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Assignment FAQ

Never. We ensure that all content you receive will pass any plagiarism check and never include pre-written or copied content. All of our writers are trained in using anti-plagiarism techniques when doing an assignment, and each academic paper is passed through multiple checks before it is released.

When you place an order and receive the final paper, you will only pay for the content in the body of that paper. Each writer will perform your order based on provided instructions, and the cost is based on the final page count. You will not pay for any added formatting, titles, or references that may be included.

You can make payments using PayPal, Discover, or AmEx. All these methods are supported; you can choose Visa or MasterCard. We process each payment using the latest SSL encryption software to offer safe transactions. The writer will only be paid after you have accepted and approved the assignment. Contact our support team for fast assistance anytime if you need assistance with payments.

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People love Litero. And talk about it.

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Georgetown University

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Benefits of Textero AI Essay Maker

Students use our AI essay writer to simplify the essay-writing process by boosting productivity through quick generation of essays and research papers. This saves time and allows students to stay focused on the topic.

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1M+ Users Review Textero AI Essay Writer

Jan 12, 2023

"As a student who struggles with planning papers and meeting deadlines, Textero AI was a life saver! The automatic outline and bibliography builder kept me structured, while the quick generation of introductions and conclusions accelerated my writing process. I finished two days early!"

Nov 21, 2022

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• Intelligent Outlining Module – AI essay writer uses advanced algorithms to ensure coherent structure of generated texts. Resulting essays have a logical flow that expands on research topics.
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• Narrative – narration of a story through events, often from the author’s perspective;
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Are you ready to write top-quality essay with Textero?

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Your instructions are our law

Individual approach to every order is an EssayPro guarantee. You can trust us with the most ambiguous instructions, and we will still deliver a perfect paper.

Thousands of experts

Our team of writers will help you with any task. Each one has at least three years of practice in academic writing and real-world experience in their field.

Originality is a non-negotiable

Delivering unique papers is a must for us. Every paper goes through a Turnitin-based plagiarism checker. Claim your free originality report to confirm.

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You don’t have to give us any personal information except your email. Stay completely anonymous if you wish. No private data is shared with third parties.

Three easy steps to claim your perfect paper

Step 1: sign up.

Sign in or register to place your order. Give us your instructions and pay the deposit.

Step 2: Pick your expert

Writers will start bidding on your order. Choose the right expert by comparing their qualifications

Step 3: Get your paper

After receiving an email notification, read your paper and confirm receipt. Ask for revision if necessary

Read customers’ testimonials to see why they choose us

There are many academic writing services to choose from. Here’s why people choose ours:

Frequently asked questions

Is it legal to use academic writing services, do your academic writers provide original work, what exactly can you help me with, is there a way to talk to my writer, what makes academic writing so complicated.

Academic writing is not supposed to be easy. It’s a way of assessing students’ knowledge, skills and comprehension of the topic, so it’s meant to be challenging. However, for many students, it’s more than what they can handle. This is why getting academic writing help is not just for emergency situations. For many learners, it’s a lifeline that allows them to have a full life.

Finding a reputable academic writing company that can be on standby to help you solve your troubles is a great way to stay on top of your classes. Whether you need research papers writing help or assistance with essay writing, finding a team of experts is paramount. To ensure that the company is trustworthy, read their reviews on third-party websites, look at what payment options they offer and see if they have a refund option. A good, reputable service will always work with trusted, well-known payment services and will take accountability for their actions. If anything goes wrong, you need to know you will be able to get a refund. This is your safety net.

Studying is never easy, but with a reliable academic help service by your side, it can be more than doable.

Why use EssayPro for help with studying

There are countless companies that provide academic writing services these days. But, unfortunately, you can’t trust them all. Some companies will overcharge you for a mediocre product, and some will just take your money never to be seen again. Luckily for you, though, EssayPro is one of the best service providers out there. And we will tell you why in just a moment.

First of all, our team of professional academic writers is outstanding. All our writers are native English speakers with proven academic writing experience. In addition to that, they are always online and can take care of your every need.

Our prices might look too low compared to other services, but that doesn’t mean we sacrifice on quality. We’ve come up with a system that allows us to keep our prices competitive while providing exceptional quality of service.

At EssayPro, you can get premium experience for an economy price. We provide lots of features, like Plagiarism report, premium writers and formatting for free of charge.

We follow a customer-first approach in every detail of our operation. Our refund policies are written with you in mind. These are just a few reasons why you should choose EssayPro for your next writing project.

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A complete guide to assignment writing

Mind critical thinking, mind your structure, mind your style, mind the references, mind the visuals, mind the accuracy, make your assignment stand out.

A written assignment is a task that every students has to cope with during their education at a college. Your tutors will use it to evaluate your knowledge and skills that you have gained by the end of the course or somewhere in the middle of it to check the progress. Each new task will be a different one, but there are some specific moments that are common for all of them. If you consider this task to be complicated or you simply don’t have time for doing it, we’re here to help you.

We’re a team of experts in different fields, so we will definitely find the right person for your task. If you doubt, you can send us a private message and ask if we can help you with a specific topic. In most of the cases, our cooperation looks like the following:

• You place an order or send us a message;
• You give us all the requirements and we discuss them;
• We select the expert to do your assignment;
• You get the task on time and revise it;
• The writer makes edits or changes if required.

You will spend a few seconds to a few minutes on placing an order and you will get a high-quality piece of writing that will make a positive impression on your professor or tutor

Assignment writing: a step-by-step guide

We’d like to share the tips that we know with you so you will easily cope with the task yourself. Think of the structure, arguments and some analysis. Plan your writing in advance and don’t procrastinate. Of course, we cannot advise you only one variant of planning as you will need a different amount of time for every task. So take a paper calendar or any application on your phone and make notes about what you will do each day.

It’s good to add a few days of rest to your plan as you may go somewhere out or just feel sick and tired of your work. We recommend you to spend less than 30 minutes a day on your assignment. Don’t rush as you will soon lose your motivation. And don’t try to postpone the whole work until the last night before the deadline.

You should read, think, evaluate, compare and express your opinion. College assignment requires you to master your critical thinking, so don’t try to simply rewrite someone else’s words. To do this, you should:

• Read the text;
• Think how it’s related to the topic of your assignment;
• Compare this text to the ones you have read before;
• Think what’s missing in it;
• Think what you agree or disagree with and why;
• Think about the proficiency of the author;
• Think what would you add to this text and so on.

Your text should lead the reader from the first to the last lines. If you don’t write the whole text at a time, you will need to check the continuity of your sentences. They should make a logical structure and become a complete story. And keep in mind all the requirements and guidelines that you have received from your professor. Use a standard structure of the text comprising:

• Introduction (describe the topic and its importance);
• Body (provide the arguments and the evidence);
• Conclusion (make a summary of the arguments).

If you take a look at the assignments online, you will see that the style of the text is academic. You won’t see jargons or slang words. You shouldn’t use personal pronouns like “You” or “I”. Make your sentences short and easy to read. You can check it by reading aloud. If you take a breath and you can read one sentence from start to finish, it has a perfect length. If you make pauses or some lines are hard to read, it’s better to rewrite them.

When ordering assignments online, you will have to find the proofs for all of your words. It means that expressing your opinion regarding the topic is not enough. Your assignment will be too weak without a proper referencing. You provide arguments that represent certain points of view or some specific solutions. You should find reliable sources that will support these statements. And they will become your references.

If you order an assignment writing, you will get at least one bulleted list and one table or picture. Depending on the topic and the course, you may make your text look attractive by dividing the text into paragraphs of the same length and highlighting the titles for the sections if there are any. If allowed, you can add photos or pictures that will make your assignment more impressive.

If you doubt whether you can get rid of all the mistakes, we offer you help with assignment writing and editing. Our brain works the way that we simply miss the mistakes that we have made in the text. And if you want to notice all of the drawbacks, you have to give yourself a bit of rest. Check your text to be free of plague words, any kinds of errors and false statements.

There are two ways that will help you make your assignment super great. One of them is choosing the online writing service. And the second is starting your work as early as possible. You will have enough time for thinking over the approaches to the research and you will have time to improve your text

Online Assignment Writing Service for Students

Doing your homework might be more exhausting and depressing than working in an office full-time. At least, an office job brings money, while the academic work involves only anxiety and headaches. In this situation, many students can’t do all their homework on time. As a result, they need online assignment help. What benefits does it provide, and why ordering assignments online might be crucial for your studying success? Check this all out below:

Whether you need to submit your essay, research paper, or any other type of assignment in time to get an A+ grade, you will benefit from using our essay writing service. We will help you save time and get professional help with your writing assignments and other related tasks. By addressing our assignment writing service, you can streamline your workflow and allocate more time to conducting research and improving your skills.

If you want to advance your academic career, it might be important for you to get the highest grades for your assignments. By ordering our assignment services, you can improve your chances of getting the highest grades. Our experienced assignment writers specialize in a range of subjects, including sociology, philosophy, biology, and many more. We provide the best assignment writing services on the market and can cope even with the most advanced tasks.

What makes our writing services different from the rest is that you can contact the writer assigned to your order to share your suggestions and feedback. We have a convenient online assignment writing platform with handy messaging tools. It allows you to place an order in a few clicks. In this article, we will round up the main benefits of our service and explain what allowed us to become the best assignment writing company on the market. Learn how to order our writing services without any delays!

Custom Assignment Writing Service: Reasons To Choose Us

There are many advantages of our essay writing service that helped us stand out among competitors. Unlike other assignment writing companies, we accept a range of payment methods as well as have a team of experienced assignment writers and have a short turnaround time. Our assignment writing service creates plagiarism-free content that meets the highest requirements.

The key advantage of our online assignment writing site is that it has a convenient interface that allows you to place an order in a few clicks. You will always have the communication tools at hand. It will allow you to contact the support team or our academic writing professionals quickly. When ordering our assignment services, you can be sure that you will receive a custom piece of writing tailored to your needs.

All writing assignments completed by our service stand out for the highest quality of research. Here are the main reasons why we are considered the best assignment writing company:

• Impressive turnaround;
• Ability to meet tight deadlines;
• Expert team of writers and editors;
• Free revisions;
• Money-back guarantee.

In addition, the price for our writing services remains quite affordable, which makes them accessible for students with different budgets and needs. We have a transparent pricing policy and never charge any hidden fees.

Assignment Writing Service of A+ Quality

When it comes to academic writing, it might be a daunting task to write an assignment that will earn you the highest praise. To improve your grades, you may entrust this task to our reliable essay writing service as we have years of experience in this area and thousands of satisfied clients. By contacting our assignment writing service, you can be sure that you will get a well-structured piece of academic writing with the right formatting. Our assignment writers know everything about Chicago, APA, and MLA styles, which allows them to produce A+ essays and research papers.

Our experts specialize in writing assignments on a variety of topics, which is why you can entrust any task to them and get high-quality results within the set deadline. Unlike other assignment writing services, we focus on thorough research, use innovative approaches, and pay attention to detail.

If you don’t know much about formatting and are wondering how to get the highest grades, get assignment writing help without any further delays. We know how to create a powerful thesis statement, analyze sources, conduct research, and produce a strong argument.

Our online assignment writing platform provides custom solutions and caters to the needs of students with different budgets. If you want to impress your tutors but don’t have enough time to study all the nuances of different formatting styles, you can benefit from the best assignment writing services provided by our company. Order our writing services today and get a perfectly-written assignment that will allow you to get the highest grades.

Assignment Writing Service – Save Your Time

Unless you have extensive experience in academic writing, it might be challenging for you to submit your assignment on time unless you get professional help. Our assignment writing service is available 24/7 for those who need assistance. Due to the high academic load, students often don’t have enough time to complete their assignments. This is when our essay writing service comes in handy. We have an intuitive interface, which allows you to place an order and pay for it without wasting loads of time.

Our assignment writing services will be especially useful for those who need to submit several writing assignments within a short deadline. We have a team of top-level assignment writers who have a high level of expertise in different areas. What makes us the best assignment writing company on the market is that we know how to deliver your paper fast and save the best quality. After placing an order, you need to wait a few minutes until you get contacted by a member of our team. Our online assignment writing platform has convenient chatting tools that allow you to keep in touch with our managers and writers.

Unlike other writing services, we have a flexible approach and can cope even with the most complex orders. Our assignment service has a convenient dashboard that allows you to track the progress of your order and get timely updates. You no longer need to spend countless hours analyzing the sources and trying to come up with new ideas for your essay. Order our writing services today and get professionally written, error-free assignments within the shortest time possible!

Hire Professional Assignment Writers with Us

Our essay writing service hires only experienced assignment writers with high academic degrees and an extensive background in their areas of specialization. If you put your trust in our assignment writing service, you can be sure that your order will be completed by a professional academic writer who knows your subject well. Unlike other online assignment writing platforms, we prioritize quality and work only with writers who know everything about different methods of formatting and academic writing genres.

When placing your order, you may indicate that you are ready to pay more for the writing services provided by our most experienced assignment writers. It will ensure that you will get the final version of your assignment that fully meets your requirements.

A true academic writing professional should know the subject well and be able to work with relevant source materials to find a solution quickly. Our assignment writing service has a team of specialists who meet tight deadlines and conduct thorough research to ensure that their clients will be fully satisfied with their orders.

What makes us the best assignment writing company on the market is that we consider user feedback carefully and use it to improve our services. Our writers are ready to make free revisions and always keep in touch with clients. We gained the trust of our clients’ thanks to our diligent approach to the completion of every order.

We rank our professionals based on their degrees, expertise level, and customer feedback. Many of our editors and writers have a Ph.D. degree, which guarantees that they will have a high level of competence in different areas. Whether you want to get a Master’s degree in biology, physics, anthropology, or other disciplines, you just need to indicate it when placing an order and we will pick a writer who is the most suitable for writing your assignment.

Online Assignment Writing: Our Guarantees

Our primary goal is to provide the best assignment writing services to our clients. We have a strict refund policy. When requesting online assignment help, discuss the deadline beforehand and provide clear instructions. It will allow you to get your refund quickly if you aren’t satisfied with the result. To get a refund, you need to contact the members of our support team. Your initial online assignment writing request will be carefully examined to check if the text you received meets your requirements. If an assignment writer missed a deadline, you could request a refund.

In some cases, we also offer discounts on our assignment services to ensure that our clients are fully satisfied. We guarantee that you will receive top-level text only if you provide detailed instructions and answer our clarification requests.

Our support team provides assignment writing help 24/7. You can contact it via phone or chat. We guarantee that our clients will receive a full refund in these cases:

• If you have been charged twice due to some issues with your bank;
• If you accidentally placed two identical orders;
• In case the writer of the requested expertise level wasn’t available;
• If you canceled your order before an assignment writer started working on your text.

Additionally, our assignment service guarantees that you will get your money back if your order doesn’t meet your demands. Your text will be checked for plagiarism as well as spelling and grammar mistakes. Besides, we provide the revision major assignment service for those who need to take into account some specific requirements that weren’t mentioned in the details of an order.

By contacting our essay writing service, you can be sure that you won’t need to pay any extra fees for the services you didn’t order. We will keep in touch with you to ensure that you will get the result you will be fully satisfied with.

Free Revisions

As we aim to provide the best assignment writing services on the market, we offer free revisions to our clients. You will receive an error-free essay proofread by our professionals. When ordering an online assignment, you might worry about its structure and coherence. Thanks to our assignment writers, you will receive a text that fully meets your requirements and has the specified formatting. We will send you the final version of the draft free of spelling and grammar mistakes.

The key advantage of our online assignment writing service is that we provide plenty of free options that will make your experience stress-free and allow you to save money. We will use the specified formatting without charging you extra. If you see that your online assignment requires further improvement, you can request revisions without paying a dime. To make a request, you need to find the “Files” list on your “Personal Order” page.

You will quickly get online assignment help if you send detailed instructions for improving your text and set a deadline. In case your text needs complex editing or you decide to change the instructions, you may order the rewriting assignment service. As in this case, a significant amount of rewriting is required, such assignment writing help will cost you extra.

Our best assignment writing service has a strict revision policy. To get this assignment service, you need to click on the special button that appears on your order page when you receive a draft. When deciding whether a client can get free revisions, we pay attention to several things. You can request revisions not more than 10 days after you approved the initial version of your text. In cases when writing assignments are longer than 20 pages, clients can request free revisions two weeks after the initial approval.

Only Safe Payment Methods

These days, it’s more important than ever to ensure that your payment details will remain safe and won’t get accessed by third parties. Our essay writing service cares about the safety of the payment data provided by our clients and uses only the most secure payment methods, such as:

• MasterCard;
• American Express;

We put strict measures in place to ensure that your bank details will remain safe. Before requesting our assignment writing help, you can learn more about our refund policy. In case you aren’t satisfied with your order and see that it doesn’t meet your requirements, you can request a full refund. As we provide top-quality services, we do everything to ensure the satisfaction of our clients and offer a money-back guarantee.

What makes us the best assignment writing service is that we rely only on trusted payment providers, which allows us to protect your bank details from being accessed by third parties.

To contact our online assignment writing service, you need to either use a live chat or place an order and wait until we get back in touch with you. We have a transparent pricing policy, which is why you will see the total price of your order after indicating your requirements.

Keep in mind that you will need to pay more for the services provided by our top 30 professional assignment writers who specialize in your area. The total price of our assignment writing services that you will see after indicating all the details of your order will include the price of your research paper, essay, coursework, or other assignments, as well as the extra services that you want to include. To order our writing services, check whether all the details of your order are correct and pay the total bill. An assignment writer will receive the payment only when you confirm that you are fully satisfied with your order.

Full Anonymity

Our trusted online assignment writing service uses strict measures to ensure that the information about each order won’t get disclosed and accessed by third parties. We know that our clients value privacy and do everything to maintain it. When using our secure platform, you can be sure that your identity will remain fully hidden. These days, it becomes more important than ever to find a team of experienced assignment writers who know about the importance of protecting customer data. With us, you can be sure that the details of your order, as well as your bank data, name, occupation, location, and the name of an academic institution will remain hidden.

Our custom assignment writing service stands out for its meticulous approach when it comes to ensuring user privacy. We guarantee 100% confidentiality and use personal details only to improve the quality of the provided services. Our team may contact you directly in case we need to clarify the details of your order or check your payment data. Unlike cheap assignment writing services that don’t pay enough attention to user privacy, we strive to establish long-term relationships with our clients and have a transparent security policy.

We provide top-level academic writing assistance and know how to protect the identity of the students who contact us. To maintain full anonymity, our essay writing service doesn’t collect any user data. We also don’t sell this information to third-party platforms. This policy allowed us to gain the trust of our clients and maintain an ethical approach. Our professional essay writers don’t know who their clients are. Likewise, we don’t disclose the identity of our writers, which allows us to ensure full anonymity and prevent unauthorized access to user data.

Speedy Delivery

When placing your order, you can specify the deadline. It may range from 1 hour to 30 days. What makes us the best assignment writing service in the field is that we cater to the needs of all users and can meet tight deadlines. However, it will cost you extra to get your assignment done as quickly as possible as the price of an order depends on the deadline you select. If you need online assignment help with your capstone project, coursework, or case study, you may have to wait longer due to the high volume of such assignments.

To get the text of the highest quality, it’s advisable to contact our team beforehand. It will also make it easier for you to request the help of the professional assignment writers on our team who have the best reviews. We are often contacted by clients who are disappointed with cheap assignment writing services that they have ordered before. While we also provide affordable services, we maintain high standards when it comes to the quality of writing and meeting deadlines.

Whether you have a whole month or several hours until the deadline, contact our team by filling out an online form, and we will get back to you in 10 minutes. You will be informed whether it’s possible to complete your order within the set deadline. Remember that the timer will start only when you pay for the order and provide us with detailed instructions. When setting a deadline for your online assignment, keep in mind that you will receive the first draft within it. If you decide to request revisions, it will take our team longer to complete the order. This is why we advise our clients to contact us 5-7 days before the actual deadline.

Assignment Writing Help: Easy Steps to Order

If you have already made up your mind and decided to place an order on our website, you can either quickly fill out the online form on the right or click the “Order Now” button in the top right corner. If you opt for the latter, you will be taken to a new page where you can:

• Select the type of assignment service you need;
• Indicate the number of pages;
• Select spacing;
• Select your subject and academic level;
• Set the deadline;
• Choose the level of a writer.

In addition, you will be asked to provide your email. For an extra fee, you can receive progress updates, which will help you keep track of project completion. Then, click the “Next Step” button below to send us additional details about your order and indicate which assignment services you need. The process is quite intuitive and won’t take you more than a couple of minutes.

Our online assignment writing service doesn’t charge for the title page and the reference page, so you will get them for free. If you order a 5-page research paper, you will get 7 pages in total. In case you have any issues with placing your order, you may contact our support team via live chat. After contacting our custom assignment writing service for the first time, you may receive a generous discount by indicating your email in a dedicated field. Remember that by providing detailed instructions, you can improve your chances of getting top-level results.

Quality Assignments Writing Services and Other Services in a Variety of Subjects

Our service provides quality assignments writing services, with the help of which students can get rid of the difficulties of doing their homework on their own and forget about bad grades. We cooperate with qualified writers who have a high level of education and have passed many tests before joining the team of specialists.

Each author immediately responds to the request for “help with assignment writing” and immediately proceeds to complete the order without wasting a minute. For us, the success of customers who have applied to our website is important, so you can be sure that your task will be completed quickly and efficiently. Turning to our service, you can enjoy a beautiful design and an intuitive and simple interface that is easy to understand.

To buy assignments online, you do not need to perform many complex actions, you just need to fill out the order form and indicate the email address to which the finished document will be sent. We care about the peace of mind of students, therefore, to order online assignment writing services, we do not require filling out a large number of questionnaires and providing personal data. In addition, our service provides quality services at the most affordable prices, so that every student can benefit from the help of professionals, regardless of financial situation.

In addition to the fact that our service provides high-quality homework writing services, we care about the comfort of our customers, and if you have any additional questions or difficulties using the site, you can contact the 24/7 support service, whose specialists will give an instant answer and help you solve the problem. You can rely on us and place an order for our service as soon as possible so as not to miss the deadline!

Save Your Time by Placing an Order on Our Best Assignment Service

We are the best assignment service, which not only helps to cope with complex tasks but also takes care of the comfortable use of the platform. We know better than anyone that student life is the most intense and busy, and students often do not have enough time to complete complex tasks on their own. In this regard, we suggest using the writing assignment help of our specialists and forget about the previous difficulties. By placing an order on our service, you guarantee yourself a large amount of free time that you can spend on studying another subject, walking with friends or family, or sleeping.

After placing an order, professional writers will immediately start writing your document and you can enjoy your free time, isn’t it great! Experienced specialists of our service have been engaged in writing assignments online for many years and face similar tasks every day. Thanks to a large store of knowledge and many years of experience, experts can fulfill your order with high quality in the shortest possible time. If for some reason you forgot or don’t have time to do your homework on time, you can buy an assignment online and not worry about a missed deadline. Our writing service cares about the success of every client who comes to us to buy assignment online and does everything possible so that they can enjoy student life while professional writers work on their assignments.

Is your service safe?

Yes, as we strive to provide the best assignment writing services in the field, we care about the privacy of our clients and guarantee the safety of their data. As we have mentioned in the article, you can use secure payment methods, such as Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and Discover. It ensures that your bank data will remain fully protected.

How can I choose a writer?

When placing an order, you will be offered to select a level of your writer. By default, your order will be completed by the best expert in your field available at the moment. However, by paying an extra fee, you can ask our team to assign one of the top 30 writers in the field to your order to get the best result. If you need the assistance of the most experienced writer, you can also pay for the services provided by a premium essay writer who has the highest level of academic expertise.

Can I contact my writer about new requirements for my paper?

If you need online assignment help, you can get in touch with either a member of our support team or with a writer assigned to your order. To do it, use the in-built messaging tools. To find your writer, search for the number of your order in the control panel. You will be sent an email notification about every reply you receive from our team. However, to avoid possible misunderstandings, it’s recommended to send your detailed requirements when placing your order. You can further clarify them later, but if you want to fully change them when a draft is ready, you may need to place a new order.

How can I order a paper?

You can either click the “Order Now” button in the top right corner of the screen or quickly fill out an online form on the right by specifying the type of assignment, the level of academic expertise, the deadline, and the number of pages. Keep in mind that you can unlock a special price with a discount by indicating your email. When placing an order, select a level of an assignment writer, and don’t forget to mention additional details about your order. You can also write about whether you need to order any extra services.

What clients say about this Assignment writing service:

Most of our clients, or 97% to be precise, are happy with what they get in the end. Moreover, they return to our services again and even bring their friends. You can use our assistance too.

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What JD Vance did in Iraq, as told by the friend who served with him

When jd vance criticized his opponent, tim walz, for not deploying to iraq, some democrats scrutinized his own military record. richard hall speaks to a veteran who served alongside vance about what their time in the country entailed, article bookmarked.

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J D Vance sparked a firestorm this week when he accused fellow veteran and Democratic vice presidential nominee, Minnesota governor Tim Walz, of abandoning his unit before it deployed to Iraq.

“When the United States Marine Corps … asked me to go to Iraq to serve my country, I did it,” Vance told reporters.  “When Tim Walz was asked by his country to go to Iraq … he dropped out of the army and allowed his unit to go without him.”

Democrats were quick to hit back at the claim, pointing out that Walz filed to run for Congress and officially retired from the Minnesota National Guard months before his unit was alerted about deployment. But Vance’s criticism of his opponent’s record has drawn greater scrutiny of his own time as a “combat correspondent” in the Marine Corps, a role that involves gathering news and writing articles for internal Marine Corps publications and facilitating interviews and access for civilian media.

Following his attacks on Walz, some Democratic critics gave him the disparaging nickname ‘ Sergeant Scribbles ” because of the clerical nature of his assignment.

But Cullen Tiernan, who served alongside JD Vance in Iraq as a fellow combat correspondent, told The Independent the role was not without danger.

“When we first landed, we got mortar and rockets from Baghdadi, the neighboring town. That was definitely a shock,” he said. “It’s odd to me that people would try to negate or put down what combat correspondents do. When you’re walking in patrol, or when you’re flying in a helicopter that goes into the sandstorm, or when you come upon an IED, and see people who have been blown up, you’re having the same exact experience. You just also have a camera and an obligation to document it.”

Vance enlisted in the Marine Corps after graduating from high school in 2003. He went by the name James D. Hamel at the time, having taken the last name of his stepfather.

He served for four years with the 2nd Marine Aircraft In Wing, Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina, and was deployed to Iraq for six months from August 2005 and into 2006, based at Al Asad air base in western Iraq.

Vance would occasionally go out beyond the wire of the base on missions to Al Qaim and other towns further up the Euphrates River to document the work of the Marine Corps. Tiernan said they would carry M16 rifles and 9mm pistols as they did so.

Writing in his 2016 memoir Hilbilly Elegy, Vance said he was “lucky to escape any real fighting.” But the period in which he was deployed was by no means quiet. The US invasion and occupation of Iraq had been raging for three years by the time Vance arrived in the country. In 2005, Iraqis voted in national elections and some 844 American service members were killed across the country.

The next year, a sectarian civil war brought extreme violence between Sunni and Shia communities and the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq, which would later become Isis.

Movie fans might be familiar with one of the few representations of combat correspondents on the big screen in the character of Private James T. “Joker“ Davis, from the 1987 Vietnam War epic by Stanley Kubrick, Full Metal Jacket.

But Tiernan said the combat correspondent’s primary role was “telling the Marine Corps’ story.”

“These people don’t toot their own horn, so it’s about making their family and their friends and the people that love them understand what they’re doing and what their sacrifice entails,” he added.

Vance wrote at least 11 articles for the official website of the Marine Corps while he was deployed. His first, published on September 11, 2005, was about the Marine engineers building bases for the Iraq security forces. In another, he wrote about a daring rescue by Marines of a sniper who was injured and pinned down in a gun battle in northwestern Iraq.

“Luckily, the sniper was still alive, but he needed immediate medical attention. But, there was a problem. The closest casualty evacuation helicopters were miles away, and were still on the ground.  If the Marine’s life was going to be saved, he needed to be evacuated right then,” Vance wrote in the article, which included interviews with the people involved.

Tiernan said Vance’s time writing about the Marine Corps was where he “learned the art” of storytelling, which enabled to tell his family story in his bestselling memoir, Hibilly Elegy . The book propelled Vance to fame and set him on a path to the halls of Congress as Senator of Ohio, and later to the Republican ticket as candidate for vice president.

Tiernan, a progressive activist who disagrees with Vance politically, was there for the entire deployment and they remain friends to this day.

“I love JD still. Pretty much everyone I served with — but especially those I went to Iraq with and have those deep 20-year relationships [with] — I really do my best not to let politics get in the middle of it,” he said. “That is not to say that I don’t try to influence the man, and he certainly tries to influence me in our friendship over the years.”

Tiernan added that one thing they do agree on is “trying to end wars.”

“I think that he’s in a unique position to try to de-escalate conflicts because he knows what it’s like to be a person sent to the front lines, be[ing] away from their family and their friends and everything that they know that’s familiar. Him not wanting that to happen to other people — it’s a real important voice to have in politics,” he said.

Both Vance and Tiernan returned from their deployment disillusioned with the war, and the projection of American military power.

“I left for Iraq in 2005, a young idealist committed to spreading democracy and liberalism to the backward nations of the world,” Vance wrote in 2020 . “I returned in 2006, skeptical of the war and the ideology that underpinned it.”

In a statement, a Harris-Walz campaign spokesperson strongly pushed back against Vance’s claim that Walz had “dropped out” rather than deploy with the men he led, instead accurately describing the governor’s separation from service as a normal retirement after nearly a quarter-century in uniform.

“After 24 years of military service, Governor Walz retired in 2005 and ran for Congress, where he chaired Veterans Affairs and was a tireless advocate for our men and women in uniform — and as Vice President of the United States he will continue to be a relentless champion for our veterans and military families,” they said.

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Due: Fri Aug 16 11:59 pm No late submissions accepted.

No late submissions are accepted on this assignment (except for OAE accommodations or granted extensions). The deadline is firm without exception.

Assignment by Daniel Rebelsky

Late submissions are NOT ALLOWED.

Learning Goals

This assignment focuses on sockets programming and on building up your ability to create programs from scratch---while we'll guide you through the process of creating the server, we will provide much less starter code than in prior assignments.

In this assignment, you will implement a simple HTTP file server. There are four parts to the assignment.

• implementing a TCP file server that responds to simple requests
• modifying the server to run over HTTP
• modifying that server to support concurrent and invalid requests
• making a simple client

To get started on the assignment, clone the starter project using the command

git clone /afs/ir/class/cs107/repos/assign7/$USER assign7

The starter project contains the following:

• Makefile : the Makefile for compiling
• stage1.c , stage2.c , stage3.c , stage4.c , get.c
• util.c and util.h utility functions and constants for HTML/HTTP and other things (no need to read the c file, although you're welcome to, all documentation is in the header file)
• string.c and string.h contain utility functions and a struct for a simple growable string: you don't have to use it, but it may be useful in the HTTP portion when you're trying to dynamically generate HTML and figure out its length
• custom_tests : the file where you should add custom tests for your programs
• samples/check_stagen for checking your stagen implementation
• tools : contains symbolic links to the submit and codecheck programs for checking and submitting your work.

Useful information/Changes from previous assignments

This assignment has gone through many fewer revisions than previous assignments, so we expect it to be more challenging. Additionally, since there is more freedom in your solutions, we have a slightly different testing framework. We provide tests in samples/test* ---to use a test, just run samples/test_stage1 from your assignment directory. Also, you can ignore the Killed message: as long as you see "Looks good!", your passing the test cases we've given you (note that this takes a decent amount of time for the later parts of the assignment and won't work if you happen to run on the same machine as someone else in 107). You can also use python3 -m pdb samples/test_stagen to get a gdb-like interface to step through the Python code and see where tests aren't working (feel free to ask on Ed about this), and you can copy and edit the test cases if you want (e.g., I found it helpful to occasionally remove the stdout=DEVNULL to allow printf style debugging). For debugging on this assignment, nc will also be invaluable---be sure to read the man page or refer back to lecture slides, and when you get to the HTTP portions, remember about the -C flag. In general, where there is lack of specificity in this assignment, we've tried to add a test case to cover the expected behavior. Also, the stages are intended to build on each other, so it would be a reasonable approach to copy your code from one to the next.

Error handling

As mentioned in lecture, you should handle errors as they are potentially encountered: we reserve the right to test that your code appropriately handles error conditions. In general, what we recommend for this assignment is using perror("some message here"); followed by exit(1) for server-level errors, and just removing the client for errors local to an indiviual client.

1. Implementing a TCP file server that responds to simple requests

Your first goal should be to write a program (in stage1.c ) that listens on a given port (specified as the first argument). At this point, samples/check_stage1 should pass. It doesn't need to do anything besides accept a single request.

Our next step will be to write an echo server (in stage2.c ): continue looping forever, and in each loop, accept a connection from the client, read a single line, and write that line back before closing the connection. At this point, samples/check_stage2 should pass.

In the next step, we want to build out the listing functionality (in stage3.c ). First, modify the server to take in two parameters: the first should be the path to serve and the second should be the port number. Instead of echoing back the line, read the path it specifies, and if it's a directory, write the entries to the stream. Otherwise, if it's a regular file just output the file contents. Return 404 if the path refers to a non-existent file/directory. Make sure to only allow reading of paths under the path specified, you can use canonicalize to help with this. At this point, samples/check_stage3 should pass.

2. Modifying the server to run over HTTP

Http overview.

Feel free to read over the Wikipedia page for HTTP , but for the purposes of this assignment, all we need to know is that the client request will start with a line like

GET /pathname/file%20with%20space HTTP/1.1

that ends with \r\n . We have three parts separated by spaces, the verb (which you can ignore for this assignment), the path which is URL encoded, and the protocol version (which you can ignore---you don't need to check it's value). Our response will look something like the following. Note that every line should end with \r\n , and note that the numbering is just for easy reference below (you should not actually write it out!).

In broad strokes, there are two parts to this: our headers and the content. The above are a pretty minimal set of headers, but enough that the content should render correctly. In the first line, we set the response code---if it was a successful request, you can write HTTP/1.1 200 OK , otherwise, we'll want to give some error code. For the purposes of this assignment, you can always just write out HTTP/1.1 404 Not Found (feel free to just use the provided NOT_FOUND constant). In the second line, we set the MIME type of the response. For the directory listings, you can use text/html and for the files, you can use the result of get_mime_type . Line 3 tells the client that we will close the connection after writing the output (we will not listen for more requests on the same connection). Line 4 specifies the size of our output in bytes. Line 5 is a required empty line to separate our content, and line 6 starts our 11 bytes of content.

HTML Overview

Our minimal valid HTML file listing looks roughly like

You don't need to worry about indentation, but you should make sure to include an h1 with the current path, and a li and a for each link.

At the end of this milestone, when you're running the server and on the Stanford WiFi, you should be able to go to mythnn.stanford.edu:portn where nn is the number of your myth machine and portn is the port number you're using. Note that if you're not on the Stanford WiFi, you can use the Stanford VPN to still connect to the Myth machine. (Currently, there are no tests for this part of the assignment.)

Modifying the server to support concurrent and invalid requests

Note that if one client is taking too long right now, all other requests will be blocked until we finish serving it. We want to change to using a select or poll based state-machine approach. (Currently, there are no tests for this part of the assignment.)

Write a simple HTTP GET ter

Write a simple client that takes in a URL and PATH (command line arguments) and sends a GET request to that address. Currently, there are no tests for this part of the assignment, but you should be able to compare your output to that of a nc -C or look at just the response vs what curl returns.

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The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips

Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.

Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.

The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
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Table of contents

Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.

Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.

Coming up with a topic

If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.

The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.

Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:

Doing the research

Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:

• Searching for primary and secondary sources .
• Reading the relevant texts closely (e.g. for literary analysis ).
• Collecting data using relevant research methods (e.g. experiments , interviews or surveys )

From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.

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Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.

Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.

Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.

An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question: How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.

This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.

To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.

Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.

The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.

When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.

The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.

Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.

Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.

Evaluating the first draft

It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.

It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.

When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.

Right now, you’re looking for:

• Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
• Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
• Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
• Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.

For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.

Redrafting and revising

Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:

• Making changes to your overall argument.
• Reordering the text.
• Cutting parts of the text.
• Adding new text.

You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.

Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.

Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .

Editing for grammar and clarity

When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:

• Grammatical errors.
• Ambiguous phrasings.
• Redundancy and repetition .

In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:

• Austen’s style is frequently humorous, her characters are often described as “witty.” Although this is less true of Mansfield Park .
• Austen’s style is frequently humorous. Her characters are often described as “witty,” although this is less true of Mansfield Park .

To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.

Proofreading for small mistakes and typos

When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:

• Spelling errors.
• Missing words.
• Confused word choices .
• Punctuation errors .
• Missing or excess spaces.

Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.

For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:

• Mary Crawfords character is a complicate one and her relationships with Fanny and Edmund undergoes several transformations through out the novel.
• Mary Crawford’s character is a complicated one, and her relationships with both Fanny and Edmund undergo several transformations throughout the novel.

Proofreading for stylistic consistency

There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:

• Whether you use the serial comma .
• Whether you use American or British spellings and punctuation (you can use a punctuation checker for this).
• Where you use numerals vs. words for numbers.
• How you capitalize your titles and headings.

Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.

Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

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Tim Walz's military record: What to know about potential VP's National Guard service

Democratic presidential candidate Kamala Harris selected Minnesota Governor Tim Walz as her running mate on Tuesday, choosing a progressive yet plain-spoken VP candidate from America’s heartland to help her win over rural, white voters.

“I’m pleased to share that I’ve made my decision: Minnesota Governor Tim Walz will join our campaign as my running mate,” Harris said via text to supporters. “Tim is a battle-tested leader who has an incredible track record of getting things done for Minnesota families. I know that he will bring that same principled leadership to our campaign, and to the office of the vice president.”

We look at Walz, a 60-year-old U.S. Army National Guard veteran, and his military career over the years.

More: Tim Walz is Kamala Harris' VP pick: Minnesota governor named running mate: Live updates

How long was Walz in the military?

Walz served in the military for 24 years, enlisting in the Nebraska National Guard at 17 in 1981 and then transferring to the Minnesota National Guard in 1996. He retired in 2005 to begin his successful run for the U.S. House, representing Minnesota as command sergeant major, among the highest ranks for enlisted soldiers. His battalion went on to deploy to Iraq shortly after Walz's retirement.

Walz specialized in heavy artillery and had proficiency ribbons in sharpshooting and hand grenades.

But during the 21 years that Walz spent working with large artillery pieces, he suffered hearing loss and tinnitus in both ears, Minnesota Public Radio reported. He was allowed to continue his service after undergoing surgery, which partially resolved his hearing loss.

Where did Walz serve, and what did he do in the National Guard?

During his service, Walz responded to natural disasters, including floods and tornadoes in Minnesota and Nebraska, and was deployed overseas for months at a time, according to MPR.

In 2003, he was sent to Italy, where he served with the European Security Force to support the war in Afghanistan. He was also stationed in Norway for joint training with other NATO militaries.

Walz told MPR that he reenlisted in the National Guard after the September 11 attacks but never saw active combat in his years in the military.

Stars and Stripes reported in 2020 that Walz credited his Army experience with helping him steer Minnesota through the COVID-19 pandemic as governor.

As governor of Minnesota, Walz is commander in chief of the 13,000-soldier Minnesota National Guard. “I’m certainly proud of my military service, but it’s one piece of me,” he told Minnesota Public Radio in 2018. “It doesn’t define me.”

Reuters and USA TODAY reporter Tom Vanden Brook contributed to this story.

How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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By Simon J. Levien and Maggie Astor

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