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215 Religion Research Paper Topics for College Students

Studying religion at a college or a university may be a challenging course for any student. This isn’t because religion is always a sensitive issue in society, it is because the study of religion is broad, and crafting religious topics for research papers around them may be further complex for students. This is why sociology of religion research topics and many others are here, all for your use.

As students of a university or a college, it is essential to prepare religious topics for research papers in advance. There are many research paper topics on religion, and this is why the scope of religion remains consistently broad. They extend to the sociology of religion, research paper topics on society, argumentative essay topics, and lots more. All these will be examined in this article. Rather than comb through your books in search of inspiration for your next essay or research paper, you can easily choose a topic for your religious essay or paper from the following recommendations:

World Religion Research Paper Topics

If you want to broaden your scope as a university student to topics across religions of the world, there are religion discussion topics to consider. These topics are not just for discussion in classes, you can craft research around them. Consider:

The role of myths in shaping the world: Greek myths and their influence on the evolution of European religions
Modern History: The attitude of modern Europe on the history of their religion
The connection between religion and science in the medieval and modern world
The mystery in the books of Dan Brown is nothing but fiction: discuss how mystery shapes religious beliefs
Theocracy: an examination of theocratic states in contemporary society
The role of Christianity in the modern world
The myth surrounding the writing of the Bible
The concept of religion and patriarchy: examine two religions and how it oppresses women
People and religion in everyday life: how lifestyle and culture is influenced by religion
The modern society and the changes in the religious view from the medieval period
The interdependence of laws and religion is a contemporary thing: what is the role of law in religion and what is the role of religion in law?
What marked the shift from religion to humanism?
What do totemism and animalism denote?
Pre Colonial religion in Africa is savagery and barbaric: discuss
Cite three religions and express their views on the human soul
Hinduism influenced Indian culture in ways no religion has: discuss
Africans are more religious than Europeans who introduced Christian religion to them: discuss
Account for the evolution of Confucianism and how it shaped Chinese culture to date
Account for the concept of the history of evolution according to Science and according to a religion and how it influences the ideas of the religious soul
What is religious education and how can it promote diversity or unity?7
Workplace and religion: how religion is extended to all facets of life
The concept of fear in maintaining religious authorities: how authorities in religious places inspire fear for absolute devotion
Afro-American religion: a study of African religion in America
The Bible and its role in religions
Religion is more of emotions than logic
Choose five religions of the world and study the similarities in their ideas
The role of religious leaders in combating global terrorism
Terrorism: the place of religion in promoting violence in the Middle East
The influence of religion in modern-day politics
What will the world be like without religion or religious extremists?
Religion in the growth of communist Russia: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
Religion in the growth of communist China: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
The study of religions and ethnic rivalries in India
Terrorism in Islam is a comeback to the crusades
The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping world diplomacy
The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping plurality in Christianity
The religion and the promotion of economics
The place of world religions on homosexuality
Why does a country, the Vatican City, belong to the Catholic Church?
God and the concept of the supernatural: examine the idea that God is a supernatural being
The influence of religion in contemporary Japan
Religion and populism in the modern world
The difference between mythical creatures and gods
Polytheism and the possibility of world peace
Religion and violence in secular societies?
Warfare and subjugation in the spread of religion
The policies against migrant in Poland is targeted against Islam
The role of international organizations in maintaining religious peace
International terrorist organizations and the decline of order

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

As a student in a university or MBA student, you may be requested to write an informed paper on sociology and religion. There are many sociology religion research paper topics for these segments although they may be hard to develop. You can choose out of the following topics or rephrase them to suit your research interest:

The influence of religion on the understanding of morality
The role of religion in marginalizing the LGBTQ community
The role of women in religion
Faith crisis in Christianity and Islamic religions
The role of colonialism in the spreading of religion: the spread of Christianity and Islam is a mortal sin
How does religion shape our sexual lifestyle?
The concept of childhood innocence in religion
Religion as the object of hope for the poor: how religion is used as a tool for servitude by the elite
The impact of traditional beliefs in today’s secular societies
How religion promotes society and how it can destroy it
The knowledge of religion from the eyes of a sociologist
Religious pluralism in America: how diverse religions struggle to strive
Social stratification and its role in shaping religious groups in America
The concept of organized religion: why the belief in God is not enough to join a religious group
The family has the biggest influence on religious choices: examine how childhood influences the adult’s religious interests
Islamophobia in European societies and anti-Semitism in America
The views of Christianity on interfaith marriage
The views of Islam on interfaith marriage
The difference between spirituality and religion
The role of discipline in maintaining strict religious edicts
How do people tell others about their religion?
The features of religion in sociology
What are the views of Karl Marx on religion?
What are the views of Frederic Engels on religion?
Modern Islam: the conflict of pluralism and secularism
Choose two religions and explore their concepts of divorce
Governance and religion: how religion is also a tool of control
The changes in religious ideas with technological evolution
Theology is the study of God for God, not humans
The most feared religion: how Islamic extremists became identified as terrorist organizations
The role of cults in the society: why religious people still have cults affiliations
The concept of religious inequality in the US
What does religion say about sexual violence?

Religion Essay Topics

As a college student, you may be required to write an essay on religion or morality. You may need to access a lot of religious essay topics to find inspiration for a topic of your choice. Rather than go through the stress of compiling, you can get more information for better performance from religion topics for research paper like:

The origin of Jihad in Islam and how it has evolved
Compare the similarities and differences between Christian and Judaism religions
The Thirty Years War and the Catholic church
The Holocaust: historic aggression or a religious war
Religion is a tool of oppression from the political and economic perspectives
The concept of patriarchy in religion
Baptism and synonym to ritual sacrifice
The life of Jesus Christ and the themes of theology
The life of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) and the themes of theology
How can religion be used to promote world peace?
Analyze how Jesus died and the reason for his death
Analyze the event of the birth of Christ
The betrayal of Jesus is merely to fulfill a prophecy
Does “prophecy” exist anywhere in religion?
The role of war in promoting religion: how crusades and terrorist attacks shape the modern world
The concept of Karma: is Karma real?
Who are the major theorists in religion and what do they say?
The connection of sociology with religion
Why must everyone be born again according to Christians?
What does religious tolerance mean?
What is the benefit of religion in society?
What do you understand about free speech and religious tolerance?
Why did the Church separate from the state?
The concept of guardian angels in religion
What do Islam and Christianity say about the end of the world?
Religion and the purpose of God for man
The concept of conscience in morality is overrated
Are there different sects in Christianity?
What does Islam or Christianity say about suicide?
What are the reasons for the Protestant Reformation?
The role of missionaries in propagating Christianity in Africa
The role of the Catholic church in shaping Christianity
Do we need an international religious organization to maintain international religious peace?
Why do people believe in miracles?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Creating argumentative essay topics on religion may be a daunting exercise regardless of your level. It is more difficult when you don’t know how to start. Your professor could be interested in your critical opinions about international issues bordering on religion, which is why you need to develop sensible topics. You can consider the following research paper topics religion and society for inspiration:

Religion will dominate humanity: discuss
All religions of the world dehumanize the woman
All men are slaves to religion
Karl Marx was right when he said religion is the return of the repressed, “the sigh of the oppressed creature”: discuss
Christianity declined in Europe with the Thirty Years War and it separated brothers and sisters of the Christian faith?
Islamic terrorism is a targeted attack on western culture
The danger of teen marriage in Islam is more than its benefits
The church should consider teen marriages for every interested teenager
Is faith fiction or reality?
The agape love is restricted to God and God’s love alone
God: does he exist or is he a fiction dominating the world?
Prayer works better without medicine: why some churches preach against the use of medicine
People change religion because they are confused about God: discuss
The church and the state should be together
Polygamous marriage is evil and it should be condemned by every religion
Cloning is abuse against God’s will
Religious leaders should also be political leaders
Abortion: a sin against God or control over your body
Liberty of religious association affects you negatively: discuss
Religious leaders only care about themselves, not the people
Everyone should consider agnosticism
Natural laws are the enemy of religion
It is good to have more than two faiths in a family
It is hard for the state to exist without religion
Religion as a cause of the World War One
Religion as a tool for capitalists
Religion doesn’t promote morality, only extremisms
Marriage: should the people or their religious leaders set the rules?
Why the modern church should acknowledge the LGBTQ: the fight for true liberalism
Mere coexistence is not religious tolerance
The use of candles, incense, etc. in Catholic worship is idolatrous and the same as pagan worship: discuss
The Christian religion is the same as Islam

Christianity Research Paper Topics on Religion

It doesn’t matter if you’re a Christian or not as you need to develop a range of topics for your essay or project. To create narrow yet all-inclusive research about Christianity in the world today, you can consider research topics online. Rather than rack your head or go through different pages on the internet, consider these:

Compare and contrast Christian and Islam religions
Trace the origin of Christianity and the similarity of the beliefs in the contemporary world
Account for the violent spread of Christianity during the crusades
Account for the state of Christianity in secular societies
The analysis of the knowledge of rapture in Christianity
Choose three contemporary issues and write the response of Christianity on them
The Catholic church and its role towards the continuance of sexual violence
The Catholic church and the issues of sexual abuse and scandals
The history of Christianity in America
The history of Christianity in Europe
The impact of Christianity on American slaves
The belief of Christianity on death, dying, and rapture
The study of Christianity in the medieval period
How Christianity influenced the western world
Christianity: the symbols and their meaning
Why catholic priests practice celibacy
Christianity in the Reformation Era
Discuss the Gnostic Gospels and their distinct historic influence on Christianity
The catholic church in the Third Reich of Germany
The difference between the Old Testament and the New Testament
What the ten commandments say from a theological perspective
The unpredictable story of Moses
The revival of Saul to Paul: miracle or what?
Are there Christian cults in the contemporary world?
Gender differences in the Christian church: why some churches don’t allow women pastors
The politics of the Catholic church before the separation of the church and the state
The controversies around Christian religion and atheism: why many people are leaving the church
What is the Holy Trinity and what is its role in the church?
The miracles of the New Testament and its difference from the Old Testament’s
Why do people question the existence of God?
God is a spirit: discuss

Islam Research Paper Topics

As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers:

Islam in the Middle East
Trace the origin of Islam
Who are the most important prophets in Islam?
Discuss the Sunni and other groups of Muslims
The Five Pillars of Islam are said to be important in Islam, why?
Discuss the significance of the Holy Month
Discuss the significance of the Holy Pilgrimage
The distinctions of the Five Pillars of Islam and the Ten Commandments?
The controversies around the hijab and the veil
Western states are denying Muslims: why?
The role of religious leaders in their advocacy of sexual abuse and violence
What the Quran says about rape and what does Hadiths say, too?
Rape: men, not the women roaming the street should be blamed
What is radicalism in Islam?
The focus of Islam is to oppress women: discuss
The political, social, and economic influence of modernity on Islam
The notable wives of prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam: discuss
Trace the evolution of Islam in China and the efforts of the government against them
Religious conflict in Palestine and Israel: how a territorial conflict slowly became a religious war
The study of social class and the Islamic religion
Suicide bombers and their belief of honor in death: the beliefs of Islamic jihadists
Account for the issues of marginalization of women in Muslim marriages
The role of literature in promoting the fundamentals of Islam: how poetry was used to appeal to a wider audience
The concept of feminism in Islam and why patriarchy seems to be on a steady rise
The importance of Hadiths in the comprehension of the Islamic religion
Does Islam approve of democracy?
Islamic terrorism and the role of religious leaders
The relationship of faith in Islam and Christianity: are there differences in the perspectives of faith?
How the Quran can be used as a tool for religious tolerance and religious intolerance
The study of Muslims in France: why is there religious isolation and abuse in such a society?
Islam and western education: what are the issues that have become relevant in recent years?
Is there a relationship between Islam and Science?
Western culture: why there are stereotypes against Muslims abroad
Mythology in Islam: what role does it play in shaping the religion?
Islam and the belief in the afterlife: are there differences between its beliefs with other religions’?
Why women are not allowed to take sermons in Islam

Can’t Figure Out Your Religion Paper?

With these religious research paper topics, you’re open to change the words or choose a topic of your choice for your research paper or essay. Writing an essay after finding a topic is relatively easy. Since you have helpful world religion research paper topics, research paper topics on religion and society, religion essay topics, argumentative essay topics on religion, Christianity research paper topics, and Islam research paper topics, you can go online to research different books that discuss the topic of your choice.

However, if you require the assistance of professional academic experts who offer custom academic help, you’ll find them online. There are a few writing help online groups that assist in writing your essays or research paper as fast as possible. You can opt for their service if you’re too busy or unmotivated to write your research paper or essay.

The Best 50 Religion Research Topics to Use for Students

In our multi-religious and multicultural society, crafting a great research paper on religion is a challenging task. Indeed, this challenge starts from the first stage of preparing your paper: identifying a good religious research paper topic. Further, it is almost impossible to write a paper without offending one or more religious feelings, especially when working on the history of religion. To make writing your paper easy, you must start by picking good religious paper topics.

In this paper, we list 50 religion research paper topics and a guide for selecting the best. If you want to get good grades, start with the right step- the best topic.

Why You Need the Best Religion Research Paper Topics

When working on any research paper, the most important step is identifying the topic. Indeed, the topic determines the direction you will take with the paper. Here are other benefits of selecting the best topics for a religious research paper.

It allows you to work on the preferred area of interest.
With a good topic, you do not get bored midway.
A great topic offers you the opportunity to fill knowledge gaps in the field of religious studies.
It is your opportunity to make your contribution felt.
Picking the best topics is the first step to better grades.

How to Pick the Best Topics for a Religious Research Paper

Now that you know the benefits of selecting the best topics for your religious papers, you might be wondering, “How do I pick it?” Here are some useful tips to help you identify the best:

Brainstorm your religious study subject. This will help you to get the best ideas to work on.
Comprehensively research your area of interest. For example, you might be interested in the history of religion, church and social action, creationism, or modernism and religion.
Look at the latest happenings. Things such as religious involvement in economics and education might inspire your paper ideas.
Follow your teacher’s recommendation. Often, professors give guidelines to students on the areas they should work on. For example, if you were covering a certain area in your religious education studies class; your teacher might ask you to pick topics from that section only. But in most cases, teachers leave the topics open for students to select on their own.
Read other research on religious studies. Most researchers point at gaps that exist in the niche so that later students can work on them. This is a great place to commence your research paper.

The Best Religious Topics for a Research Paper

Whether you prefer working on religious controversial topics or philosophy of religion essay topics, we have listed the best 50 ideas to get you started. Check them and pick them as they are or tweak them to fit your preferred format.

Christian and economics.
Religion and homosexuality.
Black churches.
Christianity history.
Comparing and contrasting Christian and Islam history.
A closer look at world religions without gods.
The concept of religion and soul.
The impact of religious laws on morality.
The phenomenon of trickster gods.
The impact of Greek religion on European culture.
Impact of religion on American culture.
Impact of religion on Chinese culture.
Comparing the similarities of images of gods in different religions.
How does gender affect religion?
Islam in modern India.
What is the future of religion?
Afterlife: What are the differences in diverse religions?
What are the main causes of the faith crisis?
Analyzing the influence of female clergy on religion.
Relooking at the reincarnation concept.
What role do men have in religion?
The impacts of yoga on religion.
Can faith remove the harshness of adolescence?
Why is Ramadhan referred to as the holy month?
Comparing religious counselors to classical psychologists.
A closer look at the main differences between the bible and Koran.
What is the importance of Christmas for Christians?
Creationism.
Religion and science.
How do people implement different religious practices today?
Should atheism be considered another form of religion?
Judaism: A closer look at its history.
Analyzing attitudes towards sex in the Christian religion.
Children: Are they considered innocent in all religions?
A closer look at the history of Hinduism.
A closer look at the existence of God as a supernatural being.
Comparing and contrasting monotheistic cultures.
Female goddesses.
Chaplain-ship: How does it trigger peace and harmony?
Impact of women in the history of Christianity.
What are the implications of forced religion on people?
Religion and terrorism.
Religion in the workplace.
Religion and evolution.
Nordic mythology.
A world without religion: Is it possible?
Applying religion to address global problems.
The primal religions.
Do you think religion should play a role in modern politics?
Do you think religion influences societal virtues?

Got the Best Religion Topics to Write About – What Next?

Now that you have a list of the best world religion research paper topics, it is important to appreciate that the journey of writing your assignment has just started. The next step is to write down your paper in line with your teacher’s guidelines. This is where your writing skills come into play. Well, it is never easy for many students. Often, some lack good writing skills, have other engagements, or acquire the right resources is a challenge. For others, the deadline is too tight and almost impossible to beat. The best idea is to seek affordable college assignment writing help.

After selecting the best topics, be they sociology or religion research topics or religious debate topics, writing help is provided by experts with years of experience in academic writing. They have handled such papers before and are willing to help you craft the best paper for top grades. Well, do not let that religious research paper stress you anymore, let a professional help you!

Interesting Religion Research Paper Topics To Write About

Updated 16 Apr 2024

Religion has been a part of our societies since the beginning of time. From primitive animalistic beliefs to complex polytheistic pantheons, it has changed and evolved to suit our civilizations. This is what makes religion research paper topics so fascinating.

You can go from several approaches when choosing a topic. You can focus on the history of a certain religion, its specifics in terms of beliefs and rituals, how it has impacted the society, its potential future, or focus on the religion systems in general, analyze the differences between them and what might’ve caused them.

While the list of potential religion essay topics is endless, choosing the right one is important. Religion is often an extremely personal matter, so a careless approach might lead to conflict and hurt. Moreover, it is hard to avoid personal bias while talking about religious experiences.

That’s why we offer you this list of relevant topics that are interesting to explore. Choose the one that suits you the most and explore the nature and history of human beliefs.

Choose the Best Religion Topics For a Research Paper

Selecting the right item from the list of religious essay topics can be challenging, so here are some tips that might help you:

Select a topic you’re at least somewhat interested in – this way it will be easier for you to concentrate on the research and ensure the quality of your work;
Make sure there are scientific sources related to the topic, and they are not limited to opinion pieces – facts have more weight in the research than opinions;
Avoid topics that are based on a biased view of a certain religion;
Avoid attacks and critique of religious leaders and personalities;
If there are several views on a topic – make sure to cover all of them, or avoid it.

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List of Religion Research Paper Topics

The societal impact of organized religion and religious beliefs as a whole is immense. Researching it gives us a glimpse into how human civilization has changed and how our value system has evolved. However, a lot of religious research topics are too complex. So, here are some of the most relevant religion research paper topics you can have fun completing.

Historical and Comparative Studies

The evolution of monotheism in ancient civilizations.
Comparative analysis of creation myths across different cultures.
The role of women in Hinduism versus Christianity.
The impact of the Reformation on European society.
Religious syncretism in the Caribbean: A study of Vodou and Santería.
The Crusades: Religious fervor, politics, and impact on East-West relations.
Ancient Egyptian religion and its influence on later Abrahamic religions.
The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road.
The role of prophecy in Abrahamic religions: A comparative study.
Shamanism in indigenous cultures: Practices and worldviews.

Religion and Society

The influence of religion on modern legal systems.
Secularism and its effects on contemporary religious practices.
Religion and its role in the integration of immigrants.
The impact of social media on religious organization and practice.
Religious extremism: Causes, consequences, and responses.
Interfaith dialogue: Challenges, successes, and impacts on global peace.
The role of religion in public education: A comparative analysis.
Religion and LGBTQ+ rights: A global perspective.
The economics of religion: How faith contributes to wealth and poverty.
Religion and environmental ethics: Spiritual responses to climate change.

Theology and Philosophy

The concept of evil in different religious traditions.
Free will and predestination in Islamic theology.
Theological responses to the problem of suffering.
Mysticism in Christianity and Islam: A comparative study.
The influence of Greek philosophy on early Christian thought.
Religious pluralism: Theological and philosophical perspectives.
The concept of the soul in world religions.
Faith and reason in the Age of Enlightenment.
The role of meditation in Eastern and Western spiritual practices.
Death and the afterlife: How religions interpret the end of life.

Contemporary Issues in Religion

The role of women in contemporary religious leadership.
Religious responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The impact of globalization on indigenous spiritual practices.
Atheism and secular humanism: Philosophical foundations and societal impact.
The intersection of religion and technology: Ethical considerations.
Religious symbolism in popular culture.
The politics of religious freedom in the 21st century.
Conversion and religious identity in the modern world.
The role of pilgrimage in contemporary religious practice.
Religious dietary laws and their significance in a globalized world.

Specific Religious Studies

The development of Zen Buddhism in Japan.
Sufism and its contribution to Islamic art and culture.
The significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls for understanding early Christianity.
Hindu festivals and their socio-cultural significance in India.
The evolution of Jewish thought from the Torah to modern Zionism.
Indigenous African religions and their resistance to colonialism.
Sikhism: History, practices, and global diaspora.
The Bahá'í Faith: Principles, persecution, and global community.
Neo-Paganism and the revival of ancient European religions.
Scientology: Origins, beliefs, and controversies.

Christianity Research Paper Topics

Christianity is one of the biggest religions around the world, with billions of followers. Its impact on the history of the world cannot be overestimated. So, here are some of the most interesting aspects you can learn more about:

The Development of the Early Christian Church
The Influence of Martin Luther and the Reformation
Christian Mysticism and Spiritual Practices
The Role of Christianity in the Abolition of Slavery
Comparative Study of Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Christianity and Science: Historical Perspectives
The Impact of Vatican II on the Catholic Church
Christianity and Contemporary Ethical Issues
The Growth of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa
Christian Symbols and Their Meanings

Buddhism Essay Topics

Buddhism is another major ideology that should not be overlooked. Its Eastern roots make it distinctly different from a lot of other religions around the world. So, there is a lot to learn about it, especially if you’re not closely familiar with it:

The concept of emptiness (Śūnyatā) in Mahayana Buddhism.
The role of meditation in achieving enlightenment in Theravada Buddhism.
The influence of Buddhism on contemporary Western culture.
A comparison of Zen Buddhism in Japan and Chan Buddhism in China.
The Four Noble Truths and their relevance to modern life.
The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road: Historical impacts and cultural exchanges.
The ethical implications of the Buddhist Five Precepts in the context of global issues.
The evolution of Buddhist art and architecture across Asia.
The Dalai Lama's role in modern Tibetan Buddhism and global peace efforts.
The intersection of Buddhism and science in understanding the mind and consciousness.

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Theology Research Paper Topics

Theology applies a scientific approach to religious practices. So, while talking about religion research topics, it’s important to mention the research of theological methods and the history of this branch of science. Here are some of the themes you can consider:

The concept of God in Christian and Islamic theology: A comparative study.
Liberation theology and its impact on social justice movements.
Theological responses to the problem of evil in different religious traditions.
The role of women in the theology of the early church.
Process theology and its implications for understanding divine action.
The influence of Augustine's theology on Western Christian thought.
Eco-theology: Exploring religious perspectives on environmental conservation.
The development of Trinitarian doctrine in the early Christian church.
Theological perspectives on human suffering and divine providence.
The intersection of theology and technology: Ethical considerations in the digital age.

Islam Research Topics

Islam is another major religion that deserves thorough research and careful consideration. The image of it is often demonized in the West, but there is a lot more to it. Here’s what you can write about it:

The evolution of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) through history.
Sufism and its role in shaping Islamic spirituality and practice.
The impact of Islam on the development of science and philosophy in the Golden Age.
Gender roles and rights in Islamic law: A contemporary analysis.
The concept of Jihad in Islam: Historical and modern interpretations.
Islamic finance and banking: Principles and global impact.
The significance of the Hajj pilgrimage in Muslim life and society.
The role of the Prophet Muhammad in Islam compared to prophets in other religions.
Modern Islamic political movements: Origins and objectives.
Interfaith dialogue between Islam and other world religions: Challenges and opportunities.

Siddhartha Essay Topics

Siddhartha is the birth name of the founder of Buddhism, and it is the name of the novel about the spiritual journey of his contemporary. Both deserve research in the religious and philosophical context:

The journey of self-discovery in Hermann Hesse's "Siddhartha."
The role of the river as a symbol in "Siddhartha."
Comparing and contrasting Siddhartha's relationships with Kamala and Govinda.
The theme of enlightenment in "Siddhartha" versus traditional Buddhist teachings.
The significance of names and identity in "Siddhartha."
The influence of Indian philosophy on Hesse's "Siddhartha."
The concept of time in "Siddhartha" and its impact on the protagonist's spiritual journey.
The role of nature in Siddhartha's quest for enlightenment.
Siddhartha's changing views on wealth and materialism throughout the novel.
The portrayal of teacher-student relationships in "Siddhartha" and their importance in Siddhartha's spiritual development.

Religion Systems Topics

The role of ritual in establishing and maintaining religious systems.
Comparative analysis of monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
The impact of colonialism on indigenous religious systems.
The evolution of religious systems in response to modernity and secularism.
Syncretism: How different religious systems merge and influence each other.
The function of myth in religious systems across cultures.
Religious systems and their influence on gender roles and norms.
The relationship between religious systems and political power structures.
The role of pilgrimage in various religious systems.
The future of religious systems in a globalized world: Trends and predictions.

Advice on How to Write a Religion Essay

Writing an essay about religion has a lot of pitfalls. If you want to get a good grade on your task, you need to do it right. Here are some tips that might help you write an excellent essay on a religious topic:

Avoid including personal biases and opinions – criticizing any religion is a slippery slope, but doing it from an emotional or experienced-based standpoint is even worse. Remember that the views and values of one person do not define the views of the whole group;
Structure your paper – a well-structured paper is easy to read and understand. It will better illustrate your point and will show your organized and systematic approach to research;
Check your sources for credibility – unfortunately, there are a lot of pseudoscientific opinions and works around religious topics. Even if some of them have certain merit, it is better not to include them in your work;
Explore your religion research topics from different perspectives – the best way to avoid bias in your research is to present the opinions from opposite sides. This will result in a well-rounded paper that will not claim to know a “single truth”, but rather apply scientific methods to religious research;
Try to provide the context – religious texts are often complex and filled with symbolism. You can easily find contradicting statements in them, but, in order to present them fairly, you need to provide the context for them. This does not require a retelling of the whole text, but the general situation needs to be mentioned.

If these tips still do not help, we’re ready to assist you. Visit our platform, choose a professional author that suits you, and get help with your religion research paper right now!

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Exploring Faith and Belief: Religious Research Paper Topics

Table of contents

1 Challenges in Religious Research Paper Topics
2.1 Christian Research Paper Topics
2.2 Islam Research Topics
2.3 Siddhartha Essay Topics
2.4 Buddhism Essay Topics
2.5 Hinduism Research Paper Topics
2.6 Judaism Religion
2.7 Theology Research Paper Topics

Exploring the realm of religion opens a multitude of avenues for scholarly inquiry. Research papers on religion delve into profound questions that have captivated humanity throughout history. These studies not only illuminate the intricacies of faith and belief systems but also examine their profound impact on culture, society, and personal identity.

Choosing a research topic about religion requires a thoughtful consideration of a wide spectrum of beliefs, practices, and philosophical interpretations. From the rituals that bind communities to the spiritual philosophies that drive individual conduct, religion research topics offer a rich tapestry of areas for academic exploration. With such diversity, the challenge lies in pinpointing a singular path that resonates with both current discourse and timeless questions of the human experience.

Challenges in Religious Research Paper Topics

Navigating religious research paper topics presents a unique set of challenges. Crafting research questions about religion demands sensitivity and a deep understanding of diverse belief systems. Scholars often grapple with the subjective nature of spirituality, striving to maintain academic rigor while exploring profoundly personal and often religious controversial topics. The multifaceted nature of religious research paper topics also requires an interdisciplinary approach, intersecting with history, sociology, psychology, and theology.

Additionally, researchers must balance insider and outsider perspectives, often working to gain the trust of faith communities while preserving critical distance. Research papers on religion must also contend with varying interpretations of sacred texts and practices, which can vary widely even within a single tradition. Moreover, the dynamic nature of religion, constantly evolving in the face of modernity and globalization, poses a challenge to researchers aiming to capture the contemporary religious landscape accurately. The task, then, is to approach these topics with a blend of scholarly curiosity, methodological precision, and cultural competence.

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List of 70 Religion Topics to Write About

Embark on an intellectual journey with this curated list of 70 religion topics, each offering a unique window into the diverse ways faith shapes and is shaped by the world we live in.

Christian Research Paper Topics

Diving into Christianity offers a rich vein of inquiry for scholars. These biblical topics for research papers present fresh perspectives on age-old discussions, inviting a deeper understanding of one of the world’s most-followed faiths.

The Evolution of Christian Thought in Postmodern Society
Analyzing the Role of Women in Early Christian Communities
The Influence of Christian Ethics on Modern Business Practices
Cross-Cultural Interpretations of Christian Symbols in Global Contexts
The Impact of Digital Media on Christian Worship and Community
Environmental Stewardship and its Theological Roots in Christianity
The Psychological Effects of Christian Practices on Mental Health
A Comparative Study of Christian Mysticism and Contemporary Spiritual Movements
The Political Expressions of Liberation Theology in Latin America
Christian Perspectives on Artificial Intelligence and Bioethics

Islam Research Topics

The study of Islam uncovers a tapestry of cultural, theological, and historical themes. These research topics on religion provide a platform for a nuanced exploration of Islam’s multifaceted impact on the world.

Modern Interpretations of Sharia Law in Various Islamic Societies
The Role of Sufism in Contemporary Islamic Practice
Islamic Economic Principles and Their Application in the 21st Century
Gender Dynamics within Islamic Theology and Practice
Islamic Artistic Expression in the Digital Age
The Influence of Islam on Classical Scientific Discovery and Philosophy
The Political Significance of Islam in Non-Majority Muslim Countries
Interfaith Dialogues between Islamic and Western Philosophical Traditions
The Evolution of Islamic Educational Institutions from Classical to Modern Times
The Representation of Islam in Western Media and its Societal Impact

Siddhartha Essay Topics

Hermann Hesse’s “Siddhartha” is a rich narrative ripe for exploration, intertwining themes of self-discovery and spirituality. These religion topics to write about offer a pathway to understanding the profound messages embedded in this classic tale.

The Concept of Enlightenment in Siddhartha Versus Traditional Buddhist Teachings
River Imagery as a Symbol of Life’s Journey in Siddhartha
Siddhartha’s Relationship with Nature as a Reflection of His Spiritual Quest
The Influence of Hermann Hesse’s Personal Beliefs on the Portrayal of Religion in Siddhartha
Comparing Siddhartha’s Ascetic Life with Modern Minimalist Movements
The Role of Mentorship and its Impact on Siddhartha’s Spiritual Evolution
The Dichotomy of Material Wealth and Spiritual Fulfillment in Siddhartha
Siddhartha’s Search for Authenticity Amidst Societal Expectations
The Function of Love in Siddhartha’s Journey Towards Self-Actualization
Relevance of Siddhartha’s Lessons in the Context of Contemporary Religious Practice

Buddhism Essay Topics

Buddhism, with its profound philosophical foundations and global influence, provides a fertile ground for scholarly exploration. These religious research topics and world religion paper topics delve into the heart of Buddhist doctrine and its practical implications in today’s world.

The Intersection of Buddhist Philosophy and Contemporary Psychotherapy
Ethical Consumption and Environmentalism through the Lens of Buddhist Teachings
The Role of Meditation in Modern Healthcare as Influenced by Buddhism
Analysis of Buddhist Responses to the Challenges of Globalization
The Adaptation of Zen Aesthetics in Western Art and Architecture
Buddhist Principles in Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding Efforts
The Impact of Technological Advancements on Traditional Buddhist Practices
A Study of Gender Roles within Buddhist Monastic Communities
The Influence of Buddhism on Western Philosophical Thought
Exploring the Growth of Buddhist Tourism and its Cultural Impacts

Hinduism Research Paper Topics

Hinduism’s rich tapestry of mythology, philosophy, and cultural practices presents an expansive field for academic inquiry. The following religion topics for research paper encompass both the depth of Hindu traditions and contemporary issues, offering a platform for insightful discourse.

Analyzing the Impact of Hinduism on India’s Environmental Policies
Feminine Divinity in Hinduism and its Influence on Gender Roles
The Evolution of Hindu Temple Architecture Over Centuries
Caste System Interpretations in Modern Hindu Society
Yoga as a Global Phenomenon: Origins and Transformations from Hindu Traditions
The Role of Hinduism in Forming India’s National Identity
The Philosophy of Karma and its Relevance to Modern Ethics
Ayurveda: Ancient Hindu Science of Health in the Modern Wellness Industry
The Dynamics of Hindu Pilgrimage: Economy, Ecology, and Tradition
Hindu Rituals and their Psychological Implications in Contemporary Practice

Judaism Religion

The exploration of Judaism offers insights into one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions, rich with history and tradition. While the following topics are not centered on religion research paper topics, they reflect the depth and diversity inherent in Jewish studies.

The Influence of Jewish Mysticism on Contemporary Religious Thought
The Preservation of Jewish Traditions in Diaspora Communities
Jewish Perspectives on Bioethics and Modern Medical Dilemmas
The Role of the Synagogue in Jewish Cultural and Religious Life
The Impact of the Holocaust on Theological Understandings in Judaism
Jewish Contributions to Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding
The Evolution of Kosher Laws and Their Application in the Food Industry
The Intersection of Jewish Law and Modern State Legislation
The Role of Hebrew Language Revival in Jewish Identity Formation
Jewish Feminist Theology and its Quest for Gender Equality in Religious Practice

Theology Research Paper Topics

Theology, the systematic study of the divine, invites scholars to probe the depths of religious belief and practice. These theology research paper topics are designed to inspire critical thought and original analysis on various aspects of spiritual inquiry.

The Role of Prophecy in Abrahamic Religions Comparative Study
Liberation Theology’s Influence on Social Justice Movements
Theological Responses to the Problem of Evil in Different Faiths
The Impact of Feminist Theology on Traditional Religious Practices
The Integration of Theology and Science in the Modern World
The Concept of the Afterlife in Theological and Philosophical Perspectives
Ecumenism and the Pursuit of Christian Unity in Theology
Theological Underpinnings of Contemporary Environmental Ethics
The Influence of Digital Media on Theological Education
The Role of Ritual in Expressing and Shaping Theological Beliefs

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35 Inspiring Theology and Religion Research Topics for Undergraduates

Table of contents

Picture this – you're sitting at your desk, a blank document open on your screen, the cursor blinking back at you. The task? A research paper for your theology and religious studies class. The problem? You have no idea what your topic should be. We've all been there. Whether you're a novice researcher or a seasoned academic, choosing a research paper topic can be daunting.

But fear not, brave scholar! Whether you're interested in the spiritual beliefs that have shaped societies over millennia or the philosophical debates that underpin religious thought, theology and religious studies offer a vast, rich field to explore. So, let's turn that daunting task into an exciting opportunity. In this blog post, we'll explore 30 inspiring research topic ideas for undergraduate theology and religious studies students. But first, let's better understand this intriguing field of study.

The Power of Interfaith Dialogue

Interfaith dialogue plays an instrumental role in promoting understanding, respect, and peace between people of different religious and cultural backgrounds. It encourages constructive conversations that facilitate empathy and respect for diversity. Here are several aspects to focus on:

1. Necessity of Interfaith Dialogue in a Multicultural Society

Explore how interfaith dialogue can help create cohesive multicultural societies.
Potential sources: Studies on multicultural societies, case studies on successful interfaith dialogue initiatives.

2. The Role of Interfaith Dialogue in Peacebuilding

Analyze how interfaith dialogue has been used as a tool for peacebuilding in areas of religious conflict.
Potential sources: Reports from international peacekeeping organizations, historical accounts of conflict resolution.

3. Interfaith Dialogue and Mutual Understanding

Discuss the significance of interfaith dialogue in promoting mutual understanding and respect among diverse religious communities.
Potential sources: Interfaith dialogue guides, accounts of interfaith initiatives.

4. Education and Interfaith Dialogue

Examine the role of education in fostering interfaith dialogue and how it can be integrated into educational curricula.
Potential sources: Educational policies, studies on religious education.

5. The Role of Religious Leaders in Interfaith Dialogue

Investigate the influence of religious leaders in encouraging or discouraging interfaith dialogue.
Potential sources: Statements and speeches of religious leaders, accounts of interfaith meetings.

6. Interfaith Dialogue and the Media

Discuss the role of media in promoting or impeding interfaith dialogue, and how it can be used constructively.
Potential sources: Media studies on religious coverage, case studies on media's role in interfaith initiatives.

7. Obstacles to Effective Interfaith Dialogue

Identify common obstacles to interfaith dialogue and propose strategies to overcome them.
Potential sources: Studies on interfaith dialogue, reports on religious conflicts.

8. Interfaith Dialogue and Social Justice

Explore how interfaith dialogue can contribute to social justice movements and the advocacy for human rights.
Potential sources: Reports from human rights organizations, accounts of social justice movements involving interfaith dialogue.

9. The Future of Interfaith Dialogue

Consider the future of interfaith dialogue in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world.
Potential sources: Futuristic studies on religion, expert opinions on the future of interfaith dialogue.

10. Case Studies of Successful Interfaith Dialogue

Analyze case studies of successful interfaith dialogue initiatives and draw lessons from them.
Potential sources: Records of successful interfaith dialogues, interviews with participants.

In this journey of understanding the power of interfaith dialogue, it's crucial to approach each topic with respect and sensitivity, acknowledging the diversity of beliefs and practices within and across religious traditions.

Exploring World Religions: Comparative Studies

Exploring world religions through a comparative lens allows for a deeper understanding of the diversity, complexity, and richness of different religious traditions. This section of the dissertation could delve into the following areas:

1. Methodologies in Comparative Religion

Discuss various approaches to comparative religion studies, their benefits, and potential limitations.
Potential sources: Academic texts on comparative religious studies, methodology guides.

2. Comparative Analysis of Major World Religions

Examine key religious concepts, beliefs, practices, and rituals across major world religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and others.
Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles, ethnographic studies.

3. Similarities and Differences in Religious Practices

Identify and discuss similarities and differences in the ways that different religions approach worship, ritual, and community life.
Potential sources: Ethnographic studies, scholarly articles on religious practices, religious texts.

4. Comparative Analysis of Religious Philosophies

Analyze the philosophical underpinnings of different religions, comparing their approaches to questions of morality, existence, knowledge, and the nature of the divine.
Potential sources: Religious philosophy texts, scholarly articles on religious philosophies, expert opinions.

5. Comparative Study of Religious Myths and Stories

Compare and contrast the myths, stories, parables, and legends that form part of the narrative traditions of different religions.
Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles on religious narratives, studies on mythology.

6. Interactions and Influences among Religions

Discuss historical interactions between different religions and how they have influenced each other's development and practices.
Potential sources: Historical accounts, scholarly articles on religious interactions, studies on syncretism.

7. The Role of Religion in Society: A Comparative Analysis

Analyze the societal roles of religion in different cultures and societies, examining how different religions interact with and influence social structures, norms, and values.
Potential sources: Sociological studies on religion, case studies, historical accounts.

8. Comparative Study of Religious Reform Movements

Compare and contrast various religious reform movements across different religions, examining their causes, impacts, and outcomes.
Potential sources: Historical texts, scholarly articles on religious reform movements, case studies.

9. The Evolution of Religions Over Time

Explore how various religions have evolved over time, comparing the ways in which they have adapted to changes in society, science, and technology.
Potential sources: Historical studies, scholarly articles on the evolution of religions, religious texts.

10. Case Studies in Comparative Religion

Conduct in-depth case studies of particular aspects of different religions, drawing out points of comparison and contrast.
Potential sources: Case study reports, academic articles, religious texts.

Comparative studies of world religions can serve to broaden our perspectives, deepen our understanding, and foster greater respect for the variety of religious experiences and expressions around the world.

Religious Influences on Society and Culture

Religion profoundly influences society and culture. It is a force that shapes our understanding of morality, law, and human relationships, influences our arts and literature, and plays a key role in social cohesion and conflict. This section of the dissertation would explore these influences in the following ways:

1. The Role of Religion in Shaping Morality

Investigate how religion forms moral codes and principles in different societies, examining the ways in which these codes shape behavior and social norms.
Potential sources: Sociological and philosophical texts, religious doctrines, scholarly articles on morality and religion.

2. Religion and the Formation of Law

Explore how religious principles have influenced legal systems around the world, from religious laws themselves to secular laws influenced by religious thought.
Potential sources: Legal texts, religious scriptures, scholarly articles on law and religion.

3. Religious Influences on Arts and Literature

Examine how religion has influenced various art forms and literature, from religious iconography in visual arts to religious themes in literature.
Potential sources: Art history texts, literary analysis, scholarly articles on religion in arts and literature.

4. The Impact of Religion on Social Cohesion and Conflict

Discuss the dual role of religion in promoting social unity and causing conflict, drawing from historical and contemporary examples.
Potential sources: Sociological and historical texts, case studies, news articles, scholarly articles on religion and conflict.

5. Religion and Cultural Identity

Explore how religion contributes to the formation of cultural identities and how these identities can influence religious practices and beliefs.
Potential sources: Cultural studies, ethnographic research, scholarly articles on religion and identity.

6. Religious Influences on Gender Roles

Examine the role of religion in shaping gender norms and expectations in different societies.
Potential sources: Gender studies, sociological texts, scholarly articles on religion and gender.

7. The Role of Religion in Education

Investigate the role of religion in shaping education systems, curricula, and philosophies of education.
Potential sources: Education policy documents, scholarly articles on religion and education.

8. Religion and Social Change

Analyze the role of religion in social movements and societal changes, such as civil rights movements, environmental movements, or movements for gender equality.
Potential sources: Historical texts, sociological studies, scholarly articles on religion and social change.

9. The Influence of Religion on Healthcare and Well-being

Discuss how religious beliefs and practices can influence attitudes towards health, disease, medical ethics, and well-being.
Potential sources: Medical ethics texts, scholarly articles on religion and health, case studies.

10. Case Studies in Religious Influence

Conduct in-depth case studies of specific instances of religious influence on society and culture.
Potential sources: Case studies, historical texts, academic articles, cultural analyses.

Religion's pervasive influence on society and culture is a fascinating area of study. Understanding these influences can provide insight into how societies function, how cultures develop, and how individuals form their identities and worldviews.

Religion and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Study

The intersection of religion and LGBTQ+ rights is a hotly debated topic in both academic and public spheres. Understanding how different religions view and influence LGBTQ+ rights can provide valuable insights into broader societal attitudes and legal frameworks. Here are some aspects you could delve into:

1. Religious Doctrines and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Analysis

Compare the doctrines of different religions regarding LGBTQ+ issues.
Explore how these doctrines have evolved over time.
Potential sources: Religious texts, theological studies, writings from religious leaders.

2. The Role of Religion in Shaping Societal Attitudes Towards the LGBTQ+ Community

Analyze the influence of religious beliefs on societal attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community.
Explore differences and similarities across various cultures and religions.
Potential sources: Sociological studies, surveys on religion and societal attitudes, academic papers on religion and LGBTQ+ rights.

3. The Impact of Religious Lobbying on LGBTQ+ Legislation

Examine the influence of religious lobbying on laws related to LGBTQ+ rights.
Consider both progressive and conservative religious movements.
Potential sources: Legislation history, records of religious lobbying activities, studies on religion and public policy.

4. LGBTQ+ Rights Advocacy Within Religious Communities

Explore the role of LGBTQ+ advocacy groups within religious communities.
Discuss how these groups navigate the intersection of religious beliefs and LGBTQ+ rights.
Potential sources: Statements and publications from advocacy groups, news articles, interviews with advocacy group members.

5. Religion, Conversion Therapy, and Mental Health

Investigate the practice of conversion therapy within religious communities.
Discuss its impacts on mental health and legal responses to this practice.
Potential sources: Psychological studies, survivor testimonies, legislation documents.

In this part, your objective is to shed light on the complex relationship between religion and LGBTQ+ rights. Ensure that your analysis respects the diversity of views within each religion and emphasize the importance of promoting understanding and human rights.

Choosing Your Topic: A Handy Guide

Having established a broad context of the study of religion, it's now time to choose your specific research topic. The selection of a topic is critical as it sets the direction for your research and, ultimately, the success of your dissertation. Here are some guidelines that may help you:

Personal Interest : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the subject will help to sustain your motivation during the often arduous process of researching and writing your dissertation.

Familiarity : While it can be exciting to venture into new territory, choosing a topic you are already familiar with can often prove beneficial, especially if you're already well-versed in some of the literature or theoretical approaches related to your topic.

Originality : Although your topic should be based on established scholarship, it should also make an original contribution to the field. Avoid merely summarizing existing research; instead, seek to provide a new perspective or uncover previously unexplored aspects.

Feasibility : Keep in mind practical considerations such as the availability of resources, time constraints, and the scope of your project. You want your project to be challenging, but also achievable within your given timeframe and resources.

Relevance : Consider the relevance of your topic to the current academic discourse. Selecting a topic that relates to ongoing debates or recent developments in the field can help to ensure that your research will be of interest to others.

To guide you through the process of choosing your topic, here are a few steps you might follow:

Brainstorming : Start by brainstorming a list of potential topics. Don't worry about being too precise at this stage.

Preliminary Research : Conduct some preliminary research on each of your potential topics. Read recent journal articles, check out related books, and familiarize yourself with the current discourse surrounding each topic.

Narrowing Down : After conducting your preliminary research, narrow down your list of potential topics. Discard topics that don't seem feasible or that don't hold as much interest for you as others.

Refinement : Once you have a shortlist of potential topics, refine each one. Develop a research question for each topic and consider what kind of research would be necessary to answer it.

Final Selection : After refining each topic, make your final selection. Choose the topic that you are most interested in, that is most feasible, and that will make the most significant contribution to the field.

Seek Feedback : Once you've selected your topic, seek feedback from your dissertation advisor and other mentors. They can provide valuable insight and help to further refine your topic.

Remember, your dissertation is a significant piece of work that represents a culmination of your academic journey. Choose a topic that not only fulfills the requirements of your degree but also allows you to showcase your intellectual curiosity and scholarly skills.

Understanding Theology and Religious Studies

Theology and religious studies is a diverse and fascinating field, delving into the depths of human history, culture, philosophy, ethics, and more. It's not just about studying religious texts and rituals; it's also about understanding how these beliefs and practices shape societies, influence individual behavior, and impact global events.

Whether you're studying a mainstream religion like Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism, or exploring the philosophies of lesser-known or ancient religions, you'll find that this field is ripe with intriguing research questions. This field allows for a broad array of research approaches, encompassing historical, philosophical, anthropological, sociological perspectives, and even engaging with modern debates around politics, human rights, and scientific progress.

So, whether you're drawn to the metaphysical questions or the practical implications, theology and religious studies provide a rich field of research that can help illuminate the world in surprising and insightful ways.

Now that we have a good grasp of the field let's delve into some potential research topics that might pique your interest. The following topics are designed to be diverse, covering a wide range of areas within theology and religious studies. Each topic will come with some bullet-pointed guidelines on how you might approach your research. Ready? Let's jump in!

The study of religion is a broad and multi-faceted field that offers numerous potential topics for dissertation research. The intersection of religion with society, culture, politics, and personal identity provides a fertile ground for intriguing questions and deep scholarly exploration.

Whether examining the theological complexities of a single faith, comparing the similarities and differences between multiple religious traditions, investigating the societal impact of religious practices and beliefs, or diving into the transformative potential of interfaith dialogues, the opportunities are vast and varied. The key is to choose a topic that resonates personally, offers a chance for original research, and contributes meaningfully to the ongoing academic discourse.

In this ever-evolving world, understanding religion’s role and impact becomes increasingly significant. By choosing a topic that contributes to this understanding, you engage in a conversation that spans across cultures, continents, and centuries, gaining insights that extend well beyond the academic sphere and into the diverse realities of human existence.

Your dissertation is more than a paper; it is an intellectual endeavor that can have an impact in academia and beyond. It is a testament to your commitment, intellect, and passion in your chosen field. Choose wisely, dedicate earnestly, and let your work add a valuable brick to the edifice of knowledge that the study of religion is.

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134 Religion Research Paper Topics: Brand New Ideas List 2023

Throughout history, people have always believed in the existence of a mighty figure that has always been referred to as “the fascinating and terrifying mystery.” Even the people who showed that they had no faith will ask for help in times of danger from a saintly figure. Religious beliefs are a reality of life that requires understanding, and this is where the academic field of religious research comes in. Religious studies study different religious beliefs, institutions, and behaviors that exist in the world. The study aims to explain, compare and interpret other religions—religious studies analyze people’s behavior and beliefs by having a neutral perspective. The basis of religious studies courses focuses on psychology, anthropology, philosophy, sociology, and the history of religion.

Why is Religious Studies Important?

Religious studies focus on the primary component of human culture and society. The key to understanding human behaviors lies in knowing people’s religious beliefs and practices. The world is becoming increasingly diverse, and understanding religions and cultures makes it easy to communicate based on knowledge rather than stereotyping.

Also, religious studies have excellent employment prospects as its students get opportunities for cross-disciplinary research through the various courses offered in the majors. The religious program is a distinctive program that emphasizes understanding the nature and history of communities affected by religions. Hence, it makes it easier to understand society and the people. If you are already a religious studies student, you will know all the benefits of opting for this subject. However, writing a thesis in religious studies is not easy; hence, we will be giving a brief insight into different religions and listing some religious topics for the research paper.

Different Types of Religion

There are many different religions in the world; we will be discussing some exciting details about the popular ones:

Islam Islam is a religion similar to Christianity and Judaism. Islam has its roots back in the era of Adam and the prophet Ibrahim. People who follow Islam are called Muslims. Muslims believe that Allah is the only God and Muhammad is his last messenger. Quran is the holy book of the Muslims which is a compilation of the revelations of God to the prophet Muhammad through the angel Jibrael. Quran, or the book of Allah, is said to contain the exact words of God; hence it offers a nonnegotiable blueprint on how to spend your life. The Islamic legal code known as the Sharia states every aspect of life, from marriage to business. Whoever abides by the teachings of Sharia will get paradise, and whoever disregards it and Muhammad’s teaching will get the hell in the hereafter. Christianity Christianity is a religion that is based on the teachings of Jesus. People who follow Christianity are known as Christians and believe that Jesus is the Son of God. Christian scripture includes the commandments in the Torah and the adherent version of it. Christians believe that Jesus met and completed all the laws defined by Torah, but he took upon him the sins of the world during his crucifixion and died. He will rise to live again to grant grace from God to those who put their faith in him. Christianity also has a concept of reward in the form of heaven for those who do good in life and a place called hell for people who did evil deeds in their life. Hinduism Hinduism is regarded as the oldest religion, dating back to 1500-600 BCE. It’s a religion with a compilation of many beliefs and traditions; due to this reason, it’s also referred to as a “Family of religion.” Hindus believe in the continuous cycle of life, death, reincarnation, and karma. Critical thoughts of Hinduism are of “atman” belief in the soul. Hindus who follow Hinduism aim to achieve “mukti,” or salvation that ends the cycle of rebirths to become one of the absolute souls. Buddhism Buddhism is considered a religion and a philosophy. The religion is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, a sage thinker who lived between the fourth and sixth centuries BCE. His teachings were based on moral rectitude, achievement of peace through meditation, and freedom from material desires and attachment. He dedicated his life to preaching kindness, wisdom, and compassion to people living in the eastern part of ancient India. The people who follow Buddhism are known as Buddhists. The goal of Buddhists is to achieve freedom from material attachment, ignorance, and anger in pursuit of a sublime place called Nirvana by following Buddhas’ teachings.

Research Paper Topics on Religion

Suppose you are searching for topics for your religious studies thesis, then you will come across complex topics which are hard to understand. Hence we have created a list of 134 relevant religious essay topics to provide you with a kick start for your research. Furthermore, remember you have the opportunity to buy custom research paper from professional helpers team.

World Religion Research Paper Topics

Evaluating the perception of the soul in different religions
Can religion be used to guide teenagers, and how?
What ethical beliefs are involved in the Hindu faith
Discussing the significant causes of the protestant reformation
The primary purpose of mission in the modern religion
Can taking someone’s life be justified religiously and ethically?
The history of Judaism
The history of Hinduism
Role of religion in shaping the history of science and education
Religion and the globalized world
The political impact of religion
Religion and crime: Concept of reward and punishment
People and religion from social psychology perspective5
Cultural specifics in religion

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

Beliefs that existed before organized religion
Evaluate why politicians should not interfere in religious disputes.
Describe the major differences between the Old Testament and New Testament laws.
How does religion affect the political economy
How can one create religion?
What role does religion play in poetry and literature?
Media source and religion
Generational specifics of religions
Evaluating polytheistic religions
Religion in modern Japan
Analyzing the connection between religion and law
Should religious leaders have political and legal power?

Sociology Religion Research Paper Topics

How does religion affect mental health
Significance of religion in environmental issues
How have modern times affected religion?
Belief system without gods
Who benefits from religion?
Evaluating the religious beliefs prevailing in modern India to their ideas in the 20 th century
What is the perception of guardian angels in different religions
What is the hypostatic union
Do babies go straight to heaven if they die?
Analyzing the principle beliefs of Eastern and Western religious faiths.
“God only exists in the minds of those who believe” to what extent it’s true.
How does divinity exists in Egyptian beliefs?
The perception of different religions about the end of the world
C0-existence of Hinduism and Islam in India.

Religious Essay Topics

Theology of reality and myth
Theology of love and death
A postmodern take on theology and atheism
Principles and importance of theology and theological methods
Religious effect on rational theology
Are theology and philosophy inseparable from sciences?
Global cultural models in religious systems
How does sociology affect religious systems?
Dynamics of religious systems
How is democracy affected by religious systems?
Religion systems and geographical dependencies
How is the market affected by the religious systems?

Religious Topics for Research Papers

Religions and their everyday rituals
Does religion act as a social glue to keep together communities and nations?
Religion and space: What is believed to be present beyond
Are religion and morality connected or separate?
How is the role of women defined in religions?
Religion and medicine
The importance of sacrifices in different religious practices
How does religion impact family connections?
What is the evolutionary perspective on religion?
How do myths affect the modern society
Religion and the role of symbolism
What role does religion play in forming prejudices?
The role of illusions and magic in religion
How does religion affect adolescents and faith?
Religion and the Age of Enlightenment

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Will religions ever end?
The concept of an afterlife in different religions
How is the economy affected by religion?
Comparison between modern religions and shamanism
How do disconnect spirituality from religion?
Is it possible to follow a single world religion?
Comparing modern psychologists and religious counselors
Should religion get special treatment from the government?
The different perspectives about sex in other religions
The significance of baptism for infants and adults
Different religious methods of converting followers
The manifestation of totems and the world
Is the great flood story found in religions?
How is terrorism affected by religion?

Sociology of Religion Research Topics

How do religion impact war and revolution?
Religion and its effect on marriage
Religion and violence: Are they related?
Are rationality and religion mutually exclusive?
Comparing prayer and meditative techniques
Does religion create more problems than it solves?
Analyzing the connection between religion and Anthropology
Features of a person who applies to become a saint
The different ways to celebrate Christmas
Different methods used by religions to build peace

Christianity Research Paper Topics

Is cloning an acceptable act in Christianity?
The role missionaries played in the early church
Is cloning an act against God?
Analyzing the relation between sociology and religion
Is it right to change religion?
Evaluating the difference between Judaism and Christianity
The role of female preachers in the congregation
How is death perceived in Christianity
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ISRN Psychiatry
v.2012; 2012

Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications

Harold g. koenig.

1 Departments of Medicine and Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, P.O. Box 3400, Durham, NC 27705, USA

2 Department of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21413, Saudi Arabia

This paper provides a concise but comprehensive review of research on religion/spirituality (R/S) and both mental health and physical health. It is based on a systematic review of original data-based quantitative research published in peer-reviewed journals between 1872 and 2010, including a few seminal articles published since 2010. First, I provide a brief historical background to set the stage. Then I review research on R/S and mental health, examining relationships with both positive and negative mental health outcomes, where positive outcomes include well-being, happiness, hope, optimism, and gratefulness, and negative outcomes involve depression, suicide, anxiety, psychosis, substance abuse, delinquency/crime, marital instability, and personality traits (positive and negative). I then explain how and why R/S might influence mental health. Next, I review research on R/S and health behaviors such as physical activity, cigarette smoking, diet, and sexual practices, followed by a review of relationships between R/S and heart disease, hypertension, cerebrovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease and dementia, immune functions, endocrine functions, cancer, overall mortality, physical disability, pain, and somatic symptoms. I then present a theoretical model explaining how R/S might influence physical health. Finally, I discuss what health professionals should do in light of these research findings and make recommendations in this regard.

1. Historical Background and Introduction

Religion, medicine, and healthcare have been related in one way or another in all population groups since the beginning of recorded history [ 1 ]. Only in recent times have these systems of healing been separated, and this separation has occurred largely in highly developed nations; in many developing countries, there is little or no such separation. The history of religion, medicine, and healthcare in developed countries of the West, though, is a fascinating one. The first hospitals in the West for the care of the sick in the general population were built by religious organizations and staffed by religious orders. Throughout the Middle Ages and up through the French Revolution, physicians were often clergy. For hundreds of years, in fact, religious institutions were responsible for licensing physicians to practice medicine. In the American colonies, in particular, many of the clergy were also physicians—often as a second job that helped to supplement their meager income from church work.

Care for those with mental health problems in the West also had its roots within monasteries and religious communities [ 2 ]. In 1247, the Priory of St. Mary of Bethlehem was built in London on the Thames River [ 3 ]. Originally designed to house “distracted people,” this was Europe's (and perhaps the world's) first mental hospital. In 1547, however, St. Mary's was torn down and replaced by Bethlehem or Bethlem Hospital [ 4 ]. Over the years, as secular authorities took control over the institution, the hospital became famous for its inhumane treatment of the mentally ill, who were often chained [ 5 ], dunked in water, or beaten as necessary to control them. In later years, an admission fee (2 pence) was charged to the general public to observe the patients abusing themselves or other patients [ 4 ]. The hospital eventually became known as “bedlam” (from which comes the word used today to indicate a state of confusion and disarray).

In response to the abuses in mental hospitals, and precipitated by the death of a Quaker patient in New York asylum in England, an English merchant and devout Quaker named William Tuke began to promote a new form of treatment of the mentally ill called “moral treatment.” In 1796, he and the Quaker community in England established their own asylum known as the York Retreat [ 6 ]. Not long after this, the Quakers brought moral treatment to America, where it became the dominant form of psychiatric care in that country [ 6 ]. Established in Philadelphia by the Quakers in 1813, “Friends Hospital” (or Friends Asylum) became the first private institution in the United States dedicated solely to the care of those with mental illness [ 7 ]. Psychiatric hospitals that followed in the footsteps of Friends Asylum were the McLean Hospital (established in 1818 in Boston, and now associated with Harvard), the Bloomingdale Asylum (established in 1821 in New York), and the Hartford Retreat (established in 1824 in Connecticut)—all modeled after the York Retreat and implementing moral treatment as the dominant therapy.

It was not until modern times that religion and psychiatry began to part paths. This separation was encouraged by the psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. After being “introduced” to the neurotic and hysterical aspects of religion by the famous French neurologist Jean Charcot in the mid-1880s, Freud began to emphasize this in a widely read series of publications from 1907 through his death in 1939. Included among these were Religious Acts and Obsessive Practices [ 8 ], Psychoanalysis and Religion [ 9 ], Future of an Illusion [ 10 ], and Moses and Monotheism [ 11 ]. These writings left a legacy that would influence the practice of psychiatry—especially psychotherapy—for the rest of the century and lead to a true schism between religion and mental health care. That schism was illustrated in 1993 by a systematic review of the religious content of DSM-III-R, which found nearly one-quarter of all cases of mental illness being described using religious illustrations [ 12 ]. The conflict has continued to the present day. Consider recent e-letters in response to two articles published in The Psychiatrist about this topic [ 13 , 14 ] and an even more recent debate about the role of prayer in psychiatric practice [ 15 ]. This conflict has manifested in the clinical work of many mental health professionals, who have generally ignored the religious resources of patients or viewed them as pathological. Consider that a recent national survey of US psychiatrists found that 56% said they never, rarely, or only sometimes inquire about religious/spiritual issues in patients with depression or anxiety [ 16 ]. Even more concerning, however, is that the conflict has caused psychiatrists to avoid conducting research on religion and mental health. This explains why so little is known about the relationship between religious involvement and severe mental disorders (see Handbook of Religion and Health ) [ 17 ].

Despite the negative views and opinions held by many mental health professionals, research examining religion, spirituality, and health has been rapidly expanding—and most of it is occurring outside the field of psychiatry. This research is being published in journals from a wide range of disciplines, including those in medicine, nursing, physical and occupational therapy, social work, public health, sociology, psychology, religion, spirituality, pastoral care, chaplain, population studies, and even in economics and law journals. Most of these disciplines do not readily communicate with each another, and their journal audiences seldom overlap. The result is a massive research literature that is scattered throughout the medical, social, and behavioral sciences.

To get a sense of how rapidly the research base is growing see Figure 1 . The graphs plot the number of studies published in peer-reviewed journals during every noncumulative 3-year period from 1971 to 2012. Note that about 50% of these articles are reports of original research with quantitative data, whereas the other 50% are qualitative reports, opinion pieces, reviews, or commentaries. Google Scholar presents a more comprehensive picture since it includes studies published in both Medline and non-Medline journals. These graphs suggest that the volume of research on R/S and health has literally exploded since the mid-1990s.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is ISRN.PSYCHIATRY2012-278730.001.jpg

Religion spirituality and health articles published per 3-year period (noncumulative) Search terms: religion, religious, religiosity, religiousness, and spirituality (conducted on 8/11/12; projected to end of 2012).

2. Definitions

Before summarizing the research findings, it is first necessary to provide definitions of the words religion and spirituality that I am using. There is much controversy and disagreement concerning definitions in this field, particularly over the term “spirituality,” and space here does not allow a full discussion of these complex issues. For an in depth discussion, including an exploration of contamination and confounding in the measurement of spirituality, I refer the reader to other sources [ 18 – 20 ]. Here are the definitions we provided in the Handbook .

“[Religion] Involves beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the transcendent , where the transcendent is God, Allah, HaShem, or a Higher Power in Western religious traditions, or to Brahman, manifestations of Brahman, Buddha, Dao, or ultimate truth/reality in Eastern traditions. This often involves the mystical or supernatural. Religions usually have specific beliefs about life after death and rules about conduct within a social group. Religion is a multidimensional construct that includes beliefs, behaviors, rituals, and ceremonies that may be held or practiced in private or public settings, but are in some way derived from established traditions that developed over time within a community. Religion is also an organized system of beliefs, practices, and symbols designed (a) to facilitate closeness to the transcendent, and (b) to foster an understanding of one's relationship and responsibility to others in living together in a community.” [ 21 ].

“Spirituality is distinguished from all other things—humanism, values, morals, and mental health—by its connection to that which is sacred, the transcendent . The transcendent is that which is outside of the self, and yet also within the self—and in Western traditions is called God, Allah, HaShem, or a Higher Power, and in Eastern traditions may be called Brahman, manifestations of Brahman, Buddha, Dao, or ultimate truth/reality. Spirituality is intimately connected to the supernatural, the mystical, and to organized religion, although also extends beyond organized religion (and begins before it). Spirituality includes both a search for the transcendent and the discovery of the transcendent and so involves traveling along the path that leads from nonconsideration to questioning to either staunch nonbelief or belief, and if belief, then ultimately to devotion and finally, surrender. Thus, our definition of spirituality is very similar to religion and there is clearly overlap.” [ 22 ].

For the research review presented here, given the similarity in my definition of these terms and the fact that spirituality in the research has either been measured using questions assessing religion or by items assessing mental health (thereby contaminating the construct and causing tautological results), I will be using religion and spirituality interchangeably (i.e., R/S).

3. Method of the Review

I summarize the research findings between R/S and health first in the area of mental health outcomes, then for health behaviors, and finally for physical health outcomes. The information presented here is based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed original data-based reports published though mid-2010 and summarized in two editions of the Handbook of Religion and Health [ 23 , 24 ]. How these systematic reviews were conducted, however, needs brief explanation. This is particularly true for ratings of study methodology that are used to summarize the findings below.

The systematic review to identify the studies presented in the Handbooks and summarized in this paper was conducted as follows. We utilized a combination of strategies to identify the studies (excluding most reviews or qualitative research). First, we systematically searched online databases (PsycINFO, MEDLINE, etc.) using the search words “religion,” “religiosity,” “religiousness,” and “spirituality” to identify studies on the R/S-health relationship. Second, we asked prominent researchers in the field to alert us to published research they knew about and to send us research that they themselves had conducted. Third, if there were studies cited in the reference lists of the studies located, we tracked down those as well. Using this method, we identified over 1,200 quantitative original data-based publications during the period 1872 to 2000 and 2,100 studies examining the R/S-health relationship from 2000 to 2010. All of these studies are described in the appendices of the two editions of the Handbook. Based on other reviews of the research conducted around this same time period (but more limited), we estimate that our review captured about 75% of the published research. Bear in mind that many, many more qualitative studies have been published on the topic that were not included in this review.

In order to assess the methodological quality of the studies, quality ratings were assigned as follows. Ratings of each of the more than 3,300 studies were made on a scale from 0 (low) to 10 (high) and were performed by a single examiner (HGK) to ensure rating consistency. Scores were determined according to the following eight criteria: study design (clinical trial, prospective cohort, cross-sectional, etc.), sampling method (random, systematic, or convenience), number of R/S measures, quality of measures, quality of mental health outcome measure, contamination between R/S measures and mental health outcomes, inclusion of control variables, and statistical method, based on a scheme adapted from Cooper [ 25 ]. Cooper emphasized the definition of variables, validity and reliability of measures, representativeness of the sample (sample size, sampling method, and response rates), research methods (quality of experimental manipulation and adequacy of control group for clinical trials), how well the execution of the study conformed to the design, appropriateness of statistical tests (power, control variables), and the interpretation of results.

To assess the reliability of the ratings, we compared HGK's ratings on 75 studies with the ratings made by an independent outside reviewer (Andrew Futterman, Ph.D., professor of psychology, College of the Holy Cross, a scientist familiar with the scoring criteria and active in the field of R/S-health research). When we examined correlations between HGK and Futterman's ratings, we found them moderately correlated (Pearson r = 0.57). Since scores of 7 or higher indicated higher quality studies, we also compared the scores between the two raters in terms of lower (0–6) versus higher (7–10) quality. This was done by dichotomizing scores into two categories (0–6 versus 7–10) and comparing the categories between the two examiners. The kappa of agreement ( κ ) between the two raters was 0.49 (where kappas of 0.40 to 0.75 indicate good agreement [ 26 ]). Overall, the raters agreed on whether quality was low or high in 56 of the 75 studies or 75%. I now summarize the results of the systematic review described above.

4. Religion, Spirituality, and Mental Health

Approximately 80% of research on R/S and health involves studies on mental health. One would expect stronger relationships between R/S and mental health since R/S involvement consists of psychological, social, and behavioral aspects that are more “proximally” related to mental health than to physical health. In fact, we would not expect any direct or immediate effects of R/S on physical health, other than indirectly through intermediary psychosocial and behavioral pathways. With regard to mental health, we would expect R/S to boost positive emotions and help neutralize negative emotions, hypothesizing that it serves as both a life-enhancing factor and as a coping resource. With regard to the latter, there is both qualitative and quantitative research suggesting that R/S helps people to deal better with adversity, either external adversity (difficult environmental circumstances) or internal adversity (genetic predisposition or vulnerability to mental disorders).

In the present paper, I have chosen to cite original reports as examples of the most rigorous studies in each area based on ratings in the Handbooks (i.e., 7 or higher on 0–10 scale). Cited here are both positive and negative studies reporting significant relationships. For some topics, such as well-being and depression, there are too many high-quality studies to cite, so only a few examples of the best studies are provided.

4.1. Coping with Adversity

In the first edition of the Handbook [ 27 ], we identified 110 studies published prior to the year 2000 and 344 studies published between 2000 and 2010 for a total of 454 studies. Among these reports are descriptions of how R/S helped people to cope with a wide range of illnesses or in a variety of stressful situations. These include people dealing with general medical illness [ 28 , 29 ], chronic pain [ 30 ], kidney disease [ 31 ], diabetes [ 32 , 33 ], pulmonary disease [ 34 ], cancer [ 35 , 36 ], blood disorders [ 37 ], heart/cardiovascular diseases [ 38 , 39 ], dental [ 40 ] or vision [ 41 ] problems, neurological disorders [ 42 ], HIV/AIDS [ 43 ], systemic lupus erythematosus [ 44 ], irritable bowel syndrome [ 45 ], musculoskeletal disease [ 46 ], caregiver burden [ 47 – 49 ], psychiatric illness [ 50 , 51 ], bereavement [ 52 , 53 ], end-of-life issues [ 54 , 55 ], overall stress [ 56 – 58 ], natural disasters [ 59 , 60 ], war [ 61 , 62 ] or acts of terrorism [ 63 ], and miscellaneous adverse life situations [ 64 – 66 ]. In the overwhelming majority of studies, people reported that R/S was helpful.

4.2. Positive Emotions

Positive emotions include well-being, happiness, hope, optimism, meaning and purpose, high self-esteem, and a sense of control over life. Related to positive emotions are positive psychological traits such as altruism, being kind or compassionate, forgiving, and grateful.

4.2.1. Well-Being/Happiness

By mid-2010, at least 326 quantitative, peer-reviewed studies had examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 256 (79%) found only significant positive associations between R/S and well-being (including eight studies at a statistical trend level, that is, 0.05 < P < 0.10). Only three studies (<1%) reported a significant inverse relationship between R/S and well-being. Of the 120 studies with the highest methodological rigor (7 or higher in quality on the 0–10 scale), 98 (82%) reported positive relationships (including two at a trend level) [ 67 – 77 ] and one study reported a negative relationship (but only at a trend level) [ 78 ].

4.2.2. Hope

At least 40 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and of those, 29 (73%) reported only significant positive relationships with degree of hope; no studies found an inverse relationship. Of the six highest quality studies, half found a positive relationship [ 79 – 81 ].

4.2.3. Optimism

We located 32 studies examining relationships with R/S, and of those, 26 (81%) reported significant positive relationships. Of the 11 best studies, eight (73%) reported significant positive relationships [ 82 – 85 ]. Again, as with hope, no studies reported inverse relationships.

4.2.4. Meaning and Purpose

At least 45 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and 42 (93%) reported significant positive relationships. These studies were often in populations where there was a challenge to having meaning and purpose, such as in people with chronic disabling illness. Of the 10 studies with quality ratings of 7 or higher, all 10 reported significant positive associations [ 86 – 89 ].

4.2.5. Self-Esteem

Critics have claimed that R/S adversely affects self-esteem because it emphasizes humility rather than pride in the self [ 90 ]. Furthermore, R/S could exacerbate guilt in some for not living up to the high standards of conduct prescribed by religious traditions, resulting in low self-esteem. We found 69 studies that examined associations with R/S, and of those, 42 (61%) found greater self-esteem among those who were more R/S and two (3%) reported lower self-esteem. Of the 25 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 17 (68%) reported greater self-esteem [ 91 – 98 ] and two (8%) found worse self-esteem [ 99 , 100 ]. Not surprisingly, these findings are parallel to those of depression below (in the opposite direction, of course).

4.2.6. Sense of Control

Although one might expect R/S to correlate positively with an external locus of control (i.e., the Transcendent controlling events), and some studies confirm this, the majority of research finds a positive correlation with an internal not an external sense of control. Of 21 studies that have examined these relationships, 13 (61%) found that R/S was related to a greater sense of personal control in challenging life circumstances. Of the nine best studies, four reported significant positive relationships (44%) [ 101 – 104 ] and three report significant negative relationships (33%) [ 105 – 107 ], whereas the two remaining studies reported complex or mixed results (significant positive and negative associations, depending on R/S characteristic). R/S beliefs may provide an indirect sense of control over stressful situations; by believing that God is in control and that prayer to God can change things, the person feels a greater sense of internal control (rather than having to depend on external agents of control, such as powerful other people).

4.2.7. Positive Character Traits

With regard to character traits, the findings are similar to those with positive emotions. With regard to altruism or frequency of volunteering, 47 studies have examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 33 (70%) reported significant associations, whereas five (11%) found less altruism among the more R/S; of the 20 best studies, 15 (75%) reported positive relationships [ 108 – 113 ] and two (10%) found negative associations [ 114 , 115 ] (both concerning organ donations, which some religions prohibit). With regard to forgiveness, 40 studies have examined correlations with R/S, and 34 (85%) reported significant positive relationships and no studies found negative associations. Among the 10 highest quality studies, seven (70%) reported greater forgiveness among the more R/S [ 116 – 119 ], a finding that recent research has supported [ 120 ]. Regarding gratefulness, five of five studies found positive associations with R/S [ 121 , 122 ], and with regard to kindness/compassion, three of three studies reported significant positive relationship with R/S [ 123 ]. Admittedly, all of the studies measuring character traits above depend on self-report.

4.3. Depression

As with self-esteem, mental health professionals have argued that R/S might increase guilt by focusing on sin and could thus lead to depression. Again, however, this has not been found in the majority of studies. Given the importance of depression, its wide prevalence in the population, and the dysfunction that it causes (both mental and physical), I describe the research findings in a bit more detail. Overall, at least 444 studies have now examined relationships between R/S and depression, dating back to the early 1960s. Of those, 272 (61%) reported significant inverse relationships with depression (including nine studies at a trend level), and 28 (6%) found relationships between R/S and greater depression (including two studies at a trend level). Of the 178 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 119 (67%) reported inverse relationships [ 124 – 135 ] and 13 (7%) found positive relationships with depression [ 136 – 148 ].

Of 70 prospective cohort studies, 39 (56%) reported that greater R/S predicted lower levels of depression or faster remission of depression, whereas seven (10%) predicted worse future depression and seven (10%) reported mixed results (both significant positive and negative associations depending on R/S characteristic). Of 30 clinical trials, 19 (63%) found that R/S interventions produced better outcomes than either standard treatment or control groups. Two studies (7%) found standard treatments were superior to R/S interventions [ 149 , 150 ] and one study reported mixed results.

Note that an independent review of this literature published in 2003 found that of 147 studies involving 98,975 subjects, the average correlation between R/S and depression was −0.10. Although this is a small correlation, it translates into the same effect size that gender has on depressive symptoms (with the rate of depression being nearly twice as common in women compared to men). Also, the average correlation reported in the 2003 review was 50% stronger in stressed versus nonstressed populations [ 151 ].

A widely renowned psychiatric epidemiology group at Columbia University, led by Lisa Miller and Myrna Weissman, has come out with a series of recent reports on R/S and depression studying a cohort of low- and high-risk children born to parents with and without depressive disorder. The findings from this cohort support an inverse link between R/S and depression, particularly in high-risk individuals [ 152 – 154 ].

4.4. Suicide

Correlations between R/S and suicide attempt, completed suicide, and attitudes toward suicide are consistent with those found for depression, self-esteem, and hope. Those who are depressed, without hope, and with low self-esteem are at greater risk for committing suicide. At least 141 studies have now examined relationships between R/S and the suicide variables above. Of those, 106 (75%) reported inverse relationships and four (3%) found positive relationships. With regard to the 49 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 39 (80%) reported less suicide, fewer suicide attempts, or more negative attitudes toward suicide among the more R/S [ 155 – 170 ] and two (4%) found positive relationships (one study in Delhi, India [ 171 ], and one in college students distressed over R/S concerns [ 172 ]).

4.5. Anxiety

Anxiety and fear often drive people toward religion as a way to cope with the anxiety. Alternatively, R/S may increase anxiety/fear by its threats of punishment for evil deeds and damnation in the next life. There is an old saying that emphasizes this dual role: religion comforts the afflicted and afflicts the comforted. Sorting out cause and effect here is particularly difficult given the few prospective cohort studies that have examined this relationship over time. However, a number of clinical trials have also examined the effects of R/S interventions on anxiety levels. Overall, at least 299 studies have examined this relationship, and of those, 147 (49%) reported inverse association with R/S (three at a trend level), whereas 33 (11%) reported greater anxiety in those who were more R/S. Of the latter, however, only one was a prospective study, one was a randomized clinical trial, and 31 (94%) were cross-sectional studies (where it was not clear whether R/S caused anxiety or whether anxiety increased R/S as a coping response to the anxiety). Of the 67 studies with quality ratings of seven or higher, 38 (55%) reported inverse relationships [ 173 – 182 ] and seven (10%) found positive relationships (greater anxiety among the more R/S) [ 183 – 189 ].

Among these 299 studies were 239 cross-sectional studies, 19 prospective cohort studies, 9 single-group experimental studies, and 32 randomized clinical trials. Of the 19 longitudinal studies, 9 (47%) reported that R/S predicted a lower level of anxiety over time; one study (5%) found an increase in anxiety (among women undergoing abortion for fetal anomaly) [ 189 ], seven reported no association, and two reported mixed or complex results. Of the nine experimental studies, seven (78%) found a reduction in anxiety following an R/S intervention (before versus after comparison). Of the 32 randomized clinical trials, 22 (69%) reported that an R/S intervention reduced anxiety more than a standard intervention or control condition, whereas one study (3%) found an increase in anxiety following an R/S intervention in persons with severe alcohol dependence [ 190 ].

4.6. Psychotic Disorder/Schizophrenia

We identified 43 studies that have examined relationships between R/S and chronic psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Of the 43 studies examining psychosis, 14 (33%) reported inverse relationships between R/S and psychotic symptoms (one at a trend level), 10 (23%) found a positive relationship between R/S and psychotic symptoms (one at a trend level), eight reported mixed results (significant negative and positive associations, depending on the R/S characteristic measured), and one study reported complex results. Of these studies, seven had quality ratings of seven or higher; of those, two found inverse relationships, two found positive relationship, two reported mixed results (negative and positive), and one found no association. Note that the two studies finding inverse relationships between R/S and psychosis were both prospective studies [ 191 – 193 ], finding that R/S predicted better outcomes in subjects with psychotic disorders or symptoms. Of the two studies reporting positive relationships (both cross-sectional), one study found that importance of religion was significantly and positively associated with religious delusions [ 194 ] (not surprising), and the other study found that importance of religion was associated with “psychotic-like” symptoms in a national sample of Mexican Americans [ 195 ]; since the latter study involved participants who were not mentally ill, religion-related cultural factors may have influenced this finding. For a recent and more comprehensive discussion of R/S, schizophrenia, other chronic psychotic disorders, and the challenges distinguishing psychotic symptoms from religious beliefs, the reader is referred elsewhere [ 196 ].

4.7. Bipolar Disorder

Despite it's importance and wide prevalence, we could locate only four studies examining the relationship between R/S and bipolar (BP) disorder. Two found a positive association between R/S and bipolar disorder, and the remaining two reported mixed findings (both positive and negative correlations, depending on R/S characteristic). Of the two studies with high-quality ratings, one found a positive association and the other reported mixed findings. The first study of 334 US veterans with BP disorder found that a higher frequency of prayer or meditation was associated with mixed states and a lower likelihood of euthymia, although no association was found between any religious variable and depression or mania [ 197 ]. A second study examined a random national sample of 37,000 Canadians and found that those who attributed greater importance to higher spiritual values were more likely to have BP disorder, whereas higher frequency of religious attendance was associated with a lower risk of disorder [ 198 ]. In a qualitative study of 35 adults with bipolar disorder (not included in the review above), one of the six themes that participants emphasized when discussing their quality of life was the spiritual dimension. Over one-third of participants in that study talked about the relationship between BP disorder and R/S, emphasizing struggles to disentangle genuine spiritual experiences from the hyperreligiosity of the disorder. In another report, a case of mania precipitated by Eastern meditation was discussed; also included in this article was a review of nine other published cases of psychosis occurring in the setting of meditation [ 199 ].

4.8. Personality Traits

Personality traits most commonly measured today in psychology are the Big Five: extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. These are assessed by the NEO Personality Inventory [ 200 ]. Another personality inventory commonly used in the United Kingdom is the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, which assesses extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism [ 201 ]. Relationships between personality traits and R/S using these measures have been examined in many studies [ 202 ]. With regard to psychoticism (a trait that assesses risk taking or lack of responsibility, rather than psychotic symptoms), 19 studies have examined its relationship to R/S, with 84% of those reporting significant inverse relationships (and no studies reporting a positive relationship). There have been at least 54 quantitative studies examined relationships between R/S and neuroticism, of which 24% found an inverse relationship and 9% reported a positive relationship (most of the remaining found no association). Concerning extraversion, there have been 50 studies, with 38% reporting a positive relationship with R/S and 6% reporting an inverse or negative relationship. With regard to conscientiousness, there have been 30 studies, of which the majority (63%) reported significant positive relationships with R/S and only 3% found significant inverse relationships. For agreeableness, 30 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and 87% of these studies reported positive relationships (no studies report inverse relationships). Finally, there have been 26 studies examining openness to experience, and of those, 42% found positive relationships with R/S and 12% reported negative relationships. Thus, R/S persons tend to score lower on psychoticism and neuroticism, and higher on extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. They score especially low on psychoticism and especially high on agreeableness and conscientiousness. These personality traits have physical health consequences that we are only beginning to recognize [ 203 – 205 ].

4.9. Substance Abuse

If R/S influences one domain of mental health, it is in the area of substance abuse. With regard to alcohol use, abuse, and dependence, at least 278 studies have now examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 240 (86%) reported inverse relationships and only 4 studies (1%) indicated a positive relationship. Of the 145 studies with the best methodology, 131 (90%) reported inverse relationships [ 206 – 221 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 222 ]. Findings are similar with regard to drug use or abuse. We located 185 studies, of which 84% reported inverse relationship with R/S and only two studies (1%) found positive relationships. Of the 112 best studies, 96 (86%) reported inverse relationships [ 223 – 238 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 239 ]. The vast majority of these studies are in young persons attending high school or college, a time when they are just starting to establish substance use habits (which for some will interfere with their education, future jobs, family life, and health). Thus, the protective effects of R/S on substance abuse may have influences on health across the lifespan.

4.10. Social Problems

Here I examine research in two areas of social instability (delinquency/crime and marital instability) and two areas of social stability (social support and social capital). Given the emphasis that most major world religions place on human relationships, love, and compassion, one might expect that some of the strongest relationships with R/S would be found here, and they are indeed.

4.10.1. Delinquency/Crime

At least 104 studies have examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 82 (79%) reported significant inverse relationships (five at a trend level), whereas three (3%) found positive relationships with more delinquency/crime. Of the 60 studies with quality ratings of 7 or higher, 49 (82%) reported inverse relationships [ 240 – 252 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 253 ]. Of particular interest are the 10 studies examining relationships between R/S and school grades/performance in adolescents and college students between 2000 and 2009, of which all 10 (100%) found that more R/S youth did better than less religious youth [ 254 ].

4.10.2. Marital Instability

We identified 79 studies that examined relationships with marital instability. Of those, 68 (86%) found R/S related to greater marital stability and no studies reported an association with greater marital instability. Of the 38 methodologically most rigorous studies, 35 (92%) reported significant relationships between R/S and greater marital stability [ 255 – 265 ]. An independent meta-analysis reviewing research conducted before the year 2000 likewise concluded that greater religiousness decreased the risk of divorce and facilitated marital functioning and parenting [ 266 ].

4.10.3. Social Support

There is substantial evidence indicating a relationship between R/S and social support. Of 74 quantitative peer-reviewed studies of R/S and social support, 61 (82%) found significant positive relationships, and none found inverse relationships. Of the 29 best studies, 27 (93%) reported significant positive relationships [ 82 , 267 – 274 ]. For older adults in particular, the most common source of social support outside of family members comes from members of religious organizations [ 275 , 276 ].

4.10.4. Social Capital

Social capital, an indirect measure of community health, is usually assessed by level of community participation, volunteerism, trust, reciprocity between people in the community, and membership in community-based, civic, political, or social justice organizations. Research has examined relationships between R/S and social capital. We located a total of 14 studies, with 11 (79%) finding significant positive relationships between R/S and level of social capital, and none reporting only inverse relationships. Almost all of these studies were of high quality, and of the 13 studies with ratings of seven or higher, 10 (77%) found that R/S was related to greater social capital [ 277 – 280 ].

5. Explaining the Relationship: R/S and Mental Health

R/S influences mental health through many different mechanisms, although the following are probably the predominant ones (see Figure 2 ). First, religion provides resources for coping with stress that may increase the frequency of positive emotions and reduce the likelihood that stress will result in emotional disorders such as depression, anxiety disorder, suicide, and substance abuse. Religious coping resources include powerful cognitions (strongly held beliefs) that give meaning to difficult life circumstances and provide a sense of purpose. Religions provide an optimistic worldview that may involve the existence of a personal transcendental force (God, Allah, Jehovah, etc.) that loves and cares about humans and is responsive to their needs. These cognitions also give a subjective sense of control over events (i.e., if God is in control, can influence circumstances, and be influenced by prayer, then prayer by the individual may positively influence the situation). Religious beliefs provide satisfying answers to existential questions, such as “where did we come from,” “why are we here,” and “where are we going,” and the answers apply to both this life and the next life, thus reducing existential angst. These beliefs also help to normalize loss and change and provide role models of persons suffering with the same or similar problems (often illustrated in religious scriptures). Thus, religious beliefs have the potential to influence the cognitive appraisal of negative life events in a way that makes them less distressing. For people with medical illness, these beliefs are particularly useful because they are not lost or impaired with physical disability—unlike many other coping resources that are dependent on health (hobbies, relationships, and jobs/finances).

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Theoretical model of causal pathways for mental health (MH), based on Western monotheistic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). (Permission to reprint obtained. Original source: Koenig et al. [ 17 ]). For models based on Eastern religious traditions and the Secular Humanist tradition, see elsewhere. (Koenig et al. [ 24 ]).

Second, most religions have rules and regulations (doctrines) about how to live life and how to treat others within a social group. When individuals abide by those rules and regulations, this reduces the likelihood of stressful life events that reduce positive emotions and increased negative ones. Examples of stressful life events that religion may help people avoid are divorce or separation, difficulties with children, financial stress resulting from unfair practices in the marketplace, incarceration for lawbreaking (cheating or crime), and venereal diseases from risky sexual practices. Religions also usually discourage the use of drugs and excessive amounts of alcohol that increases the risk of engaging in the behaviors above (crime, risky sex) that are associated with negative mental health consequences.

Third, most religions emphasize love of others, compassion, and altruistic acts as well as encourage meeting together during religious social events. These prosocial behaviors have many consequences that buffer stress and lead to human support when support is needed during difficult times. Because religion encourages the helping of others and emphasizes a focus outside of the self, engagement in other-helping activities may increase positive emotions and serve to distract from one's own problems. Religion also promotes human virtues such as honesty, forgiveness, gratefulness, patience, and dependability, which help to maintain and enhance social relationships. The practice of these human virtues may also directly increase positive emotions and neutralize negative ones.

Thus, there are many possible mechanisms by which R/S may enhance mental and social health. This is not to say that R/S always does so. Religion may also be used to justify hatred, aggression, prejudice, and the exclusion of others; gain power and control over vulnerable individuals (as seen in cults); foster rigid thinking and obsessive practices; lead to anxiety, fear, and excessive guilt over minor infractions (and even self-mutilation in some cases); produce psychosocial strains due to failure to live up to high religious standards; lead to escape from dealing with family problems (through excessive involvement in religious or spiritual activities); and delay diagnosis and effective mental health care (due to antagonistic relationships with mental health professionals). While R/S is not a panacea, on the balance, it is generally associated with greater well-being, improved coping with stress, and better mental health. This relationship with mental health has physical health consequences (see Section 7 below).

6. Religion, Spirituality, and Health Behaviors

Religious doctrines influence decisions about health and health behaviors. In the Judeo-Christian scriptures, for example, there is an emphasis on caring for the physical body as a “Temple of the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Corinthian 6:19-20) [ 281 ]. Religious scriptures in other faith traditions also emphasize the person's responsibility to care for and nourish their physical body [ 282 – 284 ]. Behaviors that have the potential to harm the body are usually discouraged. This is reflected in teachings from the pulpit and influences what is considered appropriate within religious social groups. In summarizing the research on R/S and health behaviors, I cite only a few of the studies with high-quality ratings since there are so many.

6.1. Cigarette Smoking

The influence of R/S is most evident in it's “effects” on cigarette smoking. At least 137 studies have examined relationship between R/S and smoking, and of those, 123 (90%) reported statistically significant inverse relationships (including three at a trend level) and no studies found either a significant or even a trend association in the other direction. Of the 83 methodologically most rigorous studies, 75 (90%) reported inverse relationships with R/S involvement [ 213 , 285 – 294 ]. Not surprisingly, the physical health consequences of not smoking are enormous. Decreased cigarette smoking will mean a reduction in chronic lung disease, lung cancer, all cancers (30% being related to smoking), coronary artery disease, hypertension, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases.

6.2. Exercise

Level of exercise and physical activity also appears linked to R/S. We located 37 studies that examined this relationship. Of those, 25 (68%) reported significant positive relationships (two at a trend level) between R/S involvement and greater exercise or physical activity, whereas six (16%) found significant inverse relationships. Of 21 studies with the highest quality ratings, 16 (76%) reported positive associations [ 82 , 295 – 300 ] and two (10%) found negative associations [ 296 , 301 ].

Writers in the popular press have encouraged the combining of R/S activity and exercise through “prayer walking” [ 302 , 303 ] and “walking meditation.” [ 304 ].

At least 21 studies have examined relationships between R/S and a healthy diet. A healthy diet here involves increased intake of fiber, green vegetables, fruit, and fish; low intake of snacks, processed foods, and fat; regular vitamin intake; frequent eating of breakfast; overall better nutrition (following recommended nutritional guidelines). Of those studies, 13 (62%) found a significant positive association between R/S and a healthier diet (one at a trend level) and one found a worse diet [ 305 ]. Among the 10 studies with the highest quality ratings, seven (70%) reported a better diet among those who were more R/S [ 213 , 306 – 310 ]. In addition, we identified 23 studies that examined relationships between R/S and blood cholesterol levels. Of those, more than half (12 studies) found significantly lower cholesterol among those who were more R/S, whereas three studies (13%) reported significantly higher cholesterol levels. Of the nine best studies, five (56%) reported lower cholesterol [ 311 – 313 ] or a lowering of cholesterol in response to a R/S intervention [ 314 , 315 ], whereas one found higher cholesterol (but only in Mexican American men) [ 316 ].

6.4. Weight

Although R/S people tend to eat a healthier diet, they also eat more of it. This, then, is the one health behavior that places R/S individuals at greater risk for medical illness. At least 36 studies have examined the associations between weight (or body mass index) and R/S involvement. Of those, 14 (39%) found a positive relationship (R/S associated with greater weight), whereas only seven (19%) reported an inverse relationship. The situation does not improve when results from the most rigorously designed studies are examined. Among the 25 studies with the highest quality ratings, 11 (44%) reported greater weight among the more R/S [ 82 , 317 – 322 ] and five (20%) found lower weight (or less underweight [ 323 ]). Lower weight among the more R/S appears only in a few religious groups (Amish [ 324 ], Jews [ 325 ], and Buddhists [ 326 ]), in those with certain demographic characteristics (white, older, and high education) [ 327 ], and in response to a specific R/S intervention [ 328 ] or practice [ 314 , 329 ]. Faith-based weight-reduction programs in religious communities have been shown to be effective [ 328 , 330 , 331 ].

6.5. Sexual Behavior

We identified 95 studies that examined relationships between R/S and risky sexual activity (sex outside of marriage, multiple partners, etc.). Of those, 82 studies (86%) found significant inverse relationships with R/S (one at a trend level) and only one study (1%) found a significant relationship with more risky sexual activity [ 332 ]. Of the 50 highest quality studies, 42 (84%) reported inverse relationships [ 333 – 343 ] and none found a positive one. If those who are more R/S engage in less risky sexual behavior, this means they should have fewer venereal diseases, that is, less syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes, chancroid, chlamydia, viral hepatitis, and human papillomavirus and human immunodeficiency virus, many of which have serious physical health consequences.

7. Religion, Spirituality, and Physical Health

There is rapidly growing evidence that stress and negative emotions (depression, anxiety) have (1) adverse effects on physiological systems vital for maintenance of physical health and healing [ 344 – 346 ], (2) increase susceptibility to or worse outcomes from a wide range of physical illnesses [ 347 – 351 ], and (3) may shorten the lifespan prematurely [ 352 , 353 ]. Social support, in turn, has long been known to protect against disease and increase longevity [ 354 – 356 ]. By reducing stress and negative emotions, increasing social support, and positively affecting health behaviors, R/S involvement should have a favorable impact on a host of physical diseases and the response of those diseases to treatment. As in the earlier sections, I cite high-quality studies as examples. Since there are fewer high-quality studies for physical health than for mental health or for health behaviors, I cite all of the studies with ratings of seven or higher.

7.1. Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

Given the strong connections between psychosocial stressors, health behaviors, and CHD, it is not surprising that there is a link with R/S. Our review uncovered 19 studies that examined associations between R/S and CHD. Of those, 12 (63%) reported a significant inverse relationship, and one study reported a positive relationship. Of the 13 studies with the most rigorous methodology, nine (69%) found inverse relationships with CHD [ 357 – 365 ] and one found a positive one [ 366 ]. In addition, there have been at least 16 studies examining relationships between R/S and cardiovascular reactivity, heart rate variability, outcomes following cardiac surgery, and other cardiovascular functions. Of those, 11 studies (69%) reported that R/S was significantly related to positive cardiovascular functions or outcomes [ 367 – 374 ] or to lower levels of inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein [ 375 – 377 ] and fibrinogen [ 378 ] that place individuals at high risk for cardiovascular disease.

7.2. Hypertension

The word “hypertension” itself suggests a relationship with stress or tension, and high blood pressure has been linked to greater psychosocial stress [ 379 – 381 ]. At least 63 studies have examined the relationship between R/S and blood pressure (BP), of which 36 (57%) reported significantly lower BP in those who are more R/S (five at a trend level) and seven (11%) reported significantly higher BP (one at a trend level). Of the 39 highest quality studies, 24 (62%) report lower BP (including one at a trend level) among those who are more R/S [ 382 – 394 ] or in response to an R/S intervention [ 328 , 395 – 404 ] (including a study whose results were reported twice, once for the overall sample and once for the sample stratified by race).

Two lower quality studies [ 405 , 406 ] and five well-done studies [ 407 – 411 ] (13%, including one at a trend level), however, reported higher BP in the more R/S or with religious fasting. The reason for an association between R/S and higher BP is not entirely clear. Perhaps, in certain population subgroups, intrapsychic religious conflict between psychosexual drives and religious standards creates unconscious stress that elevates BP. However, there is another possibility. This may be related to confounding by ethnicity. Three of the five studies reporting increased BP with increased R/S included in their samples a large proportion of ethnic minorities (samples from large urban settings such as Detroit and Chicago, made up of 36% to 100% African Americans). Since African Americans are more likely to have high BP (40% with hypertension) [ 412 ] and because African Americans are also the most religious ethnic group in society [ 413 ], it may be that controlling for race in these analyses is simply not sufficient to overcome this powerful confound.

7.3. Cerebrovascular Disease

Relationships between R/S, hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases or disease risk factors ought to translate into a lower risk of stroke. We located nine studies that examined this relationship, of which four reported a lower risk of stroke, all having quality ratings of seven or higher [ 414 – 417 ].

One study, however, reported significantly more carotid artery thickening, placing R/S individuals at higher risk for stroke [ 418 ]. Again, however, 30% of that sample was African American an ethnic group, known to be both highly religious and at high risk for stroke.

7.4. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia

Physiological changes that occur with stress and depression (elevated blood cortisol, in particular) are known to adversely affect the parts of the brain responsible for memory [ 419 – 421 ]. The experience of negative emotions may be like pouring hydrochloric acid on the brain's memory cells [ 422 ]. By reducing stress and depression through more effective coping, R/S may produce a physiological environment that has favorable effects on cognitive functioning. Furthermore, R/S involvement may also engage higher cortical functions involved in abstract thinking (concerning moral values or ideas about the transcendent) that serve to “exercise” brain areas necessary for retention of memories. Regardless of the mechanism, at least 21 studies have examined relationships between R/S involvement and cognitive function in both healthy persons and individuals with dementia. Of those, 10 (48%) reported significant positive relationships between R/S and better cognitive functioning and three (14%) found significant negative relationships. Of the 14 studies with the highest quality ratings, eight (57%) reported positive relationships [ 423 – 430 ] and three (21%) reported negative relationships with cognitive function [ 431 – 433 ]. Studies finding negative relationships between R/S and cognitive function may be due to the fact that R/S persons have longer lifespans (see below), increasing the likelihood that they will live to older ages when cognition tends to decline. More recent research supports a positive link between R/S and better cognitive function in both dementia and in old age [ 434 , 435 ].

7.5. Immune Function

Intact immune function is critical for health maintenance and disease prevention and is assessed by indicators of cellular immunity, humoral immunity, and levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. We identified 27 studies on relationships between R/S and immune functions, of which 15 (56%) found positive relationships or positive effects in response to a R/S intervention, and one (4%) found a negative effect [ 436 ]. Of the 14 studies with the highest quality ratings, 10 (71%) reported significant positive associations [ 437 – 443 ] or increased immune functions in response to a R/S intervention [ 444 – 447 ]. No high-quality study found only an inverse association or negative effect, although one study reported mixed findings [ 448 ]. In that study, religious attendance was related to significantly poorer cutaneous response to antigens; however, it was also related (at a trend level) to higher total lymphocyte count, total T-cell count, and helper T-cell count. In addition, importance of religious or spiritual expression was related to significantly higher white blood cell count, total lymphocyte count, total T cells, and cytotoxic T cell activity.

There have also been a number of studies examining R/S and susceptibility to infection (or viral load in those with HIV), which could be considered an indirect measure of immune function. We identified 12 such studies, of which eight (67%) reported significantly lower infection rates or lower viral loads in those who were more R/S (including one at a trend level); none found greater susceptibility to infection or greater viral load. Ten of the 12 studies had quality ratings of 7 or higher; of those, seven (70%) reported significant inverse associations with infection/viral load [ 440 , 441 , 449 – 454 ].

7.6. Endocrine Function

Because stress hormones (cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) have a known influence on immune (and cardiovascular) functions, they are important factors on the pathway between R/S involvement and health [ 455 , 456 ]. We identified 31 studies that examined R/S and associations with or effects on endocrine functions. Of those, 23 (74%) reported positive relationships or positive effects and no studies reported negative associations or negative effects. Of the 13 methodologically most rigorous studies, nine (69%) reported positive associations with R/S [ 457 – 461 ] or positive effects of an R/S intervention (all involving Eastern meditation) [ 462 – 465 ]. We (at Duke) are currently examining the effects of religious cognitive-behavioral therapy on a host of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, cortisol, and catecholamines in patients with major depressive disorder, although results will not be available until 2014 [ 466 ].

7.7. Cancer

At least 29 studies have examined relationships between R/S and either the onset or the outcome of cancer (including cancer mortality). Of those, 16 (55%) found that those who are more R/S had a lower risk of developing cancer or a better prognosis, although two (7%) reported a significantly worse prognosis [ 467 , 468 ]. Of the 20 methodologically most rigorous studies, 12 (60%) found an association between R/S and lower risk or better outcomes [ 469 – 480 ], and none reported worse risk or outcomes. The results from some of these studies can be partially explained by better health behaviors (less cigarette smoking, alcohol abuse, etc.), but not all. Effects not explained by better health behaviors could be explained by lower stress levels and higher social support in those who are more R/S. Although cancer is not thought to be as sensitive as cardiovascular disorders to psychosocial stressors, psychosocial influences on cancer incidence and outcome are present (discussions over this are ongoing [ 481 , 482 ]).

7.8. Physical Functioning

Ability to function physically, that is, performing basic and instrumental activities of daily living such as toileting, bathing, shopping, and using a telephone, is a necessary factor for independent living. Persons who are depressed, unmotivated, or without hope are less likely to make attempts to maintain their physical functioning, particularly after experiencing a stroke or a fall that forces them into a rehabilitation program to regain or compensate for their losses. Several studies have examined the role that R/S plays in helping people to maintain physical functioning as they grow older or regain functioning after an illness. We identified 61 quantitative studies that examined relationships between R/S and disability level or level of functioning. Of those, 22 (36%) reported better physical functioning among those who were more R/S, 14 (23%) found worse physical functioning, and six studies reported mixed findings. Considering the 33 highest quality studies, 13 (39%) reported significantly better physical functioning among those who were more R/S (including one study at a trend level) [ 483 – 495 ], six (18%) found worse functioning [ 496 – 501 ], and five studies (15%) reported mixed results [ 82 , 124 , 502 – 504 ] (significant positive and negative associations, depending on R/S characteristic). Almost all of these studies involve self-reported disability and many were cross-sectional, making it impossible to determine order of causation—that is, (1) does R/S prevent the development of disability, (2) does disability prevent R/S activity, (3) does R/S promote disability, or (4) does disability cause people to turn to religion to cope with disability.

7.9. Self-Rated Health

There is more agreement across studies regarding the relationship between R/S and self-rated health (SRH) than between R/S and physical functioning. While based on participants' subjective impression, self-rated health is strongly related to objective health, that is, future health, health services use, and mortality [ 505 – 507 ]. Might R/S, perhaps because it is related to greater optimism and hope, influence one's self-perceptions of health in a positive way? At least 50 studies have now examined the relationship between R/S and self-rated health. Of those, 29 (58%) reported that R/S was related to better SRH, while five (10%) found that it was related to worse SRH. Of the 37 methodologically most rigorous studies, 21 (57%) reported significant positive relationships between R/S and SRH [ 503 , 508 – 527 ], whereas three (8%) found the opposite [ 528 – 530 ].

7.10. Pain and Somatic Symptoms

On the one hand, pain and other distressing somatic symptoms can motivate people to seek solace in religion through activities such as prayer or Scripture study. Thus, R/S is often turned to in order to cope with such symptoms. For example, in an early study of 382 adults with musculoskeletal complains, R/S coping was the most common strategy for dealing with pain and was considered the second most helpful in a long list of coping behaviors [ 531 ]. More recent research supports this earlier report [ 532 ]. On the other hand, R/S may somehow cause an increase in pain and somatic symptoms, perhaps by increasing concentration on negative symptoms or through the physical manifestations of hysteria, as claimed by Charcot in his copious writings around the turn of the 20th century [ 533 ].

We identified 56 studies that examined relationships between R/S and pain. Of those, 22 (39%) reported inverse relationships between R/S and pain or found benefits from an R/S intervention, whereas 14 (25%) indicated a positive relationship between R/S and greater pain levels (13 of 14 being cross-sectional). Of the 18 best studies, nine (50%) reported inverse relationships (less pain among the more R/S [ 534 ] or reduced pain in response to a R/S intervention [ 535 – 542 ]), while three (20%) reported positive relationships (worse pain in the more R/S) [ 543 – 545 ]. Research suggests that meditation is particularly effective in reducing pain, although the effects are magnified when a religious word is used to focus attention [ 546 , 547 ]. No clinical trials, to my knowledge, have shown that meditation or other R/S interventions increase pain or somatic symptoms.

7.11. Mortality

The most impressive research on the relationship between R/S and physical health is in the area of mortality. The cumulative effect of R/S, if it has any benefits to physical health, ought to reveal itself in an effect on mortality. The research suggests it does. At least 121 studies have examined relationships between R/S and mortality. Most of these are prospective cohort studies, where baseline R/S is assessed as a predictor of mortality during the observation period, controlling for confounders. Of those studies, 82 (68%) found that greater R/S predicted significantly greater longevity (three at a trend level), whereas six studies (5%) reported shorter longevity. Considering the 63 methodologically most rigorous studies (quality ratings of 8 or higher), 47 (75%) found R/S predicting greater longevity (two at trend level) [ 548 – 566 ], whereas three (5%) reported shorter longevity [ 567 – 569 ]. Another systematic review [ 570 ] and two meta-analyses [ 571 , 572 ] have confirmed this relationship between R/S and longer survival. The effects have been particularly strong for frequency of attendance at religious services in these three reviews. Survival among frequent attendees was increased on average by 37%, 43%, and 30% (mean effect being 37% across these reviews). An increased survival of 37% is highly significant and equivalent to the effects of cholesterol lowering drugs or exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction on survival [ 573 ].

8. Explaining the Relationship: R/S and Physical Health

How might R/S involvement influence physical health and longevity? There are at least three basic pathways: psychological, social, and behavioral (see Figure 3 ).

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Theoretical model of causal pathways to physical health for Western monotheistic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism). (Permission to reprint obtained. Original source: Koenig et al. [ 17 ]). For models based on Eastern religious traditions and the Secular Humanist tradition, see elsewhere (Koenig et al. [ 24 ]).

8.1. Psychological

As noted above, there is ample evidence that R/S—because it facilitates coping and imbues negative events with meaning and purpose—is related to better mental health (less depression, lower stress, less anxiety, greater well-being, and more positive emotions). Furthermore, several randomized clinical trials have shown that R/S interventions improve mental health (at least in those who are R/S). There is also much evidence that poor mental health has adverse physiological consequences that worsen physical health and shorten the lifespan (see earlier references). Thus, it stands to reason that R/S might influence physical health through psychological pathways.

8.2. Social

R/S involvement is associated with greater social support, greater marital stability, less crime/delinquency, and greater social capital. R/S beliefs and doctrines encourage the development of human virtues such as honesty, courage, dependability, altruism, generosity, forgiveness, self-discipline, patience, humility, and other characteristics that promote social relationships. Participation in a R/S community not only provides supportive social connections and opportunities for altruism (through volunteering or other faith-based altruistic activities), but also increases the flow of health information that may increase disease screening and promote health maintenance. Social factors, in turn, are known to influence both mental health and physical health and predict greater longevity [ 574 – 576 ]. Again, if R/S boosts supportive social interactions and increases community trust and involvement, then it should ultimately influence physical health as well.

8.3. Health Behaviors

Finally, R/S promotes better health behaviors, and is associated with less alcohol and drug use, less cigarette smoking, more physical activity and exercise, better diet, and safer sexual practices in the overwhelming majority of studies that have examined these relationships. Living a healthier lifestyle will result in better physical health and greater longevity. Consider the following report that appeared on CNN (Cable Network News). On January 3, 2009, after the death of the Guinness Book of World Records' oldest person, Maria de Jesus age 115, next in line was Gertrude Baines from Los Angeles. Born to slaves near Atlanta in 1894, she was described at 114 years old as “spry,” “cheerful,” and “talkative.” When she was 112 years old, Ms. Baines was asked by a CNN correspondent to explain why she thought she had lived so long. Her reply: “God. Ask Him. I took good care of myself, the way he wanted me to.” Brief and to the point.

8.4. Other Pathways

There are many ways by which R/S could have a positive influence on physical health, although the pathways above are probably the major ones. Genetic and developmental factors could also play a role in explaining these associations. There is some evidence that personality or temperament (which has genetic roots) influences whether or not a person becomes R/S. To what extent R/S persons are simply born healthier, however, is quite controversial. Note that more R/S persons are typically those with the least resources (minority groups, the poor, and the uneducated), both in terms of finances and access to healthcare resources. Karl Marx said that religion is the “opiate of the masses.” Rather than being born healthier, then, the opposite is more likely to be true for R/S persons. R/S could actually be viewed as acting counter to an evolutionary force that is trying to weed genetically vulnerable people from the population. R/S involvement is providing the weak with a powerful belief system and a supportive community that enables them to survive. For a more complete discussion of the role of genetic factors in the R/S-physical health relationship, see the Handbook [ 577 ].

Another important point needs to be made. Nowhere do I claim that supernatural mechanisms are responsible for the relationship between R/S and health. The pathways by which R/S influences physical health that researchers can study using the natural methods of science must be those that exist within nature—that is, psychological, social, behavioral, and genetic influences. Thus, this research says nothing about the existence of supernatural or transcendent forces (which is a matter of faith), but rather asks whether belief in such forces (and the behaviors that result from such beliefs) has an effect on health. There is every reason to think it does.

9. Clinical Implications

There are clinical implications from the research reviewed above that could influence the way health professionals treat patients in the hospital and clinic.

9.1. Rationale for Integrating Spirituality

There are many practical reasons why addressing spiritual issues in clinical practice is important. Here are eight reasons [ 578 ] (and these are not exhaustive).

First, many patients are R/S and have spiritual needs related to medical or psychiatric illness. Studies of medical and psychiatric patients and those with terminal illnesses report that the vast majority have such needs, and most of those needs currently go unmet [ 579 , 580 ]. Unmet spiritual needs, especially if they involve R/S struggles, can adversely affect health and may increase mortality independent of mental, physical, or social health [ 581 ].

Second, R/S influences the patient's ability to cope with illness. In some areas of the country, 90% of hospitalized patients use religion to enable them to cope with their illnesses and over 40% indicate it is their primary coping behavior [ 582 ]. Poor coping has adverse effects on medical outcomes, both in terms of lengthening hospital stay and increasing mortality [ 583 ].

Third, R/S beliefs affect patients' medical decisions, may conflict with medical treatments, and can influence compliance with those treatments. Studies have shown that R/S beliefs influence medical decisions among those with serious medical illness [ 584 , 585 ] and especially among those with advanced cancer [ 586 ] or HIV/AIDs [ 587 ].

Fourth, physicians' own R/S beliefs often influence medical decisions they make and affect the type of care they offer to patients, including decisions about use of pain medications [ 588 ], abortion [ 589 ], vaccinations [ 590 ], and contraception [ 591 ]. Physician views about such matters and how they influence the physician's decisions, however, are usually not discussed with a patient.

Fifth, as noted earlier, R/S is associated with both mental and physical health and likely affects medical outcomes. If so, then health professionals need to know about such influences, just as they need to know if a person smokes cigarettes or uses alcohol or drugs. Those who provide health care to the patient need to be aware of all factors that influence health and health care.

Sixth, R/S influences the kind of support and care that patients receive once they return home. A supportive faith community may ensure that patients receive medical followup (by providing rides to doctors' offices) and comply with their medications. It is important to know whether this is the case or whether the patient will return to an apartment to live alone with little social interaction or support.

Seventh, research shows that failure to address patients' spiritual needs increases health care costs, especially toward the end of life [ 592 ]. This is a time when patients and families may demand medical care (often very expensive medical care) even when continued treatment is futile. For example, patients or families may be praying for a miracle. “Giving up” by withdrawing life support or agreeing to hospice care may be viewed as a lack of faith or lack of belief in the healing power of God. If health professionals do not take a spiritual history so that patients/families feel comfortable discussing such issues openly, then situations may go on indefinitely and consume huge amounts of medical resources.

Finally, standards set by the Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Hospital Organizations (JCAHO) and by Medicare (in the US) require that providers of health care show respect for patients' cultural and personal values, beliefs, and preferences (including religious or spiritual beliefs) [ 593 ]. This point was reinforced by a personal communication with Doreen Finn ( [email protected] ), Senior Associate Director, who works under Mark Pelletier ( [email protected] ), Executive Director, JCAHO, Hospital Accreditation (January 6–12, 2012). If health professionals are unaware of those beliefs, they cannot show respect for them and adjust care accordingly.

9.2. How to Integrate Spirituality into Patient Care

What would I recommend in terms of addressing spiritual issues in clinical care?

First and foremost, health professionals should take a brief spiritual history. This should be done for all new patients on their first evaluation, especially if they have serious or chronic illnesses, and when a patient is admitted to a hospital, nursing home, home health agency, or other health care setting. The purpose is to learn about (1) the patient's religious background, (2) the role that R/S beliefs or practices play in coping with illness (or causing distress), (3) beliefs that may influence or conflict with decisions about medical care, (4) the patient's level of participation in a spiritual community and whether the community is supportive, and (5) any spiritual needs that might be present [ 594 ]. It is the health professional , not the chaplain, who is responsible for doing this two-minute “screening” evaluation. If spiritual needs are discovered, then the health professional would make a referral to pastoral care services so that the needs can be addressed. The spiritual history (and any spiritual needs addressed by pastoral services) should be documented in the medical record so that other health professionals will know that this has been done. Although notes need not be detailed, enough information should be recorded to communicate essential issues to other hospital staff.

Ideally, the physician, as head of the medical care team, should take the spiritual history. However, since only about 10% of physicians in the US “often or always” do so [ 595 ], the task often falls to the nurse or to the social worker. Although systematic research is lacking in this area, most nurses and social workers do not take a spiritual history either. Simply recording the patient's religious denomination and whether they want to see a chaplain, the procedure in most hospitals today, is NOT taking a spiritual history.

Second, R/S beliefs of patients uncovered during the spiritual history should always be respected. Even if beliefs conflict with the medical treatment plan or seem bizarre or pathological, the health professional should not challenge those beliefs (at least not initially), but rather take a neutral posture and ask the patient questions to obtain a better understanding of the beliefs. Challenging patients' R/S beliefs is almost always followed by resistance from the patient, or quiet noncompliance with the medical plan. Instead, the health professional should consult a chaplain and either follow their advice or refer the patient to the chaplain to address the situation. If the health professional is knowledgeable about the patient's R/S beliefs and the beliefs appear generally healthy, however, it would be appropriate to actively support those beliefs and conform the healthcare being provided to accommodate the beliefs.

Third, most health professionals without clinical pastoral education do not have the skills or training to competently address patients' spiritual needs or provide advice about spiritual matters. Chaplains have extensive training on how to do this, which often involves years of education and experience addressing spiritual issues. They are the true experts in this area. For any but the most simple spiritual needs, then, patients should be referred to chaplains to address the problem.

Fourth, conducting a spiritual history or contemplating a spiritual intervention (supporting R/S beliefs, praying with patients) should always be patient centered and patient desired. The health professional should never do anything related to R/S that involves coercion. The patient must feel in control and free to reveal or not reveal information about their spiritual lives or to engage or not engage in spiritual practices (i.e., prayer, etc.). In most cases, health professionals should not ask patients if they would like to pray with them, but rather leave the initiative to the patient to request prayer. The health professional, however, may inform R/S patients (based on the spiritual history) that they are open to praying with patients if that is what the patient wants. The patient is then free to initiate a request for prayer at a later time or future visit, should they desire prayer with the health professional. If the patient requests, then a short supportive prayer may be said aloud, but quietly, with the patient in a private setting. Before praying, however, the health professional should ask the patient what he or she wishes prayer for, recognizing that every patient will be different in this regard. Alternatively, the clinician may simply ask the patient to say the prayer and then quietly confirm it with an “amen” at the end.

Fifth, R/S beliefs of health professionals (or lack of belief) should not influence the decision to take a spiritual history, respect and support the R/S beliefs of patients, or make a referral to pastoral services. These activities should always be patient centered, not centered on the health professional. One of the most common barriers to addressing spiritual issues is health professionals' discomfort over discussing such issues. This often results from lack of personal R/S involvement and therefore lack of appreciation for the importance and value of doing so. Lack of comfort and understanding should be overcome by training and practice. Today, nearly 90% of medical schools (and many nursing schools) in the US include something about R/S in their curricula [ 596 ] and this is also true to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom [ 597 ] and Brazil [ 598 ]. Thus, spirituality and health is increasingly being addressed in medical and nursing training programs.

Sixth, health professionals should learn about the R/S beliefs and practices of different religious traditions that relate to healthcare, especially the faith traditions of patients they are likely to encounter in their particular country or region of the country. There are many such beliefs and practices that will have a direct impact on the type of care being provided, especially when patients are hospitalized, seriously ill or near death. A brief description of beliefs and practices for health professionals related to birth, contraception, diet, death, and organ donation is provided elsewhere [ 599 ].

Finally, if spiritual needs are identified and a chaplain referral is initiated, then the health professional making the referral is responsible for following up to ensure that the spiritual needs were adequately addressed by the chaplain. This is especially true given the impact that unmet spiritual needs are likely to have on both medical outcomes and healthcare costs. Given the short lengths of stay in today's modern hospital (often only 2–4 days), spiritual needs identified on admission are unlikely to be resolved by discharge. Therefore, a spiritual care discharge plan will need to be developed by the hospital social worker in consultation with the chaplain, which may involve (with the patient's written consent) contact with the patient's faith community to ensure that spiritual needs are addressed when the patient returns home. In this way, continuity of pastoral care will be ensured between hospital and community.

10. Conclusions

Religious/spiritual beliefs and practices are commonly used by both medical and psychiatric patients to cope with illness and other stressful life changes. A large volume of research shows that people who are more R/S have better mental health and adapt more quickly to health problems compared to those who are less R/S. These possible benefits to mental health and well-being have physiological consequences that impact physical health, affect the risk of disease, and influence response to treatment. In this paper I have reviewed and summarized hundreds of quantitative original data-based research reports examining relationships between R/S and health. These reports have been published in peer-reviewed journals in medicine, nursing, social work, rehabilitation, social sciences, counseling, psychology, psychiatry, public health, demography, economics, and religion. The majority of studies report significant relationships between R/S and better health. For details on these and many other studies in this area, and for suggestions on future research that is needed, I again refer the reader to the Handbook of Religion and Health [ 600 ].

The research findings, a desire to provide high-quality care, and simply common sense, all underscore the need to integrate spirituality into patient care. I have briefly reviewed reasons for inquiring about and addressing spiritual needs in clinical practice, described how to do so, and indicated boundaries across which health professionals should not cross. For more information on how to integrate spirituality into patient care, the reader is referred to the book, Spirituality in Patient Care [ 601 ]. The field of religion, spirituality, and health is growing rapidly, and I dare to say, is moving from the periphery into the mainstream of healthcare. All health professionals should be familiar with the research base described in this paper, know the reasons for integrating spirituality into patient care, and be able to do so in a sensible and sensitive way. At stake is the health and well-being of our patients and satisfaction that we as health care providers experience in delivering care that addresses the whole person—body, mind, and spirit.

Conflict of Interests

The author declares that he has no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgment

The support to write this paper was provided in part by the John Templeton Foundation.

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Theses/dissertations from 2022 2022.

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A Research Guide
Research Paper Topics

40 Religion Research Paper Topics Ideas

The primal religions
Animalism and totemism, their manifestations in the modern world
Polytheistic religions and mythology. Similarities in myths and images of the gods
Greek myths and religion, their impact on the European culture
The phenomenon of trickster gods
The female goddesses triad: the maiden, the mother and the hag
World religions and science
Monotheistic religions: similarities and differences
Religions and laws in modern world
Theocratic states and the influence of religion there
Religion and daily life. How do people implement religion practices in the modern world?
Is Atheism a religion too?
World religions that have no gods
The concept of soul in different religions
The history of Christianity
The history of Islam
The history of Judaism
Nordic mythology and religion in modern world
Religion and wars. Chaplainship
Religion in modern Japan
Religious counseling versus classical psychology
Attitude to sex of different religions
Religions and gender
Children and religions. Are children considered innocent in all the religions?
Teenagers and religion. Can faith help overcome the harshness of puberty?
Female clergy in different religions
Women and Islam
Religions and economics
Religions and LGBTQ+ people
Hinduism and Islam in India
The history of Hinduism and its impact on modern Indian culture
Confucianism
Crisis of faith, what is it?
The concept of reincarnation in world religions
The afterlife: similarities and differences in different religions
Black churches
Yoga: a health or religious practice?
Zoroastrinism
What causes a new religion to emerge?
Shamanism from the dawn of the history to modern days

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Religion as Make-Believe: A Theory of Belief, Imagination, and Group Identity

Neil Van Leeuwen, Religion as Make-Believe , Harvard University Press, 2023, 312pp., $45.00 (hbk), ISBN 9780674290334.

Reviewed by Eric Schwitzgebel, University of California, Riverside

In Religion as Make-Believe, Neil Van Leeuwen argues that factual beliefs (for example, that there’s beer in the fridge) differ greatly from “religious credences” (for example, that God is a trinity). Although people commonly say they “believe” the central doctrines of their religion, their attitudes are often closer to pretense. Hence, religion as “make-believe”.

According to Van Leeuwen, if you factually believe that there is beer in the fridge, your attitude normally has four functional features:

(1) It is involuntary . You can’t help but believe that there’s beer in the fridge upon looking there and seeing beer.

(2) It is vulnerable to evidence. If you later look in the fridge and discover no beer, your belief will vanish.

(3) It guides actions across the board. If the question of whether beer is in the fridge becomes relevant, you will tend to act in light of that belief.

(4) It provides the informational background governing other attitudes. For example, if you imagine a beer-loving guest opening the fridge, you will imagine them noticing the beer.

Religious credences, as Van Leeuwen characterizes them, have none of these features. If you “religiously creed” that God is a trinity, that attitude is:

(1) Voluntary . In some sense, you choose to have this religious credence.

(2) Invulnerable to evidence . Factual evidence, for example, scientific evidence concerning the origin of the universe, will not normally cause the credence to disappear.

(3) Guides actions only in limited contexts. Outside of specifically religious contexts, the credence has little influence on behavior.

(4) Doesn’t reliably govern other attitudes. You will not, for example, alter your understanding of logic in light of the trinity paradox.

Although some people may factually believe some religious doctrines, Van Leeuwen holds that commonly what religious people say they believe they instead religiously creed.

Van Leeuwen describes his view as a “two map” view. Many religious people have one picture of the world – one map – concerning what they factually believe, and a different picture of the world – a different map – concerning what they religiously creed. These maps can conflict. Someone might factually believe that Earth is billions of years old and religiously creed that it is under a million years old. Such conflict needn’t be irrational, since the attitudes differ. Compare: You might believe that Earth is billions of years old but imagine, desire, or assume for the sake of argument that it is under a million years old. We draw different pictures for different purposes. On Van Leeuwen’s view, the same holds for religious credence.

Why do we have religious credences, if they are so tenuously connected to evidence? Van Leeuwen suggests that religious credences function to support group identities: They guide symbolic actions (for example, ritual behaviors) that signal group allegiance; and by professing “belief” in religious doctrines, people indicate and partly constitute their membership in a social group. Notably, the second function is best served if the religious credence is not well supported by factual evidence. If factual evidence compelled everyone to believe that God is a trinity, endorsement of that proposition would not distinguish group members from others. “Sacred” acts and values work similarly: Treating something as inviolable often works as a criterion of inclusion in a group identity. However, religious people typically factually recognize that sacred objects are ordinary mundane objects (an edible wafer, a simple doll) and can readily shift to conceptualizing them as unimportant outside of the context of the symbolic action.

Van Leeuwen also presents empirical evidence for a distinction between “think” and “believe” in ordinary usage, arguing that people more commonly use “think” for factual beliefs and “believe” for religious credences. It’s more natural to say I think there’s beer in the fridge and I believe that God is a trinity than the reverse. Such usage differences appear not only in Indo-European languages (for example, glauben in German and creer in Spanish being aligned with religious credence) but also in unrelated languages such as Thai and Mandarin (p. 136-139).

Plausibly, some people have religious attitudes that match the functional profile of Van Leeuwen’s religious credence. They voluntarily choose those attitudes. Counterevidence doesn’t budge them – not because they deny the counterevidence, but because they don’t regard their religious doctrines as factual, much as a child knows that their pretend telephone is not in fact a telephone but instead really a banana. And their attitudes are segregated from practical action and reasoning outside of religious contexts. At a Passover Seder, perhaps, they affirm their Jewish identity by choosing to say “God spared our firstborn sons” – but outside of temple they readily accept, perhaps even insist, that such stories are historically false. Van Leeuwen clearly articulates how such religious cognition differs from ordinary factual belief, neatly explaining several features of it, such as why factually unsupported propositions often play a central role. Belief theorists across a wide range of theoretical viewpoints can generally agree with Van Leeuwen that in such cases the affirmed religious proposition is not really “believed” (in the sense of “belief” standard in recent Anglophone philosophy).

However, also plausibly, as Van Leeuwen explicitly acknowledges, some people factually believe, and don’t just religiously creed, some of the doctrines of their religion. These “true believers”, as we might call them, are guided by religious doctrine whenever the content is relevant. They include those doctrines in the cognitive background governing their other attitudes. And they feel rationally compelled to reject any apparent counterevidence – for example, some young-Earth creationists who reject mainstream science. Their one map of the structure of the world builds God’s creation right into it, and anything that conflicts must be rejected. True believers’ religious doctrines are not a second, optional map, deployed when convenient in religious contexts and otherwise set aside.

The question then becomes: How typical is the first form of religious cognition? Van Leeuwen presents no systematic evidence concerning the proportion of religious make-believers to religious true believers. Still, Van Leeuwen invites the reader to regard make-believe as typical. For example, there’s the title: Religion as Make-Believe . This suggests a general account of religion as it typically occurs. He portrays evangelical Christians in the United States as typically having make-believe religious credence, not factual belief, in doctrines such as the effectiveness of petitionary prayer. We might accept religious make-believe in Van Leeuwen’s sense as a genuine phenomenon, which he has helpfully noticed and skillfully theorized, while wondering how common it is.

I conclude with three concerns.

(1) The distinction is too sharp. While Van Leeuwen allows the possibility of intermediate attitudes with some characteristics of factual belief and some characteristics of religious credence, he appears to regard intermediate cases as atypical. However, on an alternative and potentially empirically attractive view, big-picture attitudes typically have functional profiles somewhere between those that Van Leeuwen associates with factual belief and those he associates with religious credence.

Consider contents like: My teenage daughter has a great eye for fashion , or dispositionalism is the best approach to the metaphysics of belief , or all the races are intellectually equal . On a wide range of secular topics we care about, we ignore some counterevidence, tolerate some inconsistency, half-choose to allow ourselves to be or not to be convinced, and sometimes permit ourselves to deploy different ideas in different contexts. If religious attitudes also often inhabit this in-between space, being somewhat but not entirely voluntary, evidence-resistant, and divorced from mundane thought and action, then we have a smear of intermediate cases rather than two sharply distinguished attitude types.

(2) Van Leeuwen insufficiently attends to weak belief. A member of the Vineyard Christian movement claimed in religious contexts that a shock they experienced from their coffeemaker was a demonic attack, but also repaired their coffeemaker and described the shock in a more mundane way in non-religious contexts (p. 78-80). People who engage in petitionary prayer for healing typically also see doctors (p. 86-88). And people often confess doubt about their religion (p. 93-95, 124-125). Van Leeuwen leans heavily on such facts in making the case that people often don’t factually believe what they religiously endorse. Such observations are excellent evidence that the people don’t believe with 100% confidence that the demon shocked them, that the prayer will heal them, and that the central tenets of their religion are all true.

But such observations are virtually no evidence against the possibility of ordinary factual belief of perhaps 75% confidence that a demon shocked them, that prayer will heal, and that the central tenets are true. Alternative explanations, backup plans, and expressions of anxious doubt can be entirely appropriate and rational manifestations of low-confidence factual belief. On page 226, Van Leeuwen acknowledges and partly rebuts this “weak belief” explanation of religious attitudes, but the possibility doesn’t receive the attention it deserves earlier in the book. Much (though I agree, not all) of the waffling, double-mindedness, and situational variability in many people’s religious attitudes could be an ordinary reaction to uncertainty rather than signaling an attitude type other than factual belief. This undercuts an important element of his case for the distinction.

(3) If credence and belief are different attitude types, why do we feel rational pressure to reconcile their contents? [1] There is no rational conflict whatsoever between believing that Earth is billions of years old and imagining, desiring, or assuming for the sake of argument that Earth is under a million years old. We can construct conflicting maps for those different attitudes, feeling no rational pressure from their divergent contents. Believing P stands in no rational conflict with imagining not-P. But it doesn’t seem like most of us are, or should be, so easygoing about conflicts between religious attitudes and factual beliefs. Of course, some people are easygoing, such as the Passover Seder make-believer. However, I expect – and this is an empirical conjecture that could be tested with a careful application of Van Leeuwen’s framework – that most people, especially to the extent they say that they “believe” the doctrines of their religion, will reject conflicting factual content. They will say, for example, “Earth really is young. Mainstream science is wrong.” In other words, they feel the tension.

If so, most self-described believers don’t really have two attitudes types with conflicting content that needn’t be reconciled but instead one attitude type, representing Earth as either actually old or actually young. If they buy the science, they reinterpret the creation stories as myths or metaphors. If they insist that the creation stories are true, they reject the scientific consensus. What most people don’t appear to do is hold both the standard scientific view that Earth is literally old and simultaneously the religious view that Earth is literally young, with no felt tension. One or the other proposition will normally be treated as non-literal. Alternatively, someone might settle instead on a low-credence, intermediate, agnostic state. Note here the difference between modeling religious cognition through two factual beliefs with contents rendered non-conflicting (belief that P and belief that mythologically not-P) versus modeling it, as Van Leeuwen does, through different attitudes toward contradictory contents there is no rational pressure to reconcile (factual belief that P and religious credence that not-P). A one-attitude view nicely explains felt tension and the impulse to uncertainty or agnosticism. The tension is more difficult to explain on a two-attitude view.

Given its plausibility as an account of at least some religious cognition, Van Leeuwen’s Religion as Make-Believe constitutes a major achievement in the study of religious attitudes, which will and should shape discussion of religious belief for decades to come.

[1] I owe this objection in part to Thomas Kelly, who raised a version of it in a workshop discussion of Van Leeuwen’s work at Princeton in June 2022. See also my Splintered Mind blog post “The Overlapping Dispositional Profiles of Different Types of Belief” (Sep 12, 2022), Van Leeuwen’s guest post “The Rational Pressure Argument” (Oct 13, 2022), and my “Religious Believers Normally Do and Should Want Their Religious Credences to Align with Their Factual Beliefs” (Mar 14, 2024), all at https://schwitzsplinters.blogspot.com .

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The Big List of Essay Topics for High School (120+ Ideas!)

Ideas to inspire every young writer!

What one class should all high schools students be required to take and pass in order to graduate?

High school students generally do a lot of writing, learning to use language clearly, concisely, and persuasively. When it’s time to choose an essay topic, though, it’s easy to come up blank. If that’s the case, check out this huge round-up of essay topics for high school. You’ll find choices for every subject and writing style.

Argumentative Essay Topics
Cause-and-Effect Essay Topics
Compare-Contrast Essay Topics
Descriptive Essay Topics
Expository and Informative Essay Topics
Humorous Essay Topics

Literary Essay Topics

Narrative and Personal Essay Topics
Personal Essay Topics
Persuasive Essay Topics

Research Essay Topics

Argumentative essay topics for high school.

When writing an argumentative essay, remember to do the research and lay out the facts clearly. Your goal is not necessarily to persuade someone to agree with you, but to encourage your reader to accept your point of view as valid. Here are some possible argumentative topics to try. ( Here are 100 more compelling argumentative essay topics. )

The most important challenge our country is currently facing is … (e.g., immigration, gun control, economy)
The government should provide free internet access for every citizen.
All drugs should be legalized, regulated, and taxed.
Vaping is less harmful than smoking tobacco.
The best country in the world is …
Parents should be punished for their minor children’s crimes.
Should all students have the ability to attend college for free?
Should physical education be part of the standard high school curriculum?

Should physical education be part of the standard high school curriculum?

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Schools should require recommended vaccines for all students, with very limited exceptions.
Is it acceptable to use animals for experiments and research?
Does social media do more harm than good?
Capital punishment does/does not deter crime.
What one class should all high schools students be required to take and pass in order to graduate?
Do we really learn anything from history, or does it just repeat itself over and over?
Are men and women treated equally?

Cause-and-Effect Essay Topics for High School

A cause-and-effect essay is a type of argumentative essay. Your goal is to show how one specific thing directly influences another specific thing. You’ll likely need to do some research to make your point. Here are some ideas for cause-and-effect essays. ( Get a big list of 100 cause-and-effect essay topics here. )

Humans are causing accelerated climate change.
Fast-food restaurants have made human health worse over the decades.
What caused World War II? (Choose any conflict for this one.)
Describe the effects social media has on young adults.

Describe the effects social media has on young adults.

How does playing sports affect people?
What are the effects of loving to read?
Being an only/oldest/youngest/middle child makes you …
What effect does violence in movies or video games have on kids?
Traveling to new places opens people’s minds to new ideas.
Racism is caused by …

Compare-Contrast Essay Topics for High School

As the name indicates, in compare-and-contrast essays, writers show the similarities and differences between two things. They combine descriptive writing with analysis, making connections and showing dissimilarities. The following ideas work well for compare-contrast essays. ( Find 80+ compare-contrast essay topics for all ages here. )

Public and private schools
Capitalism vs. communism
Monarchy or democracy
Dogs vs. cats as pets

Paper books or e-books
Two political candidates in a current race
Going to college vs. starting work full-time
Working your way through college as you go or taking out student loans
iPhone or Android
Instagram vs. Twitter (or choose any other two social media platforms)

Descriptive Essay Topics for High School

Bring on the adjectives! Descriptive writing is all about creating a rich picture for the reader. Take readers on a journey to far-off places, help them understand an experience, or introduce them to a new person. Remember: Show, don’t tell. These topics make excellent descriptive essays.

Who is the funniest person you know?
What is your happiest memory?
Tell about the most inspirational person in your life.
Write about your favorite place.
When you were little, what was your favorite thing to do?
Choose a piece of art or music and explain how it makes you feel.
What is your earliest memory?

What’s the best/worst vacation you’ve ever taken?
Describe your favorite pet.
What is the most important item in the world to you?
Give a tour of your bedroom (or another favorite room in your home).
Describe yourself to someone who has never met you.
Lay out your perfect day from start to finish.
Explain what it’s like to move to a new town or start a new school.
Tell what it would be like to live on the moon.

Expository and Informative Essay Topics for High School

Expository essays set out clear explanations of a particular topic. You might be defining a word or phrase or explaining how something works. Expository or informative essays are based on facts, and while you might explore different points of view, you won’t necessarily say which one is “better” or “right.” Remember: Expository essays educate the reader. Here are some expository and informative essay topics to explore. ( See 70+ expository and informative essay topics here. )

What makes a good leader?
Explain why a given school subject (math, history, science, etc.) is important for students to learn.
What is the “glass ceiling” and how does it affect society?
Describe how the internet changed the world.
What does it mean to be a good teacher?

Explain how we could colonize the moon or another planet.
Discuss why mental health is just as important as physical health.
Describe a healthy lifestyle for a teenager.
Choose an American president and explain how their time in office affected the country.
What does “financial responsibility” mean?

Humorous Essay Topics for High School

Humorous essays can take on any form, like narrative, persuasive, or expository. You might employ sarcasm or satire, or simply tell a story about a funny person or event. Even though these essay topics are lighthearted, they still take some skill to tackle well. Give these ideas a try.

What would happen if cats (or any other animal) ruled the world?
What do newborn babies wish their parents knew?
Explain the best ways to be annoying on social media.
Invent a wacky new sport, explain the rules, and describe a game or match.

Explain why it's important to eat dessert first.

Imagine a discussion between two historic figures from very different times, like Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth I.
Retell a familiar story in tweets or other social media posts.
Describe present-day Earth from an alien’s point of view.
Choose a fictional character and explain why they should be the next president.
Describe a day when kids are in charge of everything, at school and at home.

Literary essays analyze a piece of writing, like a book or a play. In high school, students usually write literary essays about the works they study in class. These literary essay topic ideas focus on books students often read in high school, but many of them can be tweaked to fit other works as well.

Discuss the portrayal of women in Shakespeare’s Othello .
Explore the symbolism used in The Scarlet Letter .
Explain the importance of dreams in Of Mice and Men .
Compare and contrast the romantic relationships in Pride and Prejudice .

Analyze the role of the witches in Macbeth.

Dissect the allegory of Animal Farm and its relation to contemporary events.
Interpret the author’s take on society and class structure in The Great Gatsby .
Explore the relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia.
Discuss whether Shakespeare’s portrayal of young love in Romeo and Juliet is accurate.
Explain the imagery used in Beowulf .

Narrative and Personal Essay Topics for High School

Think of a narrative essay like telling a story. Use some of the same techniques that you would for a descriptive essay, but be sure you have a beginning, middle, and end. A narrative essay doesn’t necessarily need to be personal, but they often are. Take inspiration from these narrative and personal essay topics.

Describe a performance or sporting event you took part in.
Explain the process of cooking and eating your favorite meal.
Write about meeting your best friend for the first time and how your relationship developed.
Tell about learning to ride a bike or drive a car.
Describe a time in your life when you’ve been scared.

Write about a time when you or someone you know displayed courage.

Share the most embarrassing thing that ever happened to you.
Tell about a time when you overcame a big challenge.
Tell the story of how you learned an important life lesson.
Describe a time when you or someone you know experienced prejudice or oppression.
Explain a family tradition, how it developed, and its importance today.
What is your favorite holiday? How does your family celebrate it?
Retell a familiar story from the point of view of a different character.
Describe a time when you had to make a difficult decision.
Tell about your proudest moment.

Persuasive Essay Topics for High School

Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative , but they rely less on facts and more on emotion to sway the reader. It’s important to know your audience, so you can anticipate any counterarguments they might make and try to overcome them. Try these topics to persuade someone to come around to your point of view. ( Discover 60 more intriguing persuasive essay topics here. )

Do you think homework should be required, optional, or not given at all?
Everyone should be vegetarian or vegan.
What animal makes the best pet?
Visit an animal shelter, choose an animal that needs a home, and write an essay persuading someone to adopt that animal.
Who is the world’s best athlete, present or past?
Should little kids be allowed to play competitive sports?
Are professional athletes/musicians/actors overpaid?
The best music genre is …

What is one book that everyone should be required to read?

Is democracy the best form of government?
Is capitalism the best form of economy?
Students should/should not be able to use their phones during the school day.
Should schools have dress codes?
If I could change one school rule, it would be …
Is year-round school a good idea?

A research essay is a classic high school assignment. These papers require deep research into primary source documents, with lots of supporting facts and evidence that’s properly cited. Research essays can be in any of the styles shown above. Here are some possible topics, across a variety of subjects.

Which country’s style of government is best for the people who live there?
Choose a country and analyze its development from founding to present day.
Describe the causes and effects of a specific war.
Formulate an ideal economic plan for our country.
What scientific discovery has had the biggest impact on life today?

Tell the story of the development of artificial intelligence so far, and describe its impacts along the way.

Analyze the way mental health is viewed and treated in this country.
Explore the ways systemic racism impacts people in all walks of life.
Defend the importance of teaching music and the arts in public schools.
Choose one animal from the endangered species list, and propose a realistic plan to protect it.

What are some of your favorite essay topics for high school? Come share your prompts on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out the ultimate guide to student writing contests .

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Cultural Issues and the 2024 Election

4. Gender, family, reproductive issues and the 2024 election

Table of contents.

Voters’ views about race and society, the impact of the legacy of slavery
Most voters, but not all, view the nation’s diversity as a strength
How should the country handle undocumented immigrants currently in the U.S.?
Attitudes toward hearing other languages in public places
Biden and Trump supporters’ views about discussing America’s historical successes, failures
How does the U.S. compare with other countries?
Views of women’s progress
How much of a priority should marriage and children be?
Abortion, IVF access and birth control
Views of gender identity
Voters’ attitudes toward use of gender-neutral pronouns
Societal impact of more social acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual people
Religion and government policy
How much influence should the Bible have on the nation’s laws, if any?
Views on the federal government’s role in promoting Christian values
Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral
Is the justice system too tough on criminals, or not tough enough?
Policing and law enforcement
How Trump, Biden supporters view gun rights and ownership
Views on the increasing number of guns in the U.S.
Acknowledgments
The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Biden and Trump voters differ sharply over the state of women’s progress in the U.S., as well as over whether society should prioritize marriage and children.

Yet majorities of both candidates’ supporters say that the gains women have made in society have not come at the expense of men.

Nearly two years after the Supreme Court overturned the Roe v. Wade decision that guaranteed a right to abortion, the issue continues to divide the two coalitions: Biden supporters overwhelmingly say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, while a narrower majority of Trump backers say it should not.

Chart shows How Biden and Trump voters view the state of women’s progress in the U.S.

But the two groups generally share the view that birth control and access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) should be widely available. Majorities of both Biden and Trump supporters view the broad availability of birth control as a good thing and say the same about access to IVF.

Supporters of Joe Biden and Donald Trump have mirror-image views on whether women face obstacles to getting ahead in society that men do not.

About three-quarters of Biden supporters (73%) say there are still significant obstacles making it harder for women than men to get ahead. About a quarter (26%) say these obstacles are now largely gone.
In contrast, seven-in-ten Trump supporters say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone. About three-in-ten (29%) say women still face significant obstacles.

There were also wide gaps in these opinions during the 2016 and 2020 presidential campaigns .

Chart shows Men who support Biden and Trump are more likely than women to say that obstacles standing in the way of women’s progress are now largely gone

Differences between Biden and Trump voters are much more modest when it comes to views of whether women’s gains have come at the expense of men. Sizable majorities of both Biden (90%) and Trump supporters (74%) reject this idea.

Among both Biden supporters and Trump supporters, men are more likely than women to say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone.

Among Trump supporters, 83% of men say this, compared with 55% of women.

Almost four-in-ten men who back Biden (37%) say women’s obstacles to progress are now largely gone. Just 16% of women who back Biden say the same.

While most voters across age groups and genders say that gains women have made have not come at the expense of men, a third of men who support Trump do think women’s gains have cost men. This share increases to 40% among men under age 50 who support Trump. About 20% of women or fewer – regardless of age or which candidate they support – say that women’s gains come at the expense of men.

Chart shows Trump supporters far more likely than Biden supporters to say society should prioritize marriage and having children

Roughly four-in-ten registered voters (39%) say society is better off if people make marriage and having children a priority, while a majority (59%) say society is just as well off if people have priorities other than family and children.

Trump supporters (59%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (19%) to say that it is better if people prioritize marriage and children.

There are modest differences between men and women in whether focusing on marriage and children makes society better.

About six-in-ten men who support Trump (63%) say this, compared with 54% of Trump-supporting women. There is a similar gender gap among Biden supporters (22% of men vs. 16% of women).

Black voters who support Biden (29%) are more likely than White (17%) and Hispanic (16%) Biden supporters to say an emphasis on marriage and family makes society better off. Two-in-ten Asian voters who back Biden say this.

Marriage and children

Chart shows Large gender gap among Trump supporters on comfort with women keeping their names after marriage

Three-quarters of registered voters say they are comfortable with women not taking their husbands’ last names when they get married. Just a quarter are uncomfortable with this.

However, Trump supporters (37%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (13%) to express discomfort with married women not taking their husbands’ last names.

And men who support Trump (44%) are more likely than women who support him (29%) to say they are uncomfortable with the practice of women not taking their husbands’ last names.

Related: About 8 in 10 women in opposite-sex marriages say they took their husband’s last name

The nation’s fertility rate, which has been declining for years, is now at its lowest point in more than a century, according to a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control. About four-in-ten voters (43%) say it is neither good nor bad for society that people are having fewer children; 35% view this trend negatively, while 22% say it is good for society.

Chart shows How voters see the declining birth rate

Biden supporters have mixed views of the fact that people are having fewer children. Half say this is neither good nor bad, 27% view this as good for society, and 23% say it is bad.

Trump supporters – especially men who back Trump – view this trend more negatively.

Nearly half of Trump supporters (47%), including a 56% majority of men who support Trump, say it is bad for society that people are having fewer children. Roughly four-in-ten women who support Trump (37%) see this trend as a bad thing.

Abortion deeply divides supporters of Biden and Trump. About nine-in-ten Biden supporters (88%) say abortion should be legal in most (46%) or all (42%) cases. Just 11% of Biden supporters say abortion should be illegal in all or most cases.

Chart shows Deep divisions on abortion between Biden and Trump voters

Conversely, about six-in-ten Trump supporters (61%) say abortion should be illegal in all (11%) or most (50%) cases. A significant minority of Trump supporters say abortion should be legal in most or all cases (38%).

Related: Broad Public Support for Legal Abortion Persists 2 Years After Dobbs

Age, gender differences among Trump supporters – but not Biden supporters – on abortion

Chart shows About half of Trump supporters under 35 say abortion should be legal in all or most cases

About half of Trump supporters ages 18 to 34 (51%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, a substantially higher share than among older Trump supporters (35% of those 35 and older).

Among Biden supporters, nearly nine-in-ten across all age groups say abortion should be legal in all or most cases.

Both women and men who back Trump are more likely to say abortion should be illegal than to say it should be legal. However, more women who support Trump (41%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, compared with 34% of men who support Trump.

There is no difference in these views between women and men who support Biden.

By contrast, 73% of all voters – including majorities of Biden (83%) and Trump supporters (64%) – say access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) is a good thing.

Related: Americans overwhelmingly say access to IVF is a good thing

Chart shows Most voters say widespread access to birth control is good for society

Voters overwhelmingly express positive views of birth control, condoms and other forms of contraception being widely available in the United States. Nearly eight-in-ten (79%) say this is very or somewhat good for society, 13% view it as neither good nor bad, and 7% say it is bad.

93% of Biden supporters and 66% of Trump supporters say it’s good for society that birth control is widely available.
Men who support Trump (61%) are less likely than women who back the former president (73%) to say that birth control being widely available is good for society. There is no meaningful gender gap on this question among Biden supporters.

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Americans have mixed views about how the news media cover biden’s, trump’s ages, an early look at black voters’ views on biden, trump and election 2024, voters’ views of trump and biden differ sharply by religion, in tight presidential race, voters are broadly critical of both biden and trump, most popular, report materials.

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An Analysis of Pandemic-Era Inflation in 11 Economies

In a collaborative project with ten central banks, we have investigated the causes of the post-pandemic global inflation, building on our earlier work for the United States. Globally, as in the United States, pandemic-era inflation was due primarily to supply disruptions and sharp increases in the prices of food and energy; however, and in sharp contrast to the 1970s, the inflationary effects of these supply shocks have not been persistent, in part due to the credibility of central bank inflation targets. As the effects of supply shocks have subsided, tight labor markets, and the rises in nominal wages, have become relatively more important sources of inflation in many countries. In several countries, including the United States, curbing wage inflation and returning price inflation to target may require a period of modestly higher unemployment.

We thank the Peterson Institute for International Economics and the Hutchins Center for Fiscal and Monetary Policy at the Brookings Institution for research support. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Religion Research Paper

This sample religion research paper features: 6700 words (approx. 22 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 36 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Introduction

Development of religion and belief, early explanations for religion and belief, eastern and western traditions, christianity, religious objects, symbols, and rituals, religion, manuscripts, and teachings, future directions.

Bibliography

Religion and belief are of great importance for anthropological research on the development of humankind and its history, as they represent the human reaction to an extrahuman, holy, transcendent, or divine object. Almost no other terms of the mental and intellectual human life seem to have such a big and colorful variety as “belief ” or “religion.”

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At first, a look into the past: The term religion has its etymologic and historical roots in the ancient Roman world. A different context can be found for the terms personal belief or universal faith; they have their semantic origin in the Greek word pístis, which Saint Paul used in his letters, or in the Latin fides. Whereas religion gives the framework, belief fills this framework with individual religious activities. Faith means the universal religious activity of a group of people of the same religion. The Latin noun religio stems from the verb re-legere, which has the meaning “to do something diligently, to do something again, to re-read something,” according to Marcus T. Cicero (106–43 BCE). The prefix re- could even be translated as “to do something diligently again and again.” The careful execution of rituals was prescribed by rules, which were only valid through their exact observance. Therefore in the ancient Roman culture, the Latin noun religio expresses the right observance of cults and, as a consequence, the respect for the gods. The verb re-legere is the opposite of the verb neg-legere (to neglect).

The derivation of the noun religio from religare (to connect, to reconnect) is in general problematic, because this reconnection can be seen in a feeling of an inner attachment to something transcendent, which was not common to classical beliefs. In its character, religio is in Roman antiquity rather a virtue than a kind of feeling. Central in the diligent performance of rituals was a kind of “pious awe,” which was not so intensive that the acting person in religious affairs was moved inside. This is one of the reasons why ancient Roman religio is basically incomprehensible to us. Nowadays, the adjective religiosus means “pious.” In a later development, homo religiosus means “member of an order,” a person who lives according to the three evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity, and obedience. This person wants to be, in his religious life, a good example to others. It was this meaning of the word pious (religiosus) that brought the noun religion into the Christian-shaped, Western culture, and less the Latin noun religio, in the ancient Roman sense.

To exhaust the full meaning of religion or belief, it is not sufficient to speak only of devoutness or “expression of devoutness.” Religion and belief also cover the sentence fides quaerens intellectum (faith or belief that searches for insight). Therefore, it has also to do with rationality and the search for reasonable causes. Saint Augustine (354–430 CE), as an exponent of Christian antiquity, and Saint Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1224/5–1274 CE), as a philosopher of high scholasticism, shaped the concept of religio as identical with Christianity. Other, non-Christian religions or beliefs could only be classified as lex, secta, or fides.

The meaning of the term lex is universal, according to our expression “denomination” or “total structure of life.” There is also a lex Christianorum, which means “doctrine and law of the Christian faith.” By no means is the forming of the concepts “religion” and “belief ” steady or logical. Within the historical development, beginning with classical antiquity up to the advent of Protestantism in the 16th century, it is not possible to find a strictly continuous development to the modern term religion . So, religio cannot be translated by or equated with religion or belief in today’s meaning.

If the Christian context of the word religion is left aside, then religion and also belief can be defined as the relationship of a human to a personal or impersonal transcendent, in whatever shape of “the Real”: a divine persona or impersona. The meaning of the Western terms religion or belief , influenced by Christian thoughts, changes in other European and non-European languages from “something that is owed to the transcendence” to “law/doctrine” and “eternal, never-ending structure.”

As a result, the term religion is more objective than the rather subjective term belief . Also, the concepts of belief— characterized as individual, personal belief, or conviction— and faith—characterized as universal belief—can be differentiated. Religion is in general the system of faith that people of the same conviction have in common. Belief is the personal activity, the “personal” faith, within the framework of religion. Belief system is very near to religion, but it emphasizes the personal religious activity more than universal faith.

After this etymological study, the paradigmatic development of the modern terms religion and belief will now be described in order to give a contemporary view on them. A religion that prescribes a belief in a deity of imaginable terms is marked as rational, according to the Lutheran theologian and historian of comparative religion Rudolf Otto. In his classic work, The Idea of the Holy (1917/1925), Otto also asked for the objectivity of religion or belief, and emphasized the “contrast between Rationalism and profounder religion.” One cannot do justice to religion or belief only by rational terms. The two opposite characterizations of religion are, as Otto pointed out, the tremendum, or the “awefulness,” and simultaneously the fascinans, or the “fascinating.” The tremendum shakes people in awe in sight of the mysterious, completely different being, God. This form of fear is by far different than the “natural,” or ordinary fear of a human, and applies more to the general “world-fear.” The tremendum derives from a “numinous dread” that terrifies and fascinates people at the same time.

The Romanian historian of religion Mircea Eliade, who worked at the University of Chicago, addressed Rudolf Otto’s reflections at the beginning of his book The Sacred and the Profane (1957/1959). Eliade focused on the nature of religion or belief, describing the manifestations of religion and the religious in a world that dissociates itself more and more from religious dimensions. But even in a secular world, there is something sacred that is characterized by humans as the opposite of the profane. The process is always the same: the “completely different” is a reality that is not of our world and manifests itself on things that are components of our natural, profane world.

Eliade repeatedly spoke of homo religious, and he wanted to make clear that religion and belief belong to the human nature. Therefore, people live as long as possible in the sacred universe. By the word sacred, the dimension of the religious is described. This dimension surrounds, carries, and holds the human as a religious being. On the other side, a secular person, who is able to live without any religious feeling, has a completely different, secular experience of the universe. She lives in a desacralized world. The religious feeling has to find its way by another, maybe hidden means. The secular person lives totally differently from the homo religious.

Almost 150 years earlier than Eliade, Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher, a German Lutheran theologian and philosopher, classified religion and belief as a “feeling,” as the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau did before him. Schleiermacher called religion a “feeling of infinity” in his second speech, “On the Nature of Religion,” of his five speeches appearing in On Religion (1799/1996).

The German philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment, Immanuel Kant, stood in strong contrast to the definition of religion or belief as “feeling.” In his work Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (1793/1998), Kant proved that there was no way to conclude the certain feature of direct divine influence by a feeling. Hence, according to Kant, religion must be based on reason alone in order to be universal. For Kant, religion had to be a “pure religion of reason.” Although these two characterizations of religion as a “feeling” (Schleiermacher) or as a “pure religion of reason” (Kant) are opposing, these two definitions of religion may be coincident in the fact that religion or belief is something according to human nature. Therefore, around the year 1800, a concept of internal religion developed, which remains effective today.

Statements on religion or belief by the Protestant theologians Ernst Troeltsch (1912/1981) and Paul Tillich (1955, 1961/1988) underlined this fact. In another way, Tillich’s works can be regarded as examples of the effective power of the concept of religion or belief. In a different approach to Immanuel Kant, he distanced himself to consider “feeling” as the basic determination of religion. If religion could be connected to the pure subjectivity of emotion, then it would decline, because religion would loose its seriousness, its truth, and its highest sense. Without a highest content, religion would stay empty. In his essay “Religion as a Function of the Human Mind?” (1955/1988), Tillich defined religion as “something that concerns us immediately,” in the deepest sense of the universe. That which “concerns us immediately” referred to all creative functions of the human mind. However, this did not mean that religion and belief are fictions of the mind, created by human beings.

According to Tillich, the human mind is able to be creative in relation to both itself and to the world. But this creativeness is limited by the relationship to God. Religions and beliefs contain all areas of the human life and of the mind, as they build the substance, the basis, and the depth of the human intellectual life. Therefore religion or belief is not based on a function of the mind at all. Religion is universal; belief is individual. They are consequently the unconditioned components in every situation of human life. Being moved by religion is always related to a religious object. In this context, Tillich emphasized two points: (1) Religion and belief are always related to a content, which cannot be explained in the end; and (2) religion has always a social dimension, too. Nobody is alone in being religiously moved or in feeling any kind of religious emotion. Therefore, the objectivity of religion is founded by its social dimension, according to Tillich. As a consequence, religion and belief are situated in the human being, who is touched by a “revealed unconditioned being,” by a religious object. This can generally be applied to everyone. “Religious reality,” however, goes along with a secret consciousness: tua res agitur, “your situation is concerned.”

Two definitions of the concept of religion can be found in Tillich’s work. Both differ crucially from the traditional one—religion or belief as the human answers to the transcendent. (1) Tillich spoke of an “autonomous religion” that does not know a representational God, nor, consequently, any form of prayer. But in contradiction to that, religion is not impious or lacking a God. It just does not know any kind of ecclesiastical objectification of God. With mysticism, it is different again, because mysticism elevates itself beyond the objectification of God. (2) In his later essay, “Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions” (1961/1988), Tillich mentioned quasireligions, which are similar to religions and have some features in common with religions. But quasireligions are only related to secular objects and consequently to secular institutions. Tillich differentiates between quasireligions and pseudoreligions. Both pretend intentionally to be similar to religions. The expansion of the concepts of religion or of belief as inward phenomena, which have been developed since the beginning of the 19th century, became clear in Tillich’s considerations.

The two concepts of quasireligions and pseudoreligions must be strictly distinguished from traditional, historical religions. Similar to quasireligions is what Eric Voegelin (1938/1999) and Raymond Aron (1965/1968) spoke of as political religion. An explosive nature is exhibited in the relationship between religion and politics, as it is demonstrated in the concept of political religion, and later on in the concepts of state religion or civil religion. The term political religion has its roots in religio politica, going back to the early 17th century. Since the 1930s, it served to classify the politicaltotalitarian mass movements of this time in a critical attitude toward ideology. This modern “political religion,” however, must be clearly distinguished from the “political religion” of classical antiquity and the later concepts of state religion and civil religion, which tried to institutionalize the relationship between religion and politics, not always in a fruitful way.

Generally speaking, it is possible to identify religion or belief as being situated in a person. Religion or belief must be further defined as a relationship and interchange between a human being and transcendent reality, which is relevant for humans. But the relationship to transcendence is not the only decisive criterion for a religion or a belief. Religions and beliefs are rather connected by a kind of “family resemblance,” as defined by Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953/2001). They are determined by overlapping qualities, including holiness, prayers, and services. Religions and beliefs also show similarities that connect them. These similarities, however, must not necessarily be alike in every religion or belief. Regarding those similarities, the reference to transcendence plays, of course, an important role. John Hick (2005) pointed out that another fundamental “family resemblance” of religions and beliefs, in addition to their reference to the transcendence, is their soteriological content, which describes the ability of a religion or belief to redeem human souls and allow salvation. However different their contents and traditions may be, this soteriological quality is a feature that all religions and beliefs have in common in various manners. Also, the validity of religious traditions was of great importance for Hick.

Religion and belief in the modern ideology can carefully be defined as generic terms, or concepts, which slowly have grown in importance in our modern age. These concepts are very different from the ancient meaning of the word religio, which first described all imaginations, attitudes, and actions of a person concerning the ultimate reality. Humans accept the ultimate reality as powers or a power, spirits or demons, gods or God, the “Sacred” or the “Absolute,” or just “Transcendence.” In ancient times, religio was not used as a collective name for each belief or as a universal term, in which various beliefs were summed up. The term religio, representing the past view on religion or belief, was used in a very narrow sense from antiquity up to the 16th century. At first, religio referred to the exercising of the rituals prescribed by law, but only later with regard to the Christian denomination. In general, it took a long time before religio and later “religion” had achieved their meaning, which led to the modern understanding of “religion.” Religion is more than the mere name of a personal belief. It expresses that humans are concerned about something beyond them. Also, death obtains a different meaning within a religious worldview. Romano Guardini (1940/1998), the Catholic priest, theologian, and philosopher of religion, considered death as the gate to the other side of human life, which remains secret to those who still live in this world. For religious people, death is no longer the end of life but, instead, is the turning point to a different reality.

Summing up, the terms religion and belief can be characterized by the following three points:

There are no universal terms for all religions or beliefsystems of humankind in each epoch.
There is no term that includes all aspects of what ismeant by religion or belief today. Even all these terms together cannot cover every aspect now meant by religion or belief.
Earlier terms of religio or religion stand in contrast to themodern meaning of religion. They emphasize the external practice of religion, the observance of ritual instructions and regulations, and the obedience to religious laws.

These three points, however, cannot unambiguously classify religions or beliefs and they do not ultimately define them. But they do outline the broad frame of the modern concept of religion and belief.

Since ancient times, as many sources teach, people have had various religious or pseudoreligious systems. In the past, religions and beliefs were the result of natural phenomena, which led people to fear and to require that these natural phenomena be explained. Also, social facts and mechanisms had to be explained through religious patterns. Ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman religions show this function of early religions or belief systems. These religions and beliefs were polytheistic (i.e., there were many different gods, who had different things to take care of). In many cases, one god is honored as supreme among the others (e.g., Zeus in ancient Greek religion or Jupiter/Jove in ancient Roman religion). The holy or the deity was often linked with nature. Humans found in nature the powerful influence of God: Therefore trees or fountains or mountains (esp. the peak, like Mount Fuji in Japan) were adored as holy, or as the place where the deity lives. Also in totems, things of everyday life or symbols or even animals, the spirit of a deity is believed to be effective. Therefore, it is forbidden, it is a taboo, to kill an animal in which a deity is believed to be present. These original religious aspects can be found within African religions and beliefs, or within the religions of the Pacific islands.

In the Egyptian and Roman traditions, the emperor was adored as a god and found his place in the Pantheon after his death. Archaeological proofs of these ancient religions and belief systems can be found in the pyramids in Egypt, as well as in the ancient Roman temples around the Mediterranean Sea. From the onset of European culture, politics, religion, and society were interconnected within the ancient state, the Greek pólis or the Roman civitas. So religions and politics were interlinked in ancient European societies. Later on, these three aspects differentiated more and more. Today, politics, religions, and societies are almost separated, but one should be aware that humans are oriented toward religious belief, as civilians within a political state and a civil society. So it is useful to respect religion and belief even within a political point of view.

At the beginning of ancient Greek culture, the explanations for the reasons why the universe came to exist, and why it exists the way it does, were given in the myths of the writers Homer (ca. 8th century BCE) and Hesiod (ca. 8th century BCE). Next, there was a shift from mythos (myths) to lógos (reason). This shift can be found in the quotations and fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers, who turned their interests toward nature and the reasons for natural phenomena. Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–546 BCE), for example, a philosopher of nature living on the Ionic coast (today’s Turkey), gave a precise forecast for a total eclipse by calculation, but people took him almost for a prophet, and, what is more, he could forecast a rich bearing of olives, so that he lent all the olive presses in his country for a small amount of money, and consequently he was able to borrow them for a very good price. The next step from myths to reason can be found in the philosophy of Plato (ca. 428/427–348/347 BCE), a disciple of Socrates (ca. 469–399 BCE). Plato underlined his arguments in his dialogues with myths, in order to explain them better to his disciples. Among them, there was another important philosopher, the educator of Alexander the Great, Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Aristotle was also very interested in investigating natural phenomena and in explaining the world by reason, not by myths.

The general aim of this early Greek philosophy was to explain the universe by using human reason rather than mythical explanations. As a result, the soul of a human should not be in a disturbed situation, but in a quiet state, which is characterized as eudaimonía (felicity). The early philosophical schools in ancient Greece always had the intention of caring for the soul by giving reasonable explanations for the universe and its existence. Consequently, these early philosophical schools played the role that religions or beliefs play in our own time.

Major Religions and Belief Systems

There are many religious systems, including ancient systems or natural religions, or smaller derivates from the major religions or belief systems. All religions and belief systems aim to provide answers to human questions on the transcendent and to major questions on life and death. People thus find orientation for their lives within these major religions and belief systems.

In general, Eastern traditions differ from Western traditions. Among Eastern traditions, which have more the character of belief systems than religions, there is Hinduism and Buddhism, but also Confucianism in China, which concentrates on the ethical life, and the animistic and polytheistic Shinto in Japan, which honors and prays to the ancestors. These are known as very old religious traditions in the Eastern part of the world.

The Western traditions are better described as religions than as belief systems. The most important are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three of these religions refer in quite different ways to Abraham (ca. 2000 BCE) as an ideal of a pious and religious person.

Also, Zoroastrianism is counted among the major religious traditions or belief systems. It is considered to be the first monotheistic belief system, with Ahura Mazda as the universal God. But it is also a dualistic system; asha/arta is the principle of “truth” and “order” whereas druj, “lie,” is the opposite. Both principles “fight” against each other in the world. Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet Zoroaster, or Zarathushtra, in the farmland area of today’s Western Iran. The main teachings of Zoroastrianism can be found in the scripture Zend-Avesta.

In Asia, the Hindu traditions are well known; the religion of the Vedas and the Upanishads is grounded in very old scriptures (e.g., the Bhagavad Gita or “Song of God”). The beginning of these traditions is about 4,000 years BCE in India. The Hindu traditions have a polytheistic basis, with Shiva and Vishnu as the central deities, but only one eternal aim: the unification of the individual soul, atman, with the highest spirit, Brahman . After several lives, the soul can enter the Brahman, leaving the system of reincarnation ( samsara ), if the karma, the balance of all individual actions, is good enough. Five elements are considered to be central for Hindu beliefs: (1) dharma (ethics and duties), (2) samsara (cycle of reincarnation), (3) karma (action and resulting reaction), (4) moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth), and (5) yogas (paths and practices). Though it is controversially debated among scholars whether the caste system is an important part of Hindu teaching, this social system remains strong even today. There are four castes, called varnas, beginning with the highest cast: (1) Brahmins (teachers and priests); (2) Kshatriyas (warriors, nobles, and kings); (3) Vaishyas (farmers, merchants, and businessmen); and (4) Shudras (servants and laborers). The caste system is very rigid. Marriage is only possible within one caste. People outside the caste system, Parjanya or Antyaja (or now Dalits), the “untouchables,” have almost no chance to progress in social life. Therefore, this system has often been criticized as discriminatory (e.g., by Mahatma Gandhi [1869–1948], whose ideal was absolute peacefulness).

Also in Asia, the Buddhist tradition is founded on the philosophy of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (ca. 563–483 BCE), who was a teacher of spiritual wisdom. There are two main traditions in Buddhism: the Mahayana (great vehicle) Buddhism and the Theravada (ancient teaching) Buddhism. A smaller tradition is the Hinayana (low vehicle) Buddhism. Central Buddhist teachings contain the Four Noble Truths: (1) the nature of suffering ( dukkha ), (2) suffering’s origin ( samudaya ), (3) suffering’s cessation ( nirodha ), and (4) the way ( marga ) leading to the cessation of suffering. This “way” (marga) is characterized by the Noble Eightfold Path: (1) right view, (2) right intention (wisdom), (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood (ethical conduct), (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right concentration (concentration). The Noble Eightfold Path contains the ethical “program” of Buddhism.

One aim of Buddhism is to bring cessation from suffering to the human soul. There are several traditions within Buddhism. Among them, there is Zen Buddhism in Japan and Tibetan Buddhism, whose head is the Dalai Lama. The monastic tradition is also very common in Buddhism, because its discipline helps the adherent to succeed in achieving the aim, the nirvana, as a unity of the individual soul with the universal in the absolute nothingness (nirvana).

The Mosaic tradition, later Judaism, is historically the first major tradition in Western culture. Christianity and Islam followed. In Judaism, humankind has been given the advice to follow God’s law, which was revealed on Mount Sinai, or Horeb to Moses. This revelation took place during the Exodus, the Jews’ escape out of Egyptian slavery. Moses was the leader of the people of Israel during that time. A life in accordance to the law will end up in felicity and prosperity, even after death. The prophets played a major role, because they renewed the concentration on God’s revelation within his law. During the reign of the Babylonian emperor Nebuchadnezzar II (ca. 630–562 BCE), the Jewish people were kidnapped and taken to Babylon. The Babylonian Talmud was written during this time, a commentary on the Torah, with respect to other commentaries and the oral tradition, in order to give a set of rules for everyday life. Literature interpreting the Torah is known as midrash.

When the people of Israel returned to the Holy Land, they built the first temple. In the year 70 CE, the temple was destroyed by the Romans, and the rabbinic phase began in Judaism. Rabbis are teachers of the Holy Scripture and they interpret for believers. They also give advice to pious Jews on how to manage life and how to decide in problematic situations. The halakha means to follow properly the way of the Jewish tradition.

Judaism today is quite various. There are liberal branches, as well as orthodox branches, whose believers observe the traditional religious law very strictly. As predicted in the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish people still wait for the Messiah, who will come in the future in order to complete the divine law in his person.

In Christianity, Jesus Christ is believed to be the son of God, who came to redeem people. After the original sin of Adam and Eve, humankind survived for the redemption. The redeemer is Jesus Christ, who was crucified by the Romans after being accused, by the Jews in Jerusalem, of heresy for pretending to be the Messiah, and whose resurrection after 3 days astonished people, especially his own disciples. After another 40 days, Jesus Christ went up into heaven. After another 9 days, the Holy Spirit was sent down to earth in order to lead the faithful and to give consolation to them. God is the Holy Trinity in Christian tradition: God-Father, God-Son, God-Holy-Spirit.

Later, the Christian church developed into a more and more powerful institution, which secures the tradition of belief and teaching. Although crusades have occurred, the Christian doctrine is against force and tends toward peace on earth. In the year 1054 CE, the Eastern Greek Church turned away from the Latin Roman Church with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as Vicar of Christ and head of the church. Formally, there were two reasons for the East-West Schism: First, the Western and the Eastern traditions could not find a proper date for Easter, and second, the Eastern tradition could not agree to the filioque (“and by the Son”) within the credo, the big confession of the faith. The filioque means that the Holy Spirit was sent by the Father and Son together.

In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation movements began with the Augustinian monk Martin Luther (1483–1546) in Germany, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), and John Calvin (1509–1564) in Switzerland. The theologians Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466 or 1469–1536) and Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) both followed the Lutheran teaching and supported the Protestant teaching in the academic sector (e.g., by writing important letters). The Protestant Reformation movements wanted to renew the Western Church (e.g., by providing new translations of the Bible, and a new structure by changing the hierarchy). But in the end, these movements divided the church again as a result of a second big schism. Protestant Christianity then divided again into the many small movements and churches, or denominations, of today.

In 1534, the English Church separated from the Roman Church, and as a result the Church of England or Anglican Church was founded. The king or the queen of England is the head of the Anglican Church, and meanwhile the Archbishop of Canterbury exercises this office worldwide in the Anglican Church (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the USA). Whereas the High Church is near to the Catholic Church, the Low Church is nearer to the Protestant Church. So the Anglican Church regards itself as a “middle way” between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism.

In contrast to Protestantism, the Catholic Church keeps up its 2,000-year-old tradition and discipline, although the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican (1962–1965) has changed some elements in this tradition.

Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad (ca. 570–632 CE), who had a direct revelation from God ( Alla – h ). This revelation is written down in the Koran, the holy book of Islam. In 622 CE, the first year of the Islamic calendar, Muhammad went from Mecca to Medina; this event is called the Hijra, or “walk,” which was the founding act of Islam. Sometime later, Muhammad returned to Mecca with his soldiers and gained a lot of followers and power. Islam regards itself as the final religion, which is based on the ultimate revelation given by God to Muhammad. This revelation gave perfection to the Mosaic and Christian revelation. Muhammad, the prophet of God, is the last and the highest of the prophets.

In the Islamic tradition, on each Friday there is a ritual prayer in the mosque. Ritual prayers are among the most important elements of Islam, the so-called Five Pillars of Islam: (1) fasting in the month of Ramadan, (2) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), (3) ritual prayers (salát) several times a day, (4) charity (e.g., giving money to the poor), and (5) the profession of faith. Also, the observance of religious law (sharia), which contains rules for all areas of human life, is central to Islamic teaching. Islam is a religion or belief system of strict discipline, and it has gained a lot of influence in the states of both the Near East and the Middle East, as well as in Indonesia and Africa.

Each major religion or belief system knows certain objects and symbols, as well as rites. The rite is often connected with specific objects or symbols. In Buddhism, for instance, the wheel is a symbol of the recurrence of life and, more important, the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Mosaic tradition, the Star of David is the central symbol of identification. In Christianity, the cross, on which Christ was sacrificed, is the core symbol. And in the Islamic tradition, the half moon, as well as the sword, is central.

Symbols serve to give meaning to rites. In Jewish service, for example, the scrolls of the Torah must not be touched by humans, because they are absolutely sacred and represent God’s presence. Therefore signs exist, sometimes formed like a human hand, with which the scrolls of the Torah can be touched in order to follow the lines, which have to be cited. Another symbol in Jewish service is the shofar, a horn (e.g., from a ram, which is blown in preparation for and during Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, when humans reconcile with God). Yom Kippur is celebrated 10 days after Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year.

In the Catholic Holy Mass, wine and bread are leavened and then transubstantiated into the blood and body of Christ as an unbloody renewal of the Crucifixion of Christ. The Host is then essentially Christ, and it is carefully venerated and adored. Also, the Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic faith as the Mother of Jesus Christ (i.e., the Mother of God). In the Protestant traditions, the transubstantiation is interpreted in a different way. The essential real presence of Christ is limited to the moment of the transubstantiation. Also, the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints is not common in the Protestant tradition. In order to venerate the Corpus Christi (body of Christ), the Virgin Mary, or the saints, there are often processions of Christians, especially in the Catholic tradition.

The pilgrimage ( hajj ) to Mecca, one of the holy cities of Islam, has its aim in circling around the Kaaba, or “cube.” The Kaaba is a thousand-year-old small building and the most sacred place in Islam. In the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, there is the Black Stone, the most important feature of the “cube.” All Muslims pray in the direction of Mecca, as it is the center of Islam.

Also, ritual dances or specific music or songs help to bring people into a state of mind that leads them toward a deeper understanding of the transcendent. The location for rites is, in most cases, a sacred place or a temple (in Christianity, a church), which can be seen as the house of God. These “houses of God or gods” attach a specific place to religions or beliefs, thereby providing an identity for them; also, they provide a meeting point for the believers as a kind of “home.”

Religions and belief systems express themselves in teachings, on the one hand manifested by oral traditions and on the other by sacred manuscripts. The basis for most of the teachings is a divine revelation.

The most common religious manuscript in our times is the Holy Bible, the “book of books.” But in the Far East, we have a lively tradition of Holy Scriptures: In the Vedas and Upanishads, Indian religious wisdom is written down, as in the Bhagavad Gita, or Song of God, as mentioned earlier. In the Bhagavad Gita, Sanjaya, who has a supernatural eye, tells the blind-born king Dhritarashtra about the big battle (between the near-related royal families of the Pandavas and Kauravas) that took place in the region where now the city of Delhi is located.

Judaism and Christianity refer in different ways to the Holy Bible. The Mosaic tradition is based on the five books of Moses, the Mosaic law or the Torah, the books of the prophets, and the psalms. Another important writing of Jewish tradition is The Guide of the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides (ca. 1135–1204), which considers religious and philosophical aspects, and helps to interpret the Jewish law properly. Maimonides’s influence on Jewish thinking still remains intense. Christianity is also based on the Old Testament, partly equivalent to the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh ), but also on the New Testament: the Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Saint Paul, and the General or Catholic Epistles, as well as the Apocalypse of Saint John.

In the Koran, or “the recitation,” the holy book of Islam, the revelation to Muhammad resulted in the central teachings of Islam, which are the core of the religious law, the sharia. Furthermore, the sunna, the history of the life of Muhammad, is the model of a good life for a Muslim. In Islam, the religious law, the sharia, has a great meaning, so the most important religious leaders are judges.

Teachings of all religions provide explanations for the beginning of the universe, as in Genesis, the first book of the bible, moral teachings, and orders for a good life, which must match the will of God. These moral teachings belong to the realm of natural rights, which are similar in all religions and belief systems and their teachings. Natural rights follow human nature and therefore human rationality. Religious teachings give answers to crucial human questions concerning the universe, ethical problems, and life and death.

In the field of religions and beliefs, many fruitful future research areas can be found. The humanities, especially the studies of religion, which are linked to anthropological and sociocultural research, create new research areas: using the structuralistic method of the French ethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, rituals are analyzed in order to discover the common structures of rituals in different religions or beliefs. Furthermore, the discourse of religions and beliefs are examined as well. Therefore, the dynamics and controversies within this discursive process are analyzed and described in order to obtain more results concerning the relationship between different religions and belief systems.

Also, the aesthetics of religions or beliefs are currently under scrutiny. Religions and beliefs can be described as aesthetical systems or systems of symbols, which influence the human realization of reality. The aesthetics of religion build up a systematic coherence for religions and belief systems. Another field of interest is the influence of religions and beliefs on different human societies and politics, because religions and belief systems provide ethical rules and values. Psychological studies examine the inner processes caused by the personal beliefs of a human being, for example during religious examinations, such as prayers or meditations. Very important for future research on religion is the investigation of human nature. All religions or belief systems provide concepts of human nature. This question of human nature is important for answering many questions and solving many problems in terms of the sciences in the future (e.g., in human-genetics research).

Also, in philosophy and theology, there are new areas of research, especially the examination of the relationship between rationality and religion or belief. For example, the context of metaphysical considerations of late antiquity and the appearance of Christian revelation in the first centuries, beginning with early Fathers of the Church like Origen (185–254 CE) and ending with Saint Augustine (354–430 CE). During that time, theology has its origins in the confrontation of philosophy and religion. A major rational concentration on religious thoughts can be found in the Middle Ages (e.g., in the Summa Theologica, written from 1264–1274, of Saint Thomas Aquinas). The rationalism of the European Enlightenment emphasized critical views grounded in logic and nature. After rationalism, German idealism included religion systematically within philosophy as a philosophical perfection of the spirit. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) understood his philosophical work as a negative profile of religion in contrast to Christian thinking, which, he posited, is not suitable to human nature. But in the 20th and 21st centuries, religions and beliefs soon came back to the intellectual agenda. Therefore, religions and beliefs are truly fruitful objects for future research, as well as for anthropological research.

Summing up, the following three points are important for an anthropological perspective of religions and beliefs:

Religions and belief systems want to give humans aspecial place in the universe and within reality itself, which is of course a different orientation from the scientific worldview, but nevertheless one way to consider the universe and humans within it.
People may not want to refer to religion or beliefs assomething entirely made by humans. For many people, religions and beliefs should include a serious transcendental relationship (e.g., based on a revelation). Otherwise, religion is in danger of becoming an ideology, which may lead people to the use of force and cruelty, as in totalitarian political systems. Such systems are often characterized as political religions, like fascism, national socialism, or communism.
Moreover, religions and belief systems need not be rigidsystems of moral teachings in order to suppress others. Religions offer guidelines for life respecting the truth, with the aim being a future life (of the soul) in truth and peace. In religions and belief systems, people want to live their lives in accordance with God, as fruitful and successful individuals. And, what is more, people want to gain the hope for eternal life or redemption after death, which thereby gives a meaningful sense to human existence, like a gate to paradise, near to God or the transcendent.

Religions and beliefs belong to many fields in the humanities: theology, philosophy, sociology, history, religious studies, and psychology (among others). It is very important that, in many perspectives on human life, religion and belief play a role as an answer to the question of the sense of human life and death. In religions and belief systems, humans seek answers to many other questions as well, especially in terms of ethical questions and the question of a good life. As a result, religions and belief systems play a major role within anthropological considerations of any kind.

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Young, S. (2007). New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.

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215 Interesting Religion Research Paper Topics in 2022
As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers: Islam in the Middle East. Trace the origin of Islam.
50 Brilliant Religion Research Topics to Write About
In this paper, we list 50 religion research paper topics and a guide for selecting the best. If you want to get good grades, start with the right step- the best topic. Why You Need the Best Religion Research Paper Topics. When working on any research paper, the most important step is identifying the topic. Indeed, the topic determines the ...
Top 100+ Religion Research Paper Topics in 2024
Religion Systems Topics. The role of ritual in establishing and maintaining religious systems. Comparative analysis of monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The impact of colonialism on indigenous religious systems. The evolution of religious systems in response to modernity and secularism.
Exploring Faith and Belief: Religious Research Paper Topics
2 List of 70 Religion Topics to Write About. 2.1 Christian Research Paper Topics. 2.2 Islam Research Topics. 2.3 Siddhartha Essay Topics. 2.4 Buddhism Essay Topics. 2.5 Hinduism Research Paper Topics. 2.6 Judaism Religion. 2.7 Theology Research Paper Topics. Exploring the realm of religion opens a multitude of avenues for scholarly inquiry.
35 Theology & Religion Research Topics for Undergraduate Students
Analyze the societal roles of religion in different cultures and societies, examining how different religions interact with and influence social structures, norms, and values. Potential sources: Sociological studies on religion, case studies, historical accounts. 8. Comparative Study of Religious Reform Movements.
Review of Religious Research: Sage Journals
The Review of Religious Research(RRR) journal aims to publish manuscripts meeting these six scope criteria: (1) reports empirical research; (2) attends to religiosity and spirituality topics; (3) identifies religious groups and their adherents; (4) engages in interdisciplinary social science research practices; (5) describes methods and analytical techniques; and (6) applies research with ...
PDF religious studies guide
An academic paper without a thesis would be like a mammal without a spine.2 You might have heard "thesis" deﬁ ned as the main idea or argument of your paper. In some cases, this basic deﬁ nition makes sense. But in many writing assignments, especially longer research papers, the stakes for a good thesis go up.
Critical Research on Religion: Sage Journals
Critical Research on Religion is a peer-reviewed, international journal focusing on the development of a critical theoretical framework and its application to research on religion. It provides a common venue for those engaging in critical analysis in theology and religious studies, as well as for those who critically study religion in the other social sciences and humanities such as philosophy ...
Religions
This paper advances the global study of religiosity by conducting a systematic review of the geographic scope, religious traditions, levels of analysis, and topics investigated within contemporary scientific studies of religion, paying particular attention to intersections with generosity. The analysis builds upon a meta-analysis of 30 years of scientific studies of religion that was published ...
PDF A Guide to Writing in THE STUDY OF RELIGION
An academic paper without a thesis would be like a mammal without a spine.2 You might have heard "thesis" defined as the main idea or argument of your paper. In some cases, this basic definition makes sense. But in many writing as-signments, especially longer research papers, the stakes for a good thesis go up.
Religion Research Paper Topics
The purpose of this list of more than 500 religion research paper topics is to provide the students and researchers with a structured topical outline of religious traditions, concepts, and figures, and explain each of them. Religion is one of the most important areas of human life. It has caused wars, inspired great acts of compassion, and produced some of the most exalted literature and ...
134 Religion Research Paper Topics To Write About
Hinduism Hinduism is regarded as the oldest religion, dating back to 1500-600 BCE. It's a religion with a compilation of many beliefs and traditions; due to this reason, it's also referred to as a "Family of religion.". Hindus believe in the continuous cycle of life, death, reincarnation, and karma. Critical thoughts of Hinduism are of ...
Religions
This paper investigates the reasons behind the retention of primal religious worldviews in the face of ecological crises while other major imported religions were abandoned. The research method involved in this paper is archival research, and the literature sources include ancient records and other ecotheological resources.
Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical
Abstract. This paper provides a concise but comprehensive review of research on religion/spirituality (R/S) and both mental health and physical health. It is based on a systematic review of original data-based quantitative research published in peer-reviewed journals between 1872 and 2010, including a few seminal articles published since 2010.
Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics
100 Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics. In the vast panorama of human inquiry, the philosophy of religion holds a unique and seminal place. It sits at the crossroads of existential questioning and spiritual exploration, offering a deep reservoir of topics for those seeking to delve into the nature of divinity, humanity, and the universe.
203 Religious Research Paper Topics
203 Informative Religious Research Paper Topics For A+ Grades. Religion is the way people deal with the ultimate concerns of their lives and fate after death. Hence, people in different religions believe in a supernatural, powerful being; God. Who is all-powerful, sacred, and divine. Some religions even believe in certain spirits.
Religious Studies Theses and Dissertations
Theses/Dissertations from 2016. Solid Metaphor and Sacred Space: Interpreting the Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic Relations Found at Beth Alpha Synagogue, Evan Carter. Growth, and Development of Care for Leprosy Sufferers Provided by Religious Institutions from the First Century AD to the Middle Ages, Philippa Juliet Meek.
History of Christianity Research Paper Topics
The history of Christianity is a vast and diverse field of study that encompasses numerous topics and themes. This comprehensive list of history of Christianity research paper topics is designed to provide students with a wide range of options to explore and analyze. Divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 topics, this list aims to cover ...
40 Religion Research Paper Topics Ideas
40 Religion Research Paper Topics Ideas. Writing a research paper about religion in our multicultural and multireligious society might be a difficult task. Sometimes it is hard not to offend any religious feelings, especially while writing about the history of religion (where lots of wars and conflicts are usually depicted as religious). ...
Religion as Make-Believe: A Theory of Belief, Imagination, and Group
In Religion as Make-Believe, Neil Van Leeuwen argues that factual beliefs (for example, that there's beer in the fridge) differ greatly from "religious credences" (for example, that God is a trinity). Although people commonly say they "believe" the central doctrines of their religion, their attitudes are often closer to pretense. Hence, religion as "make-believe".
Religion
ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions.
6. Religious values and the 2024 election
Race and ethnicity. Few White (7%), Asian (12%) or Hispanic (15%) Biden supporters say government should support religious values, but about a third of Black voters who back Biden (35%) say this. About four-in-ten White (44%) and Hispanic (40%) Trump supporters say the government should have policies to support religion.
3. Faith and Flag Conservatives
This group is 97% Republican and they remain strong supporters of former President Donald Trump. They are highly religious, politically engaged and both socially and economically conservative. They favor a robust role for religion in public life and a smaller role for government in society, and they hold that a strong American military is essential in international affairs.
Religious Ethics Research Paper Topics
This page provides a comprehensive list of religious ethics research paper topics, catering to students studying ethics and tasked with research paper assignments.In addition to the extensive topic list, you'll find valuable insights into the field of religious ethics, the significance it holds in the broader realm of ethics, and its practical applications in real-world scenarios.
120+ Fascinating Essay Topics for High School Students
The following ideas work well for compare-contrast essays. ( Find 80+ compare-contrast essay topics for all ages here.) Public and private schools. Capitalism vs. communism. Monarchy or democracy. Dogs vs. cats as pets. WeAreTeachers. Paper books or e-books. Two political candidates in a current race.
American Psychological Association (APA)
The American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and professional organization that represents psychologists in the United States. APA educates the public about psychology, behavioral science and mental health; promotes psychological science and practice; fosters the education and training of psychological scientists, practitioners and educators; advocates for psychological ...
Anthropology of Religion Research Paper Topics
For Geertz (1973: p. 4), religion was " (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men [sic] by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely ...
4. Gender, family, reproductive issues and the 2024 election
6. Religious values and the 2024 election. Religion and government policy; How much influence should the Bible have on the nation's laws, if any? Views on the federal government's role in promoting Christian values; Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral; 7. Crime, policing and the 2024 election
An Analysis of Pandemic-Era Inflation in 11 Economies
Issue Date May 2024. In a collaborative project with ten central banks, we have investigated the causes of the post-pandemic global inflation, building on our earlier work for the United States. Globally, as in the United States, pandemic-era inflation was due primarily to supply disruptions and sharp increases in the prices of food and energy ...
Religion Research Paper
Religion Research Paper. This sample religion research paper features: 6700 words (approx. 22 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 36 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for ...

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