diffusion experiment lab report

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Diffusion in liquids

In association with Nuffield Foundation

Demonstrate that diffusion takes place in liquids by allowing lead nitrate and potassium iodide to form lead iodide as they diffuse towards each other in this practical

In this experiment, students place colourless crystals of lead nitrate and potassium iodide at opposite sides of a Petri dish of deionised water. As these substances dissolve and diffuse towards each other, students can observe clouds of yellow lead iodide forming, demonstrating that diffusion has taken place.

This practical activity takes around 30 minutes.

• Eye protection
• White tile or piece of white paper
• Lead nitrate (TOXIC, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT), 1 crystal
• Potassium iodide, 1 crystal
• Deionised water

Greener alternatives

To reduce the use of toxic chemicals in this experiment you can conduct the experiment in microscale, using drops of water on a laminated sheet, find full instructions and video here, and/or use a less toxic salt than lead nitrate, eg sodium carbonate and barium chloride. More information is available from CLEAPSS.

Health, safety and technical notes

• Read our standard health and safety guidance.
• Wear eye protection throughout.
• Lead nitrate, Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (s), (TOXIC, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC057a .
• Potassium iodide, KI(s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC047b .
• Place a Petri dish on a white tile or piece of white paper. Fill it nearly to the top with deionised water.
• Using forceps, place a crystal of lead nitrate at one side of the petri dish and a crystal of potassium iodide at the other.
• Observe as the crystals begin to dissolve and a new compound is formed between them.

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

As the crystals of potassium iodide and lead nitrate dissolve and diffuse, they will begin to form yellow lead iodide

Teaching notes

The lead nitrate and potassium iodide each dissolve and begin to diffuse through the water. When the lead ions and iodide ions meet they react to form solid yellow lead iodide which precipitates out of solution.

lead nitrate + potassium iodide → lead iodide + potassium nitrate

Pb(aq) + 2I – (aq) → PbI 2 (s)

The precipitate does not form exactly between the two crystals. This is because the lead ion is heavier and diffuses more slowly through the liquid than the iodide ion.

Another experiment – a teacher demonstration providing an example of a solid–solid reaction  – involves the same reaction but in the solid state.

Additional information

This is a resource from the  Practical Chemistry project , developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry. This collection of over 200 practical activities demonstrates a wide range of chemical concepts and processes. Each activity contains comprehensive information for teachers and technicians, including full technical notes and step-by-step procedures. Practical Chemistry activities accompany  Practical Physics  and  Practical Biology .

The experiment is also part of the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Continuing Professional Development course:  Chemistry for non-specialists .

© Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry

• 11-14 years
• 14-16 years
• Practical experiments
• Physical chemistry
• Reactions and synthesis

Specification

• Precipitation is the reaction of two solutions to form an insoluble salt called a precipitate.
• Motion of particles in solids, liquids and gases.
• Diffusion (Graham's law not required).

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Lab Report (Guided) for Diffusion

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Module 15: Sample Lab Report

Sample lab report: sugar size and diffusion through a mock-cell membrane.

Instructor: L. Hauser

Introduction

Diffusion is the process in which a substance moves from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.   It is important for membranes to be semi-permeable.   If membranes were universally permeable, they would not legitimately serve their purpose as membranes; certain substances need to be kept out of a cell, and others kept in.   If membranes were not at all permeable, there would be no interface between the cell and its environment – effectively starving the cell.   Membranes, being selectively permeable, allow in nutrients and other necessary substances, and also provide for the purging of cell waste. 

This experiment investigates the permeability of cell membranes to various types of sugars: polysaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.   Dialysis tubing is used to simulate a cell membrane; it is permeable to small molecules and water, but not to larger molecules.

Given the generally larger size of polysaccharides, it is hypothesized that starch will not pass through the dialysis tubing, and that iodine will pass through the membrane due to the small size of its molecules.   Based on the trouble that some people have digesting lactose, it is predicted that it is a polysaccharide or disaccharide and will yield diffusion results similar to starch. 

I) Permeability of cell model to starch

The 100ml graduated cylinder was used to measure out 50ml of tap water; the water was poured into a 250ml beaker.   One teaspoon of corn starch was added to the beaker and stirred with a spoon.   A 50ml beaker was filled with 50ml of tap water.   A piece of dialysis tubing was placed into the beaker of water until it became soft and pliable.   The tubing was then extracted from the beaker; one end was tied closed with dental floss, using a double-knot.   The other end of the dialysis tubing was opened; a pipette was used to fill the dialysis tubing with the starch solution.   Another piece of dental floss was used to tie the end of the dialysis tubing closed.   A second 250ml beaker was filled halfway with tap water.   Another pipette was used to add 15 drops of iodine to the beaker; the solution was mixed with a spoon.   The filled dialysis tube was placed into the 250ml beaker so that the cornstarch mixture was submerged in the iodine water mixture.   After 15 minutes had passed, results were observed and recorded.

II) Permeability of cell model to lactose

Part i: determining the type of sugar being tested.

The 100ml graduated cylinder was used to measure out 100ml of tap water; the water was poured into a 250ml beaker.   Two teaspoons of the lactose was added to the water, and the solution was stirred with a spoon for thorough mixing.   50ml of the resultant solution was measured out using the 100ml graduated cylinder, and was reserved for Part II.

Twenty drops of Benedict’s reagent were placed in a clean, empty test tube.   Twenty drops of the lactose solution were added to the same test tube, and the solution was heated in a boiling water bath for 2 minutes.   The results were then interpreted.

Twenty drops of Barfoed’s reagent were placed in a clean, empty test tube.   Twenty drops of lactose solution were added to the same test tube.   The resultant solution was headed in a boiling water bath for 3.5 minutes.   The results were then interpreted.

Part II: Permeability of cell model

This method is based on the premise of the unknown sugar being a disaccharide.

A 50ml beaker was filled with 50 ml tap water.   A piece of dialysis tubing was placed in the beaker of water and left to soak until it became soft and pliable.   The dialysis tubing was then removed from the beaker, and one end tied closed with a double-knotted piece of dental floss.   The other end of the dialysis tubing was opened.   The tubing was filled with lactose solution (set aside from Part I); a pipette was used to transfer the solution from the graduated cylinder to the tubing.   A second piece of dental floss was used to tie the other end of the dialysis tubing closed.   A second 250ml beaker was filled halfway full with tap water.

15 drops of iodine were added to the tap water in the beaker.   The resulting solution was swirled with a spoon to mix it; the colors of the baggie solution and the beaker solution were noted.   The dialysis tubing baggie was placed in the 250ml beaker so that the lactose solution was submerged in the beaker solution, and left to sit undisturbed for 15 minutes.   The color of the baggie solution was noted.

The baggie was removed from the beaker and samples of the beaker solution were transferred to separate, appropriately marked test tubes.   20 drops of Bendict’s reagent were added to one test tube, and the tube heated for 2 minutes.   The color of the resulting solution was noted.   20 drops of Barfoed’s reagent were added to the second test tube, and the tube heated for 3.5 minutes.   The color of the resulting solution was noted.

In the starch experiment as seen in Table 1, the starch solution inside of the dialysis baggie was initially a murky white color.   The solution in the beaker, external to the baggie was a clear yellow color.   After 15 minutes of submersion in the beaker solution, the baggie had turned a dark purple color.   The beaker solution remained clear and yellow.

In Part I of the lactose experiment, the lactose solution was initially a dark brown color.   Benedict’s reagent is pale blue in color.   Lactose, mixed and heated with the Benedict’s reagent, yielded a solution of a murky yellow-brown color.   Barfoed’s reagent, like Benedict’s reagent, is pale blue in color.   Lactose, mixed and heated with the Barfoed’s reagent, yielded a pale blue solution.

In Part II of the lactose experiment, as seen in Table 2, the lactose solution inside of the dialysis baggie was initially dark brown in coloration.   The iodine and water solution in the beaker was a clear yellow color.   A Benedict’s test on the beaker solution after the experiment yielded a dark brown liquid; a Barfoed’s test on the beaker solution after the experiment resulted in a clear blue liquid.

Permeability of cell model to starch

The starch solution inside of the dialysis baggie went from a murky white color to dark purple; iodine from the beaker solution must have diffused into the dialysis baggie, reacting with the starch solution and producing the “positive” dark-purple result, confirming the presence of a polysaccharide inside of the baggie.   The beaker solution remained a clear yellow color throughout the experiment; it can hence be inferred that no polysaccharide was present in the beaker solution at the end of the experiment, and in turn, that no starch diffused out of the baggie and into the beaker solution during the 15-minute soaking.

The experimental hypothesis for this section was correct; starch was unable to diffuse through the cell model, however, iodine was able to diffuse through the cell model.   The discrepancy in permeability is due to the difference in the sizes of iodine and starch molecules. 

Permeability of cell model to lactose

The Benedict’s test control on lactose yielded a solution that was a murky yellow-brown color; this indicated the presence of a mono- or di- saccharide.   The Barfoed’s test control on lactose yielded a solution that was pale blue in color, without any red precipitate; this indicates that no monosaccharaides were present, and in turn, that lactose is a disaccharide.   The solution inside of the dialysis tubing changed color in the course of the experiment; this implies that iodine diffused into the dialysis tubing and reacted with the lactose solution.   The resulting clear yellow color indicates that there were no polysaccharides present inside of the dialysis tubing.

A negative Benedict’s test is of blue coloration; a test on the beaker solution after the experiment is a very dark red-orange-brown color that looks similar to the original lactose in the tubing.   A Barfoed’s test on the post-experiment beaker solution was a clear light blue; no monosaccharaides diffused out into the beaker solution, but this result was irrelevant.   The Benedict’s test revealed that lactose was able to diffuse out of the dialysis baggie, into the beaker solution.   If the cell model is reliable, it appears that lactose is able to diffuse in and out of cells.

The experimental hypothesis for this section appears to have been wrong; the cell model was permeable to lactose.    

Overall, the cell model has demonstrated impermeability to large molecules such as polysaccharides, and permeability to smaller molecules such as disaccharides and iodine molecules.   Since the model was permeable to a disaccharide, it would be reasonable to infer that the model will be permeable to monosaccharaides, as they are even smaller in size than disaccharides.   Further testing with a variety of disaccharides should be done, to determine whether lactose is unique or whether the cell model is permeable to all disaccharides. 

• Biology 102 Labs. Authored by : Lynette Hauser. Provided by : Tidewater Community College. Located at : http://www.tcc.edu/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

Agar Cell Diffusion

All biological cells require the transport of materials across the plasma membrane into and out of the cell. By infusing cubes of agar with a pH indicator, and then soaking the treated cubes in vinegar, you can model how diffusion occurs in cells. Then, by observing cubes of different sizes, you can discover why larger cells might need extra help to transport materials.

• Agar-agar powder
• Digital scale
• Graduated cylinder
• Whisk or fork
• Microwaveable bowl or container at least 500ml in volume
• Microwave (not shown)
• Hot pad or oven mitt
• Heat-safe surface
• pH indicator, such as bromothymol blue or phenolphthalein
• Small glass baking pan or cube-shaped silicone ice-cube molds
• Clear plastic metric ruler
• Sharp knife
• Clear container for immersing agar cubes
• Pencil and notepaper
• White paper or plate

• Measure out 1.6 g of agar-agar and 200 ml water. Mix them together with a whisk or fork in a large microwave-safe bowl.
• Heat the solution in the microwave on high for 30 seconds. Remove to a heat-safe surface using a hot pad or oven mitts, stir, and return to the microwave for 30 seconds. Repeat this process until the mixture boils. (Keep your eye on it as it can boil over very easily!) When done, remove the container, and set it on a trivet or other heat-safe surface.

• Carefully pour the agar solution into silicone ice-cube molds or a small glass baking pan. Make sure the agar block(s) will be at least 3 cm deep when they solidify. If you don’t have enough solution, make more using the ratio of 0.8 g agar-agar powder to 100 ml water.

Place a few millileters of the pH indicator into a small container ( either bromothymol blue or phenolphthalein ). Using a dropper, add a few drops of vinegar. What do you notice?

As an acid, vinegar has a large number of hydrogen ions. When the hydrogen ions come into contact with the pH indicator, the solution changes color.

Fill a clear container with vinegar to a 3-cm depth. Place one agar cube of each size in the vinegar, making sure the blocks are submerged. The untreated blocks (one of each size) will be used for comparison. What do you think will happen to each cube?

Determine the surface area and volume of each cube. To find the surface area, multiply the length of a side of the cube by the width of a side of the cube. This will give you the area of one face of the cube. Multiply this number by 6 (the number of faces on a cube) to determine the total surface area. To find the volume, multiply the length of the cube by its width by its height. Then determine the surface-area-to-volume ratios by dividing the surface area by the volume for each cube.

How will you know if hydrogen ions are moving into the cube? How long do you think it will take the hydrogen ions to diffuse fully into each of the cubes? Why? How would you be able to tell when the vinegar has fully penetrated the cube?

After 5 minutes, remove the cubes from the vinegar with a plastic spoon, and place them on white paper or on a white plate. Compare the treated cubes to the untreated cubes and observe any color changes.

How much vinegar has been absorbed by each treated cube? One way to measure this is to calculate the percentage of the volume of the cube that has been penetrated by the vinegar. (Hint: It may be easier to first consider the volume that has not been penetrated by the vinegar—the portion that has not yet changed color.) Do you want to adjust any of your predictions for the diffusion times? What are your new predictions?

Carefully return all of the treated cubes to the vinegar. Continue checking the vinegar-soaked cubes every 5 minutes by removing them to determine the percentage of the cube that has been penetrated by the vinegar. Continue this process until the vinegar has fully penetrated the cubes. Make a note of the time when this occurs.

What do you notice about the percentage of penetration for each of the cubes at the different time intervals? What relationships do you notice between surface area, volume, surface-area-to-volume ratio, and percentage penetration? What does this say about diffusion as an object gets larger?

Biological cells can only survive if materials can move in and out of them. In this Snack, you used cubes of agar to visualize how diffusion changes depending on the size of the object taking up the material.

Diffusion occurs when molecules in an area of higher concentration move to an area of lower concentration. As hydrogen ions from the vinegar move into the agar cube, the color of the cube changes allowing you to see how far they have diffused. While random molecular motion will cause individual molecules and ions to continue moving back and forth between the cube and the vinegar solution, the overall concentrations will remain in equilibrium, with equal concentrations inside and outside the agar cube.

How did you find the percentage of the cube that was penetrated by the hydrogen ions at the various time intervals? One way to do this is to start with the volume of the cube that has not been penetrated—in other words, the part in the center that has not yet changed color. To determine the volume of this inner cube, measure the length of this inner cube and multiply it by the width and height. Subtract this from the original volume of the cube and you obtain the volume of the cube that has been penetrated. By dividing this number by the original volume and multiplying by 100%, you can determine the percentage penetration for each cube.

You may have noticed that the bigger the vinegar-soaked cube gets, the time it takes for additional vinegar to diffuse into the cube also increases—but not in a linear fashion. In other words, if the cube dimensions are doubled, the time it takes for the hydrogen ions to completely diffuse in more than doubles. When you triple the size, the time to diffuse MUCH more than triples. Why would this happen?

As the size of an object increases, the volume also increases, but by more than you might think. For example, when the cube doubles from a length of 1 cm to a length of 2 cm, the surface area increase by a factor of four, going from 6 cm 2 (1 cm x 1 cm x 6 sides) to 24 cm 2 (2 cm x 2 cm x 6 sides). The volume, though, increases by a factor of eight, increasing from 1 cm 3 (1cm x 1 cm x 1 cm) to 8 cm 3 (2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm).

Because the volume is increasing at a greater factor than the surface area, the surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases. As the cube size increases, the surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases (click to enlarge the table below). The vinegar can only enter the cube through its surface, so as that ratio decreases, the time it takes for diffusion to occur throughout the whole volume increases significantly.

$$\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|} \hline \begin{array}{c} \text { Cube Side } \\ \text { Length } \end{array} & \text { Surface Area } & \text { Volume } & \begin{array}{c} \text { Surface-area- } \\ \text { to-volume ratio } \end{array} \\ \hline 1 \mathrm{~cm} & 6 \mathrm{~cm}^2 & 1 \mathrm{~cm}^3 & 6 \mathrm{~cm}^{-1} \\ \hline 2 \mathrm{~cm} & 24 \mathrm{~cm}^2 & 8 \mathrm{~cm}^3 & 3 \mathrm{~cm}^{-1} \\ \hline 3 \mathrm{~cm} & 54 \mathrm{~cm}^2 & 27 \mathrm{~cm}^3 & 2 \mathrm{~cm}^{-1} \\ \hline \end{array}$$

Anything that comes into a cell (such as oxygen and food) or goes out of it (such as waste) must travel across the cell membrane. As cells grow larger, the ratio of surface area to volume decreases dramatically, just like in your agar cubes. Larger cells must still transport materials across their membranes, but have a larger volume to supply and a proportionately smaller surface area through which to do so.

Bacterial cells are fairly small and have a comparatively larger surface-area-to-volume ratio. Eukaryotic cells, such as those in plants and animals, are much larger, but have additional structures to help them conduct the required amount of transport across membranes. A series of membrane-bound structures continuous with the plasma membrane, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, provide additional surface area inside the cell, allowing sufficient transport to occur. Even with these strategies, though, there are upper limits to cell size.

While this Snack investigates how the size of an agar cube impacts diffusion, the shape of each cube remains consistent. Biological cells, however, come in different shapes. To see how different shapes of “cells” affect diffusion rates, try various shapes of agar solids. Ice-cube molds can be found in spherical and rod shapes in addition to cubes. How does the shape impact the surface-area-to-volume ratios?

This Snack fits well into a series of investigations on osmosis and diffusion. The Naked Egg Snack will allow students to explore how concentration gradients power movement of materials into and out of cells. The Cellular Soap Opera Snack will help students consider the types of materials that move through cell membranes.

To help students better understand the concepts of surface area, volume, and surface-area-to-volume ratio, have them build models with plastic centimeter cubes. Physical models can help make these ideas more concrete. Students can also graph class data to better understand the mathematical relationships involved.

If there’s not enough time within a class period for the largest cubes to be fully penetrated by the hydrogen ions present in the vinegar, students can make note of the percentage of the cube that has been penetrated by the vinegar and use that data to extrapolate a result. Alternatively, students in the following period may be able to note the time for the previous class.

Agar-agar comes as a powder and can be purchased online or at markets featuring Asian foods. Unflavored gelatin can be used as a substitute, but is more difficult to handle. To make cubes from gelatin, add boiling water (25% less than the amount recommended on the package) to the gelatin powder, stir, and refrigerate overnight. You may need to experiment with the ratio of water to gelatin to achieve the perfect consistency.

Cabbage juice can be used as an inexpensive alternative to commercial pH indicator solutions. To make cabbage juice indicator, pour boiling water over chopped red cabbage and let it sit for 10 minutes. Strain out the cabbage, and use the remaining purple water to mix with the agar powder.

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Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Report Guidelines

By: Max Malak

To complete this laboratory work, you must recall the material covered on the topic "Osmosis and Diffusion." Using a notebook - synopsis or textbook provided by your science tutor for learning theory. Research reveals common student misconceptions in the fields of diffusion and osmosis. In particular, students find it challenging to understand that cells, like multicellular organisms, live in the environment and must perform all the actions necessary to stay alive. Common student misconceptions also include misconceptions about the difference between cells and molecules and the difference in size between proteins, molecules, and cells.

Main tasks:

Required equipment:, understanding the concepts of diffusion and osmosis, procedure for setting up osmosis experiment, writing style, introduction (6 10 sentences), materials and methods, discussion (5-10 sentences), conclusion (2-3 sentences), how long should a lab report be, common mistakes when conducting research.

You can make a lab report on osmosis and diffusion within a few days. Thanks to this experiment, students will learn about all living organisms' structural units - the cell and its structure and functions. When doing tasks, it will be necessary to move molecules in and out through the cell membrane and interact with the environment.

To understand what osmosis and diffusion, it will be necessary to draw up conceptual maps and study the process of laboratory reporting using real examples and prove how the two concepts are related. To develop an experiment, the student needs to show their knowledge and experience in the study of osmosis and diffusion. Based on the results, the student will understand how semipermeable the membrane is.

Lab Report: Objectives and Required Equipment

All students need to make a basic lab report on diffusion and osmosis, because thanks to it, you will know how different substances move through cell membranes. For example, diffusion occurs across a semipermeable membrane. But also for its process, there must be no barrier, that is, a membrane. When making a diffusion experiment, factors such as temperature, molecular weight, electrical charge, and substance concentration must be considered. In turn, you will see that using this method, water moves according to the same principle - this will be osmosis.

With the help of the teacher's instructions, you will create the best biology lab report. Living plant cells are your primary means of experimentation. With these, you will see the membrane's movement in the dialysis tube, as defined by the semipermeable membrane of cellulose.

• Apply laboratory reporting methods to study the problems of osmosis and diffusion;
• To study the difference between hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic solutions;
• Understand how molecular weight affects the rate of diffusion;
• Record all experimental data in a scientific laboratory report;
• Show the teacher what skills you have gained for yourself while working on the assignment.
• Protective gloves;
• Glasses for work in the laboratory;
• Shoes so as not to get wet.
• Red dye solution;
• Blue dye solution;
• Transparent glasses;
• Diazole tube;
• 250 ml solution;
• Glucose test strips;
• Plastic pipettes;
• 30 ml starch indicator solution;
• 250 ml starch solution.

Osmosis is a selective form of diffusion. Diffusion is based on the random flow of molecules and is much more common in gases, while osmosis base on the molecules' inherent ability in the water. The membrane in osmosis allows certain types of molecules to pass through, limiting the influx of other types.

In both osmosis and diffusion, molecules necessarily flow from an area of higher concentration to a lower one. A practical example of diffusion is when you spray a room freshener in a corner, and the whole room soon filled with scent. A practical example of osmosis is when you start feeling thirsty after eating something salty, as excess salt attracts water to the cells in the body.

Scientifically, both diffusion and osmosis are classified as "passive transport" since no external energy is needed to flow molecules. Osmosis is an important biological concept.

Diffusion and osmosis have an essential role in living organisms to support "homeostasis," "internal balance or equilibrium to regulate various mechanisms through cellular function." Recently, osmosis has also been used as a poetic concept and defines an educational concept in which a child learns by observing, interacting, and simply being in teachers and fellow students' company.

To make a good paper, follow this process:

• Take a small piece of dialysis tubing and cut exactly 10 cm.
• Then soak the dialysis tube in distilled water for a few minutes, but no more than 5.
• Take dental floss and tie it around one end of the dialysis tube.
• Pour 1% starch solution into the tube's space using a pipette, but not completely, leave a place so that you can tie the other end of the tube with dental floss.
• After filling in the required amount of solution, tie the other end of the dialysis tube.
• Fill a 250 ml beaker with distilled water.
• Add Lugol's iodine to distilled water, stir the solution until a uniform yellowish color.
• Place the dialysis tubing bag in the glass.
• The molecular formula of Lugol's solution is I2KI (atomic mass = 127). Starch is made up of long chains of glucose (atomic mass of each glucose = 180). Due to the presence of starch in the solution, the iodine will change color to dark blue. Formulate a hypothesis according to the research points. Explain each hypothesis using evidence. Examples of hypotheses:
• Movement of starch in the solution.
• Movement of iodine in solution.
• How does the color change in the bag after 30 minutes?
• How does the color change in a glass after 30 minutes?
• Place the dialysis bag in a glass and let the experiment run for 30 minutes. Record the colors of both the dialysis bag and the glass.

General Guidelines for Scientific Lab Report Writing

A scientific lab report is one of the types of student's independent work. In its implementation, the already studied theoretical material is used. Often, in preparing such an assignment, the student has many questions regarding its design. Use our writing assignments guide:

• Design the title page. Fill in the upper part of the document with the name of your educational institution. Indicate the type of work in the middle of the sheet. Below, under the type of work, indicate the topic of the work but without quotes. Go a few centimeters down to the right corner of the paper and write the last name, initials, group of your course. After this information, indicate the initials of the teacher who accepts the job. At the very bottom of the page, indicate the city of the educational institution and the year of writing;
• On the next page, describe the purpose of the work. This part is composed of the topic, the tasks that the student considers at work. Do not describe all the work, only the most essential details, by volume this part of the work amounts to several sentences, at most half a page;
• Your next assignment is to write the theoretical part. This section includes information about the work, that is, you need to describe which chapters the text consists of.
• Then describe the methods and tools you used in the experiment. Also, the reader should be told in a brief form of the process of experimenting;
• Describe what results in you achieved during the experiment. This section contains information about all the results you got from the first experiment to the last one. You can draw up this information in the form of computer modeling, certain values of quantities, graphs, tables, diagrams;
• Describe what kind of analysis of the results you conducted. That is, your task is to apply the laws of chemistry, biology to the results obtained and compare.
• Make a conclusion. Your task is to summarize the whole process of work. And also to cue the values of the results in life, obtained experimentally or theoretically, their dependence on the experimental conditions or the chosen calculation model;
• In the penultimate sheet, create applications;
• Your last page should contain a list of used literature, Internet resources.

The formal lab report is executed on writing a standard A4 format on one side of the sheet, stapled in a binder or bound. It is allowed to issue a report on laboratory work in electronic form using Microsoft Office tools. The work's text should be typed with one and a half line spacing in Times New Roman font, size 12. Margins should remain on all four sides of the printed sheet: left - not less than 30 mm, right - not less than 10, bottom - not less than 20, and top - not less than 15 mm.

Suppose according to a special laboratory practice or a cycle of practical exercises. It is required to issue a general report at the end of the semester for the entire work cycle. In that case, separate reports are also drawn up for each cycle's work as they are completed. A final report is drawn up at the end of the semester based on reports for each work. The primary attention should be paid to the analysis of the results obtained in different laboratory works.

It is recommended to arrange laboratory work in a general notebook of 18-24 sheets. At the end of each work, there should be a teacher's mark about the defense. An independent work before the defense of laboratory work should be presented: answers to control questions; options for answering the test on the relevant topic of work.

Style is generally accepted norms. There is an official business style (including diplomatic), journalistic, and other styles that determine information presentation and vocabulary structure. By the way, style can affect how text is presented. The tone is how the letter will sound in the recipient's head the moment it is read.

In your case, this is a scientific work, and a scientific style corresponds to it. Its peculiarity is a generalization, abstractness, and an abundance of special scientific terms. The texts are logical; the language means carefully select. The texts written in a scientific style are not dialogues but monologues. Descriptions and definitions distinguish by high accuracy and consistency.

Repetitions are not terrible here; on the contrary: each concept has a clear name. The result depends on the correct choice of style, the correct presentation of information is essential for readers: they cannot see the author's gestures, eyes, or facial expressions.

The introduction should justify the relevance of the work. The relevance of work is the degree of its importance and a given situation for solving a specific problem, task, or issue. Justification of laboratory work's relevance explains the need to study this topic and conduct research on this issue. The relevance can be expressed in words::

• Of particular importance is the question ...
• The social significance of the topic is determined ...
• In connection with ... the problem has acquired great importance...
• Interest in the problem ... is conditioned by ...

The object and the subject of work are considered for relevance. The object of research is what will be taken for study and research. Usually, the research object's name is contained in answering the question: what is being considered? The subject of research is a particular problem, individual aspects of an item, its properties, and features, which will be investigated in work.

The following describes the purpose of the work, i.e., the desired result, which planned to be achieved due to work, is done. To draw up the work goals, you can use the following scheme: take one of the words such as explore, show, check, study, define, etc. Then add the object of study.

To create this section of the laboratory report, you need to use a vertical list, where you need to indicate all materials and methods used during the experiment. Specify information as specific as possible, without decoration. Indicate the chemicals, equipment, glassware used, indicating the size, quantity, and concentration, only in those points where it is necessary. Your task in the science lab report is to list, not describe the process; you have already done this in the central part.

If you have got the same results that has been published elsewhere, please refer to it and cite it. This will help you avoid repetition, thereby saving you time and limiting the number of words. However, be sure to mention any modifications you may have made to the standard procedure in the source you cite.

While providing detailed information is extremely important, exclude irrelevant information such as the color of the ice bucket or the name of the person who recorded your data. Such information should not be included in the article. Identify information that is relevant to your experiment and its analysis and includes only that.

The lab reports results contain a statement of observations, the results of experiments, measurements, comparisons, counts, and their discussion. The study results must be sufficiently fully so that the reader can trace its stages and assess the validity of the author's conclusions. This is the main section, which aims to prove a working hypothesis by analyzing, synthesizing, and explaining the data.

If necessary, the results are supported by illustrations (tables, graphs, figures), which present the original material or evidence in a collapsed form. The illustrated information mustn't duplicate that already provided in the text.

It is desirable to compare the results presented in the article with the previous works in this area by both the author and other researchers. Such a comparison will additionally reveal the novelty of the work carried out and give it objectivity. The study results should present briefly, but at the same time, contain sufficient information to evaluate the conclusions reached. It should also be justified why this particular data selected for analysis.

The next structural section of a scientific article after the "Research Results," which is unique to it, is "Discussion of Results." It is included in the article's size, which can lead to its exceeding, therefore "Discussion of results" should be as short as possible.

The contents of the "Discussion" section come to life, according to the following plan:

• based on the formulations of the tasks presented in the "Introduction," build a logical chain between their consistent solution and the elimination of the corresponding causes and negative consequences of the actual problem;
• interpret only those thematic indicators that indicate the successful resolution of specific scientific problems and explain how they provide this;
• based on this explanation, logically substantiate the fact of achieving the set scientific goal and eliminating the considered topical problem;
• provide the research results of other scientists, based on which this justification can be interpreted, as part of your author's approach to solving the problem;
• formulate this approach, using the interpretation provided, thus creating a model of the problem studied;
• based on this model, predict new results and, if possible, confirm them with experimental data from other scientists.

The conclusion, along with the introduction, is also an essential part of the work. The conclusion outlines the following aspects:

• conclusions made by the author of the work on the study of the theoretical part of the work;
• results of the analysis of the research subject;
• recommendations for improving the subject of research.

It is good if the conclusion to the chemistry lab report begins with a short introduction to the topic of work. Conclusions should be short, laconic, but generalizing the essence of the analyzed issue. Copying parts of the text from the introduction or the central part in the conclusion is not allowed.

The conclusion can be created as a solid text or as a numbered list. As a rule, the second case writes: "As a result of the work done, the following conclusions were made." A numbered list follows. If a hypothesis was formulated in the introduction, it is necessary to indicate whether it has been confirmed or refuted.

Laboratory works differ in meaning and type of task, and respectively, the volume is different. Most of them take 3-5 sheets, but in some laboratory ones, the volume reaches 5-10 sheets. For individual subjects, laboratory tests are submitted not on paper, but in computer programs; in this case, explanations and input data fit one sheet.

Regardless of the subject, the sections in the laboratory work will be similar in volume if the design takes place on paper and has a classic look:

• Title page.
• Content - 1 sheet.
• Introduction - 6 - 10 sentences.
• The theoretical base is 1-3 sentences.
• List of equipment - 1 sheet.
• The results of experiments or experiments 3-5 sentences.
• Discussions 3-10 sentences.
• Conclusion - 1-3 sentences.
• Answers to security questions 2-3 sentences.
• List of used literature - 1 sheet.

Don’t Forget to Proofread and Edit Your Paper

With the help of online error checking programs, you can perform text editing online. To do this, add text to the window and run the check. Errors are highlighted in red, and the lower window offers an option for an immediate fix. As a result of one check, found errors, tautologies, foreign words shown, and the water level is calculated.

Correction of errors in the text is possible using online tools and stationary programs. Most of the free versions are designed to detect obvious bugs. Some paid versions of online services provide advanced functionality for more thorough checking and automatic editing. No program can replace the work of a real proofreader. Better content analysis is performed only by real specialists.

Therefore, we recommend that you entrust the text's editing to those who are well-versed in this. If you want to listen to the work's assessment or understand whether you wrote the article well, you can entrust the document's reading to your friends.

In the course of laboratory tests, errors are possible. Each determination's final result consists of the actual values and a particular research error, it's an integral part. Evaluation of the result's reliability and clinical assessment requires knowledge of the types of errors during the study. Clinical research errors can be classified as follows:

• mistakes preceding research;
• analytical error (laboratory);
• interpretation error.

Error before doing the research. This error covers a group of factors associated with the patient's preparation for the examination, collecting and storing material before the analysis starts. Factors leading to an error before conducting a study:

• when preparing a patient for research: non-standard time of day, unaccounted diet or medication, etc.;
• when taking material: insufficient asepsis, improperly prepared dishes for the material, etc.;
• during storage of the material: time, temperature, sterility, the need for separate storage of different samples.

Analytical error (laboratory). This error is associated with the course of the study of biological material in the laboratory. There are several types of such errors:

• Systematic error (precision) expresses the difference between the received and the actual values. The source of the systematic error is the peculiarities of the method or the ways of its implementation.
• The random error characterizes the reproducibility (repeatability) of results between parallel samples under given conditions.

Result interpretation error. A single laboratory test results in disease diagnosis or monitoring during treatment can be a source of numerous errors. For example, physiological fluctuations in some parameters are sometimes quite significant and affect the result's clinical interpretation. These changes can be cyclical: hourly, daily, seasonal. In such cases, additional research is required.

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Learning Objectives

After completing the lab, the student will be able to:

• Explain or define the term diffusion.
• Explain how different media affect the rate of diffusion.

Activity 1: Pre-Assessment

• What happens when an air freshener is sprayed in a corner? What is the name of the process that causes the molecules to move?
• Do you think that the rate of the air freshener molecules moving would change if the room temperature was warmer or colder? Why or why not?
• Discuss the answers to questions 1 and 2 with the class.

Activity 1: Diffusion

The movement of molecules from a higher concentrated area to a wider and less concentrated area is referred to as diffusion . For example, you can smell the aroma of food flowing through the atmosphere as you walk towards a cafeteria. Molecules collide with each other and are in constant motion because of their kinetic energy. This activity propels molecules to move where there is a less concentrated area. Therefore, the net movement of molecules is always from a tightly concentrated area to a less tightly packed area. Osmosis is the process of water diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane. In body systems, various constituents such as gases, liquids, and solids are dissolved in water when they flow through the cell membrane from a highly concentrated place to a less concentrated area in bodily systems. In a solution, the dissolved substance is called the solute and the substance in which the solute is dissolved is called the solvent.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area where the molecule is highly concentrated to an area of low concentration, as illustrated in Figure 6.1. The rate of diffusion is dependent upon the temperature of a system, molecular size, and the medium through which diffusion is occurring (i.e., semi-solid, liquid, air). In this activity, we will be observing the diffusion of a dye through a beaker of water and through agar (a gelatinous substance), diffusion as a function of temperature, and diffusion as a function of molecular weight.

Safety Precautions

• Inform your teacher immediately of any broken glassware, as it could cause injuries.
• Clean up any spilled water or other fluids to prevent other people from slipping.
• Be careful with the dye as it can stain your clothes, and it should not be ingested.
• Wash your hands with soap and water after completion of the activity.

For this activity, you will need the following:

• Three 250 mL beakers
• Food coloring
• Agar plates
• Potassium permanganate
• Methylene blue
• Thermometer
• Refrigerator
• Clock or timer

For this activity, you will work in groups of four .

Structured Inquiry

Step 1: Measure 200 mL of room temperature water in a beaker. Put three drops of food coloring into the water. Time how long it takes for the dye to completely diffuse throughout the water. Record the time and describe in your notebook what you observe. Create a data table for your observations.

Step 2: Hypothesize/Predict: Predict what would happen to the rate of diffusion if you had beakers with both very hot and very cold water in them. Add your predictions to the data table you created in step 1.

Step 3: Student-led Planning: Determine how diffusion of the food color would be affected when the water is either very hot or very cold. Use a thermometer and record the temperature for each. Use a timer to measure how long it takes for complete diffusion to occur in all scenarios.

Step 4: Critical Analysis: Create a graph that shows how the diffusion rate is affected because of temperature change. Are the predictions you made in step 2 supported by your data? Why or why not? What methods could you use to improve your results? Discuss with your group and then write your answers in your notebook.

Guided Inquiry

Step 1: Gather four agar plates and the three dyes, provided by your instructor, that differ in molecular size: Congo red (mol. wt. 696.66 g/mol), methylene blue (319.85 g/mol), and potassium permanganate (mol. wt. 158.03).

Step 2: Hypothesize/Predict: How would the rate of diffusion of a molecule through a gel compare to its rate of diffusion through water? How would the rate of diffusion differ between molecules of different molecular sizes? Write your ideas in your notebook.

Step 3: Student-led planning: Use 1 plate for determining how molecular size affects diffusion using the 3 dyes. Determine how best to measure movement of the dye in an agar plate. Be sure to keep the dyes far enough apart so that they do not touch once they start diffusing. Get your instructor’s approval before proceeding with the experiment. Measure the distance that the dye spreads in 20-minute intervals for 1 hour.

Step 4: Examine the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion for 1 dye of your choosing. With your group, determine 3 temperatures that would be appropriate. Measure the diameter of the dye spread for each. Write the results in your notebook.

Step 5: Critical Analysis: Rank all 3 dyes in terms of diffusion rate. What was the relationship between diffusion rate and molecular size? What is the relationship between temperature and diffusion rate? Discuss your answers with your group and write them in your notebook.

Assessments

• In a system, there is a concentration of molecules. However, on the outside, there is little to no concentration of this particular molecule. In which direction would the molecules be moving more so than the other direction?
• Diffusion is affected by what factors?
• Dye tends to move faster in warmer temperatures. Why is this?

Lab Manual for Biology Part I Copyright © 2022 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Diffusion Policy Policy Optimization

irom-lab/dppo

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Diffusion policy policy optimization (dppo).

[ Paper ]  [ Website ]

Allen Z. Ren 1 , Justin Lidard 1 , Lars L. Ankile 2,3 , Anthony Simeonov 3 Pulkit Agrawal 3 , Anirudha Majumdar 1 , Benjamin Burchfiel 4 , Hongkai Dai 4 , Max Simchowitz 3,5

1 Princeton University, 2 Harvard University, 3 Masschusetts Institute of Technology 4 Toyota Research Institute, 5 Carnegie Mellon University

DPPO is an algorithmic framework and set of best practices for fine-tuning diffusion-based policies in continuous control and robot learning tasks.

Installation

• Clone the repository
• Install core dependencies with a conda environment (if you do not plan to use Furniture-Bench, a higher Python version such as 3.10 can be installed instead) on a Linux machine with a Nvidia GPU.
• Install specific environment dependencies (Gym / Robomimic / D3IL / Furniture-Bench) or all dependencies

Install MuJoCo for Gym and/or Robomimic . Install D3IL . Install IsaacGym and Furniture-Bench

Set environment variables for data and logging directory (default is data/ and log/ ), and set WandB entity (username or team name)

Usage - Pre-training

Note : You may skip pre-training if you would like to use the default checkpoint (available for download) for fine-tuning.

Pre-training data for all tasks are pre-processed and can be found at here . Pre-training script will download the data (including normalization statistics) automatically to the data directory.

Run pre-training with data

All the configs can be found under cfg/<env>/pretrain/ . A new WandB project may be created based on wandb.project in the config file; set wandb=null in the command line to test without WandB logging.

See here for details of the experiments in the paper.

Usage - Fine-tuning

Pre-trained policies used in the paper can be found here . Fine-tuning script will download the default checkpoint automatically to the logging directory.

Fine-tuning pre-trained policy

All the configs can be found under cfg/<env>/finetune/ . A new WandB project may be created based on wandb.project in the config file; set wandb=null in the command line to test without WandB logging.

Note : In Gym, Robomimic, and D3IL tasks, we run 40, 50, and 50 parallelized MuJoCo environments on CPU, respectively. If you would like to use fewer environments (given limited CPU threads, or GPU memory for rendering), you can reduce env.n_envs and increase train.n_steps , so the total number of steps collected in each iteration (n_envs x n_steps) remains roughly the same. Try to set train.n_steps a multiple of env.max_episode_steps , and be aware that we only count episodes finished within an iteration for eval. Furniture-Bench tasks run IsaacGym on a single GPU.

To fine-tune your own pre-trained policy instead, override base_policy_path to your own checkpoint, which is saved under checkpoint/ of the pre-training directory. You can set base_policy_path=<path> in the command line when launching fine-tuning.

Visualization

• Furniture-Bench tasks can be visualized in GUI by specifying env.specific.headless=False and env.n_envs=1 in fine-tuning configs.
• D3IL environment can be visualized in GUI by +env.render=True , env.n_envs=1 , and train.render.num=1 . There is a basic script at script/test_d3il_render.py .
• Videos of trials in Robomimic tasks can be recorded by specifying env.save_video=True , train.render.freq=<iterations> , and train.render.num=<num_video> in fine-tuning configs.

DPPO implementation

Our diffusion implementation is mostly based on Diffuser and at model/diffusion/diffusion.py and model/diffusion/diffusion_vpg.py . PPO specifics are implemented at model/diffusion/diffusion_ppo.py . The main training script is at agent/finetune/train_ppo_diffusion_agent.py that follows CleanRL .

Key configurations

• denoising_steps : number of denoising steps (should always be the same for pre-training and fine-tuning regardless the fine-tuning scheme)
• ft_denoising_steps : number of fine-tuned denoising steps
• horizon_steps : predicted action chunk size (should be the same as act_steps , executed action chunk size, with MLP. Can be different with UNet, e.g., horizon_steps=16 and act_steps=8 )
• model.gamma_denoising : denoising discount factor

• model.clip_ploss_coef : PPO clipping ratio

DDIM fine-tuning

To use DDIM fine-tuning, set denoising_steps=100 in pre-training and set model.use_ddim=True , model.ddim_steps to the desired number of total DDIM steps, and ft_denoising_steps to the desired number of fine-tuned DDIM steps. In our Furniture-Bench experiments we use denoising_steps=100 , model.ddim_steps=5 , and ft_denoising_steps=5 .

Adding your own dataset/environment

Pre-training data.

Pre-training script is at agent/pretrain/train_diffusion_agent.py . The pre-training dataset loader assumes a pickle file containing a dictionary of observations , actions , and traj_length , where observations and actions have the shape of num_episode x max_episode_length x obs_dim/act_dim, and traj_length is a 1-D array. One pre-processing example can be found at script/process_robomimic_dataset.py .

Note: The current implementation does not support loading history observations (only using observation at the current timestep). If needed, you can modify here .

Fine-tuning environment

We follow the Gym format for interacting with the environments. The vectorized environments are initialized at make_async (called in the parent fine-tuning agent class here ). The current implementation is not the cleanest as we tried to make it compatible with Gym, Robomimic, Furniture-Bench, and D3IL environments, but it should be easy to modify and allow using other environments. We use multi_step wrapper for history observations (not used currently) and multi-environment-step action execution. We also use environment-specific wrappers such as robomimic_lowdim and furniture for observation/action normalization, etc. You can implement a new environment wrapper if needed.

Known issues

• IsaacGym simulation can become unstable at times and lead to NaN observations in Furniture-Bench. The current env wrapper does not handle NaN observations.

This repository is released under the MIT license. See LICENSE .

Acknowledgement

• Diffuser, Janner et al. : general code base and DDPM implementation
• Diffusion Policy, Chi et al. : general code base especially the env wrappers
• CleanRL, Huang et al. : PPO implementation
• IBRL, Hu et al. : ViT implementation
• D3IL, Jia et al. : D3IL benchmark
• Robomimic, Mandlekar et al. : Robomimic benchmark
• Furniture-Bench, Heo et al. : Furniture-Bench benchmark
• AWR, Peng et al. : DAWR baseline (modified from AWR)
• DIPO, Yang et al. : DIPO baseline
• IDQL, Hansen-Estruch et al. : IDQL baseline
• DQL, Wang et al. : DQL baseline
• QSM, Psenka et al. : QSM baseline
• Score SDE, Song et al. : diffusion exact likelihood
• Python 99.6%