These are deeply interconnected issues requiring a thorough, thoughtful, and comprehensive response rather than an immediate reversion to long-held and -argued views that may fit recent history or current conditions. A nation that incarcerates so many at such a high cost in public resources and wasted human lives can ill-afford to do otherwise.

The Brookings Institution is a nonprofit organization devoted to independent research and policy solutions. Its mission is to conduct high-quality, independent research and, based on that research, to provide innovative, practical recommendations for policymakers and the public. The conclusion and recommendations of any Brookings publication are solely those of its authors, and do not reflect the views of the Institution, its management, or its other scholars.

The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research is a nonpartisan, nonprofit 501(c)(3) educational organization. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors. AEI does not take institutional positions on any issues.

Support for this publication was generously provided by the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. The views expressed in this report are those of its authors and do not represent the views of the Foundation, their officers, or employees.

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June 14, 2024

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Conclusion: What Works in Crime Prevention Revisited

• First Online: 15 April 2016

Cite this chapter

• David Weisburd 6 , 7 ,
• David P. Farrington 8 &
• Charlotte Gill 6  

Part of the book series: Springer Series on Evidence-Based Crime Policy ((SSEBCP))

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Just four decades ago, the predominant narrative about the effectiveness of crime prevention was simply that nothing works. In this concluding chapter, we ask whether systematic reviews of evidence in interventions in crime and justice have changed our overall understanding of what works. Our assessments of systematic reviews show that there is strong evidence of the effectiveness of crime prevention and rehabilitation programs, policies, and practices across a wide variety of intervention areas. That array of findings is broad and persuasive. It is time to abandon the nothing works idea not only in corrections, but also in developmental prevention, community prevention, situational prevention, policing, sentencing and deterrence, and drug treatment interventions. The reviews also suggest that not everything works, and that criminologists, practitioners, and policymakers must look to the evidence to identify effective programs. Having synthesized the evidence gained from our book, we turn to key gaps in the existing knowledge base. We observe that the crime prevention and rehabilitation reviews provide general evidence that crime prevention and rehabilitation programs work, but they do not provide the kind of everyday guidance to practitioners and policymakers that an evidence base needs to become useful to practice. In turn, we note the paucity of experimental studies, and a growing problem in what we compare our treatments to. We also argue, drawing from chapters in the volume, that crime prevention and rehabilitation studies and reviews need to give greater attention to cost-benefit analysis, qualitative methods, and descriptive validity.

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Methodological Advances in Crime Prevention Research

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Weisburd, D., Farrington, D.P., Gill, C. (2016). Conclusion: What Works in Crime Prevention Revisited. In: Weisburd, D., Farrington, D., Gill, C. (eds) What Works in Crime Prevention and Rehabilitation. Springer Series on Evidence-Based Crime Policy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3477-5_12

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