case study of social science

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Cite this chapter

• R. M. Channaveer 4 &
• Rajendra Baikady 5  

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This chapter reviews the strengths and limitations of case study as a research method in social sciences. It provides an account of an evidence base to justify why a case study is best suitable for some research questions and why not for some other research questions. Case study designing around the research context, defining the structure and modality, conducting the study, collecting the data through triangulation mode, analysing the data, and interpreting the data and theory building at the end give a holistic view of it. In addition, the chapter also focuses on the types of case study and when and where to use case study as a research method in social science research.

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Channaveer, R.M., Baikady, R. (2022). Case Study. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_21

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Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences

by Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett

ISBN: 9780262572224

Pub date: April 15, 2005

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The use of case studies to build and test theories in political science and the other social sciences has increased in recent years. Many scholars have argued that the social sciences rely too heavily on quantitative research and formal models and have attempted to develop and refine rigorous methods for using case studies. This text presents a comprehensive analysis of research methods using case studies and examines the place of case studies in social science methodology. It argues that case studies, statistical methods, and formal models are complementary rather than competitive.

The book explains how to design case study research that will produce results useful to policymakers and emphasizes the importance of developing policy-relevant theories. It offers three major contributions to case study methodology: an emphasis on the importance of within-case analysis, a detailed discussion of process tracing, and development of the concept of typological theories. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences will be particularly useful to graduate students and scholars in social science methodology and the philosophy of science, as well as to those designing new research projects, and will contribute greatly to the broader debate about scientific methods.

Alexander L. George was Graham H. Stuart Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University and the author or coauthor of many books, most recently Presidential Personality and Performance (1998).

Andrew Bennett is Associate Professor of Government at Georgetown University and the author of Condemned to Repetition? The Rise, Fall, and Reprise of Soviet-Russian Military Interventionism, 1973-1996 (MIT Press, 1999).

In this book, George and Bennett explain how research methods such as process tracing and comparative case studies are designed, carried out, and used as the basis for theory development in social science. They provide an invaluable research guide for any scholar interested in the case study approach. But the book is much more than an account of how to do case study research. The authors also offer a sophisticated discussion of the philosophy of science that will be useful to anyone interested in the place of case-study methods in broader debates about social science methodology, and they give a discerning analysis of policy-relevant theory that is sure to draw the attention of a research community increasingly concerned about the social and political relevance of modern social science. In scope, clarity, and erudition, this book sets a new standard not only in the analysis of case study methods, but also in the study of social science methods more broadly. David Dessler, Associate Professor of Government, College of William & Mary

This book combines clear and concise instructions on how to do qualitative research with sophisticated but accessible epistemological reasons for that advice. The volume provides step-by-step templates on ways to design research, compare across cases, congruence test and process trace, and use typological theories. This guidance is illustrated with dozens of concrete examples. Almost no other methodology text comes close to matching the authors' top-to-bottom synthesis of philosophy of science and practical advice. Colin Elman, Executive Director, Consortium on Qualitative Research Methods, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Arizona State University

This landmark study offers to scholars of all methodological persuasions a philosophically informed, theoretically nuanced, and methodologically detailed treatment of case study analysis. With this book Alexander George and Andrew Bennett help all of us in improving our research, teaching, and disciplinary debates. Peter J. Katzenstein, Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., Professor of International Studies, Cornell University

Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences makes an indispensable contribution to the growing literature on qualitative methods in the social sciences. It provides a definitive analysis of case study methods and research designs, anchors those methods in contemporary philosophy of science, and argues that case study, statistical, and formal approaches can and should be mutually reinforcing in the development and testing of social theories. Jack S. Levy, Board of Governors' Professor, Rutgers University

Today, more and more social scientists recognize the importance of cases in social and political research and are looking for new ways to make their research more case oriented. George and Bennett show how in this important new work. The beauty of their approach is their careful integration of theory and method and their conviction that the pursuit of empirical knowledge is profoundly theory dependent. Charles Ragin, Professor of Sociology, University of Arizona

Andrew Bennett and Alexander George have written an immensely helpful practical guide to the case method. It offers sharp insight on scientific inference and very useful how-to guidance on doing case studies. Graduate students in social science: don't leave home without it! Stephen Van Evera, Professor of Political Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The history of social science shows that well-designed case studies can be both a fertile source of new theories and a powerful tool for testing them. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences raises our understanding of case study methodology to a new level of rigor and sophistication. George and Bennett provide a careful analysis of the virtues and pitfalls of comparative case study research and offer valuable advice for any scholar engaged in qualitative research. The more widely this book is read, the better future social science will be. Stephen M. Walt, Robert and Renée Belfer Professor of International Affairs, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University

This is an extraordinarily valuable book—a guide written with the practitioner in mind, very sophisticated in its approach to the subject, but loaded with practical advice. George and Bennett show how systematic, rigorous, and above all meaningful case study work is to be done. This is the sort of book scholars—and not just graduate students—will want to come back to over and over again. Marc Trachtenberg, Professor of Political Science, University of California, Los Angeles

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The Case Study in Social Research

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The Case Study in Social Research proposes and develops an innovative, rigorous, and up to date methodological clarification of the case study approach in the social sciences to consistently and consciously apply it to different fields of social research. It aspires to provide the reader not with a set of prescriptive rules, but rather with a ‘methodological awareness’ of the complexity and peculiarity of applying a case study, so that they may carefully evaluate the limits and potential of conducting this type of investigation.

What is case study research in the sociological field really? How do we carry out a social inquiry of this type? How does it differ from other social research approaches? In answering these questions, this book leads the reader on a historical, epistemological, technical, and applicative path in the methodology of social research, by examining all aspects of the case study approach. The aim is to respond to as-yet still equivocal and misunderstood methodological issues, and provide a systematic illustration and exemplification of the case study approach, beginning from its sociological and methodological roots, its research design, and on through to its preparation and administration. Space is also dedicated to specifically and practically understanding the differences between the case study and the other social research approaches, with which it is often confused in literature, such as ethnographic research, grounded theory, or qualitative research.

This book is suitable for upper level undergraduate and postgraduate students in the social sciences, and as a supplementary textbook to primary methods texts, as well as for social researchers, and other practitioners and academics with a firm grounding in social research methodologies.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 5  pages, introduction, chapter 1 | 16  pages, social research and its methods, chapter 2 | 16  pages, the origins and development of the case study, chapter 3 | 19  pages, first question, chapter 4 | 24  pages, second question, chapter 5 | 20  pages, third question, chapter 6 | 18  pages, fourth question, chapter 7 | 18  pages, examples and fields of application, chapter | 3  pages.

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Understanding the Case Study Method in Sociology

Table of Contents

Definition and purpose of case studies, types of case studies, methodological approaches in case studies.

• Advantages of Case Study Methods
• Limitations of Case Study Methods
• Applications of Case Study Methods in Sociology

The case study method is a research strategy often employed in the social sciences, including sociology, to investigate a phenomenon within its real-life context. This approach allows for a deep, multifaceted exploration of complex issues, making it an invaluable tool for sociologists. By focusing on a single case or a small number of cases, researchers can gather detailed and nuanced data, which can then be used to develop or test theories. This essay will provide an overview of the case study method, its applications, advantages, and limitations, and illustrate how it can be used effectively in sociological research.

Understanding Case Studies

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single instance or event—a ‘case’—which could be an individual, group, organization, community, or even a nation. The case study method is not confined to a particular type of data collection or analysis but rather encompasses a variety of techniques to gather comprehensive information about the case in question. This method is particularly useful for studying phenomena in their natural settings, allowing researchers to capture the complexities and intricacies of social life.

Purpose and Importance

The primary purpose of a case study is to gain a deep understanding of the subject under investigation. Case studies are particularly effective in exploring new or under-researched areas where the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. They enable researchers to explore the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights that might not be achievable through other research methods. By focusing on specific instances, case studies can reveal the underlying mechanisms and processes that drive social phenomena, offering rich, qualitative insights that can inform broader sociological theories and practices.

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are conducted to identify research questions and hypotheses for further study. They are often the preliminary step in a research project, providing a basis for developing more detailed research plans. These case studies are useful for gathering initial data and insights, which can help shape the direction of future research.

Descriptive Case Studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a detailed, accurate account of the case under investigation. These studies focus on describing the characteristics and context of the case, often with the goal of illustrating the application of theories in real-life scenarios. Descriptive case studies are valuable for presenting a comprehensive picture of the phenomenon, enabling a better understanding of its complexity.

Explanatory Case Studies

Explanatory case studies are used to explore causation and uncover the underlying mechanisms of a phenomenon. These studies seek to explain the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights into the causal relationships and processes at play. Explanatory case studies are particularly useful in testing hypotheses and theories, offering a detailed examination of the factors that contribute to a specific outcome.

Intrinsic Case Studies

Intrinsic case studies are conducted when the researcher has a genuine interest in the case itself, rather than in generalizing findings to other cases. These studies focus on understanding the unique aspects and significance of the specific case, often highlighting its distinctiveness and individuality. Intrinsic case studies are valuable for exploring cases that are particularly unusual or noteworthy, providing insights that might not be applicable to other contexts.

Instrumental Case Studies

Instrumental case studies are conducted to gain a broader understanding of a particular issue or phenomenon. The case is used as a tool to provide insights into a larger question or theory. In these studies, the case itself is of secondary interest, serving as a means to an end. Instrumental case studies are useful for illustrating broader theoretical concepts and for drawing generalizable conclusions from specific instances.

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Conducting Case Study Research in Sociology

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A case study is a research method that relies on a single case rather than a population or sample. When researchers focus on a single case, they can make detailed observations over a long period of time, something that cannot be done with large samples without costing a lot of money. Case studies are also useful in the early stages of research when the goal is to explore ideas, test, and perfect measurement instruments, and to prepare for a larger study. The case study research method is popular not just within ​the field of sociology, but also within the fields of anthropology, psychology, education, political science, clinical science, social work, and administrative science.

Overview of the Case Study Research Method

A case study is unique within the social sciences for its focus of study on a single entity, which can be a person, group or organization, event, action, or situation. It is also unique in that, as a focus of research, a case is chosen for specific reasons, rather than randomly , as is usually done when conducting empirical research. Often, when researchers use the case study method, they focus on a case that is exceptional in some way because it is possible to learn a lot about social relationships and social forces when studying those things that deviate from norms. In doing so, a researcher is often able, through their study, to test the validity of the social theory, or to create new theories using the grounded theory method .

The first case studies in the social sciences were likely conducted by Pierre Guillaume Frédéric Le Play, a 19th-century French sociologist and economist who studied family budgets. The method has been used in sociology, psychology, and anthropology since the early 20th century.

Within sociology, case studies are typically conducted with qualitative research methods . They are considered micro rather than macro in nature , and one cannot necessarily generalize the findings of a case study to other situations. However, this is not a limitation of the method, but a strength. Through a case study based on ethnographic observation and interviews, among other methods, sociologists can illuminate otherwise hard to see and understand social relations, structures, and processes. In doing so, the findings of case studies often stimulate further research.

Types and Forms of Case Studies

There are three primary types of case studies: key cases, outlier cases, and local knowledge cases.

• Key cases are those which are chosen because the researcher has ​a particular interest in it or the circumstances surrounding it.
• Outlier cases are those that are chosen because the case stands out from other events, organizations, or situations, for some reason, and social scientists recognize that we can learn a lot from those things that differ from the norm .
• Finally, a researcher may decide to conduct a local knowledge case study when they already have amassed a usable amount of information about a given topic, person, organization, or event, and so is well-poised to conduct a study of it.

Within these types, a case study may take four different forms: illustrative, exploratory, cumulative, and critical.

• Illustrative case studies are descriptive in nature and designed to shed light on a particular situation, set of circumstances, and the social relations and processes that are embedded in them. They are useful in bringing to light something about which most people are not aware of.
• Exploratory case studies are also often known as pilot studies . This type of case study is typically used when a researcher wants to identify research questions and methods of study for a large, complex study. They are useful for clarifying the research process, which can help a researcher make the best use of time and resources in the larger study that will follow it.
• Cumulative case studies are those in which a researcher pulls together already completed case studies on a particular topic. They are useful in helping researchers to make generalizations from studies that have something in common.
• Critical instance case studies are conducted when a researcher wants to understand what happened with a unique event and/or to challenge commonly held assumptions about it that may be faulty due to a lack of critical understanding.

Whatever type and form of case study you decide to conduct, it's important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
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• What Is a Snowball Sample in Sociology?
• What Is Ethnography?
• Understanding Cohorts and How to Use Them in Research
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• Understanding Secondary Data and How to Use It in Research
• All About Marxist Sociology
• Definition of a Hypothesis
• Defining Unobtrusive Measures in Sociology Experiments
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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Case study research in the social sciences

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Sociology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 18, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Department of Philosophy, University of Bergen, Postboks 7805, 5020, Bergen, Norway. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 31818413
• DOI: 10.1016/j.shpsa.2019.10.003

In this paper, we offer an introduction to case study research in the social sciences. We begin with a discussion of the definition of case study research. Next, we point to various purposes that case study research may serve in the social sciences and then turn to outline the main philosophical issues raised by case study research. Finally, we briefly present the papers in this special issue.

Keywords: Case study design; Case study research; Evidence amalgamation; Explanation; Generalization; Social sciences.

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• Published: 08 September 2024

Longitudinal analysis of teacher self-efficacy evolution during a STEAM professional development program: a qualitative case study

• Haozhe Jiang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7870-0993 1 ,
• Ritesh Chugh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0061-7206 2 ,
• Xuesong Zhai   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4179-7859 1 , 3   nAff7 ,
• Ke Wang 4 &
• Xiaoqin Wang 5 , 6  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1162 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Despite the widespread advocacy for the integration of arts and humanities (A&H) into science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education on an international scale, teachers face numerous obstacles in practically integrating A&H into STEM teaching (IAT). To tackle the challenges, a comprehensive five-stage framework for teacher professional development programs focussed on IAT has been developed. Through the use of a qualitative case study approach, this study outlines the shifts in a participant teacher’s self-efficacy following their exposure to each stage of the framework. The data obtained from interviews and reflective analyses were analyzed using a seven-stage inductive method. The findings have substantiated the significant impact of a teacher professional development program based on the framework on teacher self-efficacy, evident in both individual performance and student outcomes observed over eighteen months. The evolution of teacher self-efficacy in IAT should be regarded as an open and multi-level system, characterized by interactions with teacher knowledge, skills and other entrenched beliefs. Building on our research findings, an enhanced model of teacher professional learning is proposed. The revised model illustrates that professional learning for STEAM teachers should be conceived as a continuous and sustainable process, characterized by the dynamic interaction among teaching performance, teacher knowledge, and teacher beliefs. The updated model further confirms the inseparable link between teacher learning and student learning within STEAM education. This study contributes to the existing body of literature on teacher self-efficacy, teacher professional learning models and the design of IAT teacher professional development programs.

Introduction

In the past decade, there has been a surge in the advancement and widespread adoption of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education on a global scale (Jiang et al. 2021 ; Jiang et al. 2022 ; Jiang et al. 2023 ; Jiang et al. 2024a , b ; Zhan et al. 2023 ; Zhan and Niu 2023 ; Zhong et al. 2022 ; Zhong et al. 2024 ). Concurrently, there has been a growing chorus of advocates urging the integration of Arts and Humanities (A&H) into STEM education (e.g., Alkhabra et al. 2023 ; Land 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Uştu et al. 2021 ; Vaziri and Bradburn 2021 ). STEM education is frequently characterized by its emphasis on logic and analysis; however, it may be perceived as deficient in emotional and intuitive elements (Ozkan and Umdu Topsakal 2021 ). Through the integration of Arts and Humanities (A&H), the resulting STEAM approach has the potential to become more holistic, incorporating both rationality and emotional intelligence (Ozkan and Umdu Topsakal 2021 ). Many studies have confirmed that A&H can help students increase interest and develop their understanding of the contents in STEM fields, and thus, A&H can attract potential underrepresented STEM learners such as female students and minorities (Land 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ). Despite the increasing interest in STEAM, the approaches to integrating A&H, which represent fundamentally different disciplines, into STEM are theoretically and practically ambiguous (Jacques et al. 2020 ; Uştu et al. 2021 ). Moreover, studies have indicated that the implementation of STEAM poses significant challenges, with STEM educators encountering difficulties in integrating A&H into their teaching practices (e.g., Boice et al. 2021 ; Duong et al. 2024 ; Herro et al. 2019 ; Jacques et al. 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ). Hence, there is a pressing need to provide STEAM teachers with effective professional training.

Motivated by this gap, this study proposes a novel five-stage framework tailored for teacher professional development programs specifically designed to facilitate the integration of A&H into STEM teaching (IAT). Following the establishment of this framework, a series of teacher professional development programs were implemented. To explain the framework, a qualitative case study is employed, focusing on examining a specific teacher professional development program’s impact on a pre-service teacher’s self-efficacy. The case narratives, with a particular focus on the pre-service teacher’s changes in teacher self-efficacy, are organized chronologically, delineating stages before and after each stage of the teacher professional development program. More specifically, meaningful vignettes of the pre-service teacher’s learning and teaching experiences during the teacher professional development program are offered to help understand the five-stage framework. This study contributes to understanding teacher self-efficacy, teacher professional learning model and the design of IAT teacher professional development programs.

Theoretical background

The conceptualization of steam education.

STEM education can be interpreted through various lenses (e.g., Jiang et al. 2021 ; English 2016 ). As Li et al. (2020) claimed, on the one hand, STEM education can be defined as individual STEM disciplinary-based education (i.e., science education, technology education, engineering education and mathematics education). On the other hand, STEM education can also be defined as interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary education where individual STEM disciplines are integrated (Jiang et al. 2021 ; English 2016 ). In this study, we view it as individual disciplinary-based education separately in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (English 2016 ).

STEAM education emerged as a new pedagogy during the Americans for the Arts-National Policy Roundtable discussion in 2007 (Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ). This pedagogy was born out of the necessity to enhance students’ engagement, foster creativity, stimulate innovation, improve problem-solving abilities, and cultivate employability skills such as teamwork, communication and adaptability (Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ). In particular, within the framework of STEAM education, the ‘A’ should be viewed as a broad concept that represents arts and humanities (A&H) (Herro and Quigley 2016 ; de la Garza 2021 , Park and Cho 2022 ). This conceptualization emphasizes the need to include humanities subjects alongside arts (Herro and Quigley 2016 ; de la Garza 2021 ; Park and Cho 2022 ). Sanz-Camarero et al. ( 2023 ) listed some important fields of A&H, including physical arts, fine arts, manual arts, sociology, politics, philosophy, history, psychology and so on.

In general, STEM education does not necessarily entail the inclusion of all STEM disciplines collectively (Ozkan and Umdu Topsakal 2021 ), and this principle also applies to STEAM education (Gates 2017 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ; Quigley et al. 2017 ; Smith and Paré 2016 ). As an illustration, Smith and Paré ( 2016 ) described a STEAM activity in which pottery (representing A&H) and mathematics were integrated, while other STEAM elements such as science, technology and engineering were not included. In our study, STEAM education is conceptualized as an interdisciplinary approach that involves the integration of one or more components of A&H into one or more STEM school subjects within educational activities (Ozkan and Umdu Topsakal 2021 ; Vaziri and Bradburn 2021 ). Notably, interdisciplinary collaboration entails integrating one or more elements from arts and humanities (A&H) with one or more STEM school subjects, cohesively united by a shared theme while maintaining their distinct identities (Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ).

In our teacher professional development programs, we help mathematics, technology, and science pre-service teachers integrate one component of A&H into their disciplinary-based teaching practices. For instance, we help mathematics teachers integrate history (a component of A&H) into mathematics teaching. In other words, in our study, integrating A&H into STEM teaching (IAT) can be defined as integrating one component of A&H into the teaching of one of the STEM school subjects. The components of A&H and the STEM school subject are brought together under a common theme, but each of them remains discrete. Engineering is not taught as an individual subject in the K-12 curriculum in mainland China. Therefore, A&H is not integrated into engineering teaching in our teacher professional development programs.

Self-efficacy and teacher self-efficacy

Self-efficacy was initially introduced by Bandura ( 1977 ) as a key concept within his social cognitive theory. Bandura ( 1997 ) defined self-efficacy as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives” (p. 71). Based on Bandura’s ( 1977 ) theory, Tschannen-Moran et al. ( 1998 ) defined the concept of teacher self-efficacy Footnote 1 as “a teacher’s belief in her or his ability to organize and execute the courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (p. 233). Blonder et al. ( 2014 ) pointed out that this definition implicitly included teachers’ judgment of their ability to bring about desired outcomes in terms of students’ engagement and learning. Moreover, OECD ( 2018 ) defined teacher self-efficacy as “the beliefs that teachers have of their ability to enact certain teaching behavior that influences students’ educational outcomes, such as achievement, interest, and motivation” (p. 51). This definition explicitly included two dimensions: teachers’ judgment of the ability related to their teaching performance (i.e., enacting certain teaching behavior) and their influence on student outcomes.

It is argued that teacher self-efficacy should not be regarded as a general or overarching construct (Zee et al. 2017 ; Zee and Koomen 2016 ). Particularly, in the performance-driven context of China, teachers always connect their beliefs in their professional capabilities with the educational outcomes of their students (Liu et al. 2018 ). Therefore, we operationally conceptualize teacher self-efficacy as having two dimensions: self-efficacy in individual performance and student outcomes (see Table 1 ).

Most importantly, given its consistent association with actual teaching performance and student outcomes (Bray-Clark and Bates 2003 ; Kelley et al. 2020 ), teacher self-efficacy is widely regarded as a pivotal indicator of teacher success (Kelley et al. 2020 ). Moreover, the enhancement of teaching self-efficacy reflects the effectiveness of teacher professional development programs (Bray-Clark and Bates 2003 ; Kelley et al. 2020 ; Wong et al. 2022 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ). For instance, Zhou et al. ( 2023 ) claimed that in STEM teacher education, effective teacher professional development programs should bolster teachers’ self-efficacy “in teaching the content in the STEM discipline” (p. 2).

It has been documented that teachers frequently experience diminished confidence and comfort when teaching subject areas beyond their expertise (Kelley et al. 2020 ; Stohlmann et al. 2012 ). This diminished confidence extends to their self-efficacy in implementing interdisciplinary teaching approaches, such as integrated STEM teaching and IAT (Kelley et al. 2020 ). For instance, Geng et al. ( 2019 ) found that STEM teachers in Hong Kong exhibited low levels of self-efficacy, with only 5.53% of teachers rating their overall self-efficacy in implementing STEM education as higher than a score of 4 out of 5. Additionally, Hunter-Doniger and Sydow ( 2016 ) found that teachers may experience apprehension and lack confidence when incorporating A&H elements into the classroom context, particularly within the framework of IAT. Considering the critical importance of teacher self-efficacy in STEM and STEAM education (Kelley et al. 2020 ; Zakariya, 2020 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ), it is necessary to explore effective measures, frameworks and teacher professional development programs to help teachers improve their self-efficacy regarding interdisciplinary teaching (e.g., IAT).

Teacher professional learning models

The relationship between teachers’ professional learning and students’ outcomes (such as achievements, skills and attitudes) has been a subject of extensive discussion and research for many years (Clarke and Hollingsworth 2002 ). For instance, Clarke and Hollingsworth ( 2002 ) proposed and validated the Interconnected Model of Professional Growth, which illustrates that teacher professional development is influenced by the interaction among four interconnected domains: the personal domain (teacher knowledge, beliefs and attitudes), the domain of practice (professional experimentation), the domain of consequence (salient outcomes), and the external domain (sources of information, stimulus or support). Sancar et al. ( 2021 ) emphasized that teachers’ professional learning or development never occurs independently. In practice, this process is inherently intertwined with many variables, including student outcomes, in various ways (Sancar et al. 2021 ). However, many current teacher professional development programs exclude real in-class teaching and fail to establish a comprehensive link between teachers’ professional learning and student outcomes (Cai et al. 2020 ; Sancar et al. 2021 ). Sancar et al. ( 2021 ) claimed that exploring the complex relationships between teachers’ professional learning and student outcomes should be grounded in monitoring and evaluating real in-class teaching, rather than relying on teachers’ self-assessment. It is essential to understand these relationships from a holistic perspective within the context of real classroom teaching (Sancar et al. 2021 ). However, as Sancar et al. ( 2021 ) pointed out, such efforts in teacher education are often considered inadequate. Furthermore, in the field of STEAM education, such efforts are further exacerbated.

Cai et al. ( 2020 ) proposed a teacher professional learning model where student outcomes are emphasized. This model was developed based on Cai ( 2017 ), Philipp ( 2007 ) and Thompson ( 1992 ). It has also been used and justified in a series of teacher professional development programs (e.g., Calabrese et al. 2024 ; Hwang et al. 2024 ; Marco and Palatnik 2024 ; Örnek and Soylu 2021 ). The model posits that teachers typically increase their knowledge and modify their beliefs through professional teacher learning, subsequently improving their classroom instruction, enhancing teaching performance, and ultimately fostering improved student learning outcomes (Cai et al. 2020 ). Notably, this model can be updated in several aspects. Firstly, prior studies have exhibited the interplay between teacher knowledge and beliefs (e.g., Basckin et al. 2021 ; Taimalu and Luik 2019 ). This indicates that the increase in teacher knowledge and the change in teacher belief may not be parallel. The two processes can be intertwined. Secondly, the Interconnected Model of Professional Growth highlights that the personal domain and the domain of practice are interconnected (Clarke and Hollingsworth 2002 ). Liu et al. ( 2022 ) also confirmed that improvements in classroom instruction may, in turn, influence teacher beliefs. This necessitates a reconsideration of the relationships between classroom instruction, teacher knowledge and teacher beliefs in Cai et al.’s ( 2020 ) model. Thirdly, the Interconnected Model of Professional Growth also exhibits the connections between the domain of consequence and the personal domain (Clarke and Hollingsworth 2002 ). Hence, the improvement of learning outcomes may signify the end of teacher learning. For instance, students’ learning feedback may be a vital source of teacher self-efficacy (Bandura 1977 ). Therefore, the improvement of student outcomes may, in turn, affect teacher beliefs. The aforementioned arguments highlight the need for an updated model that integrates Cai et al.’s ( 2020 ) teacher professional learning model with Clarke and Hollingsworth’s ( 2002 ) Interconnected Model of Professional Growth. This integration may provide a holistic view of the teacher’s professional learning process, especially within the complex contexts of STEAM teacher education.

The framework for teacher professional development programs of integrating arts and humanities into STEM teaching

In this section, we present a framework for IAT teacher professional development programs, aiming to address the practical challenges associated with STEAM teaching implementation. Our framework incorporates the five features of effective teacher professional development programs outlined by Archibald et al. ( 2011 ), Cai et al. ( 2020 ), Darling-Hammond et al. ( 2017 ), Desimone and Garet ( 2015 ) and Roth et al. ( 2017 ). These features include: (a) alignment with shared goals (e.g., school, district, and national policies and practice), (b) emphasis on core content and modeling of teaching strategies for the content, (c) collaboration among teachers within a community, (d) adequate opportunities for active learning of new teaching strategies, and (e) embedded follow-up and continuous feedback. It is worth noting that two concepts, namely community of practice and lesson study, have been incorporated into our framework. Below, we delineate how these features are reflected in our framework.

(a) The Chinese government has issued a series of policies to facilitate STEAM education in K-12 schools (Jiang et al. 2021 ; Li and Chiang 2019 ; Lyu et al. 2024 ; Ro et al. 2022 ). The new curriculum standards released in 2022 mandate that all K-12 teachers implement interdisciplinary teaching, including STEAM education. Our framework for teacher professional development programs, which aims to help teachers integrate A&H into STEM teaching, closely aligns with these national policies and practices supporting STEAM education in K-12 schools.

(b) The core content of the framework is IAT. Specifically, as A&H is a broad concept, we divide it into several subcomponents, such as history, culture, and visual and performing arts (e.g., drama). We are implementing a series of teacher professional development programs to help mathematics, technology and science pre-service teachers integrate these subcomponents of A&H into their teaching Footnote 2 . Notably, pre-service teachers often lack teaching experience, making it challenging to master and implement new teaching strategies. Therefore, our framework provides five step-by-step stages designed to help them effectively model the teaching strategies of IAT.

(c) Our framework advocates for collaboration among teachers within a community of practice. Specifically, a community of practice is “a group of people who share an interest in a domain of human endeavor and engage in a process of collective learning that creates bonds between them” (Wenger et al. 2002 , p. 1). A teacher community of practice can be considered a group of teachers “sharing and critically observing their practices in growth-promoting ways” (Näykki et al. 2021 , p. 497). Long et al. ( 2021 ) claimed that in a teacher community of practice, members collaboratively share their teaching experiences and work together to address teaching problems. Our community of practice includes three types of members. (1) Mentors: These are professors and experts with rich experience in helping pre-service teachers practice IAT. (2) Pre-service teachers: Few have teaching experience before the teacher professional development programs. (3) In-service teachers: All in-service teachers are senior teachers with rich teaching experience. All the members work closely together to share and improve their IAT practice. Moreover, our community includes not only mentors and in-service teachers but also pre-service teachers. We encourage pre-service teachers to collaborate with experienced in-service teachers in various ways, such as developing IAT lesson plans, writing IAT case reports and so on. In-service teachers can provide cognitive and emotional support and share their practical knowledge and experience, which may significantly benefit the professional growth of pre-service teachers (Alwafi et al. 2020 ).

(d) Our framework offers pre-service teachers various opportunities to engage in lesson study, allowing them to actively design and implement IAT lessons. Based on the key points of effective lesson study outlined by Akiba et al. ( 2019 ), Ding et al. ( 2024 ), and Takahashi and McDougal ( 2016 ), our lesson study incorporates the following seven features. (1) Study of IAT materials: Pre-service teachers are required to study relevant IAT materials under the guidance of mentors. (2) Collaboration on lesson proposals: Pre-service teachers should collaborate with in-service teachers to develop comprehensive lesson proposals. (3) Observation and data collection: During the lesson, pre-service teachers are required to carefully observe and collect data on student learning and development. (4) Reflection and analysis: Pre-service teachers use the collected data to reflect on the lesson and their teaching effects. (5) Lesson revision and reteaching: If needed, pre-service teachers revise and reteach the lesson based on their reflections and data analysis. (6) Mentor and experienced in-service teacher involvement: Mentors and experienced in-service teachers, as knowledgeable others, are involved throughout the lesson study process. (7) Collaboration on reporting: Pre-service teachers collaborate with in-service teachers to draft reports and disseminate the results of the lesson study. Specifically, recognizing that pre-service teachers often lack teaching experience, we do not require them to complete all the steps of lesson study independently at once. Instead, we guide them through the lesson study process in a step-by-step manner, allowing them to gradually build their IAT skills and confidence. For instance, in Stage 1, pre-service teachers primarily focus on studying IAT materials. In Stage 2, they develop lesson proposals, observe and collect data, and draft reports. However, the implementation of IAT lessons is carried out by in-service teachers. This approach prevents pre-service teachers from experiencing failures due to their lack of teaching experience. In Stage 3, pre-service teachers implement, revise, and reteach IAT lessons, experiencing the lesson study process within a simulated environment. In Stage 4, pre-service teachers engage in lesson study in an actual classroom environment. However, their focus is limited to one micro-course during each lesson study session. It is not until the fifth stage that they experience a complete lesson study in an actual classroom environment.

(e) Our teacher professional development programs incorporate assessments specifically designed to evaluate pre-service teachers’ IAT practices. We use formative assessments to measure their understanding and application of IAT strategies. Pre-service teachers receive ongoing and timely feedback from peers, mentors, in-service teachers, and students, which helps them continuously refine their IAT practices throughout the program. Recognizing that pre-service teachers often have limited contact with real students and may not fully understand students’ learning needs, processes and outcomes, our framework requires them to actively collect and analyze student feedback. By doing so, they can make informed improvements to their instructional practice based on student feedback.

After undergoing three rounds of theoretical and practical testing and revision over the past five years, we have successfully finalized the optimization of the framework design (Zhou 2021 ). Throughout each cycle, we collected feedback from both participants and researchers on at least three occasions. Subsequently, we analyzed this feedback and iteratively refined the framework. For example, we enlisted the participation of in-service teachers to enhance the implementation of STEAM teaching, extended practice time through micro-teaching sessions, and introduced a stage of micro-course development within the framework to provide more opportunities for pre-service teachers to engage with real teaching situations. In this process, we continuously improved the coherence between each stage of the framework, ensuring that they mutually complement one another. The five-stage framework is described as follows.

Stage 1 Literature study

Pre-service teachers are provided with a series of reading materials from A&H. On a weekly basis, two pre-service teachers are assigned to present their readings and reflections to the entire group, followed by critical discussions thereafter. Mentors and all pre-service teachers discuss and explore strategies for translating the original A&H materials into viable instructional resources suitable for classroom use. Subsequently, pre-service teachers select topics of personal interest for further study under mentor guidance.

Stage 2 Case learning

Given that pre-service teachers have no teaching experience, collaborative efforts between in-service teachers and pre-service teachers are undertaken to design IAT lesson plans. Subsequently, the in-service teachers implement these plans. Throughout this process, pre-service teachers are afforded opportunities to engage in lesson plan implementation. Figure 1 illustrates the role of pre-service teachers in case learning. In the first step, pre-service teachers read about materials related to A&H, select suitable materials, and report their ideas on IAT lesson design to mentors, in-service teachers, and fellow pre-service teachers.

Note: A&H refers to arts and humanities.

In the second step, they liaise with the in-service teachers responsible for implementing the lesson plan, discussing the integration of A&H into teaching practices. Pre-service teachers then analyze student learning objectives aligned with curriculum standards, collaboratively designing the IAT lesson plan with in-service teachers. Subsequently, pre-service teachers present lesson plans for feedback from mentors and other in-service teachers.

In the third step, pre-service teachers observe the lesson plan’s implementation, gathering and analyzing feedback from students and in-service teachers using an inductive approach (Merriam 1998 ). Feedback includes opinions on the roles and values of A&H, perceptions of the teaching effect, and recommendations for lesson plan implementation and modification. The second and third steps may iterate multiple times to refine the IAT lesson plan. In the fourth step, pre-service teachers consolidate all data, including various versions of teaching instructions, classroom videos, feedback, and discussion notes, composing reflection notes. Finally, pre-service teachers collaborate with in-service teachers to compile the IAT case report and submit it for publication.

Stage 3 Micro-teaching

Figure 2 illustrates the role of pre-service teachers in micro-teaching. Before entering the micro-classrooms Footnote 3 , all the discussions and communications occur within the pre-service teacher group, excluding mentors and in-service teachers. After designing the IAT lesson plan, pre-service teachers take turns implementing 40-min lesson plans in a simulated micro-classroom setting. Within this simulated environment, one pre-service teacher acts as the teacher, while others, including mentors, in-service teachers, and other fellow pre-service teachers, assume the role of students Footnote 4 . Following the simulated teaching, the implementer reviews the video of their session and self-assesses their performance. Subsequently, the implementer receives feedback from other pre-service teachers, mentors, and in-service teachers. Based on this feedback, the implementer revisits steps 2 and 3, revising the lesson plan and conducting the simulated teaching again. This iterative process typically repeats at least three times until the mentors, in-service teachers, and other pre-service teachers are satisfied with the implementation of the revised lesson plan. Finally, pre-service teachers complete reflection notes and submit a summary of their reflections on the micro-teaching experience. Each pre-service teacher is required to choose at least three topics and undergo at least nine simulated teaching sessions.

Stage 4 Micro-course development

While pre-service teachers may not have the opportunity to execute the whole lesson plans in real classrooms, they can design and create five-minute micro-courses Footnote 5 before class, subsequently presenting these videos to actual students. The process of developing micro-courses closely mirrors that of developing IAT cases in the case learning stage (see Fig. 1 ). However, in Step 3, pre-service teachers assume dual roles, not only as observers of IAT lesson implementation but also as implementers of a five-minute IAT micro-course.

Stage 5 Classroom teaching

Pre-service teachers undertake the implementation of IAT lesson plans independently, a process resembling micro-teaching (see Fig. 2 ). However, pre-service teachers engage with real school students in partner schools Footnote 6 instead of simulated classrooms. Furthermore, they collect feedback not only from the mentors, in-service teachers, and fellow pre-service teachers but also from real students.

To provide our readers with a better understanding of the framework, we provide meaningful vignettes of a pre-service teacher’s learning and teaching experiences in one of the teacher professional development programs based on the framework. In addition, we choose teacher self-efficacy as an indicator to assess the framework’s effectiveness, detailing the pre-service teacher’s changes in teacher self-efficacy.

Research design

Research method.

Teacher self-efficacy can be measured both quantitatively and qualitatively (Bandura 1986 , 1997 ; Lee and Bobko 1994 ; Soprano and Yang 2013 ; Unfried et al. 2022 ). However, researchers and theorists in the area of teacher self-efficacy have called for more qualitative and longitudinal studies (Klassen et al. 2011 ). As some critiques stated, most studies were based on correlational and cross-sectional data obtained from self-report surveys, and qualitative studies of teacher efficacy were overwhelmingly neglected (Henson 2002 ; Klassen et al. 2011 ; Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998 ; Xenofontos and Andrews 2020 ). There is an urgent need for more longitudinal studies to shed light on the development of teacher efficacy (Klassen et al. 2011 ; Xenofontos and Andrews 2020 ).

This study utilized a longitudinal qualitative case study methodology to delve deeply into the context (Jiang et al. 2021 ; Corden and Millar 2007 ; Dicks et al. 2023 ; Henderson et al. 2012 ; Matusovich et al. 2010 ; Shirani and Henwood 2011 ), presenting details grounded in real-life situations and analyzing the inner relationships rather than generalize findings about the change of a large group of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy.

Participant

This study forms a component of a broader multi-case research initiative examining teachers’ professional learning in the STEAM teacher professional development programs in China (Jiang et al. 2021 ; Wang et al. 2018 ; Wang et al. 2024 ). Within this context, one participant, Shuitao (pseudonym), is selected and reported in this current study. Shuitao was a first-year graduate student at a first-tier Normal university in Shanghai, China. Normal universities specialize in teacher education. Her graduate major was mathematics curriculum and instruction. Teaching practice courses are offered to students in this major exclusively during their third year of study. The selection of Shuitao was driven by three primary factors. Firstly, Shuitao attended the entire teacher professional development program and actively engaged in nearly all associated activities. Table 2 illustrates the timeline of the five stages in which Shuitao was involved. Secondly, her undergraduate major was applied mathematics, which was not related to mathematics teaching Footnote 7 . She possessed no prior teaching experience and had not undergone any systematic study of IAT before her involvement in the teacher professional development program. Thirdly, her other master’s courses during her first two years of study focused on mathematics education theory and did not include IAT Footnote 8 . Additionally, she scarcely participated in any other teaching practice outside of the teacher professional development program. As a pre-service teacher, Shuitao harbored a keen interest in IAT. Furthermore, she discovered that she possessed fewer teaching skills compared to her peers who had majored in education during their undergraduate studies. Hence, she had a strong desire to enhance her teaching skills. Consequently, Shuitao decided to participate in our teacher professional development program.

Shuitao was grouped with three other first-year graduate students during the teacher professional development program. She actively collaborated with them at every stage of the program. For instance, they advised each other on their IAT lesson designs, observed each other’s IAT practice and offered constructive suggestions for improvement.

Research question

Shuitao was a mathematics pre-service teacher who participated in one of our teacher professional development programs, focusing on integrating history into mathematics teaching (IHT) Footnote 9 . Notably, this teacher professional development program was designed based on our five-stage framework for teacher professional development programs of IAT. To examine the impact of this teacher professional development program on Shuitao’s self-efficacy related to IHT, this case study addresses the following research question:

What changes in Shuitao’s self-efficacy in individual performance regarding integrating history into mathematics teaching (SE-IHT-IP) may occur through participation in the teacher professional development program?

What changes in Shuitao’s self-efficacy in student outcomes regarding integrating history into mathematics teaching (SE-IHT-SO) may occur through participation in the teacher professional development program?

Data collection and analysis

Before Shuitao joined the teacher professional development program, a one-hour preliminary interview was conducted to guide her in self-narrating her psychological and cognitive state of IHT.

During the teacher professional development program, follow-up unstructured interviews were conducted once a month with Shuitao. All discussions in the development of IHT cases were recorded, Shuitao’s teaching and micro-teaching were videotaped, and the reflection notes, journals, and summary reports written by Shuitao were collected.

After completing the teacher professional development program, Shuitao participated in a semi-structured three-hour interview. The objectives of this interview were twofold: to reassess her self-efficacy and to explore the relationship between her self-efficacy changes and each stage of the teacher professional development program.

Interview data, discussions, reflection notes, journals, summary reports and videos, and analysis records were archived and transcribed before, during, and after the teacher professional development program.

In this study, we primarily utilized data from seven interviews: one conducted before the teacher professional development program, five conducted after each stage of the program, and one conducted upon completion of the program. Additionally, we reviewed Shuitao’s five reflective notes, which were written after each stage, as well as her final summary report that encompassed the entire teacher professional development program.

Merriam’s ( 1998 ) approach to coding data and inductive approach to retrieving possible concepts and themes were employed using a seven-stage method. Considering theoretical underpinnings in qualitative research is common when interpreting data (Strauss and Corbin 1990 ). First, a list based on our conceptual framework of teacher self-efficacy (see Table 1 ) was developed. The list included two codes (i.e., SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO). Second, all data were sorted chronologically, read and reread to be better understood. Third, texts were coded into multi-colored highlighting and comment balloons. Fourth, the data for groups of meanings, themes, and behaviors were examined. How these groups were connected within the conceptual framework of teacher self-efficacy was confirmed. Fifth, after comparing, confirming, and modifying, the selective codes were extracted and mapped onto the two categories according to the conceptual framework of teacher self-efficacy. Accordingly, changes in SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO at the five stages of the teacher professional development program were identified, respectively, and then the preliminary findings came (Strauss and Corbin 1990 ). In reality, in Shuitao’s narratives, SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO were frequently intertwined. Through our coding process, we differentiated between SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO, enabling us to obtain a more distinct understanding of how these two aspects of teacher self-efficacy evolved over time. This helped us address the two research questions effectively.

Reliability and validity

Two researchers independently analyzed the data to establish inter-rater reliability. The inter-rater reliability was established as kappa = 0.959. Stake ( 1995 ) suggested that the most critical assertions in a study require the greatest effort toward confirmation. In this study, three methods served this purpose and helped ensure the validity of the findings. The first way to substantiate the statement about the changes in self-efficacy was by revisiting each transcript to confirm whether the participant explicitly acknowledged the changes (Yin 2003 ). Such a check was repeated in the analysis of this study. The second way to confirm patterns in the data was by examining whether Shuitao’s statements were replicated in separate interviews (Morris and Usher 2011 ). The third approach involved presenting the preliminary conclusions to Shuitao and affording her the opportunity to provide feedback on the data and conclusions. This step aimed to ascertain whether we accurately grasped the true intentions of her statements and whether our subjective interpretations inadvertently influenced our analysis of her statements. Additionally, data from diverse sources underwent analysis by at least two researchers, with all researchers reaching consensus on each finding.

As each stage of our teacher professional development programs spanned a minimum of three months, numerous documented statements regarding the enhancement of Shuitao’s self-efficacy regarding IHT were recorded. Notably, what we present here offers only a concise overview of findings derived from our qualitative analysis. The changes in Shuitao’s SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO are organized chronologically, delineating the period before and during the teacher professional development program.

Before the teacher professional development program: “I have no confidence in IHT”

Before the teacher professional development program, Shuitao frequently expressed her lack of confidence in IHT. On the one hand, Shuitao expressed considerable apprehension about her individual performance in IHT. “How can I design and implement IHT lesson plans? I do not know anything [about it]…” With a sense of doubt, confusion and anxiety, Shuitao voiced her lack of confidence in her ability to design and implement an IHT case that would meet the requirements of the curriculum standards. Regarding the reasons for her lack of confidence, Shuitao attributed it to her insufficient theoretical knowledge and practical experience in IHT:

I do not know the basic approaches to IHT that I could follow… it is very difficult for me to find suitable historical materials… I am very confused about how to organize [historical] materials logically around the teaching goals and contents… [Furthermore,] I am [a] novice, [and] I have no IHT experience.

On the other hand, Shuitao articulated very low confidence in the efficacy of her IHT on student outcomes:

I think my IHT will have a limited impact on student outcomes… I do not know any specific effects [of history] other than making students interested in mathematics… In fact, I always think it is difficult for [my] students to understand the history… If students cannot understand [the history], will they feel bored?

This statement suggests that Shuitao did not fully grasp the significance of IHT. In fact, she knew little about the educational significance of history for students, and she harbored no belief that her IHT approach could positively impact students. In sum, her SE-IHT-SO was very low.

After stage 1: “I can do well in the first step of IHT”

After Stage 1, Shuitao indicated a slight improvement in her confidence in IHT. She attributed this improvement to her acquisition of theoretical knowledge in IHT, the approaches for selecting history-related materials, and an understanding of the educational value of history.

One of Shuitao’s primary concerns about implementing IHT before the teacher professional development program was the challenge of sourcing suitable history-related materials. However, after Stage 1, Shuitao explicitly affirmed her capability in this aspect. She shared her experience of organizing history-related materials related to logarithms as an example.

Recognizing the significance of suitable history-related materials in effective IHT implementation, Shuitao acknowledged that conducting literature studies significantly contributed to enhancing her confidence in undertaking this initial step. Furthermore, she expressed increased confidence in designing IHT lesson plans by utilizing history-related materials aligned with teaching objectives derived from the curriculum standards. In other words, her SE-IHT-IP was enhanced. She said:

After experiencing multiple discussions, I gradually know more about what kinds of materials are essential and should be emphasized, what kinds of materials should be adapted, and what kinds of materials should be omitted in the classroom instructions… I have a little confidence to implement IHT that could meet the requirements [of the curriculum standards] since now I can complete the critical first step [of IHT] well…

However, despite the improvement in her confidence in IHT following Stage 1, Shuitao also expressed some concerns. She articulated uncertainty regarding her performance in the subsequent stages of the teacher professional development program. Consequently, her confidence in IHT experienced only a modest increase.

After stage 2: “I participate in the development of IHT cases, and my confidence is increased a little bit more”

Following Stage 2, Shuitao reported further increased confidence in IHT. She attributed this growth to two main factors. Firstly, she successfully developed several instructional designs for IHT through collaboration with in-service teachers. These collaborative experiences enabled her to gain a deeper understanding of IHT approaches and enhance her pedagogical content knowledge in this area, consequently bolstering her confidence in her ability to perform effectively. Secondly, Shuitao observed the tangible impact of IHT cases on students in real classroom settings, which reinforced her belief in the efficacy of IHT. These experiences instilled in her a greater sense of confidence in her capacity to positively influence her students through her implementation of IHT. Shuitao remarked that she gradually understood how to integrate suitable history-related materials into her instructional designs (e.g., employ a genetic approach Footnote 10 ), considering it as the second important step of IHT. She shared her experience of developing IHT instructional design on the concept of logarithms. After creating several iterations of IHT instructional designs, Shuitao emphasized that her confidence in SE-IHT-IP has strengthened. She expressed belief in her ability to apply these approaches to IHT, as well as the pedagogical content knowledge of IHT, acquired through practical experience, in her future teaching endeavors. The following is an excerpt from the interview:

I learned some effective knowledge, skills, techniques and approaches [to IHT]… By employing these approaches, I thought I could [and] I had the confidence to integrate the history into instructional designs very well… For instance, [inspired] by the genetic approach, we designed a series of questions and tasks based on the history of logarithms. The introduction of the new concept of logarithms became very natural, and it perfectly met the requirements of our curriculum standards, [which] asked students to understand the necessity of learning the concept of logarithms…

Shuitao actively observed the classroom teaching conducted by her cooperating in-service teacher. She helped her cooperating in-service teacher in collecting and analyzing students’ feedback. Subsequently, discussions ensued on how to improve the instructional designs based on this feedback. The refined IHT instructional designs were subsequently re-implemented by the in-service teacher. After three rounds of developing IHT cases, Shuitao became increasingly convinced of the significance and efficacy of integrating history into teaching practices, as evidenced by the following excerpt:

The impacts of IHT on students are visible… For instance, more than 93% of the students mentioned in the open-ended questionnaires that they became more interested in mathematics because of the [historical] story of Napier… For another example, according to the results of our surveys, more than 75% of the students stated that they knew log a ( M  +  N ) = log a M  × log a N was wrong because of history… I have a little bit more confidence in the effects of my IHT on students.

This excerpt highlights that Shuitao’s SE-IHT-SO was enhanced. She attributed this enhancement to her realization of the compelling nature of history and her belief in her ability to effectively leverage its power to positively influence her students’ cognitive and emotional development. This also underscores the importance of reinforcing pre-service teachers’ awareness of the significance of history. Nonetheless, Shuiato elucidated that she still retained concerns regarding the effectiveness of her IHT implementation. Her following statement shed light on why her self-efficacy only experienced a marginal increase in this stage:

Knowing how to do it successfully and doing it successfully in practice are two totally different things… I can develop IHT instructional designs well, but I have no idea whether I can implement them well and whether I can introduce the history professionally in practice… My cooperation in-service teacher has a long history of teaching mathematics and gains rich experience in educational practices… If I cannot acquire some required teaching skills and capabilities, I still cannot influence my students powerfully.

After stage 3: “Practice makes perfect, and my SE-IHT-IP is steadily enhanced after a hit”

After successfully developing IHT instructional designs, the next critical step was the implementation of these designs. Drawing from her observations of her cooperating in-service teachers’ IHT implementations and discussions with other pre-service teachers, Shuitao developed her own IHT lesson plans. In Stage 3, she conducted simulated teaching sessions and evaluated her teaching performance ten times Footnote 11 . Shuitao claimed that her SE-IHT-IP steadily improved over the course of these sessions. According to Shuitao, two main processes in Stage 3 facilitated this steady enhancement of SE-IHT-IP.

On the one hand, through the repeated implementation of simulated teaching sessions, Shuitao’s teaching proficiency and fluency markedly improved. Shuitao first described the importance of teaching proficiency and fluency:

Since the detailed history is not included in our curriculum standards and textbooks, if I use my historical materials in class, I have to teach more contents than traditional teachers. Therefore, I have to teach proficiently so that teaching pace becomes a little faster than usual… I have to teach fluently so as to use each minute efficiently in my class. Otherwise, I cannot complete the teaching tasks required [by curriculum standards].

As Shuitao said, at the beginning of Stage 3, her self-efficacy even decreased because she lacked teaching proficiency and fluency and was unable to complete the required teaching tasks:

In the first few times of simulated teaching, I always needed to think for a second about what I should say next when I finish one sentence. I also felt very nervous when I stood in the front of the classrooms. This made my narration of the historical story between Briggs and Napier not fluent at all. I paused many times to look for some hints on my notes… All these made me unable to complete the required teaching tasks… My [teaching] confidence took a hit.

Shuitao quoted the proverb, “practice makes perfect”, and she emphasized that it was repeated practice that improved her teaching proficiency and fluency:

I thought I had no other choice but to practice IHT repeatedly… [At the end of Stage 3,] I could naturally remember most words that I should say when teaching the topics that I selected… My teaching proficiency and fluency was improved through my repeated review of my instructional designs and implementation of IHT in the micro-classrooms… With the improvement [of my teaching proficiency and fluency], I could complete the teaching tasks, and my confidence was increased as well.

In addition, Shuitao also mentioned that through this kind of self-exploration in simulated teaching practice, her teaching skills and capabilities (e.g., blackboard writing, abilities of language organization abilities, etc.) improved. This process was of great help to her enhancement of SE-IHT-IP.

On the other hand, Shuitao’s simulated teaching underwent assessment by herself, with mentors, in-service teachers and fellow pre-service teachers. This comprehensive evaluation process played a pivotal role in enhancing her individual performance and self-efficacy. Reflecting on this aspect, Shuitao articulated the following sentiments in one of her reflection reports:

By watching the videos, conducting self-assessment, and collecting feedback from others, I can understand what I should improve or emphasize in my teaching. [Then,] I think my IHT can better meet the requirements [of curriculum standards]… I think my teaching performance is getting better and better.

After stage 4: “My micro-courses influenced students positively, and my SE-IHT-SO is steadily enhanced”

In Stage 4, Shuitao commenced by creating 5-min micro-course videos. Subsequently, she played these videos in her cooperating in-service teachers’ authentic classroom settings and collected student feedback. This micro-course was played at the end of her cooperating in-service teachers’ lesson Footnote 12 . Shuitao wrote in her reflections that this micro-course of logarithms helped students better understand the nature of mathematics:

According to the results of our surveys, many students stated that they knew the development and evolution of the concept of logarithms is a long process and many mathematicians from different countries have contributed to the development of the concept of logarithms… This indicated that my micro-course helped students better understand the nature of mathematics… My micro-course about the history informed students that mathematics is an evolving and human subject and helped them understand the dynamic development of the [mathematics] concept…

Meanwhile, Shuitao’s micro-course positively influenced some students’ beliefs towards mathematics. As evident from the quote below, integrating historical context into mathematics teaching transformed students’ perception of the subject, boosting Shuitao’s confidence too.

Some students’ responses were very exciting… [O]ne [typical] response stated, he always regarded mathematics as abstract, boring, and dreadful subject; but after seeing the photos of mathematicians and great men and learning the development of the concept of logarithms through the micro-course, he found mathematics could be interesting. He wanted to learn more the interesting history… Students’ such changes made me confident.

Furthermore, during post-class interviews, several students expressed their recognition of the significance of the logarithms concept to Shuitao, attributing this realization to the insights provided by prominent figures in the micro-courses. They also conveyed their intention to exert greater effort in mastering the subject matter. This feedback made Shuitao believe that her IHT had the potential to positively influence students’ attitudes towards learning mathematics.

In summary, Stage 4 marked Shuitao’s first opportunity to directly impact students through her IHT in authentic classroom settings. Despite implementing only brief 5-min micro-courses integrating history during each session, the effectiveness of her short IHT implementation was validated by student feedback. Shuitao unequivocally expressed that students actively engaged with her micro-courses and that these sessions positively influenced them, including attitudes and motivation toward mathematics learning, understanding of mathematics concepts, and beliefs regarding mathematics. These collective factors contributed to a steady enhancement of her confidence in SE-IHT-SO.

After stage 5: “My overall self-efficacy is greatly enhanced”

Following Stage 5, Shuitao reported a significant increase in her overall confidence in IHT, attributing it to gaining mastery through successful implementations of IHT in real classroom settings. On the one hand, Shuitao successfully designed and executed her IHT lesson plans, consistently achieving the teaching objectives mandated by curriculum standards. This significantly enhanced her SE-IHT-IP. On the other hand, as Shuitao’s IHT implementation directly influenced her students, her confidence in SE-IHT-SO experienced considerable improvement.

According to Bandura ( 1997 ), mastery experience is the most powerful source of self-efficacy. Shuitao’s statements confirmed this. As she claimed, her enhanced SE-IHT-IP in Stage 5 mainly came from the experience of successful implementations of IHT in real classrooms:

[Before the teacher professional development program,] I had no idea about implementing IHT… Now, I successfully implemented IHT in senior high school [classrooms] many times… I can complete the teaching tasks and even better completed the teaching objectives required [by the curriculum standards]… The successful experience greatly enhances my confidence to perform well in my future implementation of IHT… Yeah, I think the successful teaching practice experience is the strongest booster of my confidence.

At the end of stage 5, Shuitao’s mentors and in-service teachers gave her a high evaluation. For instance, after Shuitao’s IHT implementation of the concept of logarithms, all mentors and in-service teachers consistently provided feedback that her IHT teaching illustrated the necessity of learning the concept of logarithms and met the requirements of the curriculum standards very well. This kind of verbal persuasion (Bandura 1997 ) enhanced her SE-IHT-IP.

Similarly, Shuitao’s successful experience of influencing students positively through IHT, as one kind of mastery experience, powerfully enhanced her SE-IHT-SO. She described her changes in SE-IHT-SO as follows:

I could not imagine my IHT could be so influential [before]… But now, my IHT implementation directly influenced students in so many aspects… When I witnessed students’ real changes in various cognitive and affective aspects, my confidence was greatly improved.

Shuitao described the influence of her IHT implementation of the concept of logarithms on her students. The depiction is grounded in the outcomes of surveys conducted by Shuitao following her implementation. Shuitao asserted that these results filled her with excitement and confidence regarding her future implementation of IHT.

In summary, following Stage 5 of the teacher professional development program, Shuitao experienced a notable enhancement in her overall self-efficacy, primarily attributed to her successful practical experience in authentic classroom settings during this stage.

A primary objective of our teacher professional development programs is to equip pre-service teachers with the skills and confidence needed to effectively implement IAT. Our findings show that one teacher professional development program, significantly augmented a participant’s TSE-IHT across two dimensions: individual performance and student outcomes. Considering the pressing need to provide STEAM teachers with effective professional training (e.g., Boice et al. 2021 ; Duong et al. 2024 ; Herro et al. 2019 ; Jacques et al. 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ), the proposed five-stage framework holds significant promise in both theoretical and practical realms. Furthermore, this study offers a viable solution to address the prevalent issue of low levels of teacher self-efficacy in interdisciplinary teaching, including IAT, which is critical in STEAM education (Zhou et al. 2023 ). This study holds the potential to make unique contributions to the existing body of literature on teacher self-efficacy, teacher professional learning models and the design of teacher professional development programs of IAT.

Firstly, this study enhances our understanding of the development of teacher self-efficacy. Our findings further confirm the complexity of the development of teacher self-efficacy. On the one hand, the observed enhancement of the participant’s teacher self-efficacy did not occur swiftly but unfolded gradually through a protracted, incremental process. Moreover, it is noteworthy that the participant’s self-efficacy exhibited fluctuations, underscoring that the augmentation of teacher self-efficacy is neither straightforward nor linear. On the other hand, the study elucidated that the augmentation of teacher self-efficacy constitutes an intricate, multi-level system that interacts with teacher knowledge, skills, and other beliefs. This finding resonates with prior research on teacher self-efficacy (Morris et al. 2017 ; Xenofontos and Andrews 2020 ). For example, our study revealed that Shuitao’s enhancement of SE-IHT-SO may always be interwoven with her continuous comprehension of the significance of the A&H in classroom settings. Similarly, the participant progressively acknowledged the educational value of A&H in classroom contexts in tandem with the stepwise enhancement of SE-IHT-SO. Factors such as the participant’s pedagogical content knowledge of IHT, instructional design, and teaching skills were also identified as pivotal components of SE-IHT-IP. This finding corroborates Morris and Usher ( 2011 ) assertion that sustained improvements in self-efficacy stem from developing teachers’ skills and knowledge. With the bolstering of SE-IHT-IP, the participant’s related teaching skills and content knowledge also exhibited improvement.

Methodologically, many researchers advocate for qualitative investigations into self-efficacy (e.g., Philippou and Pantziara 2015; Klassen et al. 2011 ; Wyatt 2015 ; Xenofontos and Andrews 2020 ). While acknowledging limitations in sample scope and the generalizability of the findings, this study offers a longitudinal perspective on the stage-by-stage development of teacher self-efficacy and its interactions with different factors (i.e., teacher knowledge, skills, and beliefs), often ignored by quantitative studies. Considering that studies of self-efficacy have been predominantly quantitative, typically drawing on survey techniques and pre-determined scales (Xenofontos and Andrews, 2020 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ), this study highlights the need for greater attention to qualitative studies so that more cultural, situational and contextual factors in the development of self-efficacy can be captured.

Our study provides valuable practical implications for enhancing pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. We conceptualize teacher self-efficacy in two primary dimensions: individual performance and student outcomes. On the one hand, pre-service teachers can enhance their teaching qualities, boosting their self-efficacy in individual performance. The adage “practice makes perfect” underscores the necessity of ample teaching practice opportunities for pre-service teachers who lack prior teaching experience. Engaging in consistent and reflective practice helps them develop confidence in their teaching qualities. On the other hand, pre-service teachers should focus on positive feedback from their students, reinforcing their self-efficacy in individual performance. Positive student feedback serves as an affirmation of their teaching effectiveness and encourages continuous improvement. Furthermore, our findings highlight the significance of mentors’ and peers’ positive feedback as critical sources of teacher self-efficacy. Mentors and peers play a pivotal role in the professional growth of pre-service teachers by actively encouraging them and recognizing their teaching achievements. Constructive feedback from experienced mentors and supportive peers fosters a collaborative learning environment and bolsters the self-confidence of pre-service teachers. Additionally, our research indicates that pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy may fluctuate. Therefore, mentors should be prepared to help pre-service teachers manage teaching challenges and setbacks, and alleviate any teaching-related anxiety. Mentors can help pre-service teachers build resilience and maintain a positive outlook on their teaching journey through emotional support and guidance. Moreover, a strong correlation exists between teacher self-efficacy and teacher knowledge and skills. Enhancing pre-service teachers’ knowledge base and instructional skills is crucial for bolstering their overall self-efficacy.

Secondly, this study also responds to the appeal to understand teachers’ professional learning from a holistic perspective and interrelate teachers’ professional learning process with student outcome variables (Sancar et al. 2021 ), and thus contributes to the understanding of the complexity of STEAM teachers’ professional learning. On the one hand, we have confirmed Cai et al.’s ( 2020 ) teacher professional learning model in a new context, namely STEAM teacher education. Throughout the teacher professional development program, the pre-service teacher, Shuitao, demonstrated an augmentation in her knowledge, encompassing both content knowledge and pedagogical understanding concerning IHT. Moreover, her beliefs regarding IHT transformed as a result of her engagement in teacher learning across the five stages. This facilitated her in executing effective IHT teaching and improving her students’ outcomes. On the other hand, notably, in our studies (including this current study and some follow-up studies), student feedback is a pivotal tool to assist teachers in discerning the impact they are effectuating. This enables pre-service teachers to grasp the actual efficacy of their teaching efforts and subsequently contributes significantly to the augmentation of their self-efficacy. Such steps have seldom been conducted in prior studies (e.g., Cai et al. 2020 ), where student outcomes are often perceived solely as the results of teachers’ instruction rather than sources informing teacher beliefs. Additionally, this study has validated both the interaction between teaching performance and teacher beliefs and between teacher knowledge and teacher beliefs. These aspects were overlooked in Cai et al.’s ( 2020 ) model. More importantly, while Clarke and Hollingsworth’s ( 2002 ) Interconnected Model of Professional Growth illustrates the connections between the domain of consequence and the personal domain, as well as between the personal domain and the domain of practice, it does not adequately clarify the complex relationships among the factors within the personal domain (e.g., the interaction between teacher knowledge and teacher beliefs). Therefore, our study also supplements Clarke and Hollingsworth’s ( 2002 ) model by addressing these intricacies. Based on our findings, an updated model of teacher professional learning has been proposed, as shown in Fig. 3 . This expanded model indicates that teacher learning should be an ongoing and sustainable process, with the enhancement of student learning not marking the conclusion of teacher learning, but rather serving as the catalyst for a new phase of learning. In this sense, we advocate for further research to investigate the tangible impacts of teacher professional development programs on students and how those impacts stimulate subsequent cycles of teacher learning.

Note: Paths in blue were proposed by Cai et al. ( 2020 ), and paths in yellow are proposed and verified in this study.

Thirdly, in light of the updated model of teacher professional learning (see Fig. 3 ), this study provides insights into the design of teacher professional development programs of IAT. According to Huang et al. ( 2022 ), to date, very few studies have set goals to “develop a comprehensive understanding of effective designs” for STEM (or STEAM) teacher professional development programs (p. 15). To fill this gap, this study proposes a novel and effective five-stage framework for teacher professional development programs of IAT. This framework provides a possible and feasible solution to the challenges of STEAM teacher professional development programs’ design and planning, and teachers’ IAT practice (Boice et al. 2021 ; Herro et al. 2019 ; Jacques et al. 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ).

Specifically, our five-stage framework incorporates at least six important features. Firstly, teacher professional development programs should focus on specific STEAM content. Given the expansive nature of STEAM, teacher professional development programs cannot feasibly encompass all facets of its contents. Consistent with recommendations by Cai et al. ( 2020 ), Desimone et al. ( 2002 ) and Garet et al. ( 2001 ), an effective teacher professional development program should prioritize content focus. Our five-stage framework is centered on IAT. Throughout an 18-month duration, each pre-service teacher is limited to selecting one subcomponent of A&H, such as history, for integration into their subject teaching (i.e., mathematics teaching, technology teaching or science teaching) within one teacher professional development program. Secondly, in response to the appeals that teacher professional development programs should shift from emphasizing teaching and instruction to emphasizing student learning (Cai et al. 2020 ; Calabrese et al. 2024 ; Hwang et al. 2024 ; Marco and Palatnik 2024 ; Örnek and Soylu 2021 ), our framework requires pre-service teachers to pay close attention to the effects of IAT on student learning outcomes, and use students’ feedback as the basis of improving their instruction. Thirdly, prior studies found that teacher education with a preference for theory led to pre-service teachers’ dissatisfaction with the quality of teacher professional development program and hindered the development of pre-service teachers’ teaching skills and teaching beliefs, which also widened the gap between theory and practice (Hennissen et al. 2017 ; Ord and Nuttall 2016 ). In this regard, our five-stage framework connects theory and teaching practice closely. In particular, pre-service teachers can experience the values of IAT not only through theoretical learning but also through diverse teaching practices. Fourthly, we build a teacher community of practice tailored for pre-service teachers. Additionally, we aim to encourage greater participation of in-service teachers in such teacher professional development programs designed for pre-service educators in STEAM teacher education. By engaging in such programs, in-service teachers can offer valuable teaching opportunities for pre-service educators and contribute their insights and experiences from teaching practice. Importantly, pre-service teachers stand to gain from the in-service teachers’ familiarity with textbooks, subject matter expertise, and better understanding of student dynamics. Fifthly, our five-stage framework lasts for an extended period, spanning 18 months. This duration ensures that pre-service teachers engage in a sustained and comprehensive learning journey. Lastly, our framework facilitates a practical understanding of “integration” by offering detailed, sequential instructions for blending two disciplines in teaching. For example, our teacher professional development programs prioritize systematic learning of pedagogical theories and simulated teaching experiences before pre-service teachers embark on real STEAM teaching endeavors. This approach is designed to mitigate the risk of unsuccessful experiences during initial teaching efforts, thereby safeguarding pre-service teachers’ teacher self-efficacy. Considering the complexity of “integration” in interdisciplinary teaching practices, including IAT (Han et al. 2022 ; Ryu et al. 2019 ), we believe detailed stage-by-stage and step-by-step instructions are crucial components of relevant pre-service teacher professional development programs. Notably, this aspect, emphasizing structural instructional guidance, has not been explicitly addressed in prior research (e.g., Cai et al. 2020 ). Figure 4 illustrates the six important features outlined in this study, encompassing both established elements and the novel addition proposed herein, describing an effective teacher professional development program.

Note: STEAM refers to science, technology, engineering, arts and humanities, and mathematics.

The successful implementation of this framework is also related to the Chinese teacher education system and cultural background. For instance, the Chinese government has promoted many university-school collaboration initiatives, encouraging in-service teachers to provide guidance and practical opportunities for pre-service teachers (Lu et al. 2019 ). Influenced by Confucian values emphasizing altruism, many experienced in-service teachers in China are eager to assist pre-service teachers, helping them better realize their teaching career aspirations. It is reported that experienced in-service teachers in China show significantly higher motivation than their international peers when mentoring pre-service teachers (Lu et al. 2019 ). Therefore, for the successful implementation of this framework in other countries, it is crucial for universities to forge close collaborative relationships with K-12 schools and actively involve K-12 teachers in pre-service teacher education.

Notably, approximately 5% of our participants dropped out midway as they found that the IAT practice was too challenging or felt overwhelmed by the number of required tasks in the program. Consequently, we are exploring options to potentially simplify this framework in future iterations.

Without minimizing the limitations of this study, it is important to recognize that a qualitative longitudinal case study can be a useful means of shedding light on the development of a pre-service STEAM teacher’s self-efficacy. However, this methodology did not allow for a pre-post or a quasi-experimental design, and the effectiveness of our five-stage framework could not be confirmed quantitatively. In the future, conducting more experimental or design-based studies could further validate the effectiveness of our framework and broaden our findings. Furthermore, future studies should incorporate triangulation methods and utilize multiple data sources to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings. Meanwhile, owing to space limitations, we could only report the changes in Shuitao’s SE-IHT-IP and SE-IHT-SO here, and we could not describe the teacher self-efficacy of other participants regarding IAT. While nearly all of the pre-service teachers experienced an improvement in their teacher self-efficacy concerning IAT upon participating in our teacher professional development programs, the processes of their change were not entirely uniform. We will need to report the specific findings of these variations in the future. Further studies are also needed to explore the factors contributing to these variations. Moreover, following this study, we are implementing more teacher professional development programs of IAT. Future studies can explore the impact of this framework on additional aspects of pre-service STEAM teachers’ professional development. This will help gain a more comprehensive understanding of its effectiveness and potential areas for further improvement. Additionally, our five-stage framework was initially developed and implemented within the Chinese teacher education system. Future research should investigate how this framework can be adapted in other educational systems and cultural contexts.

The impetus behind this study stems from the burgeoning discourse advocating for the integration of A&H disciplines into STEM education on a global scale (e.g., Land 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Uştu et al. 2021 ; Vaziri and Bradburn 2021 ). Concurrently, there exists a pervasive concern regarding the challenges teachers face in implementing STEAM approaches, particularly in the context of IAT practices (e.g., Boice et al. 2021 ; Herro et al. 2019 ; Jacques et al. 2020 ; Park and Cho 2022 ; Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro 2019 ). To tackle this challenge, we first proposed a five-stage framework designed for teacher professional development programs of IAT. Then, utilizing this innovative framework, we implemented a series of teacher professional development programs. Drawing from the recommendations of Bray-Clark and Bates ( 2003 ), Kelley et al. ( 2020 ) and Zhou et al. ( 2023 ), we have selected teacher self-efficacy as a key metric to examine the effectiveness of the five-stage framework. Through a qualitative longitudinal case study, we scrutinized the influence of a specific teacher professional development program on the self-efficacy of a single pre-service teacher over an 18-month period. Our findings revealed a notable enhancement in teacher self-efficacy across both individual performance and student outcomes. The observed enhancement of the participant’s teacher self-efficacy did not occur swiftly but unfolded gradually through a prolonged, incremental process. Building on our findings, an updated model of teacher learning has been proposed. The updated model illustrates that teacher learning should be viewed as a continuous and sustainable process, wherein teaching performance, teacher beliefs, and teacher knowledge dynamically interact with one another. The updated model also confirms that teacher learning is inherently intertwined with student learning in STEAM education. Furthermore, this study also summarizes effective design features of STEAM teacher professional development programs.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to general data protection regulations, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

In their review article, Morris et al. ( 2017 ) equated “teaching self-efficacy” and “teacher self-efficacy” as synonymous concepts. This perspective is also adopted in this study.

An effective teacher professional development program should have specific, focused, and clear content instead of broad and scattered ones. Therefore, each pre-service teacher can only choose to integrate one subcomponent of A&H into their teaching in one teacher professional development program. For instance, Shuitao, a mathematics pre-service teacher, participated in one teacher professional development program focused on integrating history into mathematics teaching. However, she did not explore the integration of other subcomponents of A&H into her teaching during her graduate studies.

In the micro-classrooms, multi-angle, and multi-point high-definition video recorders are set up to record the teaching process.

In micro-teaching, mentors, in-service teachers, and other fellow pre-service teachers take on the roles of students.

In China, teachers can video record one section of a lesson and play them in formal classes. This is a practice known as a micro-course. For instance, in one teacher professional development program of integrating history into mathematics teaching, micro-courses encompass various mathematics concepts, methods, ideas, history-related material and related topics. Typically, teachers use these micro-courses to broaden students’ views, foster inquiry-based learning, and cultivate critical thinking skills. Such initiatives play an important role in improving teaching quality.

Many university-school collaboration initiatives in China focus on pre-service teachers’ practicum experiences (Lu et al. 2019 ). Our teacher professional development program is also supported by many K-12 schools in Shanghai. Personal information in videos is strictly protected.

In China, students are not required to pursue a graduate major that matches their undergraduate major. Most participants in our teacher professional development programs did not pursue undergraduate degrees in education-related fields.

Shuitao’s university reserves Wednesday afternoons for students to engage in various programs or clubs, as classes are not scheduled during this time. Similarly, our teacher professional development program activities are planned for Wednesday afternoons to avoid overlapping with participants’ other coursework commitments.

History is one of the most important components of A&H (Park and Cho 2022 ).

To learn more about genetic approach (i.e., genetic principle), see Jankvist ( 2009 ).

For the assessment process, see Fig. 2 .

Shuitao’s cooperating in-service teacher taught the concept of logarithms in Stage 2. In Stage 4, the teaching objective of her cooperating in-service teacher’s review lesson was to help students review the concept of logarithms to prepare students for the final exam.

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Acknowledgements

This research is funded by 2021 National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.62177042), 2024 Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. Y24F020039), and 2024 Zhejiang Educational Science Planning Project (Grant No. 2024SCG247).

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Xuesong Zhai

Present address: School of Education, City University of Macau, Macau, China

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College of Education, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Haozhe Jiang & Xuesong Zhai

School of Engineering and Technology, CML‑NET & CREATE Research Centres, Central Queensland University, North Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

Ritesh Chugh

Hangzhou International Urbanology Research Center & Zhejiang Urban Governance Studies Center, Hangzhou, China

Department of Teacher Education, Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA, USA

School of Mathematical Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Xiaoqin Wang

College of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

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Conceptualization - Haozhe Jiang; methodology - Haozhe Jiang; software - Xuesong Zhai; formal analysis - Haozhe Jiang & Ke Wang; investigation - Haozhe Jiang; resources - Haozhe Jiang, Xuesong Zhai & Xiaoqin Wang; data curation - Haozhe Jiang & Ke Wang; writing—original draft preparation - Haozhe Jiang & Ritesh Chugh; writing—review and editing - Ritesh Chugh & Ke Wang; visualization - Haozhe Jiang, Ke Wang & Xiaoqin Wang; supervision - Xuesong Zhai & Xiaoqin Wang; project administration - Xuesong Zhai & Xiaoqin Wang; and funding acquisition - Xuesong Zhai & Xiaoqin Wang. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Jiang, H., Chugh, R., Zhai, X. et al. Longitudinal analysis of teacher self-efficacy evolution during a STEAM professional development program: a qualitative case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1162 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03655-5

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
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• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
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• Primary Sources
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• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
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• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
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• Reviewing Collected Essays
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• About Informed Consent
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The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Class 9 Social Science Case Study Questions

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If you’re seeking Class 9 Social Science Case Study Questions, you’ve come to the correct spot. Students can use Class 9 Social Science Case Study Questions to help them answer a variety of questions about the Class 9 Social Science case study.

The CBSE Board has included case study questions in Class 9 Social Science examination pattern. As a result, it becomes an indispensable study tool.

The need for a student-friendly app to explain and facilitate the understanding of the social sciences subject has been felt for a long. Especially for students who do not have a strong foundation in Class 9 Social Science. With myCBSEguide , class 9 social science students now have a place where they can find resources that are student-friendly, interesting and easy to understand.

Class 9 Social Science Case Study questions are intended to assess student’s abilities to apply their learning to practical scenarios. You’ll need to employ your critical thinking and problem-solving skills to come up with the best solution. Class 9 Social Science case study questions are designed to test your knowledge and help you improve your skills.

Class 9 Social Science Case Study Questions Samples

myCBSEguide has identified the essential themes connected to CBSE case study questions for Class 9 Social Science that every student should be aware of following a comprehensive examination of CBSE Sample Papers and Marking Scheme. Students in Class 9 Social Science will benefit from this information in understanding the changes in the Class 9 Social Science. For a better understanding and analysis, students should refer to the example of Class 9 Social Science case study questions attached below:

Class 9 Social Science Case Study Question 1

Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow: On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a peoples’ militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition. In the armed fight that followed, the commander of the Bastille was killed and the prisoners released – though there were only seven of them. Yet the Bastille was hated by all because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished and its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction. The days that followed saw more rioting both in Paris and the countryside. Most people were protesting against the high price of bread. Much later, when historians looked back upon this time, they saw it as the beginning of a chain of events that ultimately led to the execution of the king in France, though most people at the time did not anticipate this outcome. Answer the following MCQs by choosing the most appropriate option:

On 14th July, 1789 the people of the ________ estate attacked the Bastille prison and freed all the prisoners signalling the start of the _________.

• first, civil war
• fourth, Russian war
• second, movement
• third, revolution

Which of the following statement is incorrect?

• The Bastille was the fortress-prison.
• The Bastille stood for the democratic power of the king.
• On the morning of 14 July 1789, the people of Paris stormed Bastille
• All are correct

In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and chose the correct option: Assertion (A): The people of France storm the Bastille. Reason (R): They were hopeful to find King Louis XIV and commander of the Bastille there.

• Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
• Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A.
• A is correct but R is wrong.
• Both A and R are wrong.

What was the immediate cause of rioting in Paris?

• Atrocities by the commander
• The high price of bread
• The killing of women and children
• All of these

Answer Key:

• (d) third, revolution
• (b) The Bastille stood for the democratic power of the king. [Explanation: The Bastille stood for the despotic power of the king.]
• (c) A is correct but R is wrong. [Explanation: The people of France stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille because they were hopeful to find hoarded ammunition there.]
• (b) high price of bread

Class 9Social Science Case Study Question 2

Read the extracts and answer the question that follows:

The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the Himalayas northern borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world. They form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than those in the western half. The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie between these ranges. The northern most range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas. It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks.

The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range.

• The Great or Inner Himalayas is also known as?
• Give two features of the folds of Great Himalayas.
• Give two features of the Inner Himalayas.
• The Great or Inner Himalayas is also known as the ‘Himadri’.
• (Any two relevant points)
• The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature.
• The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.
• It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range.
• Features of the Inner Himalayas:
• It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.
• It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks.  

Class 9 Social Science Case Study Question 3

Read the source given below and answer the questions that follow: In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup in October 1999. He overthrew a democratically elected government and declared himself the ‘Chief Executive’ of the country. Later he changed his designation to President and in 2002 held a referendum in the country that granted him a five-year extension. Pakistani media, human rights organisations and democracy activists said that the referendum was based on malpractices and fraud. In August 2002 he issued a ‘Legal Framework Order’ that amended the Constitution of Pakistan. According to this Order, the President can dismiss the national and provincial assemblies. The work of the civilian cabinet is supervised by a National Security Council which is dominated by military officers. After passing this law, elections were held to the national and provincial assemblies. So Pakistan has had elections, elected representatives have some powers. But the final power rested with military officers and General Musharraf himself. Clearly, there are many reasons why Pakistan under General Musharraf should not be called a democracy. People may have elected their representatives to the national and provincial assemblies but those elected representatives were not really the rulers. They cannot take the final decisions. The power to take final decision rested with army officials and with General Musharraf, and none of them were elected by the people. This happens in many dictatorships and monarchies. They formally have an elected parliament and government but the real power is with those who are not elected. In a few countries, the real power was with some external powers and not with locally elected representatives. This cannot be called people’s rule. Answer the following MCQs by choosing the most appropriate option:

What is the meaning of Referendum?

• Direct vote in which the entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal
• A form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people
• A system where the majority or elected representatives are allowed to take decisions on behalf of all the people

In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and chose the correct option: Assertion (A): Pakistan not considered a democratic country even after having elections Reason (R): Despite elections to the national and provincial assemblies, the final powers rested with General Musharraf and military officers.

• Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
• Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
• A is wrong but R is correct.

After the passage of the ________, elections were held to the national and state assemblies.

• Military rule
• Legal Framework Order
• Both (b) and (c)

Does the given source explain the significance of which feature of democracy?

• Democracy must be based on a free and fair election
• In a democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people
• In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote
• Democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’ rights
• (a) Direct vote in which the entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal
• (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
• (c) Legal Framework Order
• (b) In a democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people

Steps to Master Class 9 Social Science Case Study Questions

Class 9 Social Science case study questions can be daunting, but there are some strategies you can use to ace them. There is no one-size-fits-all answer to Class 9 social science case study questions. The best way to solve a social science case study will vary depending on the specific case in question. However, there are some general tips that can be followed in order to improve your chances of success while answering class 9 social science case study questions.

• First, make sure to read the question carefully and understand what is being asked. It is often helpful to re-read the question after gathering all of your information.
• Next, organize your thoughts and create an outline of your answer. This will help you to stay on track and include all relevant information.
• Finally, write your answer in a clear and concise manner.

Class 9 Social Science Content Structure

Class 9 social science content is divided into four parts: History, Geography, Economics and Political Science. Each part is further divided into smaller themes/chapters.

Each of these topics given in Class 9 Social Science is important in its own right, and together they provide a comprehensive overview that affect our world today. The content is structured in such a way as to provide Class 9 Social Science students with a broad understanding of each issue, while also allowing them to focus on specific areas that are of particular interest to Class 9 Social Science students.

Class 9 Social Science COURSE CONTENT 

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• DOI: 10.3390/engproc2024074045
• Corpus ID: 272403168

Digital Diplomacy: A Case Study of Foreign Relations of Mongolian and India in Social Media by Big Data Analysis and Computation

• Shinetsetseg Jargalsaikhan , Shu-Chin Huang , I-Tung Shih
• Published in IEEE ICEIB 3 September 2024
• Political Science, Computer Science
• IEEE ICEIB 2024

12 References

Indonesia's role in digital diplomacy through the regional conference on digital diplomacy (rcdd), the psychosemantic realm of social media warfare affecting public diplomacy, is digital diplomacy an effective foreign policy tool evaluating india’s digital diplomacy through agenda-building in south asia, the benefits and risks of digital diplomacy, foreign policy in an era of digital diplomacy, e-diplomacy: a systematic literature review, digital diplomacy: theory and practice, a world of our making, national interests in international society, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

The right care in the right place: a scoping review of digital health education and training for rural healthcare workers

• Leanna Woods 1 , 2 ,
• Priya Martin 3 ,
• Johnson Khor 1 , 4 ,
• Lauren Guthrie 1 &
• Clair Sullivan 1 , 2 , 5  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  1011 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Digital health offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance health service delivery across vast geographic regions. However, these benefits can only be realized with effective capabilities and clinical leadership of the rural healthcare workforce. Little is known about how rural healthcare workers acquire skills in digital health, how digital health education or training programs are evaluated and the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training.

To conduct a scoping review to identify and synthesize existing evidence on digital health education and training of the rural healthcare workforce.

Inclusion criteria

Sources that reported digital health and education or training in the healthcare workforce in any healthcare setting outside metropolitan areas.

We searched for published and unpublished studies written in English in the last decade to August 2023. The databases searched were PubMed, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL and Education Resources Information Centre. We also searched the grey literature (Google, Google Scholar), conducted citation searching and stakeholder engagement. The JBI Scoping Review methodology and PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews were used.

Five articles met the eligibility criteria. Two case studies, one feasibility study, one micro-credential and one fellowship were described. The mode of delivery was commonly modular online learning. Only one article described an evaluation, and findings showed the train-the-trainer model was technically and pedagogically feasible and well received. A limited number of barriers and enablers for high quality education or training of the rural healthcare workforce were reported across macro (legal, regulatory, economic), meso (local health service and community) and micro (day-to-day practice) levels.

Conclusions

Upskilling rural healthcare workers in digital health appears rare. Current best practice points to flexible, blended training programs that are suitably embedded with interdisciplinary and collaborative rural healthcare improvement initiatives. Future work to advance the field could define rural health informatician career pathways, address concurrent rural workforce issues, and conduct training implementation evaluations.

Review registration number

Open Science Framework: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/N2RMX .

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Globally, healthcare workers (HCWs) face multiple pressures simultaneously: increasing demand for care, co-morbidities and condition complexity, budget pressures, and rapid digital disruption [ 1 ]. The digital disruption in healthcare promises an unprecedented circumstance to improve outcomes and strengthen health systems [ 2 ]. However, this opportunity depends on a capable healthcare workforce with adequate skills and knowledge in data and emerging technologies [ 3 ]. HCW capability in digital health and clinical informatics is increasingly acknowledged as an essential component to the delivery of high-quality patient care [ 4 ]. Universities do not yet routinely teach these curricula in clinical degrees, and the capability gap in the current workforce is often filled by brief, reactive, and on-the-job training [ 5 ]. Sustainability of healthcare includes developing a skilled healthcare workforce educated and competent in digital health [ 6 ].

The rural healthcare workforce is faced with the location-based issues of resource constraints, workforce shortages, high staff turnover rates, stress, burnout, and an ageing workforce [ 7 ]. The World Health Organization has acknowledged in a recent report (2021) the complex challenge of shortage of healthcare workers globally in rural areas [ 7 ]. This report has acknowledged that the workforce density is lower than national averages in most of these areas. In places where there isn’t a national shortage, maldistribution of the workforce has been noted [ 7 ]. Digitally enabled models of care are well placed to enhance health service delivery across vast and distributed geographic regions. However, rural health service organizations require uplift to align with their metropolitan counterparts in workforce digital readiness [ 8 ]. Building digital health capability in rural settings is critical because higher digital health capability is associated with better outcomes, including the ability to maintain an accurate patient health record, track patient experience data, track the patient journey, and mitigate clinical risks [ 9 ]. Rurality is contributing to widening digital health inequities [ 10 ] with significant efforts required to adequately manage the rural digital divide [ 11 , 12 ]. Building digital capabilities of healthcare providers in rural and remote settings through education, training and support is needed [ 13 ].

Existing evidence on the education and training the rural healthcare workforce is limited. Firstly, while health science faculties are progressively integrating digital health into the undergraduate curricula for the future workforce [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], it is unclear how the education of current HCW is approached [ 14 ]. Despite global exemplars such as fellowship training for physicians [ 17 ], certification for nurses [ 18 ], and advanced education for clinical and non-clinical professionals [ 19 ], limited evidence of successful workforce programs to build digital health skills exist [ 4 ]. None focus on the rural healthcare setting.

Secondly, in literature reporting digital health in rural settings, there is a notable scarcity on workforce training programs. Existing studies focus on efficacy of delivered healthcare [ 20 , 21 ], workforce perceptions of digital health tool implementation [ 22 , 23 ] or are limited to training of specific interventions (e.g., clinical telehealth [ 24 ]). This review sought to explore the literature where these two gaps coexist, the intersection of digital health education and training and the rural healthcare workforce, and synthesize the available evidence on digital health education and training for the rural healthcare workforce.

Review question

The research questions for this review were:

What are the existing practices and approaches to digital health education and training for rural HCWs?

How has digital health education and training been evaluated following implementation?

What are the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training in the rural healthcare workforce?

Participants

The review considered studies and reports on any members of the workforce in healthcare settings outside of metropolitan areas. The healthcare workforce refers to ‘all individuals who deliver or assist in the delivery of health services or support the operation of health care facilities’ [ 3 ]. All clinical (e.g., medical doctors, nurses, allied health professionals, pharmacists, Indigenous HCWs, pre-registration/qualification students undertaking placements in health care facilities) and non-clinical workers (e.g., administration, executive and management, clinical support, and volunteers) were considered regardless of professional body or government registration status. Patients, healthcare consumers, and the public were excluded.

The core concepts of digital health and training were combined in this review. Digital health and clinical informatics are often used interchangeably, and both were considered in this review. While digital health refers to the use of digital technologies for health [ 25 ], clinical informatics refers to more specialized practice of analyzing, designing, implementing and evaluating information and communication systems [ 26 ]. Specific digital health systems (e.g., IT infrastructure, telehealth, electronic medical records) were included. Training relates to the education or training initiatives (e.g., programs, curriculum, course) that build an individuals’ digital health capability to confidently use technologies to respond to the needs of consumers now and into the future [ 1 ]. Both education and training activities were considered. Education often refers to theoretical learning (e.g., by an academic institution, qualification), and training often teaches practical skills (e.g., employer-provided professional development, ‘just-in-time’ training) [ 3 , 24 ]. This review did not consider HCW education delivered at a distance through technologies (e.g., telesupervision for clinical skills training).

This review considered studies and reports from rural healthcare settings defined as outside metropolitan cities, inclusive of regional, rural, remote, and very remote settings. When the term ‘rural’ is used in this review, it refers to all areas outside major metropolitan cities as described by authors of individual studies and reports. All healthcare facilities across primary, secondary, and tertiary care settings were included in any country.

Types of sources

All research studies, irrespective of the study design, were considered. Reviews, conference abstracts and non-research sources (e.g., policy documents, program or course curriculum) were considered. The grey literature was included to capture reactionary training developed by rural health services that were not published as peer-reviewed research studies.

This review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews [ 27 ] and reported as per the Preferred Reporting of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [ 28 ] (Additional file 1 ). The review protocol was registered in Open Science Framework [ https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/N2RMX ].

A scoping review approach was chosen over a systematic review to address a general, formative review question on this topic that is emerging in the literature and where the literature is complex and heterogenous [ 29 ]. An initial preliminary search of the topic in the academic databases, Cochrane Library, Open Science Framework and Prospero registry resulted in a very small number of relevant articles. It was determined that a broader search strategy and inclusion of non-research sources was required, consistent with the scoping review methodology [ 29 ]. Scoping review format is also well suited to the vast, diverse healthcare education topic across different disciplines, interventions and outcomes realised [ 30 ]. Mapping and synthesis across sources in this scoping review aims to inform research agendas and identify implications for policy and practice [ 31 ].

Deviations from the protocol

There were no deviations to the protocol.

Search strategy

The three phase JBI search process was followed. An initial limited search of PubMed was performed to identify keywords on the topic, followed by an analysis of the text words and index terms contained in the title and abstract. A subsequent preliminary search in Prospero registry, Cochrane Library and Open Science Framework informed the development of a full search strategy in PubMed. The search strategy, including all identified keyworks and index terms, was adapted for each included database and information source after refining the strategy with an information specialist. The reference lists of all included sources of evidence were screened for additional studies.

The review included only studies and reports in English (due to translation resourcing limitations) in the last 10 years (due to the relative novelty of the digital transformation of healthcare). The search was conducted in August 2023. The databases searched included PubMed, Scopus, Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Embase, and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). Scopus was chosen over Web of Science as it provides 20% more coverage and the relative recency of articles indexed (publish date after 1995 [ 32 ]) was not a concern for our research question. The search for unpublished studies and grey literature included Google and Google Scholar, using a modified search strategy as required. In addition, national and international stakeholders ( n  = 29) from Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, USA and the UK known to have subject matter expertise on the topic were contacted via direct email. Stakeholders were asked to share any relevant work underway or otherwise undiscoverable using our scoping review methods. The full search strategy for each information source is provided in Additional file 2 .

Study selection

Following the search, identified articles were collated and uploaded into Covidence review software (Veritas Health Innovation Ltd; Melbourne, Australia) and duplicates removed. Two reviewers (among LW, JK and LG) then independently screened the title and abstract of each citation and selected studies that met the inclusion criteria. The full text articles were retrieved and uploaded into Covidence. These studies and reports were assessed independently by two reviewers (listed previously) for full assessment against the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process were resolved through discussion or with an additional reviewer (among LG and PM). Three meetings occurred to discuss any voting conflicts that occurred during title and abstract screening and full-text screening. Articles that did not satisfy the criteria were excluded with reasons for exclusion recorded. Search results and study selection process is presented in accordance to the PRISMA-ScR flow diagram (Fig. 1 ) [ 28 ]. Quality appraisal of selected studies was not conducted, consistent with scoping reviews methods [ 33 ].

Search results and source selection and inclusion process

Data extraction

Extracted data included the specific details about the participants, concept, context, study methods and key findings relevant to each review question. Data was extracted by one reviewer (JK) and checked by a second reviewer (LW). Data were extracted using the data extraction tool developed and piloted by the team (Additional file 3 ).

Data synthesis and presentation

The characteristics of the included studies were analyzed and organized in tabular format, accompanied by a narrative summary. Results of each research question was presented under separate headings. The data analysis for research question three (barriers and enablers of high-quality digital health education and training) was enhanced. We adopted the socio-institutional framework described by Smith et al [ 34 ] and used in education research [ 35 ] to classify macro, meso, micro level enablers and barriers to help improve the generalizability of the synthesized insights and identify stakeholders that are able to influence change. Gaps and limitations of the current literature were discovered from the evidence with recommendations for policy, practice and future research provided.

Study inclusion

Database searching yielded 1005 articles and stakeholder engagement yielded two articles. After removing duplicates, 660 articles were screened for title and abstract, after which 29 articles underwent full text review. Of the 29 articles, 24 articles were excluded: the setting was metropolitan or otherwise inadequately described as non-metropolitan ( n  = 6); the intervention was not a training or education initiative for digital health or clinical informatics ( n  = 16), or the population was not rural healthcare workers ( n  = 2). In total, following full-text screening, five articles were included in the final review (Fig.  1 ).

Characteristics of included studies

Of the five included articles, three were academic publications including two case studies [ 36 , 37 ] and one feasibility study [ 38 ] (Table 1 ). The two articles identified through stakeholder engagement presented course summaries [ 39 , 40 ] where one described a micro-credential [ 40 ] and the other described a fellowship [ 39 ]. Most articles ( n  = 3) were published recently between 2021 and 2023 [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Healthcare workforce settings were distributed across the continents of the United States of America [ 36 ], Asia [ 37 ], Africa [ 38 ] and Australia [ 39 , 40 ], with no articles reporting a setting in the European continent. Further study characteristics are available in Table 1 .

Review findings

What are the existing approaches to digital health education and training for rural hcws.

Training and education programs were needed due to identified gaps in knowledge, skills and expertise to support healthcare delivery in rural contexts with digital health [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], [ 40 ]. One article reported the target learners as village doctors, who may have “limited training and inadequate medical knowledge, yet they are generally the mainstay of health services” [ 37 ]. The mode of teaching in the included studies were four modular online learning courses [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], [ 40 ] and one fellowship [ 39 ]. Of the four modular online learning courses, one was supplemented by a facilitator-led train-the-trainer model [ 38 ], informed by an academic framework [ 41 ], with cohort-based discussion via a social media platform. The second was a certification in the form of a self-paced micro-credential completed individually [ 40 ]. Of the four modular online learning courses, the number of modules ranged from three to eight and covered a variety of digital health topics including innovation, commercialization, bioinformatics, technology use, data and information, professionalism, implementation and evaluation. One had a particular focus on information and communication technology tool use [ 37 ] while another focused on remote consulting [ 38 ]. The mode of delivery of the fellowship was not reported in the article.

Four [ 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 ] of the five included articles did not report an evaluation. One article in rural Tanzania described the evaluation of the train-the-trainer digital health training program using a mixed-method design [ 38 ]: (1) questionnaire informed by Kirkpatrick’s model of evaluation to capture knowledge gained and perceived behavior change on a Likert scale, (2) qualitative interviews to explore training experiences and views of remote consulting, and (3) document analysis from texts, emails and training reports [ 38 ]. Of the tier 1 trainees (senior medical figure trainers who were trained to educate their peers) that completed the questionnaire ( n  = 10, 83%), nine (90%) recommended the training program and reported receiving relevant skills and applying learning to daily work, demonstrating satisfaction, learning and perceived behavior change [ 38 ]. Overall, the feasibility study confirmed that remotely delivered training supported by cascade training was technically and pedagogically feasible and well received in rural Tanzania [ 38 ].

What are the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training of the rural healthcare workforce?

Reported enablers and barriers are presented using the macro, meso, micro framework [ 34 ] (Table 2 ).

This scoping review reflects the scarcity of reported digital health education and training programs in existence for rural HCWs globally. This review responds to the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation to design and enable access to continuing education and professional development programs that meet the needs of rural HCWs [ 7 ], and the Sustainable Development Goal for inclusive and equitable quality education [ 42 ].

Concurrent challenges of people (workforce), setting (rural) and content (digital health) are reported in included articles alongside enablers and barriers to education and training programs. Included studies reported a shortage of doctors and specialists [ 36 ], lack of technical knowledge [ 36 ] (people); higher cost of delivering rural healthcare, high burden of illness [ 40 ], medically underserved population due to rural hospital closures [ 36 ] (setting); and limited use of digital health tools due to coordination challenges among non-government organisations [ 37 ] (content). These additional macro, meso and micro level factors are described by authors firstly as influencing the need for digital health programs in rural settings, and secondly, as contributing to the challenges of implementing effective programs. The rural health workforce challenges in digital health education and training reflect the broader workforce development issues experienced globally [ 7 ]. While this review sought to identify workforce development programs, the WHO model indicates the need for attractiveness, recruitment and retention to enable workforce performance (i.e., appropriate and competent multidisciplinary teams providing care) and health system performance (i.e., improving universal health coverage) [ 7 ].

In low-resource settings such as rural areas, education and training may not be prioritized among other competing workload demands. As the value of digital health transformations are realized for strengthening healthcare systems [ 25 , 43 ], the value of digital health education or training programs may become realized. This value was evidenced in the implementation of the teleconsulting training intervention in rural Tanzania [ 38 ] in rapid response to supporting care delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic period. With evaluations of programs largely absent from an already small number of programs globally, it will be important for future research to focus on implementation evaluation studies. As Table 2 presents only limited enablers and barriers, more evidence is needed to build on the findings from this scoping review to inform strategies for policy and practice.

The interdisciplinarity of digital health presents challenges and opportunities for nurturing digital health expertise across the rural healthcare workforce. Included articles largely described the target learners of education and training programs as clinicians, practitioners and healthcare workforce. Walden et al. further indicated that users of online content may extend beyond rural health clinicians to healthcare administrators, researchers and providers relevant to address the regulatory factors of clinical validation and implementation [ 36 ]. Therefore, for their program of work, the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences identified and fostered collaboration with an interprofessional team of clinicians, researchers, informaticists, a bioethicist, lawyers, technology investment experts, and educators [ 36 ]. No articles in the review described education or training health informaticians or similar digital health leadership role types, yet building defined career pathways for health informaticians is recommended [ 4 ]. Existing pedagogy shows that the learning principles of interprofessional practice is grounded in understanding one’s own practice as well as the practice of other health professionals and remains aligned to the educational needs of specific professions [ 44 ] (i.e., medicine, nursing, pharmacy). Defining new career pathways for interdisciplinary leaders in digital health within a specific clinical context, like the ‘rural health informatician’, will be important to identify or define the (hidden) specialized workforce.

Local, informal organizational initiatives for digital health learning were discovered alongside formal education or training programs in included studies. Programs were often reported in articles alongside concurrent digital health implementation or healthcare improvement programs, sometimes referred to as ‘outreach’ [ 36 ] activities. These informal initiatives included special interest groups, in-person conferences, networking events, working groups [ 36 ] and seminars [ 37 ]. Current evidence from this scoping review suggests that the efficacy and sustainability of education or training programs are reliant on integrated approaches, like the train-the-trainer [ 38 ] or academic organization approach [ 36 ], that foster translational research for rural healthcare improvement. As illustrated by Walden et al., success in digital health is likely to require a foundational environment where technologies can be discussed, developed and deployed [ 36 ]. Success in rural digital health skills acquisition likely requires a similar, longitudinal and collaborative approach beyond the confines of an online course completed individually. Previous research shows us that blended learning, which merges face-to-face with online learning, translates to better knowledge outcomes [ 44 ]. Blended learning can also overcome the barrier of rural HCWs travelling large distances to attend face-to-face training that comes at a great cost to themselves and the work unit. A key recommendation to improve the digital health training program described by Downie et al. was more face-to-face time with trainers, from the perspective of both trainee and facilitator [ 38 ]. This, however, can only be realized with targeted planning and budgeting of such offerings by involved rural healthcare organizations.

The opportunities to advance digital health education and training for rural HCWs are presented across the macro, meso and micro levels in the socio-institutional framework, with suggested relevant stakeholders suited to actioning the recommendations (Table  3 ). While the context for this is likely to vary across the globe, these recommendations and stakeholders are expected to provide a starting point to initiate a dialogue that can influence change. These recommendations are not meant to be prescriptive or rigid, but rather meant to flag actionable solutions that can be contextualized for any given setting.

Strengths and limitations

It is possible that there is a greater number of published educational and training programs than those reported in this review (i.e., publication bias). To mitigate this, we used a scoping review methodology and stakeholder engagement activity to identify unpublished or emerging programs that answer the review question but may not be discoverable in the academic databases. The review is limited to articles available in the English language. The small number of programs, heterogeneity of programs and limited evaluation of programs significantly limit generalizability of findings. Due to data availability, the barriers and enablers findings summary contain an overrepresentation from a small number of studies limiting conclusions that can be drawn.

Digital health offers the best opportunity for innovative sustainable change to address critical issues in health and care in rural settings. Workforce education and training initiatives in rural healthcare settings are scarce, largely delivered via online training, and are rarely evaluated. Current best practice points to flexible, blended (online and face-to-face) training programs that are suitably embedded with interdisciplinary, collaborative rural healthcare improvement initiatives. More research will expand the evidence base to deliver high-quality digital health education to strengthen rural healthcare delivery. Future work to advance the field could define rural health informatician career pathways, address concurrent rural workforce issues, and conduct implementation evaluations.

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature

Education Resources Information Centre

Healthcare worker

Joanna Briggs Institute

Preferred Reporting of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses for scoping reviews

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Woods, L., Martin, P., Khor, J. et al. The right care in the right place: a scoping review of digital health education and training for rural healthcare workers. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1011 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11313-4

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