table of content of a research report

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How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on May 15, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction . The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis , paper, or dissertation topic , there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes “level 1” headings , or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as “level 2” headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into “level 3” headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper .

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review , Methodology , and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3)!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says “Heading 1.”
• Select “Update Heading 1 to Match Selection.”
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the “References” section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click “OK” and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select “Update Field.” You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations, and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

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All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

George, T. (2023, July 18). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 30, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/table-of-contents/

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Tegan George

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

George, T. (2022, May 15). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 30 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/contents-page/

Is this article helpful?

Tegan George

Other students also liked, dissertation title page, how to write an abstract | steps & examples, thesis & dissertation acknowledgements | tips & examples.

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A Table of Contents in APA Format

General guidelines.

• Table of Contents

APA style does not require a table of contents, but there are cases where you may need to include one. For example, your instructor may specify that your paper must be submitted with a table of contents. A table of contents can be particularly helpful in cases where your paper is lengthy or covers a lot of material, such as a thesis paper or dissertation. Research papers, in particular, may benefit from the addition of a table of contents.

APA style is the official publication style of the American Psychological Association. APA style is used in psychology courses as well as other social science classes including those in social science, behavioral sciences, and education.

The table of contents serves as a basic roadmap of your paper. It should list all of the major headings and subheadings within the body of your paper. For a standard psychology paper, it might include listings for the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of your paper.

While the APA may not specify guidelines for a table of contents, you should use the basic APA format for formatting your table of contents:

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• Use 12-point Times New Roman font
• Double-space

Since APA does not require a table of contents, you should always refer to your instructor’s guidelines when deciding whether or not to include one.

It is also important to note that the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in 2020, and included updated guidelines on many topics.

For example, while the previous edition of the style manual required a running head on each page of a paper, the 7th edition has eliminated that requirement on student papers unless your instructor specifies to include it. Always ask first.

If you are using a standard APA paper format, your table of contents should include the following sections:

• Introduction

The above format may work well for a standard lab report or research paper. However, your table of contents will look much different if you are writing something such as a critique, essay, or case study.

Notice, that the table of contents does not include the abstract or acknowledgments pages. When applicable, it should list the appendices and the lists of tables and figures.

The exact order of your paper depends largely on the type of paper you are writing. In general, your paper should be presented in the following order:

• Main Body of Paper

Table of Contents Format

Because there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to the provided guidelines for your assignment.

If your instructor does not have a preferred format, consider using the following:

• Title the page “Table of Contents” and center the title at the top of the page.
• Most papers should include at least two levels of headings, up to five levels.
• Level one headings will be for main topics, such as chapter titles like "Chapter One; Name of Chapter," or research sections like "Method," "Results," and "Discussion."
• All level-one headings should be flush-left and sub-headings should be indented five spaces deeper than the last. 
• All heading levels should be in title case, capitalizing the first letter of each word. The font type, style, and size stay the same for each level.
• The page number for each heading is formatted flush-right. Include dot leaders between the headings and the page number to improve readability.

While you might not think that following APA format is important, it is one of those areas where students can lose points for making small errors. It pays to spend a little extra time and attention making sure that your paper is formatted in proper APA style.

• If you need help, you can get assistance from your school's writing lab.
• Getting your own copy of the latest edition of the APA publication manual can be very helpful.
• Always refer to any instructions or guidelines that were provided by your course instructor.
• There is a helpful feature in most word processors that you can use to pre-format your paper in APA style. It takes a little effort to set it up, but well worth it in the end, especially for longer documents. You can save the style to apply to your future papers saving you the effort next time.

For those writing a paper to submit for publication, check with the publisher for any specific formatting requirements that they may have.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) ; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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6.4: Formal Report—Table of Contents and List of Figures

Learning objectives.

• Identify the role and format of a table of contents and list of figures

What Is a Table of Contents?

The table of contents shows readers what topics are covered in the report, how those topics are discussed (the subtopics), and on which page numbers those sections and subsections start.

In creating a  table of contents, you have a number of design decisions:

• Levels of headings to include: In longer reports, consider including only the top two levels of headings. This keeps the table of contents from becoming long and unwieldy. The table of contents should provide an at-a-glance way of finding information in the report quickly.
• Indentation, spacing, and capitalization: Notice in the illustration below that items in each of the levels of headings are aligned with each other. Although you can’t see it in the illustration, page numbers are right-aligned with each other.
• Vertical spacing: Notice that the first-level sections have extra space above and below, which increases readability.

Using the automatic table of contents creator in Word can help you produce a clean, professional document. Make sure the words in the table of contents are the same as they are in the text. As you write and revise, you might change some of the headings—don’t forget to change the table of contents accordingly.

Example: Table of Contents

What Is a List of Figures?

If your document has more than two figures or tables, create a separate list of figures. The list of figures has many of the same design considerations as the table of contents. Readers use the list of figures to quickly find the illustrations, diagrams, tables, and charts in your report.

Complications arise when you have both tables and figures. Strictly speaking, figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts. Tables are rows and columns of words and numbers; they are not considered figures.

For longer reports that contain dozens of figures and tables each, create separate lists of figures and tables. Put them together on the same page if they fit, as shown in the illustration below. You can combine the two lists under the heading, “List of Figures and Tables,” and identify the items as figure or table as is done in the illustration below.

Example: List of Figures

References & Attributions

Attributions

Content is adapted from  Technical Writing  by Allison Gross, Annemarie Hamlin, Billy Merck, Chris Rubio, Jodi Naas, Megan Savage, and Michele DeSilva, which is is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Original content for this page was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon Community College from  Online Technical Writing  by David McMurrey –  CC: BY 4.0

Writing in a Technical Environment (First Edition) Copyright © 2022 by Centennial College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Table of Contents: Guidelines for an A+ Dissertation

• Icon Calendar 19 June 2024
• Icon Page 984 words
• Icon Clock 6 min read

Rules that guide academic writing are specific to each paper format. However, some rules apply to all styles – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Basically, one of these rules is the inclusion of a table of contents (TOC) in an academic text, particularly long ones, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. Before starting a TOC, students or researchers should observe some practices regardless of different paper formats. Moreover, the process includes putting a particular TOC on a new page after the title page, numbering the first-level and corresponding second-level headings, and indicating the page number of each entry. Hence, scholars need to learn how to write a good table of contents in APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard styles.

General Guidelines

When organizing academic texts, such as theses, dissertations, and other research papers, students observe academic writing rules as applicable. Generally, the different paper formats – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard – have specific standards that students must follow strictly. In this case, one of the rules is the inclusion of a table of contents (TOC) in the document. By definition, a TOC is a roadmap that scholars provide in their composition, outlining each portion of a paper. In other words, it enables readers to locate specific information in documents or revisit favorite parts within completed texts. To make a good table of contents, writers ensure it is accurate, consistently formatted, clearly organized with proper headings and subheadings, and includes correct page numbers for all major sections and subsections. Moreover, this part of academic papers provides readers with a preview of the document’s text.

What Is a Table of Contents and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a table of contents (TOC) is a structured list that can be found at the beginning of books, reports, or other documents and provides key details on their chapters, sections, and major topics, along with their corresponding page numbers. The main purpose of writing a table of contents is to provide a clear and organized overview of a document’s text and help readers to understand its organization and flow of a material, making it easy to navigate (Heard, 2022). In this case, writers place their table of contents immediately after the title page and acknowledgments but before the main body of an entire work. Moreover, in lengthy or complex compositions, such as essays, research papers, theses, or dissertations, scholars often need to reference only specific information without reading them (Lewis et al., 2021). To achieve this purpose, they review a TOC page of a particular work under analysis and efficiently access the parts they need. Overall, a well-designed table of contents significantly improves the reader’s experience by providing a valid roadmap to a particular document’s text (Stadtlander, 2022). Besides, a dissertation table of contents should include all major sections, such as the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, references, and appendices, along with their respective subsections and corresponding page numbers. In turn, here is an example template for writing a dissertation table of contents:

Difference Between a Table of Contents and an Outline

In essence, a TOC is a description of first-level headings (topics) and second-level headings (subtopics) within the paper’s body. For a longer document, writers may also include third-level titles to make the text good to read. To create a table of contents in Word, writers use the “References” tab to select “Table of Contents” and choose a style, ensuring that their document’s headings are formatted with the appropriate heading styles. Ideally, the length of papers determines the depth that authors go into detailing their writing in TOCs. For example, popular table of contents designs include hierarchical lists with indented subsections, dot leaders connecting titles to page numbers, and clear, consistent formatting with bold or italicized headings to distinguish different levels (Fitzpatrick, 2021). Basically, this feature means that shorter texts may not require third-level headings. In contrast, an essay outline is a summary of the paper’s main ideas with a hierarchical or logical structuring of the text. Unlike a TOC that only lists headings and subheadings, outlines capture these headings and then describe a written composition briefly under each one. As such, an outline provides a more in-depth summary of essay papers compared to a TOC.

• Easing a Document Navigation: Allows readers to quickly locate specific sections or chapters without having to search through an entire work.
• Providing an Overview: Offers a clear and structured outline of a paper’s text, helping readers understand the scope and organization at first glance.
• Improving Readability: Breaks down a written document into manageable sections, helping readers to follow and comprehend its content.
• Promoting Easy Reference: Enables readers to reference specific parts of a document easily, which is particularly useful for lengthy works, like dissertations, reports, or manuals.
• Making a Professional Presentation: Adds a level of professionalism and polish to a completed work, demonstrating attention to detail and careful organization.
• Aiding in Document Structuring: Helps writers to organize their thoughts and structure their papers logically, ensuring a coherent flow of information.
• Saving Time: Saves readers time by providing direct access to the sections they are interested in, improving overall efficiency.
• Supporting Academic and Technical Standards: Meets the requirements of academic and technical writing standards, which often mandate a TOC for comprehensive documents.
• Facilitating Review and Editing: Assists reviewers and editors in navigating a completed paper quickly, making the review and editing process more efficient.
• Enhancing Accessibility: Makes an entire document more accessible to a wider audience, including those who may need to find information quickly for research or reference purposes.

General Format

How to Write a Table of Contents in APA

When writing a TOC in the APA format, writers should capture all the headings in the paper – first-level, second-level, and even third-level. Besides this information, they should also include an abstract, references, and appendices. The correct way to format a table of contents is to list all main sections and subsections in a logical order, use clear and consistent headings, indent subsections, align page numbers to the right with dot leaders connecting the titles to them, and ensure it matches the overall document style and layout (Lang, 2017). Notably, while a TOC in the APA style has an abstract, this section is not necessary for the other formats, like MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Hence, an example of a TOC written in APA format is indicated below:

How to Write a Table of Contents in MLA

Unlike papers written in the APA style, MLA papers do not require a table of contents unless they are long enough. In this case, documents, like theses, dissertations, and books organized in the MLA format should have a TOC. For example, a table of contents in a book is a list of the chapters and major sections, along with their corresponding page numbers, providing an organized overview of its structure and text (Silvia, 2015). Even where a TOC is necessary, there is no specific method that a writer should use when writing it, and its structure is left to the writer’s discretion. To write a table of contents, writers list the main sections and subsections of their documents in the order they appear, using consistent formatting and including corresponding page numbers for each entry. However, when they have to include a TOC in their compositions, the information they capture should be much more than what would appear in the APA paper. Hence, an example of writing a TOC in MLA format is:

To create a good table of contents, writers ensure it is well-organized, accurately lists all sections and subsections with corresponding page numbers, and is formatted consistently for clarity and ease of navigation. In the case of writing a research paper, an example of an MLA TOC should be:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Chicago/Turabian

Like the MLA style, a Chicago/Turabian paper does not require writing a table of contents unless it is long enough. When a TOC is necessary, writers should capitalize on major headings. In this case, authors do not need to add a row of periods (. . . . . . . .) between the heading entry and the page number. Writers should use a table of contents format that lists all main sections and subsections in proper order, with clear headings, correct indentation for hierarchy, dot leaders connecting titles to right-aligned page numbers, and consistent formatting throughout (Stadtlander, 2022). Then, the arrangement of the text should start with the first-level heading, then the second-level heading, and, finally, the third-level title, just like in the APA paper. In turn, all the information that precedes the introduction part should have lowercase Roman numerals. Besides, the row of periods is only used for major headings. Therefore, an example of writing a TOC in Chicago/Turabian format is:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Harvard

Like in the other formats, writing a table of contents in the Harvard style is captured by having the title “Table of Contents” at the center of the page, in the first line. Basically, it comes after the title page and captures all the sections and subsections of Harvard papers. In other words, writers must indicate first-level headings in a numbered list. For example, to create a good table of contents, writers list the document’s main sections and subsections in the order they appear, apply consistent formatting, and include corresponding page numbers for each heading (Heard, 2022). Further on, scholars should align titles to the left side and capitalize them. In turn, if there is a need to show second-level headings, authors should list them under corresponding first-level headings by using bullet points. However, it is essential for students not to disrupt the numbering of first-level headings. Besides, writers should align second-level headings to the left side and indent them by half an inch and capitalize on a choosen piece. As a result, an example of writing a TOC in Harvard format should appear as below:

Common Mistakes

• Inconsistent Formatting: Using different fonts, sizes, or styles within a single TOC.
• Incorrect Page Numbers: Page numbers in a TOC do not match actual text pages.
• Missing Sections: Omitting important sections or subsections from a TOC.
• Overly Detailed Entries: Including too much detail makes a particular TOC hard to read.
• Lack of Subheadings: Not breaking down major sections into subheadings for clarity.
• Unclear Section Titles: Using vague or unclear titles does not reflect a completed text accurately.
• Improper Indentation: Incorrectly indenting headings and subheadings makes their hierarchy unclear.
• Inconsistent Capitalization: Using different capitalization styles for headings and subheadings.
• Failure to Update: Not updating a completed TOC after making changes to some sections of a final work.
• Missing List of Figures/Tables: Not including lists for figures and tables if they are present in a research paper.
• Ignoring Styles/Templates: Not using document styles or templates for doing a good TOC leads to inconsistency.
• Overly Long Titles: Including overly long section titles makes an entire TOC difficult to read.

Any TOC is an essential component of any academic paper, particularly for long documents, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When students are writing a TOC, they should be careful to follow the applicable format’s rules and standards. Regardless of the format, writers should master the following tips when doing a TOC page:

• Write a TOC on a new page after the title page.
• Indicate first-level headings of the document in a numbered list.
• Indicate second-level headings under the corresponding first-level heading.
• If applicable, indicate third-level headings under the corresponding second-level heading.
• Write a specific page number for each heading.
• Put the provided content in a two-column table.
• Title the page with “Table of Contents.”

Fitzpatrick, R. (2021). Write useful books: A modern approach to designing and refining recommendable nonfiction . Useful Books Ltd.

Heard, S. B. (2022). The scientist’s guide to writing: How to write more easily and effectively throughout your scientific career . Princeton University Press.

Lang, T. A. (2017). Writing a better research article. Journal of Public Health and Emergency , 1 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

Lewis, K. B., Graham, I. D., Boland, L., & Stacey, D. (2021). Writing a compelling integrated discussion: A guide for integrated discussions in article-based theses and dissertations. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship , 18 (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijnes-2020-0057

Silvia, P. J. (2015). Write it up: Practical strategies for writing and publishing journal articles . American Psychological Association.

Stadtlander, L. (2022). Editorial: Rewriting a social science dissertation into a journal article and getting it published. Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences , 16 (1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.5590/jsbhs.2022.16.1.07

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WTO / Personal / Lists / Free Table of Contents Templates (for Microsoft Word)

Free Table of Contents Templates (for Microsoft Word)

Whether you are writing a book, large essay, dissertation, or other longer academic papers, you will have to include a table of contents. It will act as a roadmap for the reader to each portion of your writing. It helps the reader to locate specific information in a document or revisit their favorite parts easily within the text. A well-structured TOC should simplify the way the reader finds what they are looking for and should always be placed on a separate page, just after the first page of an academic paper and after the abstract.

Depending on the type of writing, you may find that different documents require different styles of a TOC. Some may require numbers, while others may require a non-numbered TOC. It is, therefore, the writer’s duty to check the type of TOC they are required to include in their writing.

Free Table of Contents Templates

Simple templates

What is a Table of Contents?

A Table of Contents (TOC) is an organized list of all the parts of a document or book organized in the order in which the parts appear.

The TOC usually contains the titles, chapters, figures, and major sections of a document clearly labeled by their page number. It should be added last or updated after completing the whole document or book to capture all the contents accurately.

The Purpose of table of contents

If a book, business proposal , business report , or publication is long enough to include chapters, then a TOC will likely be included at the beginning of the book, report, or publication.

The TOC provides a sequential list of the book’s organizational structure, most commonly denoting the title, chapter number, and the starting page location. The chapter, page number, and title will help guide the reader in finding specific sections.

Basically, it serves two main purposes; one is to provide the reader with a general overview of what is contained in the document and how the content is organized, and the other is to enable the reader to go directly to the specific section of an on-line document.

Key Elements of a Table of Contents

The TOC is where one lists the chapters and major sections of their document, together with their page numbers. A clear and well-out table is very important as it indicates a quality paper is structured.

The key elements that should be included in the TOC are:

• The page titles
• Clear headings and subheadings
• The page numbers that show where in the document each section can be found

When creating your table, make sure to include all level one and two headings. You may also decide to include level three headings, although they are optional to include and should not be included in the TOC has reached its maximum length of two pages.

Level One:   CHAPTER 2: Literature Review

Level Two: 2.1 Overview of Information

Level Three: 2.1.1 Discipline of Knowledge

Ensure that you use clear headings throughout your document to make your table easy to understand. Keep in mind that the reader will see the table first before reading through your document.

Other things to include in your table include the appendices and tables. Including these two, however, depend largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three tables and figures, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Else, you can include them in your table.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents in MS Word

For you to create a TOC in Microsoft Word, you must first define what you’d like to include in this part. First, start off by applying the different heading styles throughout your document.

Once you’ve done that, follow these steps to insert a TOC in MS Word automatically:

Add a title on the TOC page. Ensure that you follow the standard format specific to your document or as per your department’s guidelines.

Put your cursor where you want the table to go. The table is usually included between the abstract and the introduction.

In the ribbon, find the reference section and locate the TOC section. Use the search tab on the ribbon to search for the table.

Click the arrow that is next to the TOC icon and select Custom Table of Contents. Here, select the level of heading that you would like to include in your table and also make the necessary adjustments to each level by clicking the modify button.

Click on Custom table of contents.

After you’ve made sure that everything is OK. Click OK, and your TOC will be automatically generated.

Tips on Preparing Table of Contents

It is recommended that you use your TOC template last after to make sure that it provides a clear overview of your document. You can still draw up a mock TOC in your early stages of writing to help you formulate a structure and think through your topics and how you are going to research.

Make sure that all the heading levels are properly defined in your document before inserting the template.

Remember that the reader will most likely go through your table first before diving into the document to get an overview of what to expect. Make sure that your TOC is clear and that it captures your entire document.

Frequently Asked Questions

No, the TOC is basically a snapshot of the headings, tables, and page numbers in a document and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. Anytime you make changes to your document, you can update it by simply right-clicking on it and selecting the update field.

No, the TOC is usually included between the abstract and the introduction.

Yes, the maximum length of a TOC should be two pages, regardless of the type of document you are writing.

Regardless of your document’s type or size, using a TOC can help direct the readers to exactly where they want to be. Other than making your document more reader-friendly, the table also makes it easier for the author to go back and change or update contents throughout their document if necessary. By default, MS Word generates a TOC when you use the first three built-in heading styles, i.e., Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3. To apply the different heading styles, simply select the style from the “Home” tab, or you can use a TOC template. Once you’ve properly defined the heading styles, follow the procedure given above to insert your table automatically.

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How to Write a Table of Contents

Last Updated: June 16, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Stephanie Wong Ken, MFA . Stephanie Wong Ken is a writer based in Canada. Stephanie's writing has appeared in Joyland, Catapult, Pithead Chapel, Cosmonaut's Avenue, and other publications. She holds an MFA in Fiction and Creative Writing from Portland State University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,059,714 times.

The Table of Contents in a document acts as a map for the reader, making it easier for them to find information in the document based on title and page number. A good Table of Contents should be organized, easy to read and simple to use. You can write a Table of Contents manually on your computer or have a word processing tool create it for you. Make sure the Table of Contents is formatted properly in your final document so it is as accurate and accessible as possible.

Writing a Table of Contents

To write a simple table of contents, create a new page in your document and type the names of the chapters or sections of your piece of writing. Then, use your word processing program to insert the page number where each section starts. If you move things around, the page number in your table of contents will automatically update.

Sample Tables of Contents

Creating the Table of Contents on a Word Processor

• The Table of Contents should be on its own page. Do not include the introduction or a dedication on the same page as the Table of Contents.

• For example, you may write down main headings like, “Introduction,” “Case Study 1,” or “Conclusion.”

• For example, under the main heading “Introduction” you may write the subheading, “Themes and Concepts.” Or under the main heading “Conclusion” you may write, “Final Analysis.”
• You can also include sub-subheadings underneath the subheadings, if applicable. For example, under the subheading “Themes and Concepts” you may have the sub-subheading, “Identity.”
• Some papers do not have subheadings at all, only main headings. If this is the case, skip this step.

• For example, if the “Introduction” section begins on page 1, you will attach “page 1” to the Introduction heading. If the “Conclusion” section begins on page 45, attach “page 45” to the Conclusion heading.

• Check that the subheadings are located underneath the correct headings, indented to the right.
• Make sure there are page numbers for the subheadings listed as well.
• You can center the content in the table using the table options if you want the content to appear a few spaces away from the lines of the table. You can also leave the content indented to the left if you'd prefer.

• You can put the title above the table or in a separate row on the top of the rest of the content.

Using a Word Processing Tool

• You should also confirm the page numbers are correct in the document. Each page should be numbered in order. Having the correct page numbers will ensure the Table of Contents is created correctly when you use the word processing tool.

• If there are subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 2.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 2” in the Styles tab.
• If there are sub-subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 3.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 3” in the Styles tab.
• The text and font for each main heading may change based on the settings for “Heading 1,” “Heading 2,” and “Heading 3.” You can choose your preferred text and font for each main heading so they appear as you like in the Table of Contents.

• You can choose the built-in Table of Content options, where the tool will automatically choose a font size and style for you.
• You can also go for from a list of custom Table of Contents, where you choose the font color and size based on your preferences.

Polishing the Table of Contents

• You should also check the subheadings or sub-subheadings in the Table of Contents, if applicable, to ensure they match those in the document.

• If you created the Table of Contents manually, do this by going in and adjusting the headings and/or the page numbers when they change.
• If you created the Table of Contents with a word processing tool, update it by clicking the Update option by the Table of Contents option on the Reference tab. You can side clicking on the Table of Contents and choosing “update” that way.

Community Q&A

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• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/how-to-create-a-table-of-contents-in-word/1/#
• ↑ https://examples.yourdictionary.com/reference/examples/table-of-content-examples.html
• ↑ http://bitesizebio.com/21549/using-word-to-write-your-thesis-making-a-table-of-contents-inserting-captions-and-cross-referencing/
• ↑ https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283073&p=1886010
• ↑ https://nsufl.libguides.com/c.php?g=413851&p=2820026

About This Article

To write a table of contents, open a new document and list the major headings, titles, or chapters of the project in chronological order. Next, insert subheadings or subtopics if your project has those. Fill in the page number where each heading starts, then format the content in a table with 2 columns. Place the headings and subheadings in order in the first column, then put the page numbers in the second column. Don't forget to add a "Table of Contents" title at the top of the document! To learn more about polishing your Table of Contents, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Create the Best Table of Contents for a Dissertation

Published by Owen Ingram at August 12th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

“A table of contents is an essential part of any article, book, proceedings, essay , and paper with plenty of information. It requires providing the reader’s guidance about the position of the content.”

When preparing a  dissertation , you may cram as much information into it as appropriate. The dissertation may be an extremely well-written one with a lot of valuable information to offer. Still, all that information could become perplexing if the reader cannot easily find the information.

The length of dissertations usually varies from a few pages to a few hundred pages, making it very difficult to find information that you may be after.

Instead of skimming through every page of the dissertation, there is a need for a guideline that directs the reader to the correct section of the dissertation and, more importantly, the correct page in the section.

Also read:   The List of Figures and Tables in the Dissertation .

What is the Table of Contents in the Dissertation?

The table of contents is the section of a dissertation that guides each section of the dissertation paper’s contents.

Depending on the detail level in a table of contents, the most useful headings are listed to provide the reader concerning which page the said information may be found.

The table of contents is essentially a list found at the beginning of a  dissertation , which contains names of the chapters, section titles and/or very brief descriptions, and page numbers indicated for each.

This allows the reader to look at the table of contents to locate the information needed from the dissertation. Having an effective table of contents is key to providing a seamless reading experience to the reader.

Here in this article, we will uncover every piece of information you need to know to write the dissertation’s abstract.

This article helps the readers on how to create the best table of contents for the dissertation. An important thing to note is that this guide discusses creating a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Looking for dissertation help?

Researchprospect to the rescue then.

We have expert writers on our team who are skilled at helping students with dissertations across a variety of disciplines. Guaranteeing 100% satisfaction!

Styles for Dissertation Table of Contents

Making an effective table of contents starts with identifying headings and designating styles to those headings.

Using heading styles to format your headings can save a lot of time by automatically converting their formatting to the defined style and serves as a tool to identify the heading and its level, used later when creating a thesis table of contents .

Each heading style already has predefined sizes, fonts, colours, spacing, etc. but can be changed as per the user’s requirements. This also helps once all headings have been created and you intend to change the style of a certain type of heading.

All that is needed to change the style of a type of heading is automatically reflected on all headings that use the style.

Below is how the styles menu looks like;

To allocate a style to a heading, first select a heading and then click on one of the styles in the ‘Styles’ menu. Doing so converts the selected heading to the style that is selected in the Styles menu.

You can style a similar heading level in the same style by selecting each heading and then clicking on the style in the Style menu.

It is important to note that it greatly helps and saves time if you allocate styles systematically, i.e., you allocate the style as you write.

The styles are not limited to headings only but can be used for paragraphs and by selecting the whole paragraph and applying a style to it.

Changing Appearance of Pre-Defined Styles

To change the appearance of a style to one that suits you,

• You would need to right-click on one of the styles to open a drop-down menu.

• Select ‘Modify’ from the menu. This would display a window with various formatting and appearance options. You can select the most appropriate ones and click ‘OK.’ The change that you made to the style reflects on all headings or paragraphs that use this style.

Further changes can be made to headings, but using styles is an important step for creating the table of contents for the thesis. Once this step is completed, you can continue to create a thesis table of contents.

Also Read:  What is Appendix in Dissertation?

Things to Consider when Making APA Style Table of Contents

• The pages before the body of the dissertation, known as the ‘Prefatory Pages,’ should not have page numbers on them but should be numbered in the Roman Numerals instead as (i, ii, iii…).
• Table of Contents and the Abstract pages are not to contain any numbers.
• The remaining pages would carry the standard page numbers (1,2,3…).
• The section titles and page numbers in the dissertation table of contents should have dotted lines between them.
• All the Prefatory pages, Sections, Chapter Titles, Headings, Sub Headings, Reference Sections, and Appendices should be listed in the contents’ thesis table. If there are a limited number of Tables or Figures, they may be listed in the dissertation’s table contents.
• If there are many figures, tables, symbols, or abbreviations, a List of Tables, List of Figures , List of Symbols, and List of Abbreviations should be made for easy navigation. These lists, however, should not be listed in the thesis table of contents.
• The thesis/dissertation must be divided into sections even if it is not divided into chapters, with all sections being listed in the table of contents for the thesis.

Generating Dissertation Table of Contents

First, to generate the Table of Contents, start by entering a blank page after the pages you need the table of contents to follow.

• To do so, click on the bottom of the page you want before the Table of Contents.
• Open the ‘Insert’ tab and select ‘Page Break’.
• This will create a page between the top and bottom sections of the Table of Contents area.

By the time you reach this section, you would have given each heading or sub-heading a dedicated style, distinguishing between different types of headings. Microsoft Word can automatically generate a Table of Contents, but the document, particularly the headings, needs to be formatted according to styles for this feature to work. You can assign different headings levels, different styles for Microsoft Word to recognize the level of heading.

How to Insert Table of Contents

• Place the cursor where you want to place the Table of Contents on the page you added earlier.
• On the ‘References’ tab, open the Table of Contents group. This would open a list of different Table of Contents designs and a  table of contents sample.

• You can select an option from the available Table of Contents or make a Custom Table of Contents. Although the available Table of Contents samples is appropriate, you may use a custom table of contents if it is more suitable to your needs. This allows you to modify different formatting options for the Table of Contents to satisfy your own

Updating the Table of Contents

As you proceed with editing your dissertation, the changes cause the page numbers and headings to vary. Often, people fail to incorporate those changes into the Table of Contents, which then effectively serves as an incorrect table and causes confusion.

It is thus important to update the changes into the table of contents as the final step once you have made all the necessary changes in the dissertation and are ready to print it.

These changes may alter the length of the  thesis table of contents , which may also cause the dissertation’s formatting to be altered a little, so it is best to reformat it after updating the table of contents.

To update the table of contents,

• Select ‘Update Table’ in the References tab.
• This would open a dialogue box. Select ‘Update Entire Table’ to ensure that all changes are reflected in the contents table and not just the page numbers. This would display all changes and additions you have made to the document (Anon., 2017).

Using this guide, you should understand how to create the best table of contents for the dissertation. The use of a Table of Contents, while being important for most written work, is even more critical for dissertations, especially when the proper methodology of creating the table of contents is followed.

This includes the guidelines that must be considered to correctly format the table of contents so that it may be shaped so that it follows the norms and is effective at helping the reader navigate through the content of the dissertation.

The use of Microsoft Word’s Table of Contents generation feature has greatly helped people worldwide create, edit, and update the table of contents of their dissertations with ease.

Here in this article, we will uncover every piece of information you need to know  how to write the dissertation’s abstract .

Are you in need of help with dissertation writing? At ResearchProspect, we have hundreds of Master’s and PhD qualified writers for all academic subjects, so you can get help with any aspect of your dissertation project. You can place your order for a proposal ,  full dissertation paper , or  individual chapters .

Is it essential to add a table of content to the dissertation?

Yes, it is important to add a table of content in a dissertation .

How to make an effective table of contents for the dissertation?

Using heading styles to format your headings can save a lot of time by automatically converting their formatting to the defined style and serves as a tool to identify the heading and its level, used later when creating a thesis table of contents.

How do I update the table of contents?

You may also like.

Learn how to write a good declaration page for your thesis with the help of our step-by-step comprehensive guide. Read now.

Dissertation conclusion is perhaps the most underrated part of a dissertation or thesis paper. Learn how to write a dissertation conclusion.

When writing your dissertation, an abstract serves as a deal maker or breaker. It can either motivate your readers to continue reading or discourage them.

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How to Create a Table of Contents for Dissertation, Thesis or Paper & Examples

Table of contents

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A dissertation table of contents is a list of the chapters and sections included in a dissertation or thesis, along with their page numbers. It helps to navigate the document easily and locate specific information. Each chapter or section should be listed with its corresponding page number. The table of contents should be formatted according to the guidelines of the specific style guide being used, such as APA or MLA.

We would guess that students usually start working on the table of contents at the last minute. It is quite apparent and makes sense, as this is the list of chapters and sections with page locations. Do you think it's easy? 

From our experience, it can be quite tricky to organize everything according to APA, Chicago, or any other academic writing style. In this blog, we will discuss how to write a table of contents for a research paper , thesis or dissertation in Microsoft Word. We will create it together to guide students through the process. 

Also, here you will find examples of table of contents created by thesis writers at StudyCrumb . Let’s go!

What Is a Table of Contents: Definition

It is obvious that the table of contents (TOC) is an essential manuscript part you can’t skip. If you are dealing with a dissertation, thesis or research paper, you need to know how to build it in accordance with academic guidance. This is a detailed roadmap for your work and outlined structure you can follow for a research presentation. 

In case you are working on an essay or report, you may not include the table of contents, as it is a short academic text. But for the research paper, thesis or dissertation, table of contents is essential and required. It is possible to say the same about any Master’s project. It should be located between the dissertation abstract and introduction chapter. In most cases, it is about 2-3 pages long. 

Our expert dissertation writing service prepared a great template that can be used for your work. Make your research formatting easy with ready solutions!

Types of Table of Contents

How to choose which table of contents will fit your research paper, thesis, dissertation, or report best? Make a decision based on your work length. Some academic writing styles, such as APA paper format or MLA style , have specific formatting for this list. 

However, we will outline the most commonly used typology:

• Single-level table of contents. At this type, we use only chapters. For instance, you will have an Introduction, Literature Review, methodology, and other chapters with page numbers. It can be used for shorter research work. For long writing forms like manuscripts, it can be too broad, and you will need to go into details.
• Subdivided table of contents. The most frequently used form to organize the contents table. It will include not only chapters but also sections — a level 2 subheading for each part. It will help to be more specific about what to expect in each part of your research work.
• Table of contents with multiple levels. This is a more divided structure, including subheadings with a level 3 for each section. Quite often, those subheadings can be rewritten or deleted during the last editing. It is essential to keep them in the right order.

Before you decide which type will work best for you, let us share with you some examples of each formatting style.

Example of Table of Contents With a Single Level

Introduction: The Misinformation Roots ………..…… 3 Literature Review .....................................….....………… 10 Research Methodology and Design ……................. 24 Results.............................................................................. 28 Discussion ....................................................................... 32

Sometimes, you will need to put an extra emphasis on subsections. Check this layout to see how your subheadings can be organized.

Example of Table of Contents Page with Subdivided Levels

Introduction: Information War ............……………….. 3       Background…………………………………….………..…… 4       Current State ……………………………………...…...…… 5       Defining Research Questions………………………. 9 Literature Review………………………...……………..……... 11       The Roots of Information Warfare ………....… 11        Information Wars …………………………….………..… 14        Cyber Wars Research ........................................ 17

If you are working on a lengthy, complex paper, this outline will suit your project most. It will help readers navigate through your document by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable sections.

Multi-Level Table of Contents Page Example

Introduction……………………………………………….......……….… 3       Emergence of Climate Change ………..……....….….. 3       Key Activist Groups in Climate Change .............. 5              Greenpeace International ………..…………......... 9              European Climate Foundation …….……………. 10              WWF ……………………………………….……….............. 11        Significant Movements ……………….………....……… 13 Literature Review ……………………………………......…………. 15

What Sections Should Be Included in a Table of Contents?

To start with, the scientific table of contents should include all chapters and its subheading. It is important to choose the formatting that will give your readers a full overview of your work from the very beginning. However, there are other chapters that you may miss constructing the 2-pager table. So, let's look at all you need to include:

• Dissertation introduction
• Literature review
• Research methodology
• Results section
• Dissertation discussion
• Conclusion of a thesis
• Reference list. Mention a number of a page where you start listing your sources.
• Appendices. For instance, if you have a data set, table or figure, include it in your research appendix .

This is how the ideal structured dissertation or research paper table of contents will look like. Remember that it still should take 2 pages. You need to choose the best formatting style to manage its length.

Tables, Figures, and Appendices in TOC

While creating a table of contents in a research paper, thesis or dissertation, you will need to include appendices in each case you have them. However, the formatting and adding tables and figures can vary based on the number and citation style. If you have more than 3 tables or figures, you may decide to have all of them at the end of your project. So, add them to the table of contents. 

Figures, graphics, and diagrams in research papers, dissertations and theses should be numbered. If you use them from another source, ensure that you make a proper citation based on the chosen style guide.

Appendix in Table of Contents Example

Appendix A. Row Data Set…………………………………… 41 Appendix B. IBR Data………………………………………….… 43 Appendix C. SPSS Data………………………………………… 44

What Shouldn't Be Included in a Table of Contents?

When creating a dissertation table of contents, students want to include everything they have in a document. However, some components should not be on this page. Here is what we are talking about:

• Thesis acknowledgement
• Paper abstract
• The content list itself

Acknowledgement and abstract should be located before the content list, so there is no need to add them. You need to present a clear structure that will help your readers to navigate through the work and quickly find any requested information.

How to Create a Table of Contents for a Research Paper or Dissertation In Word?

It may look like working with this list can take a long. But we have one proposal for our users. Instead of writing a table of contents manually, create it automatically in Microsoft Word. You do not need any specific tech knowledge to do this. Let’s go through this process step-by-step and explain how to make a table of contents for a research paper or dissertation in a few clicks.

• Open Home tab and choose the style for your table of contents (ToC next).
• Apply heading 1 to your chapters, heading 2 to the subheading, and if needed heading 3 to the level 3 heading.
• Next, you are going to create a research paper or PhD dissertation table of contents. Open References and choose ToC.
• Choose the citation style for your work. For example, let’s choose APL for now. Meeting all style requirements (bold font, title formatting, numbers) is essential.
• Define the number of levels for your dissertation or thesis table of contents. In case you want to have 3 levels, choose Automatic Table 2.
• You are done! Click ok, and here is your page with listed chapters!

You see how easy it can be! Every time you make changes to your text or headings, it will be automatic.

Updating Your Table of Contents in MS Word

Table of contents of a research paper or dissertation is created, and you continue to edit your work until submission. It is common practice, and with MS Word, you can automate all the updates. 

Let’s outline this process in our step-by-step guide!

• Right-click on your ToC in a document.
• Update field section is next.
• Choose “update ToC."
• Here, you can update your entire ToC — choose an option that works the best for you!

As you may see, working with automated solutions is much easier when you write a dissertation which has manifold subsections. That is why it is better to learn how to work on MS Word with the content list meaning be able to manage it effectively.

Table of Contents Examples

From our experience, students used to think that the content list was quite a complicated part of the work. Even with automated solutions, you must be clear about what to include and how to organize formatting. To solve the problem and answer all your questions, use our research paper or dissertation contents page example. Our paper writers designed a sample table of contents to illustrate the best practices and various styles in formatting the work. 

Check our samples to find advanced options for organizing your own list.

Example of Table of Contents in Research Paper

As you can see, this contents page includes sections with different levels.

Thesis/Dissertation Table of Contents Example

Have a question about your specific case? Check samples first, as we are sure you can get almost all the answers in our guides and sample sets. 

>> Read more: APA Format Table of Contents

Tips on Creating a Table of Contents

To finalize all that we shared on creating the table of contents page, let’s go through our tips list. We outline the best advice to help you with a dissertation table of contents.

• Use automated solutions for creating a list of chapters for your report, research papers, or dissertations — it will save you time in the future.
• Be clear with the formatting style you use for the research.
• Choose the best level type of list based on the paper length.
• Update a list after making changes to the text.
• Check the page list before submitting the work.

Bottom Line on Making Table of Contents for Dissertations/ Papers

To summarize, working with a research paper, thesis or dissertation table of contents can be challenging. This article outlines how to create a table of contents in Word and how to update it appropriately. You can learn what to include in the content list, how long it can be, and where to locate it. Write your work using more than one table of contents sample we prepared for students. It is often easy to check how the same list was made for other dissertations before finalizing yours. We encourage you to learn how to create a list with pages automatically and update it. It will definitely make your academic life easier.

Not sure if your work 's quality level is enough for getting a top-notch result? We’ve got you covered! Our team of skilled academic writers is always ready to help once you ask “ write my dissertation for me !" Just select your writer, send them your requirements and get a custom study tailored to your instructions.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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Microsoft Word for Dissertations

• Table of Contents
• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• List of Figures/Tables
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• Tips & Tricks
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document
• Take a break

Automatic Table of Contents

An automatic Table of Contents relies on Styles to keep track of page numbers and section titles for you automatically. Microsoft Word can scan your document and find everything in the Heading 1 style and put that on the first level of your table of contents, put any Heading 2’s on the second level of your table of contents, and so on.

If you want an automatic table of contents you need to apply the Heading 1 style to all of your chapter titles and front matter headings (like “Dedication” and “Acknowledgements”).  All section headings within your chapters should use the Heading 2  style.  All sub-section headings should use  Heading 3 , etc....

If you have used Heading styles in your document, creating an automatic table of contents is easy.

• Place your cursor where you want your table of contents to be.
• On the References Ribbon, in the Table of Contents Group , click on the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon, and select  Custom Table of Contents .
• We suggest that you set each level (Chapters, sections, sub-sections, aka TOC 1, TOC 2, TOC 3) to be single-spaced, with 12 points of space afterwards.  This makes each item in your ToC clump together if they're long enough to wrap to a second line, with the equivalent of a double space between each item, and makes the ToC easier to read and understand than if every line were double-spaced. See the video below for details.
• If you want to change which headings appear in your Table of Contents, you can do so by changing the number in the Show levels: field. Select "1" to just include the major sections (Acknowledgements, List of Figures, Chapters, etc...).  Select "4" to include Chapters, sections, sub-sections, and sub-sub-sections.
• Click OK to insert your table of contents.  

The table of contents is a snapshot of the headings and page numbers in your document, and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. At any time, you can update it by right-clicking on it and selecting Update field .  Notice that once the table of contents is in your document, it will turn gray if you click on it. This just reminds you that it is a special field managed by Word, and is getting information from somewhere else.

Modifying the format of your Table of Contents

The video below shows how to make your Table of Contents a little easier to read by formatting the spacing between items in your Table of Contents. You may recognize the "Modify Style" window that appears, which can serve as a reminder that you can use this window to modify more than just paragraph settings in the ToC. You can modify the indent distance, or font, or tab settings for your ToC, just the same as you may have modified it for Styles. 

By default, the Table of Contents tool creates the ToC by pulling in Headings 1 through 3. If you'd like to modify that -- to only show H1's, or to show Headings 1 through 4 -- then go to the References tab and select Custom Table of Contents .  In the window that appears, set Show Levels to "1" to only show Heading 1's in the Table of Contents, or set it to "4" to show Headings 1 through 4.

Bonus tip for updating fields like the Table of Contents

You'll quickly realize that all of the automatic Lists and Tables need to be updated occasionally to reflect any changes you've made elsewhere in the document -- they do not dynamically update by themselves. Normally, this means going to each field, right-clicking on it and selecting "Update Field". 

Alternatively, to update all fields throughout your document (Figure/Table numbers & Lists, cross-references, Table of Contents, etc...), just select "Print". This will usually cause Word to update everything in anticipation of printing. Once the print preview window appears, just cancel and double-check that it updated things.

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Sharing research data

As a researcher, you are increasingly encouraged, or even mandated, to make your research data available, accessible, discoverable and usable.

Sharing research data is something we are passionate about too, so we’ve created this short video and written guide to help you get started.

Research Data

What is research data.

While the definition often differs per field, generally, research data refers to the results of observations or experiments that validate your research findings. These span a range of useful materials associated with your research project, including:

Raw or processed data files

Research data  does not  include text in manuscript or final published article form, or data or other materials submitted and published as part of a journal article.

Why should I share my research data?

There are so many good reasons. We’ve listed just a few:

How you benefit

You get credit for the work you've done

Leads to more citations! 1

Can boost your number of publications

Increases your exposure and may lead to new collaborations

What it means for the research community

It's easy to reuse and reinterpret your data

Duplication of experiments can be avoided

New insights can be gained, sparking new lines of inquiry

Empowers replication

And society at large…

Greater transparency boosts public faith in research

Can play a role in guiding government policy

Improves access to research for those outside health and academia

Benefits the public purse as funding of repeat work is reduced

How do I share my research data?

The good news is it’s easy.

Yet to submit your research article?  There are a number of options available. These may vary depending on the journal you have chosen, so be sure to read the  Research Data  section in its  Guide for Authors  before you begin.

Already published your research article?  No problem – it’s never too late to share the research data associated with it.

Two of the most popular data sharing routes are:

Publishing a research elements article

These brief, peer-reviewed articles complement full research papers and are an easy way to receive proper credit and recognition for the work you have done. Research elements are research outputs that have come about as a result of following the research cycle – this includes things like data, methods and protocols, software, hardware and more.

You can publish research elements articles in several different Elsevier journals, including  our suite of dedicated Research Elements journals . They are easy to submit, are subject to a peer review process, receive a DOI and are fully citable. They also make your work more sharable, discoverable, comprehensible, reusable and reproducible.

The accompanying raw data can still be placed in a repository of your choice (see below).

Uploading your data to a repository like Mendeley Data

Mendeley Data is a certified, free-to-use repository that hosts open data from all disciplines, whatever its format (e.g. raw and processed data, tables, codes and software). With many Elsevier journals, it’s possible to upload and store your data to Mendeley Data during the manuscript submission process. You can also upload your data directly to the repository. In each case, your data will receive a DOI, making it independently citable and it can be linked to any associated article on ScienceDirect, making it easy for readers to find and reuse.

View an article featuring Mendeley data opens in new tab/window  (just select the  Research Data  link in the left-hand bar or scroll down the page).

What if I can’t submit my research data?

Data statements offer transparency.

We understand that there are times when the data is simply not available to post or there are good reasons why it shouldn’t be shared.  A number of Elsevier journals encourage authors to submit a data statement alongside their manuscript. This statement allows you to clearly explain the data you’ve used in the article and the reasons why it might not be available.  The statement will appear with the article on ScienceDirect. 

View a sample data statement opens in new tab/window  (just select the  Research Data  link in the left-hand bar or scroll down the page).

Showcasing your research data on ScienceDirect

We have 3 top tips to help you maximize the impact of your data in your article on ScienceDirect.

Link with data repositories

You can create bidirectional links between any data repositories you’ve used to store your data and your online article. If you’ve published a data article, you can link to that too.

Enrich with interactive data visualizations

The days of being confined to static visuals are over. Our in-article interactive viewers let readers delve into the data with helpful functions such as zoom, configurable display options and full screen mode.

Cite your research data

Get credit for your work by citing your research data in your article and adding a data reference to the reference list. This ensures you are recognized for the data you shared and/or used in your research. Read the  References  section in your chosen journal’s  Guide for Authors  for more information.

Ready to get started?

If you have yet to publish your research paper, the first step is to find the right journal for your submission and read the  Guide for Authors .

Find a journal by matching paper title and abstract of your manuscript in Elsevier's  JournalFinder opens in new tab/window

Find journal by title opens in new tab/window

Already published? Just view the options for sharing your research data above.

1 Several studies have now shown that making data available for an article increases article citations.

Deep Dive into Responsible AI – Thematic Intelligence

All the vital news, analysis, and commentary curated by our industry experts.

Published: July 30, 2024 Report Code: GDDD-TR-S003-TH

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This Deep Dive report looks in detail at responsible AI, an increasingly popular term used to describe the management of AI-related risks from an ethical and legal perspective.

The report covers five main areas: universal AI principles, voluntary AI guidelines, AI standards and certifications, AI regulation, and AI compliance and enforcement.

Adopting a responsible AI strategy has become critical for businesses. Companies investing in responsible AI early on have an advantage over their competitors. They can show their credentials for trustworthy AI use and be prepared for any upcoming regulation.

Companies adhering to standards benefit from a presumption of conformity. They will be assumed to be following an ethical approach to AI.

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Global PV tracker shipments grew by 28% in 2023 to 92 GWdc

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The US region saw 10% YoY increase to more than 37 GWdc of shipments in 2023

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Global PV tracker shipments grew by 28% in 2023 to 92 gigawatts direct current (GWdc), reflecting a strong year for utility-scale solar in most regions across the world. The top ten vendors accounted for 90% of the global market share, according to Wood Mackenzie’s ‘ Global solar PV tracker market share’ report 2024.

For the ninth consecutive year, Nextracker and Array Technologies continued to lead the market, taking the first and second positions in the global tracker market, respectively. They were followed by GameChange Solar who made it to #3 in the rankings for the first time.

Nextracker extended its lead over Array with 20% annual growth, while GameChange achieved an impressive 55% growth to close the gap between second and third positions. These three US-based manufacturers combined for more than 50% of global tracker shipments and 90% of the United States market.

The United States, the largest individual market for PV trackers, experienced a 10% year-over-year (YoY) increase to over 37 GWdc of shipments in 2023. This was helped by Inflation Reduction Act incentives which kickstarted construction for many new large-scale projects across the country, according to the report.

In Europe, Spain was the largest market in the region with more than 50% of the continent’s demand. PV Hardware (PVH) ranked first in shipments for Europe and second in Spain behind Solar Steel. The two vendors were joined in the global top 10 by two other Spanish manufacturers, Soltec and Axial. All these companies capitalised on both domestic and international demand, particularly in the rest of Europe and Latin America.

By contrast, the PV tracker market in China fell to 4.3 GWdc in 2023, despite the country exceeding 140 GWdc of utility-scale solar installations in 2023. Instead, Chinese manufacturers experienced much higher demand for fixed-tilt products, as low installation costs were a main driver for developers in China.

Despite this drop in Chinese demand, TrinaTracker and Arctech still rose into the global top six by expanding their regional presence in the Middle East, central Asia, and Latin America.

Reporting metrics:

Market shares are determined by trackers shipped in megawatts (MWdc) as defined by the DC capacity of the supplied project. Shipments are determined by the date on which product is delivered to the project site, title/risk is transferred, and revenue is recognized by the vendor.

Related content

Waste to wealth: unlocking circular value chains​, global solar pv tracker market share 2024.

This report provides rankings of the top PV tracker manufacturers based on shipped capacity in 2023. These rankings are broken down globally, regionally, and by major countries. Historical shipment totals for PV tracker and fixed-tilt solar providers are also included. The report also covers global and regional year-on-year market growth, highlighting the countries with the largest PV tracker markets in 2023. The exclusive market share data within this report provides key competitive landscape dynamics, assisting both outside investors and direct market participants.

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The Global PV Tracker Landscape 2018: Prices, Forecasts, Market Shares and Vendor Profiles

PV trackers continue to be the fast growing of all racking segments. The share of trackers among ground mount solar projects will jump to 42% by 2023, with significant near-term installation increases expected in 2018 and 2019. This report provides a comprehensive overview of the global PV tracker market. It details the market as it exists today, analyzes economic drivers for PV trackers, highlights new technologies and vendor service offerings, forecasts pricing and growth by region, and profiles and ranks leading tracker vendors. Our Power & Renewables reports and data provide deep insight into the current and future state of electricity generation.

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• Volume 8, Issue 7
• War-related sexual and gender-based violence in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia: a community-based study
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• Girmatsion Fisseha 1 ,
• Tesfay Gebregzabher Gebrehiwot 2 ,
• Mengistu Welday Gebremichael 3 ,
• Shishay Wahdey 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6563-0001 Gebrekiros Gebremichael Meles 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5874-3304 Kebede Embaye Gezae 1 ,
• Awol Yemane Legesse 4 ,
• Akeza Awealom Asgedom 1 ,
• Mache Tsadik 1 ,
• Abraha Woldemichael 1 ,
• Aregawi Gebreyesus 1 ,
• Haftom Temesgen Abebe 1 ,
• Yibrah Alemayehu Haile 5 ,
• Selome Gezahegn 6 , 7 ,
• Maru Aregawi 8 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2303-8493 Kiros T Berhane 9 ,
• Hagos Godefay 5 ,
• Afework Mulugeta 1
• 1 School of Public Health , Mekelle University College of Health Sciences , Mekelle , Tigray , Ethiopia
• 2 Epidemiology , Mekelle University College of Health Sciences , Mekelle , Tigray , Ethiopia
• 3 Department of Midwifery , Mekelle University College of Health Sciences , Mekelle , Tigray , Ethiopia
• 4 School of Medicine , Mekelle University College of Health Sciences , Mekelle , Tigray , Ethiopia
• 5 Tigray Health Bureau , Mekelle , Tigray , Ethiopia
• 6 Hennepin Healthcare , Minneapolis , Minnesota , USA
• 7 University of Minnesota Medical School , Minneapolis , Minnesota , USA
• 8 Global Malaria Program , World Health Organization , Geneve , Switzerland
• 9 Biostatistics , Columbia University , New York , New York , USA
• Correspondence to Professor Kiros T Berhane; kiros.berhane{at}columbia.edu

Introduction Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) during armed conflicts has serious ramifications with women and girls disproportionally affected. The impact of the conflict that erupted in November 2020 in Tigray on SGBV is not well documented. This study is aimed at assessing war-related SGBV in war-affected Tigray, Ethiopia.

Methods A community-based survey was conducted in 52 (out of 84) districts of Tigray, excluding its western zone and some districts bordering Eritrea due to security reasons. Using a two-stage multistage cluster sampling technique, a total of 5171 women of reproductive age (15–49 years) were randomly selected and included in the study. Analysis used weighted descriptive statistics, regression modelling and tests of associations.

Results Overall, 43.3% (2241/5171) of women experienced at least one type of gender-based violence. The incidents of sexual, physical and psychological violence, and rape among women of reproductive age were found to be 9.7% (500/5171), 28.6% (1480/5171), 40.4% (2090/5171) and 7.9% (411/5171), respectively. Of the sexual violence survivors, rape accounted for 82.2% (411/500) cases, of which 68.4% (247) reported being gang raped. Young women (aged 15–24 years) were the most affected by sexual violence, 29.2% (146/500). Commonly reported SGBV-related issues were physical trauma, 23.8% (533/2241), sexually transmitted infections, 16.5% (68/411), HIV infection, 2.7% (11/411), unwanted pregnancy, 9.5% (39/411) and depression 19.2% (431/2241). Most survivors (89.7%) did not receive any postviolence medical or psychological support.

Conclusions Systemic war-related SGBV was prevalent in Tigray, with gang-rape as the most common form of sexual violence. Immediate medical and psychological care, and long-term rehabilitation and community support for survivors are urgently needed and recommended.

• health policy
• public health
• community-based survey

Data availability statement

Data are available on reasonable request.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-010270

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

Conflict-based sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is known to have serious immediate and long-term adverse societal impact with women and girls affected the most.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

This study provides first-of-its-kind objectively and carefully collected primary data on the scale and level of SGBV in the Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia, as a result of the conflict that erupted in November 2020.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

By providing carefully collected evidence on the level and impact of SGBV in the Tigray region, the study findings will help policy makers develop models of working with women who have experienced SGBV in the context of war, on establishing accountability for the atrocities committed and in planning for the unprecedented medical, psychological and rehabilitation needs of SGBV survivors.

Introduction

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is a worldwide phenomenon without any geographical, cultural, social, economic, ethnic or other boundaries. It is a form of violence that is inflicted on the basis of gender differences. 1 War-related SGBV has significant and severe adverse social impact, both during and the postconflict period. SGBV against women is often committed on a massive scale during wars and conflicts. That is, women and girls are disproportionately targeted in conflicts, systematically raped, intimidated, sexually and physically abused, forced into unwanted pregnancies and/or killed. 2–6

War-related sexual and human right abuses are still prevalent at the global scale. They mostly occur during conflicts in low-income (especially in Africa) and some high-income countries in general. 7–15 Independent studies in many countries including in Africa have reported prevalence of sexual violence ranging from 2.6% in the current war crisis in Ukraine (2.6%) to 21.3% in South Sudan during the civil war between 2005 and 2011. 8–15 However, sexual violence in most conflicts has not been well assessed for several reasons including prolonged periods of conflict, as well as sociocultural and other complex issues, especially in low-income countries. 7

Most sexually abused women suffer emotional breakdowns, especially those from the rural communities where the moral codes are strict. Raped women do not routinely report the incidents for fear of family alienation and stigmatisation by their communities. In low-income countries, raped daughters are often disclaimed by their parents, and raped wives are rejected by their husbands. 16

Many impregnated women, after rape, undergo ‘back-street’ abortions that put their lives at risk. Some cannot even look at their babies. Still others give them away. 5 6 During a conflict, men and women often lose their lives from various causes and are likely to be tortured and abused in various ways for biological, psychological or socio-economic reasons. While relatively more men are killed during wars, women often experience violence, forced pregnancy, abduction, sexual abuse and slavery. The harm, silence and shame women experience because of war is pervasive; with their redress, almost non-existent. The situation of women in armed conflicts has been systematically neglected 5 17 in taking concrete actions, although the United Nation has designated SGBV as war crimes in Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 18

On 4 November 2020, war erupted in the Tigray region of Ethiopia following years of growing tensions between the federal government of Ethiopia and the regional government of Tigray in Ethiopia. The causes and development of the war in Tigray were highly complex and multidimensional including the involvement of both internal and external parties’ interests. 19 A complete account and analysis of the cause of the conflict is beyond the scope of this manuscript. During the war, several parties were involved with the Tigray regional special forces on one side and allied forces such as the Ethiopian National Defence Forces Amhara regional special armed forces and Amhara militias, and the Eritrean Defence Forces on the other side. 20 21

The war in Tigray that erupted in the beginning of November 2020 has resulted in a massive humanitarian crisis. Preliminary reports have shown that Tigrayan women and girls have experienced deliberate and organised widespread war-related SGBV, in which some were subjected to severe violence including gang-raping, and the insertion of foreign objects to their reproductive organs. 20 According to the report of the Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2204 survivors sought services for sexual violence at health facilities across Tigray from November 2020 through June 2021. 21 This figure is more likely to be under-reported owing to the fact that many of the victims had poor healthcare access and some of them are less likely to seek healthcare for fear of stigmatisation. Besides, many of the health facilities were non-functional because the war has eroded the more than two decades previous investment and progress in the health systems and resulted in 70% of the health institutions either destroyed or their status could not be ascertained. 20 22

Furthermore, a recent survey report revealed that only 17.5% of the health centres were functional after 6 months of the war. 22 Most of the available evidence on SGBV in Tigray during the conflict period was based on reports from the limited functioning health facilities and hence it is likely to be unrepresentative. The scale and burden of the war-related violence at community level in Tigray is also not comprehensively known. 21 Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the extent, and distribution of the SGBV and its impact on survivors using community-level survey during the first round of the active war period of the war in Tigray. The findings of this study are anticipated to be used as baseline data on the burden, severity and factors of the SGBV during the war period in Tigray, Ethiopia. Besides, the findings contribute valuable data to humanitarian agencies, as well as national and local authorities in providing a comprehensive medical and psychological support to survivors, and in reducing the burden of SGBV against women and girls during wars and conflicts in Tigray and elsewhere. The findings will also provide guidance on the needs for, and/or availability of, health services for survivors of SGBV, including further intervention for establishing medical and psychological services, continuous follow-up and support for survivors.

A community-based survey was conducted in six zones of Tigray, after the Eritrean, Ethiopian and Amhara forces left Mekelle, the capital of Tigray, Ethiopia. By 28 June 2021, the Regional Government of Tigray restored its administrative control of most parts of Tigray. After the withdrawal of the allied forces, there was a relatively reduced active conflict in the parts of Tigray under the control of the Regional forces of the Government of Tigray. Thus, the survey was conducted during 4–20 August 2021 immediately after the withdrawal of the allied forces from most parts of Tigray. The western zone of Tigray and the districts bordering Eritrea were not included due to security reasons.

Women of reproductive age (ie, 15–49 years) recruited from the study communities were included as primary respondents in this survey. Information on girls under 15 years and women above 50 years of age were also collected from the primary respondents and is separately presented in this study. The period of the SGBV incidents covered from 4 November 2020 to 28 June 2021.

Multistage cluster sampling was used to select women of reproductive age from selected households (HHs). Tabiya/Kebelle (smallest administration unit) was considered as a cluster. A total of 52 districts out of 84 districts in the 6 zones of Tigray were randomly included in the study. The 52 districts included in this study accounted for 64.4% of the Tigray population. From each of these 52 districts, 4 Tabiyas/clusters were randomly selected and from each cluster, 20 HHs were randomly selected making a total sample size of 4160 HHs. If a selected HH had multiple women of reproductive age, only one woman was randomly selected for the interview.

Taking the prevailing situation on the ground into consideration, two sampling approaches (random and purposive) were designed with their own sample sizes. In the random approach, the list of all the Tabiyas/clusters in the district was used as a sampling frame and four Tabiyas/clusters were selected randomly. However, in the purposive approach, the Tabiyas/clusters were grouped into moderately and severely war-affected ones. The list of the severely affected Tabiyas/clusters was used as a sampling frame and four severely affected Tabiyas/clusters were randomly selected ( figure 1 ). ‘Random group’ and ‘purposive group’ was defined based on the information obtained from the local administrative authorities at the field level related to war situation of the context. The ‘purposive group’ was composed of those clusters which sustained repeated fighting in their communities, longer duration of stay of the combatants and harassment among the community members in the context. However, the ‘random group’ involved randomly selected clusters irrespective of the active war, and other characteristics of the prevailing situation. At the beginning of sampling, we planned to select four distinct Tabiyas/clusters per district from each group. However, due to the availability of only few Tabiyas/clusters in some districts, some Tabiyas/clusters were selected in both groups. Due to this situation, HHs data from a subset of Tabiyas/cluster were shared by both groups. A total of 3693 HHs were included from the purposive group and of these, 1489 HHs were unique to the purposive group. From the random group, 3682 HHs were randomly selected of which 1478 HHs were unique for random group. Thus, 2202 HHs were included in both groups. During the preliminary stage of the analysis, it was observed that there were no significant differences in sexual violence/rape between the two groups ( online supplemental table 1 ). Thus, the findings reported in this study are the results generated from the merged data of 5171 HHs. Additionally, the study included SGBV incidents on other members of the HH (including underage girls, men and old age women) based on the report of the index woman in each HH interviewed. Then, detailed interviews were conducted with each reported HH member about the types of violence and consequences. Generally, the dataset for the final analysis included a total of 5171 women of reproductive age group (15–49 years), 1196 men, 53 girls aged <15 years and 227 women aged 50 years and older.

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The sampling framework for the study. HHs, Households.

The outcome variables of this study were types of SGBV, and consequence of SGBV. For modelling the SGBV outcome variables like age, residence, religion, occupation, education, reproductive health characteristics, family member violence and health-facility utilisation were used as explanatory variables. For the consequence of SGBV, types of SGBV, age and education were used as explanatory variables.

Data collection, management and analysis

The data collection and field coordination process was challenging due to the ongoing war. Furthermore, all services including telephone network, electricity and transportation were not available in Tigray because of the war and siege. 21 For these reasons and other security-related issues, the application of electronic data collection tools including the use of mobile applications was impossible. Thus, we used a standard and validated interviewer-administered paper-based questionnaire to collect data following adoption of the tool from those used in WHO multicountry study 23 ( online supplemental file 1 ). The questionnaire was translated from English to Tigrigna (the local language) and then back translated to English by another translator to ensure consistency of the tool in data collection. The questionnaire consisted of various sections that enable the collection of data related to sociodemographic, reproductive health characteristics, SGBV, consequences, coping mechanism, self and family member violence and health-facility utilisation by victims.

We recruited two supervisors per district with educational level of MSc and above from the College of Health Sciences of Mekelle University, Tigray Health Research Institute and Tigray Regional Health Bureau. They were trained on the objectives of the study and the administration of the tool for 5 days in Mekelle, capital of Tigray. Transportation was arranged for field work 1 week ahead of the data collection period to facilitate the recruitment of competent female health extension workers (HEWs) for the data collection, to develop a map of each selected cluster and to prepare list of the HHs in the selected clusters. Two female HEWs were used as interviewers (data collectors) at each selected Tabiya/cluster; and a total of 416 HEWs participated in the 52 districts. HEWs were assigned one per group for both the ‘purposive group’ and the ‘random group’. The team of supervisors provided training to the data collectors for 3 days at each district. A representative of the health office at each selected district participated in the orientation of the HEWs to support the process of data collection. Then, the HEWs were allowed a 1 day exercise and pretest of the tool in the field in the same community but in HHs that were not sampled for the study. The tool was further adapted and adjusted to maximise the validity and reliability of the collected data. The supervisors used the closest health facility for accommodation and the district health office as a meeting place. Besides, they checked the completed questionnaires daily for any unclear or incomplete information or wrong coding. Errors were checked and addressed in the field, if any. The entire data collection process was coordinated and supervised by six teams of investigators (one team per zone), and any challenges during the data collection were addressed in a timely manner.

The collected data were entered into EpiData V.3.1. Quality of the data was further ascertained during data-entry and cleaning through visualisation and thorough correction of any errors and outliers. Besides, the rejected responses were re-evaluated. All these processes were done together with senior biostatisticians. Descriptive statistical analyses, with sampling weighting as necessary, were used for tabulation, cross-tabulation and computation of frequencies and percentages on selected variables. Sensitivity analysis was conducted by considering weighting for each selected district (Woreda) in the descriptive analysis. The χ² test was used to test for any associations of SGBV types with the consequences of the SGBV, with attention to potential corrections for multiple comparisons. 24 A logistic regression model for binary data was also used to assess the factors associated with war-related rape in the study area. All analyses were performed using the statistical package STATA V.15.1 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA) and we considered the association to be statistically significant at a value of p<0.05.

Measurements

SGBV was measured according to WHO standard guidelines. 23

Sexual violence

Includes, at least, rape/attempted rape, sexual abuse and sexual exploitation. Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances or acts to traffic a person’s sexuality, using coercion, threats of harm or physical force, by any person regardless of relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work. Sexual violence can take many forms, including rape, sexual slavery and/or trafficking, forced pregnancy, sexual harassment, sexual exploitation and/or abuse and forced abortion.

Rape was defined to occur if a woman experienced any act of non-consensual sexual intercourse. This can include the invasion of any part of the body with a sexual organ and/or the invasion of the genital or anal opening with any object or body part. Rape and attempted rape involve the use of force, threat of force and/or coercion. Any penetration without consent is considered rape. Efforts to rape someone which do not result in penetration are considered attempted rape.

Physical violence

An act of physical violence that is not sexual in nature. It was measured as physical violence, if a woman had experienced at least one of the following: hitting, slapping, choking, cutting, shoving, burning, shooting or use of any weapons, acid attacks or any other act that results in pain, discomfort or injury. This incident type does not include female genital mutilation or cutting.

Psychological violence

Infliction of mental or emotional pain or injury. It was measured as psychological violence, if a woman had experienced at least one of the following: threats of physical or sexual violence, intimidation, humiliation, forced isolation, stalking, harassment, unwanted attention, remarks, gestures or written words of a sexual and/or menacing nature, destruction of cherished things, etc.

‘Purposive group’

Tabiyas/clusters selected randomly from the severely war-affected Tabiyas/clusters. The Tabiyas/clusters were considered severely affected if they are exposed to sustained active war and/or intermittent war, long duration of stay of the combatants in the area and harassment among the community members in context.

‘Random group’

Tabiyas/clusters selected randomly from a given district using the list of all Tabiyas/clusters (moderately and severely affected) as a sampling frame. Regardless of active war and other characters of the situation, random selections of Tabiyas/clusters were conducted.

Calculation of weights

Lists of districts/Tabiyas/clusters included in ‘random group’ and ‘purposive group’ based on the population of women aged 15–49 years were grouped and taken from the Tigray regional Health Bureau during 2020/21. Three columns were then created (list of districts, total sample taken, total population of women in the selected clusters per district) for each group within Excel. To calculate proper weights, we summed up the total samples and total population in each group separately. Then, weights were calculated as follows:

where w1 (district in purposive group) =total population in each district in purposive group/total population in purposive group; w1 (district in random group) =total population in each district in random group/total population in random group; w2 (district in purposive group) =total sample in each district in purposive group/total sample in purposive group and w2 (district in random group) =total sample in random group/total sample in random group.

Then, weighting data were generated in STATA. Based on this mechanism, the weight assigned to each selected district is found in online supplemental table 4 .

Patient and public involvement

The development of the research topic was directly motivated by the unprecedented experience of the people of Tigray due to the devastating conflict and the need to document the experienced conflict related to SGBV. The participation of study subjects was via their willingness to respond to the survey instruments. Findings from the study are disseminated to the local communities and appropriate authorities in order to inform policy decisions in restoring health services and providing much-needed medical and psychological treatment for SGBV victims.

Ethical considerations

As the interview was conducted by trained female HEWs, the probability of harm or discomfort in this assessment is anticipated to be minimal. All filled-questionnaires were anonymised via subject-level numerical identifiers and kept confidential.

Sociodemographic characteristics of women of reproductive age

In this study, information about 5171 women of reproductive age was included from six zones. Women included in this study were mainly from central (32.3%), eastern (28.2%) and north-west (15.2%) zones of Tigray. The median age of women was 32 years (IQR 26–38). Roughly, half of the study participants were from rural residences (2602, 50.3%). More than a third of the women interviewed were unable to read or write (1879, 36.3%); and 70% of the women were married while 34.5% of them reported their occupation as housewives and 29.9% as farmers ( online supplemental table 2 ). To enable contextual comparisons, the current population profile of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia is included in online supplemental table 3 .

Reproductive and obstetric characteristics of women aged 15–49 years

Of the 5171 surveyed women, 3476 (67.2 %) had at least one child under 5 years of age; and 422 (8%) were pregnant at the time of the survey. Of these pregnant women, 75 (17.8%) of the pregnancies were unwanted. A total of 137 (2.7%) women had an abortion during the study period (first 8 months of the war) ( online supplemental table 5 ).

Magnitude of sexual and gender-based violence

The incidents of sexual violence, physical violence and psychological violence were found to be 9.7%, 28.6% and 40.4%, respectively. Detailed disaggregated data on types of violence is provided in online supplemental table 6 . Overall, 43.3% (2241/5171) women experienced at least one type of gender-based violence (psychological, physical or sexual violence). Most women experienced various, and at times, multiple forms of violence. Nearly 7.4% of the women who experienced sexual violence had at the same time experienced physical and psychological violence ( figure 2 ).

War time prevalence of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) among women of reproductive age in 52 districts of Tigray (n=5171), 4 November 2020 to 28 June 2021.

Sexual and gender-based violence in relation to some sociodemographic characteristics

The level of SGBV varied among zones as well as by age, residence, education and marital status. Sexual, physical and psychological violence were highest in central zone followed by eastern zone of Tigray. Of the 500 women that reported experiencing sexual violence, 202 (40.4%) women were from the central zone followed by 144 (28.8%) women in the eastern zone. Similarly, 146 (29.2%) young women aged 15–24 years reported as being highly sexually abused, whereas women aged 35–39 years were more physically (307/1480; 20.7%) or psychologically (459/2091; 21.9%) abused. Women in reproductive age living in urban residence were more sexually abused (243, 48.6%), whereas rural residents were more physically (660; 44.6%) or psychologically (1011; 48.3%) abused. The women who did not join formal education (both those ‘unable to read and write’ and those ‘able to read and write’) were the most sexually abused groups (249; 43.8%). Of the 692 pregnant women who responded to the violence related to questions during the war time, 62 (12.6%) pregnant women reported of being sexually abused ( online supplemental table 7 ).

About 9.7% (500/5171) of the women of reproductive age had suffered from sexual violence; and 7.9% (411/5,171) women were raped during the study period. Of the 411 women that experienced sexual violence, 411/500 (82.2%) reported of being raped ( online supplemental table 7 ). Repeated cases of sexual violence were reported by women. Of those 411 women that reported being raped, 271 (65.9%) were abused once, 62 (15.1%) twice and 78 (19.0%) three times or more ( figure 3 ). Women of reproductive age were sexually abused on average by three soldiers to a maximum of nine (median=3, IQR 2–6). Most raped women reported being gang-raped, 68.4% (247/361). The remaining 50 raped women did not respond to this question. Most (45.9%) of the sexual violence on women of reproductive age had taken place during the first 150 days of the war, while 26.3% of the sexual violence occurred during the subsequent 86 days—a period that corresponded to the second-round of a large-scale military operation by the allied forces against Tigray forces.

Frequency and type of rape during Tigray war, 4 November 2020 to 28 June 2021.

Consequences of SGBV

The consequences of sexual, psychological and physical violence during the conflict period ranged from behavioural problems and injury to potentially lifelong health and physical complications. In this study, physical trauma was the most common consequence of SGBV (28.3%; 533/2241) including incidents of dislocations (cases=84), fracture or broken bone (cases=37), perforated eardrum or eye injuries (cases=20) and broken teeth (cases=8). Moreover, severe consequences of sexual violence among those who visited a health facility included HIV infection (11 cases), sexually transmitted infections excluding HIV infection (68 cases), unwanted pregnancy (39 cases) and others. The emotional and behavioural consequences of physical and sexual violence were also common, including depression (19.2%; 431/2241), social isolation (3.8%, 85/2241), suicidal ideation and attempt (2.6%, 58/2241) and others. As a result of the SGBV, majority of women reported an emotional change such as stress (84.1%; 1438/1709), anxiety (11.5%; 197/1709) as well as instances of flashbacks of the incidence, nightmare or sleeping disturbance. Although many women of reproductive age experienced various forms of violence, nearly 90% of the women (1629/1817) did not receive any medical care at a health facility (424 women did not provide a response about healthcare use after violence). The main reported reasons for not receiving healthcare were destruction of the health facilities (52.9%; 618/1169), victims’ disappointments (leading to hopelessness) (27.0%; 316/1169) and other reasons including physical disability and lack of transport ( table 1 ).

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Consequences of SGBV in women of reproductive age from Tigray, 4 November 2020 to 28 June 2021

The findings showed that women who were physically abused had experienced statistically significant physical trauma, depression, suicidal ideation or attempt and social isolation (p<0.001). Similarly, sexually abused women experienced physical trauma, excessive worry, depression, suicidal ideation and attempt (p<0.001) ( table 2 ). These findings were still statistically significant after Bonferroni-type corrections were made for multiple comparisons within a given type of violence (ie, physical or sexual).

Consequences of SGBV in relation to the types of violence and sociodemography of women, Tigray, 2021

SGBV to any household members other than women of reproductive age

During the first 8 months of armed conflict, gender-based violence was not confined to women of reproductive age only. Other HH members (children, men/boys or elderly women) were also victims of SGBV as reported by the women of reproductive age interviewed in the study. Based on the responses obtained from the primarily interviewed respondents, more than a quarter (27.8%; 1417/5171) of other members (children, men/boys or elderly women) of the HH were reported to be victims of some form of psychological, physical or sexual violence. A total of 57.4% (686/1196) men/boys were reported to have experienced physical violence. Moreover, about 17.0% (9/53) of girls under 15 years of age and 8.4% (19/227) of older women above the age of 49 years were experienced sexual violence. Deaths of 242 HH members perpetrated by the allied forces were also reported in this study ( table 3 ).

SGBV among children, elderly women household members and women of reproductive age in Tigray war, 4 November 2020 to 28 June 2021

Factor associated with war-related rape

After entering significant variables with p value <0.05 in the bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models, women in the age group 20 and 24 years, with no formal education, being urban residence, student and unemployed, living in the temporary shelter within the community and rental house and having knowledge about raped incidence in the community were associated with war-related rape ( table 4 ).

Factors associated with war-related rape in Tigray, Ethiopia (n=411)

SGBV was one of the most serious and life-threatening occurrences that have affected women and children during the first 8 months of the war in Tigray. The findings from women of reproductive age showed that 1 in 10 women and girls experienced sexual violence, mostly rape, physical violence and psychological violence. Many women experienced severe forms of sexual violence such as gang-rape, sexual salivary, insertion of foreign objects into the vagina and harassment. Gang-rape was the most common form of sexual violence reported among those who were raped. Young girls under 15 years and elderly women above 49 years were also victims of sexual violence, mostly rape. Living in a temporary shelter within the community, age 20–24 years, being urban residence, no formal education, being student and unemployed by occupation were the risk factors associated with war-related rape in this study.

The findings from this study indicate higher incidence (nearly 10%) of rape than those reported in other studies during conflicts such as in Northern Uganda (4.2%), 13 Seirra Leone (8%) 15 and Ukriane (2.6%). 8 Similarly, the physical violence (28.6%) observed in this study was higher than the findings for East Timor, Indonesia where 22.7% of the women were physically assaulted. 25 However, the finding for the current study is lower than other studies for the Kurdistan region of Iraq (16.6%) 10 and South Sudan (21.3%). 11 The difference in prevalence with the Iraq study might be due to the fact that the study was at camp and dealing with a vulnerable group, and the South Sudan study covering a long duration of civil war from 2005 to 2011. In contrast, the current study was conducted at community level for only 8-month duration of war. Overall, the sexual violence observed in the current study showed consistently and systematically higher levels of incidence in the central and eastern zones of Tigray, where the invading allied forces of Ethiopia and Eritrea had more control. The higher incidence of rape and physical violence in this study compared with other studies may be due to (i) ill-intentions of the perpetrators to use systemic raping as weapon of war to dehumanise the population and (ii) the relatively long duration of the war (8 months) inside Tigray at the hands of the invaders, thereby exposing victims to more violence.

Most of the sexual violence reported in the current study was due to gang-rape, mainly perpetrated by soldiers and other armed groups affiliated with the governments of Ethiopia and Eritrea. This is a severe form of sexual violence and is likely to cause severe forms of psychological, mental, social and sexual disorders among the survivors. Similar findings during a conflict period were reported in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 14 26 27 Moreover, in the current study, many women and girls experienced sexual violence by three to nine soldieries. This is generally in-line with the report of the joint United Nations Office of the Human Rights Commission and Ethiopian Human Rights Commission, where women and girls in Tigray were sexually abused by maximum of six armed men during the war period. 20 Most sexual and physical violence was committed by Eritrean defence forces, consistent with the report of the HRW, where most brutal sexual violence was reported as committed by the Eritrean defence forces in the Tigray war. 21

Severe forms of sexual violence such as insertion of foreign objects to vagina and anus, and high rate of HIV transmission were reported in the current study, again consistent with the report from HRW report in February 2021, where insertion of foreign objects into the vagina and transmission of HIV by different armed forces were reported in the Tigray war. 20 21 28 The finding on the severity of sexual violence in the Tigray war in this study is reminiscent and in conformity with similar observations elsewhere. 3 16 17 The risk of HIV infection during conflicts is reported to be relatively higher in Africa due to multiple perpetrators of sexual violence. 29

Sexual violence of underage girls and elderly women reported in this study, ascertained indirectly via the interviewed index participants, are also consistent with the reports of different humanitarian agencies on the Tigray war during the same period. 20 This indicates that the extent and impact of sexual violence, mostly via rapes, were highly prevalent among all age groups of girls and women. The mental and psychological problems experienced by underage girls could have severe, lifelong and generational impact on sexual, behavioural, productivity and well-being of the victims and their families.

The incidence of sexual violence, mostly rape, was typically high in urban centres during the first 8 months of the war period (12% (urban) vs 8.3% (rural); online supplemental table 5 ). This is consistent with the other reports on the Tigray war, where most survivors who sought health services for postsexual violence (rape) were mainly from big towns. 20 Moreover, women from lower socio-economic status are less likely to disclose sexual violence as also reported in a study from eastern DRC. 16 The SGBV figures reported in this study are likely to be the tip of the iceberg of the problem as most of the women, particularly in the rural areas of Tigray are highly traditional and religious; have less sexual literacy and less access to healthcare during the early days of the war as most of the communities, trapped by the war, were hiding in hard-to-reach areas away from their houses and villages. Moreover, potential gross underestimation of cases could result from the strict moral codes and fear of stigma by traditional community and family hostility. 16 All survivors from rural or urban areas appear to share the same level of mental, psychological and health consequences as a result of sexual violence.

In this study, 90% of the sexually abused women were unable to receive medical and psychological support after experiencing sexual violence. This implies the likelihood of the majority of women and girls suffering from incidence of SGBV violence to suffer from its complications such as medical, behavioural and emotional disorders. This is consistent with the study on DRC conflict where only <5% women of SGBV victims sought medical care and the remaining women had to wait a year or longer prior to accessing SGBV services. 30 According to a recent survey, >70% of the health facilities in Tigray were non-operational in the first 6 months of the war (4 November 2020 to April 2021) 22 and only 17.5% of the health centres were functional, most of which were within the vicinities of Mekelle and other big cities such as Shire, Axum, Adwa, Adigrat and others on the main roads. 20 Therefore, the reason for the poor health seeking by survivors could be because most health facilities were destroyed, closed; lack of medications; absence of trained health providers; absences of transportation to health facility; traditional and religious barriers of discussing on sexual matters and fear for physical safety. The mental, psychological, economical and behavioural impact of SGBV on survivors and their families are thus severe and lifelong. Therefore, provisions of immediate medical and psychological support for all survivors are long overdue.

During the prewar period, the accessibility of health service in Tigray was >90%. Health centres could typically provide service for survivors of SGBV, including administered Pruritic papular eruption (PPE) in case of HIV exposure, test for pregnancy and other health services. However, during the period of war, 70% of the health facilities were non-functional 22 either due to complete destruction or absence of medications and/or trained health providers. Most functional health facilities were located at big towns where survivors were usually using the service during the war period. During the war period, the interim office of Tigray health bureau was reporting the numbers of raped survivors who sought health facility every month. 20 There were also mobile clinics given to increase accessibility of healthcare during the war period by the interim Tigray health bureau and different non-governmental organisations (NGOs). However, the availability of health services to respond to cases of SGBV during the war was very low. Few NGOs such as Médecins Sans Frontières-Spain, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), local NGO, Mothers and Children Multisectoral Development Organization (MCMDO) and mobile clinics were participating to support survivors. Overall, it was very difficult to assure whether survivors were using health services appropriately given that 70% of the health facilities were non-functional during the war period. 22 In this study, we did not assess the situation of the catchment of health facilities on whether functional or not. We simply asked the survivors about their use of health services after the violence and, where appropriate, the reasons for not getting health service.

Survivors of sexual violence are likely to be at high risk of severe and long-lasting health problems, including death from injuries or suicide. 31 The deaths from sexual violence were not captured in this study, as the study was solely based on responses from women of reproductive age that were alive at the time of the study. Health consequences such as unwanted pregnancy, unsafe or self-induced abortion and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV infections were reported by survivors. Moreover, physical, mental and psychological traumas and emotional breakdown, stigma and discrimination were reported as consequences of the sexual and physical violence. These consequences have lifelong impact. 20 21 Thus, treatment of STIs, HIV, abortion care for late pregnancy and care for the child born from rapist, emotional and psychological support from local and international healthcare and humanitarian stakeholders is urgently recommended. Involving family members in counselling with survivors is also an important strategy to reduce conflict, stigma, disagreement and divorce between family and couples. Comprehensive approach in caring for survivors including provision of medical, psychological, social and economic support is critically needed. Therefore, establishing rehabilitation centres to care for survivors at the affected sites and devising local integration strategies are important.

The association of rape with young age and living in the temporary shelter within the community during the war period was evident in this study. The higher the incidence of rape in those groups may be explained due to family breakdown and absence of legal and social protection during crisis. Living in shelter without protection for women is difficult. The higher incidence of rape in urban area can be explained by the higher number of combatants who stayed in urban towns and distribution sites where most wars were taking place. In this study, most of the women in lower status were abused higher (girls/women with no formal education, student and/or unemployed women). This can be explained due to poor awareness of girls/women about combatants and may be disproportionally affected due to low status and poor protection given by family.

The findings of this study should be interpreted in the context of its strengths and limitations. The study has several notable strengths. It is the first population-based study of its kind to be conducted in Tigray following the eruption of the war on SGBV related, while still under severe siege. The study was carefully designed using sampling techniques that ensured adequate sample size randomly selected to represent all parts of Tigray region (except western zone and some northeastern districts occupied by the invaders) to systematically assess critical cross-cutting issues at the community level. Since the survey was conducted immediately after the invading forces left most parts of Tigray and not far from the time of the violence, the likelihood of recall biases is minimal. In the analysis, we considered weighted analysis in the summary statistics to minimise error in estimation of prevalence as result of the sampling procedure used. However, there are some limitations to be considered in using weighting in this study where the population figures are only likely to provide a partial picture during the conflict period as there is so much potential for forced mobility. Thus, calculating weighting by considering the fact that a district/Tabiya/cluster-level population may not show the actual population during the conflict period due to high mobility, even though it should still be valid in relative terms. The fact that the main findings do not change after the use of weighting is a strength and further evidence about the robustness of the findings reported in this study.

The interpretation of the findings should also consider some limitations of the study. Although the use of female local data collectors (ie, HEWs) may have had a positive outcome in creating an environment of safety and comfort for the respondents to disclose information, the use of the HEWs residing in the same place with the victims might also have negatively led to hiding or distortion of information for fear of shame or leak of information. Moreover, the HEWs are government employees in the specific area they may overestimate/underestimate finding. However, adequate orientation, and training was given with close supervision during data collection period. The majority of the western zone of Tigray and some pockets of areas bordering Eritrea were not included since they are currently under control of the Ethiopian and Eritrean forces and still active war areas. Note that the level of SGBV is expected to be more extensively prevalent in these areas where the conflict has been more severe and still ongoing. 20 21 Thus, the findings of this study are likely to be an underestimation of the true extent of SGBV in Tigray as a result of the war. Some data were missing due to reluctance to respond owing to the sensitive nature of the variables. Moreover, internally displaced women living at camps were not included, even though displaced women within the community or living in their own new HHs were included. In general, the number or proportions of recorded sexual violence might be underestimated due to under-reporting of sexual violence from surviving victims and/or lack of information from victims who were murdered or perished due to injuries during or after the assault.

Survivors/Victims generally do not speak of the incident for many reasons, including self-blame, fear of reprisals, mistrust of data collectors, risk/fear of re-victimisation, fear of shaming and blaming, social stigma and often rejection by the survivor/victim’s family and community. However, the findings in this study still indicate levels of SGBV that are substantially and alarmingly high—similar or even higher than reported levels from other conflict areas around the world. 3 16

Conclusions

SGBV was highly prevalent during the first 8 months of the Tigray war. Almost 10% of the girls and women of reproductive age interviewed were sexually abused, mostly by rape. Gang-rape was the most common and frequent form of sexual violence. Physical and psychological forms of violence were common too. Underage girls, elder women and men were also victims of sexual and physical violence. Physical traumas, depression, suicidal attempts, emotional change, unwanted pregnancy, STIs and HIV infection were the most common consequences of the SGBV reported. Ninety per cent of the survivors of sexual violence have not received medical care or psychological care because most health facilities were destroyed and looted. Urgent survivor centre approach with medical and psychological service; and sustained community support are recommended to reduce lifelong impact on behavioural, emotional, sexual, social and economic fortunes of SGBV victims. Of significant importance, there will be a need for further investigation of SGBV among girls and women in rural and urban communities of Tigray including those excluded from this study due to the occupation. Where and when possible, a complete inventory and investigation of every girl and woman of reproductive age in each Tabias/Kebeles is recommended in order to provide a full picture and extent of the SGBV as a result of the war throughout Tigray in order to reach out comprehensively to all victims to ensure they receive short-term and long-term rehabilitation, access to post-trauma services and socio-economic support.

Region-wide tracing of survivors is needed for further medical and psychological support. Because of the complete collapse of the health system in Tigray, the challenges in dealing with the health and psychosocial ramifications from this unprecedented crisis from SGBV in Tigray will require urgent and multisectoral effort by local and international partners.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the College of Health Sciences at Mekelle University (reference no: MU-IRB1905/2011) and support letters were secured from the Tigray Health Bureau and District Health Offices before the start of the actual data collection. Written consent (for adult women) or assents (for underage girls) were obtained prior to data collection.

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

• Data supplement 1
• Data supplement 2

Handling editor Seye Abimbola

Contributors All authors have contributed significantly to the conduct of the study, analysis of the data, writing and interpretation of the manuscript and revision of this submission. GF is the guarator with full responsibility for the work and/or the conduct of the study, had access to the data, and controlled the decision to publish.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Refer to the 'Methods' section for further details.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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