write an essay on buddhism and social work

Buddhist Ethics in Social Service

• Ethical Self-Discipline
• Refraining from Destructive Behavior and Engaging in Constructive Behavior
• Engaging in Helping Others

Original Audio from the Seminar

The role of ethics on the path of social service is a very important topic if we wish to engage in various types of professions for helping others. Whether it is in actual social services or in education or in healthcare, ethics is a very important aspect of it. Obviously, when we’re trying to help others, we need to refrain from causing any harm and try our best to assist them in whatever way we can even though we might not really know the best methods. Because each person that we try to help, of course, is an individual, and what might be appropriate for one person might not necessarily suit another. So working in any type of social, helper profession requires a great deal of knowledge, sensitivity to others, and the basis for all of that is ethics.

Ethical Self-Discipline Arrow down Arrow up

Buddhism speaks about ethics in terms of ethical self-discipline. In order to actually put a system of ethics into practice, obviously we need discipline. So the two are intimately connected. And this discipline is not like being a policeman or policewoman in which we are enforcing the discipline or law on others, but rather we are directing that discipline to ourselves, which of course requires overcoming laziness and indifference and all sorts of obstacles to being disciplined. That means that even if we know what are the ethical principles that we need to follow, and we have a motivation to actually follow them, still we need to overcome any difficulties we might have into actually putting it into practice. So this topic of ethics is a very large topic, and there are many, many different aspects that we need to train in in order to effectively put it into practice.

Buddhism differentiates three types of ethical self-discipline. The first is the discipline to refrain from destructive behavior. Destructive behavior is not limited to actual physical actions, but also to our speech – the way we communicate to others – and also includes our attitude, our way of thinking, as well. We could just go through the routine of helping somebody, but in our minds have all sorts of nasty thoughts about them. So that also requires ethical discipline to refrain from that.

The second type of discipline is the discipline to engage in constructive behavior, and this is focused primarily on what we do ourselves in order to train our abilities to be able to help others. This means studying, training, doing all the various things that are necessary in order to be well qualified in our profession. That means that we need to keep up to date in terms of our career and not just rely on what we might have learned many years ago. That requires a great deal of discipline, actually, in order to keep further studies going and keep learning the new methods that develop in our field. That’s actually not so easy, because if we’re working all day and helping others it’s quite exhausting and this keeping-up-to-date work is what we have to do after hours.

The third type of ethical self-discipline is the discipline actually to engage in helping others.

So refraining from destructive behavior, engaging in constructive, educational behavior, and actually helping others. These are the three areas of ethical self-discipline that Buddhism emphasizes, and I think that this is quite relevant to all areas of social service. Let’s look a little bit more in depth about these three.

Refraining from Destructive Behavior and Engaging in Constructive Behavior Arrow down Arrow up

Refraining from destructive behavior. What is destructive behavior? Destructive behavior is explained in the Buddhist teachings as a type of action – whether it’s with our body, our speech, or our way of thinking – that is motivated by a disturbing emotion or a disturbing attitude. In terms of how it affects others, we can’t really say for sure, because sometimes what we do even with a good motivation might harm somebody else – because we make a mistake, for example; we try to help them, but they don’t really take our advice; this type of thing.

Acting under the Influence of Anger

So really what we can say for sure is that it’s destructive if our motivation is destructive or disturbed. We may, for example, act under the influence of anger. For instance, we are annoyed with how somebody is behaving or leading their life, and so in trying to help them as a social worker, we yell at them: “Don’t act like that! Don’t take drugs!” or whatever it might be. But there’s anger behind our way of dealing with them. This not only prevents us from thinking clearly in terms of what would be of best help to the other, but other people are sensitive, they can sense our anger, and they usually respond very poorly if we’re angry with them. This is not so easy, because social work requires a great deal of patience. We try to help others, we give them good advice, and so on, and they don’t take it. And we get frustrated, of course, because we’re not patient, and in losing our patience it’s very easy to get angry with them and scold them, yell at them. Or if we’re in health services: “Why aren’t you taking your medicine? What’s wrong with you?” This type of thing. Very easy to lose our temper.

Developing Compassion for Others

In such situations we really need to develop compassion – that this poor person is confused; they are in such a difficult state they can’t even take good advice. We can’t force other people to take our advice. The only thing that we can actually work on is ourselves to find a more skillful method, to see how can we actually convince this person to change their ways? But if we are overwhelmed with anger and frustration and impatience, that really becomes quite a big obstacle to thinking clearly what would be a better way of communicating to this person?

Acting under the Influence of Attachment

The second type of disturbing emotion is attachment and desire. We’re all human beings, after all. We have desires. We’re attracted to some people. That could be a sexual attraction to some of the people we’re trying to help as our clients, or it could be a motherly or fatherly type of attraction to a small child: “Oh how sweet, how dear,” and so on. In either case, that could prevent us from being rather strict with this person, which sometimes we need to be when we’re trying to help them. Or because we’re so attracted to this person, in a sense we consciously or unconsciously make them dependent on us so that we can spend more time with them. This we need to avoid. Of course that’s not so easy, because, as I said, we are humans, and of course just as we lose our temper, we also find certain people attractive.

Developing Equanimity

What’s always emphasized in Buddhist training is to develop equanimity, which means not being under the influence of either attraction or repulsion toward anyone that we’re trying to help, or ignoring some people that do need help (that’s the third variant here), but rather to have an open, equal attitude toward everyone. That means open, equal attitude to those that are easy to help, those that are difficult to help, those that are quite nice to be with, those that are unpleasant to be with. The method for being able to develop that is to see that we’re all equal: Everybody wants to be happy, nobody wants to be unhappy, the same as me. Everybody wants to be paid attention to, taken care of, just as I do. Nobody wants to be ignored.

Actually, what came to my mind is that there are some people that just want to be left alone. They don’t want our help. These are the most difficult. And that’s very challenging, not to feel rejected and taking it personally. Particularly I’m thinking of old people in nursing homes that aren’t very cooperative in terms of taking their medicine or doing various other things that they need to do. But even if they don’t want our help and they want to be left alone, still we need to have that equal attitude toward them and not just ignore them.

Even stronger than just thinking: “Everybody wants to be happy, nobody wants to be unhappy” is to look at everybody as if they were our relative or closest friend. This person in the nursing home could be my mother or my father, and I wouldn’t want to ignore them or treat them badly. We can also think in terms of: “Someday I’m going to be in the nursing home and I wouldn’t want somebody to ignore me or treat me badly.” Or if we’re dealing with children, “This could be my child.” Or if it is somebody our own age, “This could be my brother, my sister, my close friend.” This helps us to develop more of an equal, open attitude that everybody is equally important.

Acting under the Influence of Naivety

Another disturbing state of mind is naivety. Naivety means that, for example, we’re too busy to really find out all the details about someone that we are working with, and so, because of our unawareness, our naivety about their situation, we really don’t handle them very well. Remember, everybody is an individual and everybody has their own story, their own background, and it’s not very easy when we have to deal with so many clients during the day that we don’t really have time to pay attention to any one of them. However, whatever type of work situation we’re in, however much time that we have to deal with each individual, it’s important to try to learn as much about this person as possible. The more we learn about somebody, the better able we are to help them. But if we don’t care, or we’re too tired, or we’re lazy, then our ability to help somebody is very, very much limited. That means that while we’re working we need to not always think in terms of me and my own personal problems, but really be concerned about the other person. So that involves refraining from thinking and so on in a way that is going to make our work ineffective, in a sense that’s destructive, that’s harmful to our work. If I just am thinking, “Oh, I have a problem at home with this and that,” and then you don’t pay attention to your client.

Acting When Overemotional and Overwhelmed

There are many states of mind and emotional states that can render our work less effective. Aside from these disturbing emotions that I just mentioned, there’s also a situation that some have of being overemotional. If we are overemotional and just overwhelmed with strong feelings, let’s say when we’re dealing with people who have been injured in an accident and so on, and we ourselves start crying and so on, we can’t possibly help this person. That requires a very delicate balance between not going to two extremes. One is being emotionally cold, not feeling anything. And the other is overemotional reaction to things, that we can’t actually do our work then.

To help us from just going to the extreme of being cold and not feeling anything, we need to remember that everybody responds warmly to human contact. They don’t want to be treated by somebody that’s like a machine. A smile, just holding their hand, let’s say, if they are in a hospital bed – these sort of things add a human, warm touch that is very important for helping others.

On the other hand, if we are overemotional then we need to realize that being overemotional really is being concerned just about me: “Oh, I can’t take it. It’s too much. This is so awful.” Basically we’re thinking in terms of me. We’re not really thinking of the other one. We’re thinking about how I feel in response to it. If our child gets hurt and we become hysterical and are just crying and crying, we can’t even help the child, and in fact it frightens the child. We need to keep calm in order to be able to calm down our child and think clearly what we need to do to help them (let’s say they cut themselves and they’re bleeding very badly).

All these points that I’m mentioning now fit in the category of the ethical self-discipline to engage in constructive behavior. In other words, we need to train ourselves in these methods that will help us to not go to these types of extremes that we’ve just been discussing. Constructive behavior is not just continuing education but also working on ourselves to be able to develop the emotional skills as well, to be able to help others in an effective, balanced way. And Buddhism offers a wide variety of methods that can help us in this area.

Engaging in Helping Others Arrow down Arrow up

Overcoming laziness.

In order to engage in the third type of ethical self-discipline, of actually helping others, we need to, of course, overcome laziness. Laziness has many aspects to it. One is being distracted by other things. “My favorite television program is on, so I would rather watch that, because I really like it, than getting up and helping you,” for example. Or being distracted by things that are fairly trivial is a form of laziness. “I’d rather lie in bed a little bit longer than get up and go to work.” This is laziness, isn’t it?

Then another form of laziness is procrastination, putting things off till later, not doing them now. If we’re involved in any type of work, I think that you know that work tends to pile up. More and more comes. It doesn’t stop. If we don’t take care of things when they come in – let’s say to our computer, whether it’s email, or onto our desk, or whatever – then it just piles up more and more and more, and afterwards it’s almost like a tsunami of work sweeps over us and overwhelms us because there’s just so much to do. If we are going to be in a busy, demanding profession, we can’t put things off till tomorrow. We need to take care of things day by day by day.

Now of course this requires what we call enthusiastic perseverance. Perseverance – to just continue, even if we are tired; we have to finish. But there’s a certain point where we really have to take a rest, because we’re no longer dealing with our work or with others effectively; we’re just too tired. One of the important principles in being able to sustain our efforts over a long time is to know when we need to take a rest and actually take that rest without feeling guilty. But that of course means not going to the extreme of treating ourselves like a baby and taking too much rest. That’s a form of laziness: just taking a rest because it’s more pleasant than working.

Taking a rest also requires knowing ourselves well enough to know what will help us to relax and regenerate our energy. For some it may just be taking a nap or going to sleep. For others it might be going outside and getting a little bit of fresh air, a little bit of a walk. For others it might be watching a film or television. For some it might be cooking. There are so many things that each of us might find relaxing – reading, whatever it might be. It doesn’t matter. The point is to know ourselves and to know when we need to take a rest and what will help us to relax, and in addition, when we’ve rested enough, to have the discipline to get back up and go back to work.

One of the things that prevents us from going back to work is that: “I just don’t feel like it.” For that we need to work on our motivation. We are trying to help others. What we are doing is of help to others. If we were in need of help, we wouldn’t like it if the person that we were relying on was too busy, or too tired, or had to finish watching the television program before they came to help us. Just as we wouldn’t like for somebody else that we relied on for help to act like that, everybody feels the same way with respect to us if they’re depending on us. This is a very important Buddhist method, which is to put ourselves in the other person’s place and see how we would like it if somebody treated us the way that we were treating them.

We’ve dealt with two of the forms of laziness, the laziness of just being distracted to trivial things, laziness of putting things off till later. The third type of laziness is feelings of inadequacy: “I’m just not good enough. I can’t do this. It’s too much.” This is a big obstacle. Now in fact we might not know what to do to help somebody. That happens. In fact it might happen quite frequently when we are in social services, for example. But to feel that: “I’m inadequate. I’m no good” and to beat ourselves psychologically and emotionally, this is not going to help at all, because this is actually a form of laziness. It’s lazy in the sense that we don’t even try harder; we just conclude: “I’m not good enough.”

We are not Buddhas, at least not yet, and so of course we don’t know what is best for others. We make mistakes. We’re humans. But the point is to keep trying, not to give up out of laziness. And consult others, if others are available, to give us advice on how to help if we can’t come up with something that’s effective. Although we need to take responsibility to help the others in our care, we also need to avoid the extreme of feeling that: “I am the holy savior and I’m going to save everybody.” Because that easily deviates into an unconscious drive to make everybody dependent on me and grateful to me because I have saved them, and we become jealous and envious if somebody else helps them and it wasn’t me who did that. But if our motivation is really that the other person be benefitted and helped, then it doesn’t matter who helps them. The point is for them to get over their problem. And if we find that we are not – I mean objectively that we’re not – really able to help this person, it’s very important not to feel proud and let our pride prevent us from recommending them to go to somebody else that we think could help them better than we can.

So reaffirming our motivation is a very important method emphasized over and again in Buddhism. Here our motivation in being in any type of social work is that the other person be helped with their problem, be free from whatever their problem might be. And it doesn’t mean me, that I have to necessarily be the one to do that, although, as I said, we do take responsibility: “I’m going to try as best to help as I can.”

Developing a Caring Attitude

Ethics depends very much on having what we call a caring attitude: “I care about the effect of my behavior on others.” It’s not that I’m just doing a job and earning a salary and I don’t care, really, about others or about whether what I do is helpful or not. And we also have to care about the effect of our behavior on ourselves. This caring attitude is based on really understanding, and taking seriously, cause and effect. We act in a certain way, with a certain type of motivation – it’s going to have a certain type of effect, and we are fully convinced that there is an effect. That’s what it means to be serious about it and to care. What we do really does have an effect on others and it has an effect on me as well.

So when we’re engaged in this ethical discipline to help others, the third type of ethical discipline, then here most importantly we need to have this caring attitude. But the caring attitude is also behind engaging in constructive behavior, this type of ethical discipline. “I care about being effective in my work, therefore I will have the discipline to continue my education and training,” for example. And this caring attitude is also behind the ethical discipline to refrain from destructive behavior. “Because I care about the effect of my behavior on others and myself, I don’t want to cause harm.” More specifically: “I don’t want to cause harm by acting under the influence of anger and attraction and naivety and jealousy,” and all these sort of things; or pride: “Even though I don’t know how to help, I pretend that I do.”

To have this caring attitude, we need to have a basic sense of values, ethical values, and a sense of respect for good qualities and those who have them. In other words, we look up to those who are excellent in our field of helping others – whether we think of Mother Theresa, or whoever we think – and we have great admiration and respect for such a person, and this is our model. It’s very important to have some sort of figure that gives us inspiration in our field, that we can look up to and acts as our model. It doesn’t matter whether or not we’ve actually met the person. But we look up to this person because we have a sense of values. We consider the way that they have lived their lives is something that is valuable, that I respect. And in addition, we realize that we have all the basic working materials to become like that. This is what is referred to as Buddha-nature factors in the Buddhist teachings. “I have a body. I have an ability to communicate. I have a heart, feelings. I have an intellect: I can understand things, figure things out. I have abilities. I’m able to learn.” So we have all these qualities within ourselves. These are our working materials. And so we realize that we can actually become like these inspiring figures. So we have respect for ourselves, a sense of self-dignity, and that enables us to really care about the effect of how we act and to exercise ethical self-discipline. It’s this feeling that: “Of course I can always do better. Of course I can help.” And we consider that a positive value.

So these are some of my thoughts, based on the Buddhist teachings, of the role of ethics on the path of social service. If this is the type of field that you’re going into in your studies, this is a wonderful opportunity to really do something positive, to make a great contribution with your life. Doing this type of work makes life very meaningful and worthwhile because we’re actually benefitting others. Back in Berlin, in Germany, where I live, I have a few students who are engaged in this type of work. One of my students works in a home, a facility for people who are extremely mentally disabled – Down’s syndrome, these type of children – taking care of these children, helping them with their lives. Another one of my students is a nurse taking care of elderly disabled people. And these are wonderful occupations. They require, of course, a great deal of patience, a great deal of discipline, but very worthwhile. And, of course, a strong sense of ethics. So I admire you very much if this is the direction that you’re going in in your lives.

Questions Arrow down Arrow up

Are there any Buddhist methods that can help us to deal with such destructive states of mind as suspiciousness?

Being suspicious of others is similar to paranoia, always thinking: “People are against me. I wonder really what are their intentions?” and so on. There are two aspects here. One is the insecurity that drives us to always be worried that somebody is against me, somebody is going to hurt me. It’s based on insecurity. And the other aspect is hypersensitivity, overreacting.

Now, to overcome insecurity, there are many levels at which we can deal with that. One would be just generally having confidence in our ability to deal with whatever happens in life. What I find very helpful is the example of Buddha Shakyamuni. “Not everybody liked the Buddha, so what do I expect for myself? Do I expect that everybody is going to like me?” That’s totally unrealistic. It’s impossible to please everybody. “Buddha couldn’t do it, so I shouldn’t expect that I’m going to be able to please everybody and everybody is going to like me. I try my best – I have a good intention – and whether they like it or they don’t like it, that’s their problem.” I find that that’s very helpful. And of course the more that we train, the more experience we get as you get older, and in general you feel a little bit more secure. When you are a young person, a teenager, it’s quite natural to be even more insecure in terms of wanting to get approval, people liking you, and so on.

We need to reaffirm the good qualities that we have. That doesn’t mean denying or ignoring shortcomings that we have, but if we overemphasize these shortcomings then we get very, very insecure. But nobody has only shortcomings; we all have some good qualities, and it’s important to always remind ourselves of them. It doesn’t mean to be proud about it and arrogant, but it means to have some self-confidence.

Being oversensitive, overreacting, getting so upset about this or that – again, we need to think in terms of: “This is of no help to anybody.” It disables us from being able to deal with life, and it makes everybody around us very uncomfortable. The more that we think of others, in any type of situation that we have, the more considerate we’ll be, the more calm we’ll be, in terms of the way that we respond emotionally to things. The example that’s often used is a mother. A mother can be very upset about something, but if the children need to be taken care of – you have to make dinner for them – you overcome being so upset and you actually do what you need to do to help them.

Toward a Buddhist Sociology: Theories, Methods, and Possibilities

• Published: 24 May 2012
• Volume 43 , pages 203–222, ( 2012 )

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• Janine Schipper 1  

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This article explores potential links between Buddhism and sociology, highlighting the many commonalities between sociology and Buddhism, with an emphasis on ways that Buddhist thought and practice may contribute to the field of sociology. What could Buddhism offer to our understanding of social institutions, social problems, and to the dynamics and possibilities for social change? The Four Noble Truths, central to Buddhist teachings, are explored in reference to their sociological theory applications. Finally, mindfulness practices that are endemic to Buddhism are explored as tools for sociologists to consider as they work reflexively, develop sociological insights, and pursue social justice.

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The Complexity of the Buddhist Canon

The Buddhist Canon is extensive and complex. It is believed that the Buddha’s 45 years of teachings were memorized during his lifetime and consistently rehearsed upon his death by a cohesive group of his students. For several 100 years, generations continued to pass down the oral teachings of the Buddha until they were recorded in Pali (a regional language in India) during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C., approximately 450 years after the historical Buddha’s death. By the first century B.C., there existed approximately 18 schools of Buddhist thought. As Buddhist teachings began to spread to various parts of India, Asia, and ultimately the world, different translations from Sanskrit (the religious and classical literary language of India) and Pali Buddhist texts have added further complexity to the teachings. Today, three main schools of Buddhism—Theravada (based on Pali Canon and commentaries), Mahayana (such as Zen, based on commentaries focused on freedom from suffering for all beings), and Vajrayana Buddhism (Tibetan Buddhism)—comprise the majority of Buddhist schools throughout the world. Together, we may consider as the Buddhist Canon this vast body of teachings and extensive assemblage of commentaries.

Vipassana, based on the ancient Pali teachings of the Theravada school, came to the United States by way of Sri Lanka and the Thai Forest traditions of Northern Thailand. After studying with Vipassana masters in Asia in the early 1970s, American students—including Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield, and Sharon Salzberg—established the Insight Meditation Society, a meditation center near Barre, Massachusetts. Since then, from many other meditation centers established in the United States—most notably Spirit Rock, located in Marin County, California—powerful collections of teachings, called dharma talks have emerged.

More examples of how different schools of sociology take suffering as their central concern: W. E. B. Du Bois’s focus on the “race idea,” “color line,” and “veil” highlighted the afflicted state of race relations in the United States. The recognition of suffering based on oppressive systems of power permeates the work of sociologists of race and ethnic studies (e.g. bell hooks, Patricia Hill Collins) feminist scholars and activists (e.g. Betty Friedan, Sojourner Truth), and queer theorists (e.g. Michael Warner, Adrienne Rich). Structural functional theorists (e.g. Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton), critical sociologists (e.g. Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno), and Poststructuralists (Michel Foucault, Pierre Bourdeiu) have theorized on the inequities and violence that appear built into the very fabric of modern social systems. Progressive Era sociologists (e.g. Jane Addams, Edward Ross) focused their attention and activism on alleviating poverty. Going beyond mere academic considerations of poverty, Addams and the women of Hull House in conjunction with the applied sociologists of the Chicago School created community programs and engaged in efforts to directly ameliorate the suffering created by homelessness, poverty, inequity in labor laws, and so forth.

Involved in political action throughout the world, Engaged Buddhists in 2011 participated in such actions as: “Occupy the Present Moment”—standing in solidarity with the Occupy protests throughout the United States and Canada and highlighting the importance of interconnection, ending suffering by challenging systems of inequality, use of nonviolent tactics including bearing witness and compassionate presence to be the change they wish to see, standing in solidarity with all beings (Buddhist Peace Fellowship 2011 ). Other activities by engaged Buddhists in 2011 include (but are not limited to) prison hunger strikes against torture and violence in prisons; Sacred Sites Peace Walk for a Nuclear Free World (San Luis Obispo, CA); Universal Peace March (Jaipur, India); Worldwide Walk of Compassion to Feed the Hungry (main event in New York City); September 11: Hands Across the Golden Gate Bridge, peace demonstration; Bearing Witness Retreat in Rwanda (See the Jizo Chronicles for a comprehensive listing of engaged Buddhist activities).

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For example, The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society lists the following events, to take place in the United States, for educators and professionals: Meditation Retreat for Law Professionals, Cultivating the Executive Mind: Is Mindfulness the Key to 21st Century Economic Survival?; Creating a Mindful Society, Mindfulness in Education: A foundation for teaching and learning; Writing and the Contemplative Mind Conference, Annual Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education Conference; Contemplative Retreat for Educators; International Symposia for Contemplative Studies.

For example: The Association for Mindfulness in Education, The Brown University Contemplative Studies Initiative, Education as Transformation, The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society, The Metro-Area Research Group on Meditation and Awareness (MARGAM), Mindfulness in Education Network, Minding Your Life, Mind & Life Institute, Naropa University, Teaching to Connect the Heart and Mind, U. of Michigan Program in Creativity and Consciousness Studies.

Applying Buddhist principles to a Western academic discipline is not new. Here, I convey just two examples. In 1948 , Carl Jung recognized psychotherapeutic goals as similar to satori, the enlightenment experience of Zen practitioners. In 1957 psychoanalysts and Zen practitioners participated in a workshop, “Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis,” in Cuernavaca, Mexico. At this workshop, Fromm et al. ( 1960 ) noted that the majority of psychoanalytic patients of the twentieth century suffered from an “inner deadness”; he highlighted Zen as a practice that could “throw new light on the nature of insight” and help overcome “false intellectualizations” based on the “subject-object split”. Buddhist Psychology became popularized through the writings of Watts ( 1961 ), Kornfield ( 1993 ), and Nhat Hanh ( 1998 ). Epstein ( 1995 , 1998 ) wrote deftly and accessibly by relating Buddhist perspectives to psychotherapeutic practice. Academic social psychologist Langer ( 1989 ) conducted an array of experiments that revealed a missing mindfulness in everyday life. Three United States clinical practices have integrated Buddhist approaches: Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (Jon Kabat-Zinn), Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (Marsha Linehan), and Cognitive Restructuring. Additionally, Naropa University, founded in 1975 in Boulder, Colorado, and credited as the first Buddhist-inspired university, offers degrees in contemplative psychology and other contemplative arts.

Buddhist Economics, a term coined by E. F. Schumacher in 1955, applies Buddhist principles to economic theory. The main premise of Buddhist Economics is that work and lifestyle should support human development while minimizing environmental impacts. These ideas, articulated in Schumacher’s ( 1973 , 1999) now classic, Small is Beautiful, and adopted by the Bhutan government in order to measure “Gross National Happiness,” establishes a metric for the quality of life that is not included in traditional economic indicators.

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Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Dr. Maury Stein and Dr. Charlie Fisher for first introducing me to mindfulness practices during an undergraduate class at Brandeis University in 1990. Thank you also to Brandeis professor Peter Conrad for helping me to find the right home for these ideas. Dr. Karla Hackstaff’s encouragement and interest in Buddhist Sociology provided necessary encouragement as I began the process of getting over 20 years of ideas into writing. Many thanks to Larry Nichols for his extensive feedback to help strengthen the paper. I feel indebted to Northern Arizona University’s Department of Sociology and Social Work for providing an environment of support and openness as I pursued these non-traditional sociological themes. Finally, several read and commented on this manuscript, helping me to fine tune it. Thanks go to Eliot Schipper, Eve Paludan, Shawn Bingham, and Ben Brucato.

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Schipper, J. Toward a Buddhist Sociology: Theories, Methods, and Possibilities. Am Soc 43 , 203–222 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-012-9155-4

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Acknowledgments    

I am grateful to Mr. Paul Ingram who, as the then editor, published the original, very much abbreviated, version of this paper in the Buddhist Society's journal "The Middle Way" (Vol. 54, No. 2 Summer 1979, 85-88). My thanks are also due to the Ven. Nyanaponika Mahathera who encouraged me to develop my ideas further. For these, however, I must accept sole responsibility.

Part One: The Fundamentals    

1.1 buddhism and the new global society.

It is the manifest suffering and folly in the world that invokes humane and compassionate social action in its many different forms. For Buddhists this situation raises fundamental and controversial questions. And here, also, Buddhism has implications of some significance for Christians, humanists and other non-Buddhists.

By "social action" we mean the many different kinds of action intended to benefit mankind. These range from simple individual acts of charity, teaching and training, organized kinds of service, "Right Livelihood" in and outside the helping professions, and through various kinds of community development as well as to political activity in working for a better society.

Buddhism is a pragmatic teaching which starts from certain fundamental propositions about how we experience the world and how we act in it. It teaches that it is possible to transcend this sorrow-laden world of our experience and is concerned first and last with ways of achieving that transcendence. What finally leads to such transcendence is what we call Wisdom. The enormous literature of Buddhism is not a literature of revelation and authority. Instead, it uses ethics and meditation, philosophy and science, art and poetry to point a Way to this Wisdom. Similarly, Buddhist writing on social action, unlike secular writings, makes finite proposals which must ultimately refer to this Wisdom, but which also are arguable in terms of our common experience.

In the East, Buddhism developed different schools of "traditions," serving the experiences of different cultures, ranging from Sri Lanka through Tibet and Mongolia to Japan. Buddhism may thus appear variously as sublime humanism, magical mysticism, poetic paradox and much else. These modes of expression, however, all converge upon the fundamental teaching, the "perennial Buddhism." This pamphlet is based upon the latter, drawing upon the different oriental traditions to present the teachings in an attempt to relate them to our modern industrial society.

From the evidence of the Buddha's discourses, or suttas in the Digha Nikaya, it is clear that early Buddhists were very much concerned with the creation of social conditions favorable to the individual cultivation of Buddhist values. An outstanding example of this, in later times, is the remarkable "welfare state" created by the Buddhist emperor, Asoka (B.C. 274-236). Walpola Rahula stated the situation — perhaps at its strongest — when he wrote that "Buddhism arose in India as a spiritual force against social injustices, against degrading superstitious rites, ceremonies and sacrifices; it denounced the tyranny of the caste system and advocated the equality of all men; it emancipated woman and gave her complete spiritual freedom." (Rahula, 1978). The Buddhist scriptures do indicate the general direction of Buddhist social thinking, and to that extent they are suggestive for our own times. Nevertheless it would be pedantic, and in some cases absurd, to apply directly to modern industrial society social prescriptions detailed to meet the needs of social order which flourished twenty-three centuries ago. The Buddhist householder of the Sigalovada Sutta [1] experienced a different way of life from that of a computer consultant in Tokyo or an unemployed black youth in Liverpool. And the conditions which might favor their cultivation of the Middle Way must be secured by correspondingly different — and more complex — social, economic and political strategies.

It is thus essential to attempt to distinguish between perennial Buddhism on the one hand and, on the other, the specific social prescriptions attributed to the historical Buddha which related the basic, perennial teaching to the specific conditions of his day. We believe that it is unscholarly to transfer the scriptural social teaching uncritically and with careful qualification to modern societies, or to proclaim that the Buddha was a democrat and an internationalist. The modern terms "democracy" and "internationalism" did not exist in the sense in which we understand them in the emergent feudal society in which the Buddha lived. Buddhism is ill-served in the long run by such special pleading. On the other hand, it is arguable that there are democratic and internationalist implications in the basic Buddhist teachings.

In the past two hundred years society in the West has undergone a more fundamental transformation than at any period since Neolithic times, whether in terms of technology or the world of ideas. And now in the East while this complex revolution is undercutting traditional Buddhism, it is also stimulating oriental Buddhism; and in the West it is creating problems and perceptions to which Buddhism seems particularly relevant. Throughout its history Buddhism has been successfully reinterpreted in accordance with different cultures, whilst at the same time preserving its inner truths. Thus has Buddhism spread and survived. The historic task of Buddhists in both East and West in the twenty-first century is to interpret perennial Buddhism in terms of the needs of industrial man and woman in the social conditions of their time, and to demonstrate its acute and urgent relevance to the ills of that society. To this great and difficult enterprise Buddhists will bring their traditional boldness and humility. For certainly this is no time for clinging to dogma and defensiveness.

1.2 Social action and the problem of suffering

In modern Western society, humanistic social action, in its bewildering variety of forms, is seen both as the characteristic way of relieving suffering and enhancing human well-being and, at the same time, as a noble ideal of service, of self-sacrifice, by humanists of all faiths.

Buddhism, however, is a humanism in that it rejoices in the possibility of a true freedom as something inherent in human nature. For Buddhism, the ultimate freedom is to achieve full release from the root causes of all suffering: greed, hatred and delusion, which clearly are also the root causes of all social evils. Their grossest forms are those which are harmful to others. To weaken, and finally eliminate them in oneself, and, as far as possible, in society, is the basis of Buddhist ethics. And here Buddhist social action has its place.

The experience of suffering is the starting point of Buddhist teaching and of any attempt to define a distinctively Buddhist social action. However, misunderstanding can arise at the start, because the Pali word dukkha, which is commonly translated simply as "suffering," has a much wider and more subtle meaning. There is, of course, much gross, objective suffering in the world (dukkha-dukkha), and much of this arises from poverty, war, oppression and other social conditions. We cling to our good fortune and struggle at all costs to escape from our bad fortune.

This struggle may not be so desperate in certain countries which enjoy a high material standard of living spread relatively evenly throughout the population. Nevertheless, the material achievements of such societies appear somehow to have been "bought" by social conditions which breed a profound sense of insecurity and anxiety, of restlessness and inner confusion, in contrast to the relatively stable and ordered society in which the Buddha taught.

Lonely, alienated industrial man has unprecedented opportunities for living life "in the context of equipment," as the philosopher Martin Heidegger so aptly put it. He has a highly valued freedom to make meaning of his life from a huge variety of more or less readily available forms of consumption or achievement — whether career building, home making, shopping around for different world ideologies (such as Buddhism), or dedicated social service. When material acquisition palls, there is the collection of new experiences and the clocking up of new achievements. Indeed, for many their vibrating busyness becomes itself a more important self-confirmation that the goals to which it is ostensibly directed. In developing countries to live thus, "in the context of equipment," has become the great goal for increasing numbers of people. They are watched sadly by Westerners who have accumulated more experience of the disillusion and frustration of perpetual non-arrival.

Thus, from the experience of social conditions there arises both physical and psychological suffering. But more fundamental still is that profound sense of unease, of anxiety or angst, which arises from the very transience (anicca) of life (viparinama-dukkha). This angst, however conscious of it we may or may not be, drives the restless search to establish a meaningful self-identity in the face of a disturbing awareness of our insubstantiality (anatta). Ultimately, life is commonly a struggle to give meaning to life — and to death. This is so much the essence of the ordinary human condition and we are so very much inside it, that for much of the time we are scarcely aware of it. This existential suffering is the distillation of all the various conditions to which we have referred above — it is the human condition itself.

Buddhism offers to the individual human being a religious practice, a Way, leading to the transcendence of suffering. Buddhist social action arises from this practice and contributes to it. From suffering arises desire to end suffering. The secular humanistic activist sets himself the endless task of satisfying that desire, and perhaps hopes to end social suffering by constructing utopias. The Buddhist, on the other hand, is concerned ultimately with the transformation of desire. Hence he contemplates and experiences social action in a fundamentally different way from the secular activist. This way will not be readily comprehensible to the latter, and has helped give rise to the erroneous belief that Buddhism is indifferent to human suffering. One reason why the subject of this pamphlet is so important to Buddhists is that they will have to start here if they are to begin to communicate effectively with non-Buddhist social activists. We should add, however, that although such communication may not be easy on the intellectual plane, at the level of feelings shared in compassionate social action experience together, there may be little difficulty.

We have already suggested one source of the widespread belief that Buddhism is fatalistic and is indifferent to humanistic social action. This belief also appears to stem from a misunderstanding of the Buddhist law of Karma. In fact, there is no justification for interpreting the Buddhist conception of karma as implying quietism and fatalism. The word karma (Pali: kamma) mean volitional action in deeds, words and thoughts, which may be morally good or bad. To be sure, our actions are conditioned (more or less so), but they are not inescapably determined. Though human behavior and thought are too often governed by deeply ingrained habits or powerful impulses, still there is always the potentiality of freedom — or, to be more exact, of a relative freedom of choice. To widen the range of that freedom is the primary task of Buddhist mind training and meditation.

The charge of fatalism is sometimes supported by reference to the alleged "social backwardness" of Asia. But this ignores the fact that such backwardness existed also in the West until comparatively recent times. Surely, this backwardness and the alleged fatalistic acceptance of it stem from the specific social and political conditions, which were too powerful for would-be reformers to contend with. But apart from these historic facts, it must be stressed here that the Buddha's message of compassion is certainly not indifferent to human suffering in any form; nor do Buddhists think that social misery cannot be remedied, at least partly. Though Buddhist realism does not believe in the Golden Age of a perfect society, nor in the permanence of social conditions, yet Buddhism strongly believes that social imperfections can be reduced, by the reduction of greed, hatred and ignorance, and by compassionate action guided by wisdom.

From the many utterances of the Buddha, illustrative of our remarks, two may be quoted here:

"He who has understanding and great wisdom does not think of harming himself or another, nor of harming both alike. He rather thinks of his own welfare, of that of others, of that of both, and of the welfare of the whole world. In that way one shows understanding and great wisdom." — Anguttara Nikaya (Gradual Sayings) Fours, No. 186

"By protecting oneself (e.g., morally), one protects others; by protecting others, one protects oneself." — Samyutta Nikaya (Kindred Sayings) 47; Satipatthana Samy., No. 19

In this section we have introduced the special and distinctive quality of Buddhist social action. In the remainder of Part One we shall explore this quality further, and show how it arises naturally and logically from Buddhist teaching and practice.

1.3 The weight of social karma

Individual karmic behavior patterns are created by the struggles of the individual human predicament. They condition the behavior of the individual and, in traditional Buddhist teaching, the subsequent rounds of birth and rebirth. We suggest, however, that this karmic inheritance is also expressed as social karma. Specific to time and place, different social cultures arise, whether of a group, a community, a social class or a civilization. The young are socialized to their inherited culture. Consciously and unconsciously they assimilate the norms of the approved behavior — what is good, what is bad, and what is "the good life" for that culture.

The social karma — the establishment of conditioned behavior patterns — of a particular culture is and is not the aggregate of the karma of the individuals who comprise the culture. Individuals share common institutions and belief systems, but these are the results of many different wills, both in the past and the present, rather than the consequence of any single individual action. It is, however, individual karmic action that links the individual to these institutions and belief systems. Each individual is a light-reflecting jewel in Indra's net, at the points where time and space intersect. Each reflects the light of all and all of each. This is the mysticism of sociology or the sociology of mysticism!

Human societies, too, suffer the round of birth and rebirth, of revolution and stability. Each age receives the collective karmic inheritance of the last, is conditioned by it, and yet also struggles to refashion it. And within each human society, institutions, social classes, and subcultures, as well as individuals, all struggle to establish their identity and perpetuate their existence.

Capitalist industrial society has created conditions of extreme impermanence, and the struggle with a conflict-creating mood of dissatisfaction and frustration. It would be difficult to imagine any social order for which Buddhism is more relevant and needed. In these conditions, egotistical enterprise, competitive conflict, and the struggle for status become great social virtues, while, in fact, they illustrate the import of the three root-causes of suffering — greed, hatred, and delusion.

"These cravings," argues David Brandon, "have become cemented into all forms of social structures and institutions. People who are relatively successful at accumulating goods and social position wish to ensure that the remain successful... Both in intended and unintended ways they erect barriers of education, finance and law to protect their property and other interests... These structures and their protective institutions continue to exacerbate and amplify the basic human inequalities in housing, health care, education and income. They reward and encourage greed, selfishness, and exploitation rather than love, sharing and compassion. Certain people's life styles, characterized by greed and overconsumption, become dependent on the deprivation of the many. The oppressors and oppressed fall into the same trap of continual craving" (Brandon, 1976, 10-11). It should be added that communist revolution and invasion have created conditions and social structures which no less, but differently, discourage the spiritual search.

Thus we see that modern social organization may create conditions of life which not only give rise to "objective," non-volitionally caused suffering, but also tend to give rise to "subjective," volitionally caused karmic suffering, because they are more likely to stimulate negative karmic action than do other kinds of social organization. Thus, some of us are born into social conditions which are more likely to lead us into following the Buddhist way than others. An unskilled woman factory worker in a provincial factory town is, for example, less likely to follow the Path than a professional person living in the university quarter of the capital city. A property speculator, wheeling and dealing his samsaric livelihood anywhere is perhaps even less likely than either of them to do so. However, all three may do so. Men and women make their own history, but they make it under specific karmic conditions, inherited from previous generations collectively, as well as individually. The struggle is against nurture, as well as nature, manifested in the one consciousness. "The present generation are living in this world under great pressure, under a very complicated system, amidst confusion. Everybody talks about peace, justice, equality but in practice it is very difficult. This is not because the individual person is bad but because the overall environment, the pressures, the circumstances are so strong, so influential" (Dalai Lama, 1976, p. 17).

In short, Buddhist social action is justified ultimately and above all by the existence of social as well as individual karma. Immediately it is simply concerned with relieving suffering; ultimately, in creating social conditions which will favor the ending of suffering through the individual achievement of transcendent wisdom. But is it enough, to take a beautiful little watering can to a flower dying in sandy, sterile soil? This will satisfy only the waterer. But if we muster the necessary plows, wells, irrigation systems and organized labor, what then will become of the spiritual life amongst all this busyness and conflict? We must next consider this fundamental question.

1.4 Is not a Buddhist's prime task to work on him- or herself?

Answer: YES and NO

Buddhism is essentially pragmatic. Buddhism is, in one sense, something that one does. It is a guide to the transformation of individual experience. In the traditional Buddhist teaching, the individual sets out with a karmic inheritance of established volitions, derived from his early life, from earlier lives and certainly from his social environment, a part of his karmic inheritance. Nevertheless, the starting point is the individual experiencing of life, here and now.

Our train of argument began with the anxiety, the profound sense of unease felt by the individual in his naked experience of life in the world when not masked by busyness, objectives, diversions and other confirmations and distractions. Buddhism teaches that all suffering, whether it be anxiety, or more explicitly karmic, brought-upon-ourselves-suffering, or "external" suffering, accidental and inevitable through war, disease, old age and so on — arise ultimately from the deluded belief in a substantial and enduring self. In that case, what need has the individual Buddhist for concern for other individuals, let alone for social action since his prime task is to work on himself in order to dissolve this delusion? Can he only then help others?

The answer to these questions is both yes and no. This does not mean half-way between yes and no. It means yes and no. It means that the answer to these fundamental questions of Buddhist social action cannot ultimately be logical or rational. For the Buddhist Middle Way is not the middle between two extremes, but the Middle Way which transcends the two extremes in a "higher" unity.

Different traditions of Buddhism offer different paths of spiritual practice. But all depend ultimately upon the individual becoming more deeply aware of the nature of his experience of the world, and especially of other people and hence of himself and of the nature of the self. "To learn the way of the Buddha is to learn about oneself. To learn about oneself is to forget oneself. To forget oneself is to experience the world as pure object — to let fall one's own mind and body and the self-other mind and body" (Zen Master Dogen: Shobogenzo). Meditation both reveals and ultimately calms and clarifies the choppy seas and terrifying depths of the underlying emotional life. All the great traditions of spiritual practice, Buddhist — and non-Buddhist — emphasize the importance of periods of withdrawal for meditation and reflection. Their relative importance is not our present concern. However, in all Buddhist traditions the training emphasizes a vigilant mindfulness of mental feelings in the course of active daily life, as well as in periods of withdrawal. It all advocates the parallel development of habitual forms of ethical behavior (sila).

"We need not regard life as worth [either] boycotting or indulging in. Life situations are the food of awareness and mindfulness... We wear out the shoe of samsara by walking on it through the practice of meditation" (Chogyam Trungpa, 1976, p. 50). The same message comes across forcefully in the Zen tradition: "For penetrating to the depths of one's true nature... nothing can surpass the practice of Zen in the midst of activity... The power or wisdom obtained by practicing Zen in the world of action is like a rose that rises from the fire. It can never be destroyed. The rose that rises from the midst of flames becomes all the more beautiful and fragrant the nearer the fire rages" (Zen Master Hakuin, 1971, p. 34).

It is open to us, if we wish, to extend our active daily life to include various possible forms of social action. This offers a strong immediate kind of experience to which we can give our awareness practice. Less immediately, it serves to fertilize our meditation — "dung for the field of bodhi." Thirdly, it offers wider opportunities for the cultivation of sila — the habituation to a selfless ethic.

The above remarks are about taking social action. They refer to the potential benefits of social action for individual practice. They are less "reasons" for social action than reasons why a Buddhist should not desist from social action. The mainspring of Buddhist social action lies elsewhere; it arises from the heart of a ripening compassion, however flawed it still may be by ego needs. This is giving social action, with which we shall be concerned in the next section.

Social action as a training in self-awareness (and compassionate awareness of others) may be a discipline more appropriate to some individual temperaments, and, indeed, to some cultures and times, than to others. We are not concerned with advocating it for all Buddhists, but simply to suggesting its legitimacy for such as choose to follow it. For Buddhism has always recognized the diversity of individual temperaments and social cultures that exist, and has offered a corresponding diversity of modes of practice.

1.5 Buddhist social action as heartfelt paradox

As we have noted, the significance of social action as mindfulness training is, of course, incidental to that profound compassionate impulse which more — or less — leads us to seek the relief of the suffering of others. Our motives may be mixed, but to the extent that they are truly selfless they do manifest our potential for Awakening and our relatedness to all beings.

Through our practice, both in the world and in withdrawn meditation, the delusion of a struggling self becomes more and more transparent, and the conflicting opposites of good and bad, pain and pleasure, wealth and poverty, oppression and freedom are seen and understood in a Wisdom at once serene and vigilant. This Wisdom partakes of the sensitivity of the heart as well as the clarity of thought.

In this Wisdom, in the words of R.H. Blyth, things are beautiful — but not desirable; ugly — but not repulsive; false — but not rejected. What is inevitable, like death, is accepted without rage; what may not be, like war, is the subject of action skillful and the more effective because, again, it is not powered and blinded by rage and hate. We may recognize an oppressor and resolutely act to remove the oppression, but we do not hate him. Absence of hatred, disgust, intolerance or righteous indignation within us is itself a part of our growth towards enlightenment (bodhi).

Such freedom from negative emotions should not be mistaken for indifference, passivity, compromise, loving our enemy instead of hating him, or any other of these relativities. This Wisdom transcends the Relativities which toss us this way and that. Instead, there is an awareness, alert and dispassionate, of an infinitely complex reality, but always an awareness free of despair, of self-absorbing aggression, or of blind dogma, an awareness free to act or not to act. Buddhists have their preferences, and in the face of such social cataclysms as genocide and nuclear war, they are strong preferences, but they are not repelled into quietism by them. What has been said above has to be cultivated to perfection by one following the Bodhisattva ideal. We are inspired by it, but very few of us can claim to live it. Yet we shall never attain the ideal by turning our backs upon the world and denying the compassionate Buddha nature in us that reaches out to suffering humanity, however stained by self love those feelings may be. Only through slowly "Wearing out the shoe of samsara" in whatever way is appropriate to us can we hope to achieve this ideal, and not through some process of incubation.

This Great Wisdom (prajna) exposes the delusion, the folly, sometimes heroic, sometimes base, of human struggle in the face of many kinds of suffering. This sense of folly fuses with the sense of shared humanity in the form of compassion (karuna). Compassion is the everyday face of Wisdom.

In individual spiritual practice though, some will incline to a Way of Compassion and others to a Way of Wisdom, but finally the two faculties need to be balanced, each complementing and ripening the other.

He who clings to the Void And neglects Compassion Does not reach the highest stage. But he who practices only Compassion Does not gain release from the toils of existence. — Saraha, 1954

To summarize: Buddhist or non-Buddhist, it is our common humanity, our "Buddha nature," that moves us to compassion and to action for the relief of suffering. These stirrings arise from our underlying relatedness to all living things, from being brothers and sisters one to another. Buddhist spiritual practice, whether at work or in the meditation room, ripens alike the transcendental qualities of Compassion and Wisdom.

Social action starkly confronts the actor with the sufferings of others and also confronts him with his own strong feelings which commonly arise from such experience, whether they be feelings of pity, guilt, angry partisanship or whatever. Social action is thus a powerful potential practice for the follower of the Way, a "skillful means" particularly relevant to modern society.

Finally, it is only some kind of social action that can be an effective and relevant response to the weight of social karma which oppresses humanity and which we all share.

Part Two: The Action    

2.1 giving and helping.

All social action is an act of giving (dana), but there is a direct act which we call charitable action, whether it be the UNESCO Relief Banker's Order or out all night with the destitutes' soup kitchen. Is there anything about Buddhism that should make it less concerned actively to maintain the caring society than is Christianity or humanism? "Whoever nurses the sick serves me," said the Buddha. In our more complex society does this not include the active advancement and defense of the principles of a national health service?

The old phrase "as cold as charity" recalls numerous possibilities for self-deception in giving to others and in helping them. Here is opportunity to give out goodness in tangible form, both in our own eyes and those of the world. It may also be a temptation to impose our own ideas and standards from a position of patronage. David Brandon, who has written so well on the art of helping, reminds us that "respect is seeing the Buddha nature in the other person. It means perceiving the superficiality of positions of moral authority. The other person is as good as you. However untidy, unhygienic, poor, illiterate and bloody-minded he may seem, he is worthy of your respect. He also has autonomy and purpose. He is another form of nature" (Brandon, 1976, p. 59).

There are many different ways in which individual Buddhists and their organizations can give help and relieve suffering. However, "charity begins at home." If a Buddhist group or society fails to provide human warmth and active caring for all of its members in their occasional difficulties and troubles — though always with sensitivity and scrupulous respect for privacy — where then is its Buddhism? Where is the Sangha?

In our modern industrial society there has been on the one hand a decline in personal and voluntary community care for those in need and, on the other, too little active concern for the quality and quantity of institutional care financed from the public purse that has to some extent taken its place. One facet of this which may be of particular significance for Buddhists, is a failure to recognize adequately and provide for the needs of the dying. In recent years there has been a growing awareness of this problem in North America and Europe, and a small number of hospices have been established by Christian and other groups for terminally ill people. However, only a start has been made with the problem. The first Buddhist hospice in the West has yet to be opened. And, less ambitiously, the support of regular visitors could help many lonely people to die with a greater sense of dignity and independence in our general hospitals.

2.2 Teaching

Teaching is, of course, also a form of giving and helping. Indeed, one of the two prime offenses in the Mahayana code of discipline is that of withholding the wealth of the Dharma from others. Moreover, teaching the Dharma is one of the most valuable sources of learning open to a Buddhist.

Here we are concerned primarily with the teaching of the Dharma to newcomers in Buddhism, and with the general publicizing of Buddhism among non-Buddhists.

Buddhism is by its very nature lacking in the aggressive evangelizing spirit of Christianity or Islam. It is a pragmatic system of sustained and systematic self-help practice, in which the teacher can do no more than point the way and, together with fellow Buddhists, provide support, warmth and encouragement in a long and lonely endeavor. There is here no tradition of instant conversion and forceful revelation for the enlightenment experience, however sudden, depends upon a usually lengthy period of careful cultivation. Moreover, there is a tolerant tradition of respect for the beliefs and spiritual autonomy of non-Buddhists.

Nevertheless, a virtue may be cultivated to a fault. Do we not need to find a middle way between proselytizing zeal and aloof indifference? Does not the world cry out for a Noble Truth that "leads to the cessation of suffering"? The task of teaching the Dharma also gives individual Buddhists an incentive to clarify their ideas in concise, explicit, everyday terms. And it requires them to respond positively to the varied responses which their teaching will provoke in others.

It will be helpful to treat the problem on two overlapping levels, and to distinguish between (a) publicizing the Dhamma, and (b) introductory teaching for enquirers who interest has thus been awakened.

At both the above levels activity is desirable both by a central body of some kind and by local groups (in many countries there will certainly be several "central bodies," representing different traditions and tendencies). The central body can cost-effectively produce for local use introductory texts and study guides, speakers' notes, audiocassettes, slide presentations and "study kits" combining all of these different types of material. It has the resources to develop correspondence courses such as those run by the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom which offer a well-tried model. And it will perhaps have sufficient prestige to negotiate time on the national radio and television network.

Particularly in Western countries there are strong arguments for organizations representing the different Buddhist traditions and tendencies to set up a representative Buddhist Information and Liaison Service for propagating fundamental Buddhism and some first introductions to the different traditions and organizations. It would also provide a general information clearing house for all the groups and organizations represented. It could be financed and controlled through a representative national Buddhist council which, with growing confidence between its members and between the different Buddhist organizations which they represented, might in due course take on additional functions. Certainly in the West there is the prospect of a great many different Buddhist flowers blooming, whether oriental or new strains developed in the local culture. This is to be welcomed, but the kind of body we propose will become a necessity to avoid confusion for the outsider and to work against any tendency to sectarianism of a kind from which Buddhism has been relatively free.

Local groups will be able to draw upon the publicity and teaching resources of national centers and adapt these to the needs of local communities. Regular meetings of such groups may amount to no more than half a dozen people meeting in a private house. Sensitively handled it would be difficult to imagine a better way of introducing a newcomer to the Dharma. Such meetings are worthy of wide local publicity. A really strong local base exists where there is a resident Buddhist community of some kind, with premises convenient for meetings and several highly committed workers. Unfortunately, such communities will, understandably, represent a particular Buddhist tradition or tendency, and this exclusiveness may be less helpful to the newcomer than a local group in which he or she may have the opportunity to become acquainted with the different Buddhist traditions represented in the membership and in the program of activity.

In many countries the schools provide brief introductions to the world's great religions. Many teachers do not feel sufficiently knowledgeable about introducing Buddhism to their pupils and may be unaware of suitable materials even where these do exist. There may be opportunities here for local groups, and certainly the Information Service suggested above would have work to do here.

Finally, the method of introductory teaching employed in some Buddhist centers leaves much to be desired both on educational grounds and as Buddhist teaching. The Buddha always adapted his teaching to the particular circumstances of the individual learner; he sometimes opened with a question about the enquirer's occupation in life, and built his teaching upon the answer to this and similar questions. True learning and teaching has as its starting point a problem or experience posed by the learner, even if this be no more than a certain ill-defined curiosity. It is there that teacher and learner must begin. The teacher starts with the learner's thoughts and feelings and helps him or her to develop understanding and awareness. This is, of course, more difficult than a standard lecture which begins and ends with the teacher's thoughts and feelings, and which may in more sense than one leave little space for the learner. It will exclude the teacher from any learning.

It follows that unless the teacher is truly inspiring, the "Dharma talk" is best used selectively: to introduce and stimulate discussion or to summarize and consolidate what has been learned. Dharma teachers must master the arts of conducting open discussion groups, in which learners can gain much from one another and can work through an emotional learning situation beyond the acquisition of facts about Buddhism. Discussion groups have become an important feature of many lay Buddhist and social action organizations in different parts of the world. They are the heart, for example, of the Japanese mass organization Rissho Kosei Kai, which explores problems of work, the family and social and economic problems.

2.3 Political action: the conversion of energy

Political power may manifest and sustain social and economic structures which breed both material deprivation and spiritual degradation for millions of men and women. In many parts of the world it oppresses a wide range of social groupings — national and racial minorities, women, the poor, homosexuals, liberal dissidents, and religious groups. Ultimately, political power finds its most terrible expression in war, which reaches now to the possibility of global annihilation.

For both the oppressors and the oppressed, whether in social strife or embattled nations, karmic delusion is deepened. Each group or nation emphasizes its differences, distinguishing them from its opponents; each projects its own short-comings upon them, makes them the repository of all evil, and rallies round its own vivid illusions and blood-warming hates. Collective hating, whether it be the raised fist, or prejudice concealed in a quiet community, is a heady liquor. Allied with an ideology, hate in any form will not depart tomorrow or next year. Crowned with delusive idealism, it is an awesome and murderous folly. And even when victory is achieved, the victors are still more deeply poisoned by the hate that carried them to victory. Both the revolution and the counter-revolution consume their own children. Buddhism's "Three Fires" of delusion (moha), hatred and ill-will (dosa), and greed and grasping, (lobha), surely burn nowhere more fiercely.

Contrariwise, political power may be used to fashion and sustain a society whose citizens are free to live in dignity and harmony and mutual respect, free of the degradation of poverty and war. In such a society of good heart all men and women find encouragement and support in making, if they will, the best use of their human condition in the practice of wisdom and compassion. This is the land of good karma — not the end of human suffering, but the beginning of the end, the bodhisattva-land, the social embodiment of sila.

This is not to be confused with the belief common among the socially and politically oppressed that if power could be seized (commonly by an elite claiming to represent them), then personal, individual, "ideological" change will inevitably follow. This absolutely deterministic view of conditioning (which Marx called "vulgar Marxism"), is as one-sided as the idea of a society of "individuals" each struggling with only his own personal karma in a private bubble hermetically sealed off from history and from other people.

Political action thus involves the Buddhist ideal of approaching each situation without prejudice but with deserved circumspection in questions of power and conflict, social oppression and social justice. These social and political conflicts are the great public samsaric driving energies of our life to which an individual responds with both aggression and self-repression. The Buddha Dharma offers the possibility of transmuting the energies of the individual into Wisdom and Compassion. At the very least, in faith and with good heart, a start can be made.

Buddhists are thus concerned with political action, first, in the direct relief of non-volitionally caused suffering now and in the future, and, secondly, with the creation of social karmic conditions favorable to the following of the Way that leads to the cessation also of volitionally-caused suffering, the creation of a society of a kind which tends to the ripening of wisdom and compassion rather than the withering of them. In the third place, political action, turbulent and ambiguous, is perhaps the most potent of the "action meditations."

It is perhaps because of this potency that some Buddhist organizations ban political discussion of any kind, even at a scholarly level, and especially any discussion of social action. There are circumstances in which this may be a sound policy. Some organizations and some individuals may not wish to handle such an emotionally powerful experience which may prove to be divisive and stir up bad feeling which cannot be worked upon in any positive way. This division would particularly tend to apply to "party politics." On the other hand, such a discussion may give an incomparable opportunity to work through conflict to a shared wisdom. Different circumstances suggest different "skillful means," but a dogmatic policy of total exclusion is likely to be ultimately unhelpful.

In this connection it is worth noting that any kind of social activity which leads to the exercise of power or conflict may stir up "the fires" in the same way as overtly political activity. Conflict within a Buddhist organization is cut from the same cloth as conflict in a political assembly and may be just as heady, but the Buddhist context could make such an activity a much more difficult and delusive meditation subject. The danger of dishonest collusion may be greater than that of honest collusion (to borrow one of the Ven. Sangharakshita's aphorisms). The dogmatism and vehemence with which some Buddhists denounce and proscribe all political involvement is the same sad attitude as the dogmatism and vehemence of the politicians which they so rightly denounce.

To be lost in revolution or reform or conservatism is to be lost in samsara and the realm of the angry warrior, deluded by his power and his self-righteousness. To turn one's back upon all this is to be lost in an equally false idea of nirvana — the realm of the gods no less deluded by spiritual power and righteousness, "You do not truly speak of fire if your mouth does not get burnt."

Effective social action on any but the smallest scale will soon involve the Buddhist in situations of power and conflict, of "political" power. It may be the power of office in a Buddhist organization. It may be the unsought for leadership of an action group protesting against the closing of an old people's day care center. It may be the organizing of a fund-raising movement to build a Buddhist hospice for care of the dying. It may be membership of a local government council with substantial welfare funds. It may be joining an illegal dissident group. In all these cases the Buddhist takes the tiger — his own tiger — by the tail. Some of the above tigers are bigger than others, but all are just as fierce. Hence a Buddhist must be mindful of the strong animal smell of political power and be able to contain and convert the valuable energy which power calls up. A sharp cutting edge is given into his hands. Its use we must explore in the sections which follow.

2.4 Buddhist political theory and policy

Buddhism and politics meet at two levels — theory and practice. Buddhism has no explicit body of social and political theory comparable to its psychology or metaphysics. Nevertheless, a Buddhist political theory can be deduced primarily from basic Buddhism, from Dharma. Secondly, it can be deduced from the general orientation of scriptures which refer explicitly to a bygone time. We have already argued, however, that this can be done only in a limited and qualified way.

Whatever form it may take, Buddhist political theory like other Buddhist "theory" is just another theory. As it stands in print, it stands in the world of the conditioned; it is of samsara. It is its potential, its spiritual implications, which make it different from "secular" theory. When skillfully practiced, it becomes a spiritual practice. As always, Buddhist "theory" is like a label on a bottle describing the contents which sometimes is mistaken for the contents by zealous label-readers. In that way we can end up with a lot of politics and very little Buddhism.

This is not to decry the value of a Buddhist social and political theory — only its misuse. We have only begun to apply Buddhism as a catalyst to the general body of Western social science and most of the work so far has been in psychology. Such work in allied fields could be extremely helpful to Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike.

The writings of some Buddhists from Sri Lanka, Burma and elsewhere offer interesting examples of attempts to relate Buddhism to nationalism and Marxism (not to be confused with communism). Earlier in the century Anagarika Dharmapala stressed the social teaching of the Buddha and its value in liberating people from materialistic preoccupations. U Nu, the eminent Burmese Buddhist statesman, argued that socialism follows naturally from the ethical and social teachings of the Buddha, and another Burmese leader, U Ba Swe, held that Marxism is relative truth, Buddhism absolute truth. This theme has been explored more recently in Trevor Ling's book "Buddha, Marx and God," (2nd ed., Macmillan, London 1979) and Michal Edwarde's "In the Blowing out of a Flame" (Allen & Unwin 1976). Both are stimulating and controversial books. E.F. Schumacher's celebrated book "Small is Beautiful" (Blond & Briggs, London 1973) has introduced what he terms "Buddhist economics" and its urgent relevance to the modern world to many thousand of non-Buddhists. Of this we shall say more in a later section on the Buddhist "good society."

Buddhist social and political theory and policy can only be mentioned in passing in this pamphlet, although we have earlier introduced the idea of "social karma" as of central importance. We are, instead, concerned here with problems and questions arising in the practice of social and political work by Buddhists and the nature of that work.

2.5 Conflict and partisanship

The Buddhist faced with political thought, let alone political action, is straightaway plunged in the turbulent stream of conflict and partisanship and right and wrong.

Let the reader, perhaps prompted by the morning newspaper, select and hold in his mind some particular controversial public issue or public figure. Now, how does your Buddhism feel, please? (No, not what does your Buddhism think!) How does it feel when, again, some deeply held conviction is roughly handled at a Buddhist meeting or in a Buddhist journal? "The tears and anguish that follow arguments and quarrels," said the Buddha, "the arrogance and pride and the grudges and insults that go with them are all the result of one thing. They come from having preferences, from holding things precious and dear. Insults are born out of arguments and grudges are inseparable with quarrels." (Kalahavivada-sutta, trans. H. Saddhatissa, 1978, para. 2) Similarly, in the words of one of the Zen patriarchs: "The conflict between longing and loathing is the mind's worse disease" (Seng Ts'an, 1954).

In all our relationships as Buddhists we seek to cultivate a spirit of openness, cooperation, goodwill and equality. Nonetheless, we may not agree with another's opinions, and, in the final analysis, this divergence could have to do even with matters of life and death. But hopefully we shall be mindful and honest about how we think and, with what we feel, and how our opponent thinks and feels. In such controversies, are we each to confirm our own ego? Or each to benefit from the other in the search for wise judgment? Moreover, in the words of the Dalai Lama, "when a person criticizes you and exposes your faults, only then are you able to discover your faults and make amends. So your enemy is your greatest friend because he is the person who gives you the test you need for your inner strength, your tolerance, your respect for others... Instead of feeling angry with or hatred towards such a person, one should respect him and be grateful to him" (Dalai Lama, 1976, p. 9). We are one with our adversary in our common humanity; we are two in our divisive conflict. We should be deluded if we were to deny either — if we were to rush either to compromise or to uncompromising struggle. Our conflict and our humanity may be confirmed or denied at any point along that line of possibilities which links the extremes, but ultimately it will be resolved in some other, less explicit sense. Sangharakshita expresses this paradox in his observation that "it is not enough to sympathize with something to such an extent that one agrees with it. If necessary, one must sympathize to such an extent that one disagrees" (Sangharakshita, 1979, p. 60).

Zen Master Dogen advised that "when you say something to someone he may not accept it, but do not try to make him understand it rationally. Don't argue with him; just listen to his objections, until he himself finds something wrong with them." Certainly we shall need much time and space for such wisdom and compassion as may inform us in such situations. If we do fight, may our wisdom and compassion honor both our adversary and ourselves, whether in compromise, victory or defeat.

"On how to sing The frog school and the skylark school Are arguing." — Shiki, 1958, p. 169

2.6 Ambiguity, complexity, uncertainty

Our "Small Mind" clings to delusions of security and permanence. It finds neither of these in the world where, on the contrary, it experiences a sense of ambiguity, complexity and uncertainty which it finds intolerable, and which make it very angry when it is obliged to confront them. Small Mind prefers to see social, economic and political phenomena in terms of black and white, or "Left and Right." It likes to take sides, and it clings to social dogmas both sophisticated and simple. ("The rich/poor are always selfish/idle.")

To the extent that we have achieved "Big Mind" we perceive with equanimity what Small Mind recoils from as intolerable. We are freer to see the world as it is in all the many colors of the rainbow, each merging imperceptibly into the next. In place of clinging to a few black, white and gray compartments, scrutiny is freed, encouraged by the Buddha's discriminating and differentiating attitude. (Vibhajjavada; see Wheel: No. 238/240, Anguttara Anthology, Part II, pp. 59 ff.)

We shall not be surprised then that the personal map which guides the Wise through social and political realities may turn out to be disturbingly unconventional. Their reluctance readily to "take sides" arises not from quietism or an attachment to a compromise or a belief in the "unreality" of conflict, as is variously the case with those guided by mere rules. On the contrary, they may not even sit quietly, throwing soothing generalizations into the ring, as is expected of the religious. This seemingly uncomfortable, seemingly marginal stance simply reflects a reality which is experienced with equanimity.

However, it does not require much equanimity to discover the deeper truths which underlie many current conventional truths. Conventional politics, for example, run from "left," to "right," from radicals through liberals and conservatives to fascists. Some radicals are, for example, as dogmatic and authoritarian in practice as fascists, and to their ultimate detriment they hate no less mightily. And, again, some conservatives are equally dogmatic because of an awareness of the subtle, organic nature of society and hence the danger of attempts at "instant" restructuring.

Similarly an ideology such as Marxism may be highly complex but has been conveniently oversimplified even by quite well educated partisans, both those "for" and those "against" the theory. The present Dalai Lama is one of those who have attempted to disentangle "an authentic Marxism" which he believes is not without relevance to the problems of a feudal theocracy of the kind that existed in Tibet, from "the sort one sees in countless countries claiming to be Marxist," but which are "mixing up Marxism and their national political interests and also their thirst for world hegemony" (Dalai Lama, 1979).

The Wise person sees clearly because he does not obscure his own light; he does not cast the shadow of himself over the situation. However, even an honest perception of complexity commonly paralyzes action with, "Yes, that's all very well, but...," "On the other hand it is also true that... ." Contemplative wisdom is a precious thing, but true Wisdom reveals itself in positive action — or "in-action." Though a person may, through Clear Comprehension of Purpose (satthaka-sampajanna), keep loyal to the social ideal, his Clear Comprehension of (presently absent) Suitability may counsel in-action, or just "waiting."

In a social action situation the complexity and ambiguity to which we refer is strongly felt as ethical quandary, uncertainty as to what might be the best course of action. Even in small organizations all power is potentially corrupting; the power wielded is soon lost in a thicket of relative ethics, of means and ends confused, of greater and lesser evils, of long term and short term goals. This is not a "game." It is the terrible reality of power, wealth and suffering in the world, and the confusing of good and delusion. It cannot be escaped; it can only be suffered through. We cannot refuse life's most difficult problems because we have not yet attained to Wisdom. We simply have to do our mindful and vigilant best, without guilt or blame. That is all we have to do.

2.7 Violence and non-violence

The First Precept of Buddhism is to abstain from taking life. But it must be made clear that the Buddhist "Precepts" are not commandments; they are "good resolutions," sincere aspirations voluntarily undertaken. They are signposts. They suggest to us how the truly Wise behave, beyond any sense of self and other.

Evil springs from delusion about our true nature as human beings, and it takes the characteristic forms of hatred, aggression and driving acquisitiveness. These behaviors feed upon themselves and become strongly rooted, not only in individuals but in whole cultures. Total war is no more than their most spectacular and bloody expression. In Buddhism the cultivation of sila (habitual morality) by attempting to follow the Precepts is an aspiration toward breaking this karmic cycle. It is a first step towards dissolving the egocentricity of headstrong willfulness, and cultivating heartfelt awareness of others. The Precepts invite us to loosen the grip, unclench the fist, and to aspire to open-handedness and open-heartedness. Whether, and to what extent, he keeps the Precepts is the responsibility of each individual. But he needs to be fully aware of what he is doing.

The karmic force of violent behavior will be affected by the circumstances in which it occurs. For example, a "diminished responsibility" may be argued in the case of conscripts forced to kill by an aggressive government. And there is surely a difference between wars of conquest and wars of defense. Ven. Walpola Rahula described a war of national independence in Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BC conducted under the slogan "Not for kingdom but for Buddhism," and concludes that "to fight against a foreign invader for national independence became an established Buddhist tradition, since freedom was essential to the spiritual as well as the material progress of the community" (Rahula, 1978, p. 117). We may deplore the historic destruction of the great Indian Buddhist heritage in the middle-ages, undefended against the Mongol and Muslim invaders. It is important to note, however, that "according to Buddhism there is nothing that can be called a 'just war' — which is only a false term coined and put into circulation to justify and excuse hatred, cruelty, violence and massacre" (Rahula, 1967, 84).

It is an unfortunate fact, well documented by eminent scholars such as Edward Conze and Trevor Ling, that not only have avowedly Buddhist rulers undertaken violence and killing, but also monks of all traditions in Buddhism. Nonetheless, Buddhism has no history of specifically religious wars, that is, wars fought to impose Buddhism upon reluctant believers.

Violence and killing are deeply corrupting in their effect upon all involved, and Buddhists will therefore try to avoid direct involvement in violent action or in earning their living in a way that, directly or indirectly, does violence. The Buddha specifically mentioned the trade in arms, in living beings and flesh.

The problem is whether, in today's "global village" we are not all in some degree responsible for war and violence to the extent that we refrain from any effort to diminish them. Can we refrain from killing a garden slug and yet refrain, for fear of "political involvement," from raising a voice against the nuclear arms race or the systematic torture of prisoners of conscience in many parts of the world?

These are questions which are disturbing to some of those Buddhists who have a sensitive social and moral conscience. This is understandable. Yet, a well-informed Buddhist must not forget that moral responsibility, or karmic guilt, originate from a volitional and voluntary act affirming the harmful character of the act. If that affirmation is absent, neither the responsibility for the act, not karmic guilt, rest with those who, through some form of pressure, participate in it. A slight guilt, however, might be involved if such participants yield too easily even to moderate pressure or do not make use of "escape routes" existing in these situations. But failure to protest publicly against injustice or wrong-doings does not necessarily constitute a participation in evil. Voices of protest should be raised when there is a chance that they are heard. But "voices in the wilderness" are futile, and silence, instead, is the better choice. It is futile, indeed, if a few well-meaning heads try to run against walls of rock stone that may yield only to bulldozers. It is a sad fact that there are untold millions of our fellow-humans who do affirm violence and use it for a great variety of reasons (though not "reasonable reasons"!). They are unlikely to be moved by our protests or preachings, being entirely obsessed by divers fanaticisms or power urges. This has to be accepted as an aspect of existential suffering. Yet there are still today some opportunities and nations where a Buddhist can and should work for the cause of peace and reducing violence in human life. No efforts should be spared to convince people that violence does not solve problems or conflicts.

The great evil of violence is its separation unto death of us and them, of "my" righteousness and "your" evil. If you counter violence with violence you will deepen that separation through thoughts of bitterness and revenge. The Dhammapada says: "Never by hatred is hatred appeased, but it is appeased by kindness. This is an eternal truth" (I, 5) Buddhist non-violent social action (avihimsa, ahimsa) seeks to communicate, persuade and startle by moral example. "One should conquer anger through kindness, wickedness through goodness, selfishness through charity, and falsehood through truthfulness" (Dhammapada, XVII, 3).

The Buddha intervened personally on the field of battle, as in the dispute between the Sakyas and Koliyas over the waters of the Rohini. Since that time, history has provided us with a host of examples of religiously inspired non-violent social action, skillfully adapted to particular situations. These are worthy of deep contemplation.

Well known is Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent struggle against religious intolerance and British rule in India, and also the Rev. Martin Luther King's black people's civil rights movement in the United States. A familiar situation for many people today is the mass demonstration against authority, which may be conducted either peacefully or violently. As Robert Aitken Roshi has observed, "the point of disagreement, even the most fundamental disagreement, is still more superficial than the place of our common life." He recalls the case of a friend who organized an anti-nuclear demonstration at a naval base passing through a small town in which virtually every household had at least one person who gained his livelihood by working at the base. Consequently, when the friend visited every single house before the demonstration he hardly expected to win the people over to his cause. But he did convince them that he was a human being who was willing to listen to them and who had faith in them as human beings. "We finally had our demonstration, with four thousand people walking through this tiny community, nobody resisted us, nobody threw rocks. They just stood and watched" (The Ten Directions, Los Angeles Zen Center, 1 (3) September 1980, p. 6).

And yet again, situations may arise in which folly is mutually conditioned, but where we must in some sense take sides in establishing the ultimate responsibility. If we do not speak out then, we bow only to the conditioned and accept the endlessness of suffering and the perpetuation of evil karma. The following lines were written a few days after Archbishop Oscar Romero, of the Central American republic of El Salvador, had been shot dead on the steps of his chapel. Romero had roundly condemned the armed leftist rebel factions for their daily killings and extortions. However, he also pointed out that these were the reactions of the common people being used as "a production force under the management of a privileged society... The gap between poverty and wealth is the main cause of our trouble... And sometimes it goes further: It is the hatred in the heart of the worker for his employer... If I did not denounce the killings and the way the army removes people and ransacks peasants' homes I should be acquiescing in the violence" (Observer newspaper (London), March 30, 1980).

Finally there is the type of situation in which the truly massive folly of the conflict and of the contrasting evils may leave nothing to work with and there is space left only for personal sacrifice to bear witness to that folly. Such was the choice of the Buddhist monks who burnt themselves to death in the Vietnam war — surely one of the most savage and despairing conflicts of modern times, in which a heroic group of Buddhists had for some time struggled in vain to establish an alternative "third force."

2.8 The good society

The social order to which Buddhist social action is ultimately directed must be one that minimizes non-volitionally caused suffering, whether in mind or body, and which also offers encouraging conditions for its citizens to see more clearly into their true nature and overcome their karmic inheritance. The Buddhist way is, with its compassion, its equanimity, its tolerance, its concern for self-reliance and individual responsibility, the most promising of all the models for the New Society which are an on offer.

What is needed are political and economic relations and a technology which will:

(a) Help people to overcome ego-centeredness, through co-operation with others, in place of either subordination and exploitation or the consequent sense of "righteous" struggle against all things.

(b) Offer to each a freedom which is conditional only upon the freedom and dignity of others, so that individuals may develop a self-reliant responsibility rather than being the conditioned animals of institutions and ideologies. (See "Buddhism and Democracy," Bodhi Leaves No. B. 17)

The emphasis should be on the undogmatic acceptance of a diversity of tolerably compatible material and mental "ways," whether of individuals or of whole communities. There are no short cuts to utopia, whether by "social engineering" or theocracy. The good society towards which we should aim should simply provide a means, an environment, in which different "ways," appropriate to different kinds of people, may be cultivated in mutual tolerance and understanding. A prescriptive commonwealth of saints is totally alien to Buddhism.

(c) The good society will concern itself primarily with the material and social conditions for personal growth, and only secondarily and dependently with material production. It is noteworthy that the 14th Dalai Lama, on his visit to the West in 1973, saw "nothing wrong with material progress provided man takes precedence over progress. In fact it has been my firm belief that in order to solve human problems in all their dimensions we must be able to combine and harmonize external material progress with inner mental development." The Dalai Lama contrasted the "many problems like poverty and disease, lack of education" in the East with the West, in which "the living standard is remarkably high, which is very important, very good." Yet he notes that despite these achievements there is "mental unrest," pollution, overcrowding, and other problems. "Our very life itself is a paradox, contradictory in many senses; whenever you have too much of one thing you have problems created by that. You always have extremes and therefore it is important to try and find the middle way, to balance the two" (Dalai Lama, 1976, pp. 10, 14, 29).

(d) E.F. Schumacher has concisely expressed the essence of Buddhist economics as follows:

"While the materialist is mainly interested in goods, the Buddhist is mainly interested in liberation. But Buddhism is 'The Middle Way' and therefore in no way antagonistic to physical well-being... The keynote of Buddhist economics is simplicity and non-violence. From an economist's point of view, the marvel of the Buddhist way of life is the utter rationality of its pattern — amazingly small means leading to extraordinarily satisfying results" (Schumacher, 1973, p. 52).

Schumacher then outlines a "Buddhist economics" in which production would be based on a middle range technology yielding on the one hand an adequate range of material goods (and no more), and on the other a harmony with the natural environment and its resources. (See also Dr. Padmasiri de Silva's pamphlet The Search for a Buddhist Economics, in the series, Bodhi Leaves, No. B. 69)

The above principles suggest some kind of diverse and politically decentralized society, with co-operative management and ownership of productive wealth. It would be conceived on a human scale, whether in terms of size and complexity of organization or of environmental planning, and would use modern technology selectively rather than being used by it in the service of selfish interests. In Schumacher's words, "It is a question of finding the right path of development, the Middle Way, between materialist heedlessness and traditionalist immobility, in short, of finding 'Right Livelihood.'"

Clearly, all the above must ultimately be conceived on a world scale. "Today we have become so interdependent and so closely connected with each other that without a sense of universal responsibility, irrespective of different ideologies and faiths, our very existence or survival would be difficult" (Dalai Lama, 1976, pp. 5, 28). This statement underlines the importance of Buddhist internationalism and of social policy and social action conceived on a world scale.

The above is not offered as some kind of blueprint for utopia. Progress would be as conflict-ridden as the spiritual path of the ordinary Buddhist — and the world may never get there anyway. However, Buddhism is a very practical and pragmatic kind of idealism, and there is, as always, really no alternative but to try.

2.9 Organizing social action

A systematic review of the different kinds of Buddhist organization for social action which have appeared in different parts of the world is beyond the scope of this pamphlet. Some considerable research would be required, and the results would merit at least a separate pamphlet.

Later we shall introduce three contrasting movements which are in some sense or others examples of Buddhist social action. Each is related more or less strongly to the particular social culture in which it originated, and all should therefore be studied as illustrative examples-in-context and not necessarily as export models for other countries. They are, however, very suggestive, and two of the three have spread beyond their country of origin.

2.9a Maintaining balance

Social action needs to be organized and practiced in such a way as to build upon its potential for spiritual practice and to guard against its seductions. Collective labor with fellow-Buddhists raises creative energy, encourages positive attitudes and engenders a strong spirit of fellowship. The conflicts, disagreements, obstacles, and discouragements which will certainly be met along the way offer rich meditation experiences and opportunity for personal growth, so long as scrupulous mindfulness is sustained.

The meditator will learn as much about himself in a contentious meeting as he will in the meditation hall. Both kinds of experience are needed, and they complement one another. Social action is a great ripener of compassion (for self as well as for others), out of the bitterness of the experiences which it commonly offers. Yet, like nothing else, it can stir up the partisan emotions and powerfully exult the opinionated ego. The busy, patronizing evangelist not only gives an undercover boost to his own ego; he also steals another person's responsibility for himself. However, these dangers are, comparatively speaking, gross and tangible when set against the no less ego-enhancing seduction of Other-Worldliness and dharma-ridden pietism. Such "spiritual materialism," as Chogyam Trungpa calls it, has long been recognized as the ultimate and most elusive kind of self-deception which threatens the follower of the spiritual path.

The seduction lies in being carried away by our good works, in becoming subtly attached to the new goals and enterprises we have set ourselves, so that no space is left in our busily structured hours in which some saving strength of the spirit can abide. Here is opportunity to learn how to dance with time — "the river in which we go fishing," as Thoreau called it, instead of neatly packaging away our lives in it, or letting it dictate us. And in committee lies the opportunity of slowly turning the hot, lusty partisanship of self-opinionated confirmation into the kind of space and dialogue in which we can communicate, and can even learn to love our most implacable opponents.

It is therefore important that both the individual and the group set aside regular periods for meditation, with periods of retreat at longer intervals. It is important also that experience and the feel of the social action project should as far as possible be shared openly within the Buddhist group.

In our view, the first social action of the isolated Buddhist is not to withhold the Dharma from the community in which he or she lives. However modest one's own understanding of the Dharma, there is always some first step that can be taken and something to be learned from taking that step. Even two or three can be a greater light to one another, and many forms of help are often available from outside such as working together through a correspondence course, for example, or listening to borrowed audiocassettes.

For the reasons given earlier it is important that social action projects should, where possible, be undertaken by a Buddhist group rather than each individual "doing his own thing." And since the Buddhist group will, in most Western countries, be small and isolated, it is important that the work be undertaken in co-operation with like-minded non-Buddhists. This will both use energies to better effect since social action can be very time- and energy-consuming, and create an even better learning situation for all involved. Forms of social action which are high on explicit giving of service and low on conflict and power situations will obviously be easier to handle and to "give" oneself to, though still difficult in other respects. For example, organizing and participating in a rota of visits to lonely, long-stay hospital patients would contrast, in this respect, with involvement in any kind of local community development project.

2.9b Spiritual centers: example and outreach

In this section we are concerned with the significance of Buddhist residential communities both as manifestations and examples of the "good society" and as centers of social outreach (mainly, though not solely, in the form of teaching the Dharma). We may distinguish four possible kinds of activity here.

In the first place, any healthy spiritual community does, by its very existence, offer to the world a living example not only of the Good Life but also of the Good Society. Certain spiritual values are made manifest in its organization and practice in a way not possible in print or in talk. On the other hand, the purely contemplative and highly exclusive community can do this only in some limited, special and arguable sense.

In the second place, where the members of such a community undertake work as a community economically ("Right Livelihood"), then to that extent the community becomes a more realistic microcosm of what has to be done in the wider world and a more realistic model and example of how it might best be done.

Thirdly, such communities are commonly teaching and training communities. This may be so in formal terms, in that they offer classes and short courses and also longer periods of training in residence, in which the trainees become veritable community members. And it may be true in terms of the "openness" of the community to outsiders who wish for the present to open up their communication with the community through some participation in work, ritual, teaching, meditation.

Fourthly, the community might involve itself in various kinds of outside community service, development or action beyond that of teaching, and beyond the necessarily commercial services which may sustain the community's "Right Livelihood." Examples might be running a hospice for the terminally ill, providing an information and advice center on a wide range of personal and social problems for the people of the local community, and assisting — and maybe leading — in various aspects of a socially deprived local community. The spiritual community thus becomes more strongly a community within a community. In this kind of situation would the spiritual community draw strength from its service to the social, the "lay" community, creating an upward spiral of energy? Or would the whole scheme founder through the progressive impoverishment and corruption of the spiritual community in a vicious downward spiral?

In the Eastern Buddhist monastic tradition the first and third aspects (above) are present. In contrast to Christian monasticism, monks are not necessarily expected to be monks for life, and the monasteries may have an important function as seminaries and as long and short stay teaching and training centers. On the other hand, economically such communities are commonly strongly sustained by what is predominantly Buddhist society. In the West there are now similar communities in all the main Buddhist traditions. Although these are to some extent sustained also by lay Buddhist contributions, their income from training and teaching fees may be important. And whether it is or not, it is clear that their actual and potential training and teaching role is likely to be very important in non-Buddhist societies in which there is a growing interest in Buddhism. A good example is the Manjusri Institute in the United Kingdom, which is now seeking official recognition for the qualifications which it awards, and which could eventually become as much part of the national education system as, say, a Christian theological college. Such an integration of Buddhist activity into the pattern of national life in the West is, of course, most welcome, and opens up many new opportunities for making the Dharma more widely understood.

The above developments may be compared with the communities which form the basis of the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO). In these, our second aspect (above), that of Right Livelihood, is found, in addition to the first and third.

The FWBO was founded in 1967 in the United Kingdom by the Ven. Maha Sthavira Sangharakshita, a Londoner who spent twenty years in India as a Buddhist monk and returned with the conviction that the perennial Buddhism always expresses itself anew in each new age and culture. The FWBO is concerned with building what it calls the "New Society" in the minds and practice of its members. Opening the FWBO's London Buddhist Center, Ven. Sangharakshita was reported as saying that the New Society was a spiritual community composed of individuals who are "truly human beings: self-aware, emotionally positive people whose energies flow freely and spontaneously, who accept responsibility for their own growth and development, in particular by providing three things: firstly, a residential spiritual community; secondly, a co-operative Right Livelihood situation; and thirdly a public center, offering classes, especially in meditation" (Marichi, 1979).

The FWBO does in fact follow a traditional Mahayana spiritual practice, but within this framework it does have, as the quotation above suggests, a strong Western flavor. This owes much to the eleven co-operatives by which many of the eighteen autonomous urban communities support themselves. These businesses are run by teams of community members as a means of personal and group development. They include a printing press, graphic design business, photographic and film studio, metalwork forge, and shops and cafes.

Membership of the communities (which are usually single sex), varies between four and thirty people, and often the community members pool their earnings in a "common purse." The FWBO comprises Order members, Mitras (who have made some initial commitment) and Friends (supporters in regular contact). Each community is autonomous and has its own distinctive character. Attached to communities are seven Centers, through which the public are offered talks, courses and instruction in meditation. Regular meetings of Chairmen of Centers and other senior Order members, supported by three central secretariats, are planned for the future, but it is not intended to abridge the autonomy of the constituent communities, each of which is a separately registered legal body.

The FWBO is growing very rapidly, not only in the United Kingdom but also overseas, with branches in Finland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Australia, the USA, and, interestingly, in India, where a sustained effort is being made to establish centers.

2.9c Community services and development

We refer in this section to the fourth aspect distinguished early in the previous section 2.9b, namely, various possible kinds of service and support which may be given by organized Buddhists to the local community in which they live. The FWBO does not undertake this kind of activity (see previous section for examples), and in fact there do not appear to be any major examples of it in the West.

Arguably if this kind of work is undertaken at all, it might more likely be initiated by a non-residential "lay" Buddhist group, whose members as householders and local workers may have strong roots in their town or neighborhood. As an example of what can be achieved by a relatively small group of this kind, we quote the following (from The Middle Way, 54 (3) Autumn 1979, p. 193):

"The Harlow Buddhist Society have recently opened Dana House, a practical attempt to become involved with the ordinary people of the town and their problems. The new center... has four regular groups using it. The first is an after-care service for those who have been mentally or emotionally ill. The center is there for those in need of friendship and understanding. The second group is a psychotherapy one, for those with more evident emotional problems. It is run by an experienced group leader and a psychologist who can be consulted privately. The third group is a beginners' meditation class based on the concept of 'Right Understanding.' The fourth group is the Buddhist group, which is not attached to any particular school of Buddhism. "Peter Donahoe writes: 'We have endeavored to provide a center which can function in relation to a whole range of different needs, a place of charity and compassion, where all are welcomed regardless of race, color, sex or creed, welcomed to come to terms with their suffering in a way which is relative to each individual.'"

However, on the whole, it is only in the East, in societies in which Buddhist culture is predominant or important, that there are sufficiently committed Buddhists to play a part in extensive community service and development projects. For example, in Japan there are several such movements and we shall refer in the next section to one example — Soka Gakkai, a movement which also plays a number of other roles. We must first, however, turn our attention to a pre-eminent example of a Buddhist-inspired movement for community development, the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement of Sri Lanka.

"Sarvodaya" means "awakening of all" and "Shramadana" means "sharing of labor," making a gift of time, thought and energy. This well describes what is basically a village self-help movement, inspired by Buddhist principles and founded in 1958 as part of a general national awakening. It is now by far the largest non-governmental, voluntary organization in Sri Lanka.

The Movement learned in its earlier days how very important non-economic factors are in community development, and its projects combine spiritual-cultural with socioeconomic development. "One important element that cannot be improved upon in Buddhist villages in particular is the unique place of the temple and the Buddhist monk, the one as the meeting place, the other as the chief exponent of this entire process." (All quotations are from the pamphlet Ethos and Work Plan, published by the Movement.) Founded on traditional culture, Sarvodaya Shramadana is ultimately "a nonviolent revolutionary movement for changing man and society." At the same time it aims to retain the best in the traditional social and cultural fabric of the community.

Village development projects are undertaken on the initiative of the villagers themselves. To begin with the community is made aware of the historic causes that led to the impoverishment and disintegration of the community and of its cultural and traditional values. Economic regeneration is only possible if there is a restoration of social values within the village. It is emphasized that the community itself must take the initiative in removing obstacles to development and in learning the new skills needed to carry through a change of program. The volunteers brought in to help serve only as a catalyst. Action is focused initially on Shramadana Camps in which villagers and outside volunteers work together upon some community project such as a road or irrigation channel. The experience of such Camps helps to develop a sense of community. Local leaders, working through village groups of farmers, of youth, of mothers and others, emerge to take increasing responsibility for a more or less comprehensive development program. This may include pre-school care for the under-fives, informal education for adults, health care programs, and community kitchens, with co-operation with State agencies as appropriate. By 1980, Sarvodaya was reaching 3,500 villages and was running 1,185 pre-schools.

Essential to these community development programs in Sarvodaya Shramadana's system of Development Education programs, operating through six Institutes and through the Gramodaya centers each of which co-ordinates development work in some twenty to thirty villages. The movement also provides training in self-employment for the youth who compose the largest sector of the unemployed. Although the main thrust of activity has been in rural areas, the Movement is also interested in urban community development where conditions are favorable and there is local interest.

The main material support for the movement comes from the villagers themselves, although financial and material assistance has also been received from overseas.

It is argued that the basic principles of Sarvodaya Shramadana can be adapted to developed as well as developing countries, and Sarvodaya groups are already active in West Germany, the Netherlands, Japan and Thailand. "The rich countries also have to helped to change their purely materialistic outlook and strike a balance, with spiritual values added to the materialistic values of their own communities so that together all can build a new One World social order."

2.9d Political action and mass movements

Although there may be exceptional circumstances in certain countries, as a general rule there are strong arguments against Buddhist groups explicitly aligning themselves with any political party. It is not just that to do so would be irrelevantly divisive. As we have noted in section 2.6 (above), there are deeper, underlying social and political realities which cross-cut the conventional political spectrum of left, right and center.

Nevertheless, Buddhism, like other great religious systems, inevitably has political implications. To some extent these seem to be relatively clear, and in other senses they are arguable and controversial. Religion has its own contribution to make to politics and, ultimately, it is the only contribution to politics that really matters. It has failed both politically and as religion it falls either into the extreme of being debased by politics or of rejecting any kind of political involvement as a kind of fearful taboo. The fear of creating dissension among fellow Buddhists is understandable, but if Buddhists cannot handle conflict in a positive and creative way, then who can?

On closer examination we shall find that it is not "politics" that requires our vigilance so much as the problems of power and conflict inherent in politics. Indeed, a better use of the term "political" would be to describe any kind of power and conflict situation. In this sense a Buddhist organization may be more intensely and unhappily "political" in managing its spiritual and practical affairs than if and when its members are discussing such an "outside" matter as conventional politics. Indeed, any such discussion of social and political questions may be banned by a Buddhist society which may be in fact intensely political in terms of underlying power and conflict with which its members have not really come to terms. All kinds of organizations have problems of power and conflict and derive their positive dynamism from the good management of these, but the dangers of self-delusion seem to be greater in religious bodies.

When we meet Buddhists and get to know them, we find that even when they do not express explicit opinions on political and social matters, it is clear from other things they say that some are inclined to a conservative "establishment" stance, some are of a radical inclination, and others more dissident still. Since the diversities of THIS and THAT exist everywhere else in the conditioned world, even Buddhists cannot pretend to exclude themselves from such disturbing distinctions. This is not really in question. What is in question is their ability to handle their differences openly and with Buddhist maturity. And, as we have tried to show earlier, this maturity implies a progressive diminution of emotional attachment to views of THIS and THAT, so that we no longer need either in order to sustain our identity in the world and have in some sense transcended our clinging by a higher understanding. We still carry THIS or THAT, but lightly and transparently and manageably — without ego-weight. If we did not still carry them, how could we feel the Compassion for samsara, for ourselves as well as others?

Alan Watts wrote a suitably controversial little pamphlet on this subject, entitled Beat Zen, Square Zen and Zen (City Lights Books, San Francisco, 1959). The following passage may be found helpful to our present discussion; what the author has to say about Zen is surely no less applicable to Buddhism as a whole. Watts argues that the Westerner who wishes to understand Zen deeply "must understand his own culture so thoroughly that he is no longer swayed by its premises unconsciously. He must really have come to terms with the Lord God Jehovah and with his Hebrew-Christian conscience so he can take it or leave it without fear or rebellion. He must be free of the itch to justify himself. Lacking this, his Zen will be either 'beat' or 'square,' either a revolt from the culture and social order or a new form of stuffiness and respectability. For Zen is above all the liberation of the mind from conventional thought and this is something utterly different from rebellion against convention, on the one hand, or adapting foreign conventions, on the other."

In the West, individual Buddhists have been particularly attracted to pacifist, disarmament, and environmentalist movements and parties. These movements have profound concerns, which, arguably, undercut the expediencies of conventional party politics. On the other hand, are they not made the more attractive by a certain political innocence, as yet uncorrupted and unblessed by the realities of power? And do they not also underestimate the karma of power and property?

However, in Western and other non-Buddhist countries Buddhist political action of any kind is little more than speculative. Buddhists are few in number, and their energies are necessarily fully occupied with learning and teaching. Teaching is the major form of social action and we have already discussed certain social action implications of the spiritual community. Social action at most verges upon certain possible kinds of service to the wider community or even participation in community development. We have already suggested the merit of such enterprises. But as to politics, using the word conventionally, in the West and at the present time, that can be no more than a matter for discussion in Buddhist groups. As always, individual Buddhists and perhaps informal groups will decide for themselves about political action or inaction.

However, in countries where there are strong Buddhist movements, well rooted in society, some kind of political stance and action seems unavoidable and, indeed, logical and natural, though conventional party political alignments may generally be avoided.

For example, Sarvodaya Shramadana's success at the higher levels of village self-development depends on "the extent that unjust economic arrangements such as ownership of means of production, e.g., land in the hands of a few, administrative system and political power structures, are changed in such a way that the village masses become the true masters of their own selves and their environment. That the present government has gone very far in this direction is amply demonstrated when one examines the radical measures that have already been taken" (Sarvodaya Shramadana pamphlet Ethos and Work Plan, p. 31).

For large and explicitly Buddhist movements filing a variety of different roles, from the devotional to the so-called "New Religions" which have become particularly important in Japan in the post-war period. (Some mention has already been made of the small discussion groups which are a notable feature of Rissho-Kosei-Kai — The "Society for Establishing Righteousness and Family Relations".) With their strong emphasis on pacifism, brotherly love, and mutual aid, these organizations have done much to assist the recovery of the Japanese people from the trauma of military aggression and the nuclear explosions which terminated it.

Soka Gakkai (literally, "Value Creation Society") is perhaps the most striking of these Japanese Buddhist socio-political movements. It is a lay Buddhist organization with over fifteen million adherents, associated with the Nichiren-Sho-Shu sect.

Soka Gakkai has an ambitious education and cultural program, and has founded its own university, high school and hospital. It also has a political party, Komeito — the "Clean Government Party," which as early as 1967 returned twenty-five parliamentary candidates to the Japanese lower house, elected with five percent of the national vote. The party has continued to play an important part in Japanese political life, basing itself on "the principles of Buddhist democracy" and opposition to rearmament. Soka Gakkai is a populist movement, militant, evangelical and well organized, pledged to "stand forever on the side of the people" and to "devote itself to carrying out the movement for the human revolution" (President Daisaku Ikeda). More specifically, its political achievements have included a successful confrontation with the mineowners of Hokkaido.

Attitudes to Soka Gakkai understandably differ widely. It has been criticized by some for its radicalism and by others for its conservatism; certainly it has been criticized on the grounds of dogmatism and aggressiveness. Certainly it is imbued with the nationalist fervor of Nichiren, the 13th century Buddhist monk who inspired it. Although it has some claims to missionary work in other countries, Soka Gakkai appears to have a more distinctive national flavor than the other social action groups we have looked at and to be less suitable for export.

2.9e "Universal Responsibility and the Good Heart"

Elsewhere we have already quoted the words of the Dalai Lama emphasizing the active global responsibility of Buddhists, and the importance above all of what he calls "Universal Responsibility and the Good Heart." In all countries will be found non-Buddhists, whether religionists or humanists, who share with us a non-violent, non-dogmatic and non-sectarian approach to community and world problems, and with whom Buddhists can work in close cooperation and with mutual respect. This is part of the "Good Heart" to which the Dalai Lama refers. "I believe that the embracing of a particular religion like Buddhism does not mean the rejection of another religion or one's own community. In fact it is important that those of you who have embraced Buddhism should not cut yourself off from your own society; you should continue to live within your own community and with its members. This is not only for your sake but for others' also, because by rejecting your community you obviously cannot benefit others, which actually is the basic aim of religion" (Dalai Lama, 1976).

Mr. Emilios Bouratinos and his colleagues of the Buddhist Society of Greece have framed certain farsighted proposals for the "rehumanization of society" which have Buddhist inspiration but which seek to involve non-Buddhist ideological groups with the aim of reaching some common ground with them on the organization of society. Mr. Bouratinos argues that Buddhists should address themselves "to all people somehow inspired from within — whether they be religionists or not. This is indispensable, for we Buddhists are a tiny minority in the West and yet we must touch the hearts of many if this world is to survive in some meaningful fashion" (Letter to the author, 15 May 1980).

Conclusion    

Certainly in the West many Buddhists will maintain that it is necessary to take one step at a time, and that for the present our individual and collective action must go into the inner strengthening of our faith and practice. They would doubtless agree on the importance of teaching the Dharma, which we have characterized as one of the important forms of social action, but they would argue that the seduction of other kinds of social action, and the drain of energy, are greater than the opportunities which it can afford for "wearing out the shoe of samsara." They would argue that the best way to help other people is by personal example.

This pamphlet concedes some possible truth to the above position but also offers a wide range of evidence to the contrary, to which in retrospect the reader may now wish to return. Whatever we may feel about it, certainly the debate is a worthwhile one since, as we have seen, it points to the very heart of Buddhism — the harmony, or creative equilibrium, of Wisdom and Compassion. And as in all worthwhile debates, the disagreement, and, still more, the possible sense of disagreeableness which it engenders, offers each of us a valuable meditation.

The needs and aptitudes of individual differ, and our debate will also appear differently to readers in different countries with different cultural backgrounds. Though we are brothers and sisters to one another, as Buddhists each must light his or her own way. To the enquiring reader who has little knowledge of Buddhism and yet who has managed to stay with me to the end, I offer my apologies if I have sometimes seemed to forget him and if my explanations have proved inadequate. For

"This is where words fail: for what can words tell Of things that have no yesterday, tomorrow or today?"

— Tseng Ts'an

To a world knotted in hatreds and aggression and a host of follies, grand and mean, heroic and base, Buddhism offers a unique combination of unshakable equanimity and a deeply compassionate practical concern. And so may we tread lightly through restless experience, riding out defeats and discouragements, aware always of the peace at the heart of things, of the freedom that is free of nothing.

References    

Brandon, David, "Zen and the art of helping," Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976.

Chogyam Trungpa, "The Myth of freedom and the way of meditation," Shambhala, 1976.

Chuang Tzu, "The Way of Chuang Tzu," trans. Thomas Merton, Unwin Books, 1970.

Conze, Edward, "Buddhism," 2nd ed., Cassirer, 1974.

Dalai Lama, H.H.XIV, "Universal responsibility and the good heart," Dharamsala (Library of Tibetan works), 1976.

Dalai Lama, H.H.XIV, reported in "Tibetan Review," April 1979, and quoted from Reuter (Paris) News Report, 21st March 1979.

Hakuin, Zen Master, "The Zen Master Hakuin," trans. P.B. Yampolsky, Columbia University Press, 1971.

Marichi, "Authority and the individual," FWBO Newsletter No. 41, Winter 1979, 13.

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Rahula, Walpola, "Zen and the taming of the bull: Essays," Gordon Fraser, 1978.

Saddhatissa, H., trans., Kalahavivada-sutta (Sutta-Nipata), "Buddhist Quarterly," 11(1), 1978, 1-3.

Sangharakshita, M.S., "Peace is a fire," Windhorse Publications, 1979.

Saraha, Treasury of Songs (Doha Kosha), in Conze, E., ed. "Buddhist Texts," Cassirer, 1954.

Schumacher, E.F., "Small is beautiful: a study of economics as if people mattered," Blond & Briggs, 1973.

Seng Ts'an, "On trust in the heart," in Conze, E., ed. "Buddhist Texts," Cassirer, 1954 (trans. Arthur Waley).

Shiki, Haiku, in Henderson, Harold, "An introduction to Haiku," Doubleday, 1958.

Note    

The Buddhist Publication Society is an approved charity dedicated to making known the Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital message for people of all creeds.

Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books and booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications include accurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard reference works, as well as original contemporary expositions of Buddhist thought and practice. These works present Buddhism as it truly is — a dynamic force which has influenced receptive minds for the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was when it first arose.

Buddhist Publication Society P.O. Box 61 54, Sangharaja Mawatha Kandy, Sri Lanka

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Exploring the Lived Religion of Buddhists: Integrating Concepts from Social Work and Religious Studies

2011, Journal of religion and spirituality in social work : social thought

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Magazine | Reviews

Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence / Zen Awakening and Society

Edited by Kenneth Kraft / By Christopher Ives

Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence Edited by Kenneth Kraft State University of New York Press: Albany, 1992. 148 pp. $12.95 (paperback).

Zen Awakening and Society Christopher Ives University of Hawaii Press: Honolulu, 1992. 200 pp. $14.95 (paperback) and $25.00 (library binding).

The question of how  to extend Buddhist practice—in terms of carrying it outside the community of practitioners and into the structures and decisions of the larger society—is not a new one. The books edited by Kenneth Kraft and authored by Christopher Ives respectively, however, dig into this problem with a seriousness, depth, and concreteness not seen before. Both Kraft and Ives express concern about the danger that American Buddhists will strive to cultivate “inner peace” but let “world peace” become a cause that is expected to take care of itself. That is, both of these books insist on a Buddhism of engagement with the social and political problems of our world.

Kraft’s volume shows a fine mix of materials and perspectives among its eight contributors. Running throughout is a deep appreciation of the general norms and principles found in the Buddhist tradition but also a candid admission that those prin­ciples are not always easily transla­ted into an exact knowledge of how to act in specific situations. As Luis O. Gomez notes,

ideals such as “respect for life” or “fulfilling the aspirations of all living beings” do not provide an unambiguous guideline for behavior … After all, the best way to make a tiger happy may be to feed it a lamb. Buddhist ethical thought, at least in its early stages, did not investigate this kind of problem.

Most of the writers here, however, chose to work not so much with theories as with what Donald K. Swearer calls “exemplars” of nonviolence. King Asoka, the present Dalai Lama, and Thich Nhat Hanh, understandably, are selected by many of these writers as fitting that category especially well. Robert A. F. Thurman’s exploration of linkages between monastic ideals and modern Tibet’s experience with nonviolence pre­sents an especially cogent “exem­plar,” and Gene Sharp, simply by quantitatively showing how often nonviolence has already worked well, deflates the criticism that it is only an unrealizable ideal.

Although Kraft’s book intends to help define a Buddhist social ethic, it turns out to be stronger in its provision of such “exem­plars” of nonviolence than in the spelling out of what could be called a Buddhist ethical theory. Is this a failing? Or is it a special kind of success—that is, because even something setting out to be “Buddhist theory” gets more true to the tradition when, sooner or later, there is a choice for exemplars rather than for theories? This becomes an interesting question.

Christopher Ives’  Zen Awakening and Society  is a book showing both concern and tough-mindedness. Like Kraft’s, Ives’ book is clearly written to stimulate North Ameri­can Buddhists to practice more energetically and effectively within the social ambit. Ives’ study is a close look at the resources avail­able within Japanese Zen and a bold scrutiny of many of its fail­ings. Scholarship on the history of Buddhism, sometimes too easily put down within communities of practitioners, here becomes a valua­ble tool for internal watch-dogging.

Japanese Zen during the first half of our century, Ives shows, moni­tored itself badly. As a result it used—and was used by—the brutal forces of fascism and militarism. Many monks put a patina of good intentions on Japan’s wars against its neighbors, referring to them as the physical expression of a deeply “spiritual” struggle going on in the world. Ives’ study does not flinch from these facts. But in order not to stop with a recollection of that sorry epoch, it also considers Japanese Buddhists who after 1945 sought to chart a new course. Ives focuses attention on three individuals.

Shin’ichi Hisamatsu (1889-1980), in the modern world an exemplar of the scholar-practitioner (“Zen practice without study is blind; study without practice is power­less”), threw down a challenge to the Japanese monastic institution (“Zen within a ghostly cave”) for being on the one hand inattentive to societal needs and on the other co-opted too easily by the rally-­the-troops rhetoric of the modern nation-state. Ives lays out the basic themes of Hisamatsu’s philosophy, especially his passion for a non-exclusive vision of mankind and the tools he used to critique the modern nation-state as itself being a form of egoism writ large.

Masao Abe took the insights and energies of Hisamatsu, his mentor, and has translated them into decades of widely influential teach­ing in North America and Europe. Abe has been the principal agent in the formation of ongoing exchan­ges between Buddhists and Christians and Buddhists and Jews in the West. His rich knowledge of Western religious thought also enabled him to frame many of the key questions of such interchanges. Ives notes the importance of Abe’s stress upon the need for “ active  compassion,” although at the same time Ives suggests that Abe skimps on the importance of “justice.”

Hakugen Ichikawa (1902-1986), a figure introduced here by Ives for the first time, is prized by Ives not for theoretical profundity but for the fact that he writes “about ethical issues in greater historical detail.” And that detail involves a concrete critique—from within—­of the actual record, especially in the area of social ethics, of Zen in modern Japan. Ives brings forward twelve key points in Ichikawa’s analysis, many of which, he suggests, would repay any atten­tion given them by Buddhist practitioners in the West as well.

These books are both excellent and important. There is also, I think, a noteworthy level of urgency in them. They imply that, for a variety of reasons, any Buddhism that is “Western” or “American” cannot afford to assume it will have millenia or even centuries to come to clarity about ethical or social issues. Ives sees a danger of Western Buddhists hoping for a “trickle-down ethic,” one that will automatically come along in time if only practitioners get their own individual, personal lives straightened out. Kraft’s book takes in more of the variety of Asian contexts and situations faced by Buddhists from different sub-­traditions, but a similar theme comes through: concern for society and its concrete problems is not something that mayor can be shelved for now.

Although there is considerable agreement within these two books, there is also diversity, even disagree­ment. If I were to choose one issue on which there could profitably be a much deeper debate it would be the problem of relation of the sangha to the state. No one could reasonably fault Robert Thurman for ignoring the need for Buddhists to be active and concrete in the social and political world. However, in his essay, “Tibet and the Monastic Army of Peace,” in the Kraft volume, he maintains the follow­ing: “The Tibetan ideal was the unity of dharma and state, dharma and society, dharma and life. This might at first trouble us because of the American principle of the separation of church and state.”

I confess to being one of the troubled here. And, if I read Ives rightly, the reason for worry need not spring only from the “Ameri­can” principle of separation (al­though I think it important) but also from some fairly sorry episodes in the history of Asia when it was assumed that the Dharma and the state had effective­ly fused. The case of what happen­ed in modern Japan is especially egregious, but the disease of religious “triumphalism”—with all the harms it can bring to others and reactions it can unleash against religion itself—is not one against which Buddhists anywhere can show they have been once and for all immunized. Especially in view of the trials foisted upon contem­porary Tibet, Thurman is surely right to insist that “whether or not a society accepts monasticism is a revealing litmus of that society.” But there is, I suggest, a difference between a society that  accepts  monasticism and one in which state and sangha have become one. The secular state, today under attack from so many, is one I find myself preferring.

Although not the only recent works urging forward the thinking of Western Buddhists about ethics and society, the books by Ives and Kraft are especially probing and rich. Kraft articulates things precisely when he writes that many today wish to explore in Buddhism “a creative tension between withdrawal and involvement, an underlying synonymity between work on oneself and work on behalf of others.”

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• Introduction
• Buddhism in America
• The Buddhist Experience
• Issues for Buddhists in America

The Path of Awakening

Prince Siddhartha: Renouncing the World

Becoming the “Buddha”: The Way of Meditation

The Dharma: The Teachings of the Buddha

The Sangha: The Buddhist Community

The Three Treasures

The Expansion of Buddhism

As Buddhism spread through Asia, it formed distinct streams of thought and practice: the Theravada ("The Way of the Elders" in South and Southeast Asia), the Mahayana (the “Great Vehicle” in East Asia), and the Vajrayana (the “Diamond Vehicle” in Tibet), a distinctive and vibrant form of Mahayana Buddhism that now has a substantial following. ... Read more about The Expansion of Buddhism

Theravada: The Way of the Elders

Mahayana: The Great Vehicle

Vajrayana: The Diamond Vehicle

Buddhists in the American West

Discrimination and Exclusion

East Coast Buddhists

At the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions

The 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions, held at that year's Chicago World’s Fair, gave Buddhists from Sri Lanka and Japan the chance to describe their own traditions to an audience of curious Americans. Some stressed the universal characteristics of Buddhism, and others criticized anti-Japanese sentiment in America. ... Read more about At the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions

Internment Crisis

Building “American Buddhism”

New Asian Immigration and the Temple Boom

Popularizing Buddhism

The Image of the Buddha

Ever since the first century, Buddhists have created images and other depictions of the Buddha in metal, wood, and stone with stylized hand-positions called mudras . Images of the Buddha are often the focus of reverence and devotion. ... Read more about The Image of the Buddha

The Practice of Mindfulness

People commonly equate Buddhism with meditation, but historically very few Buddhists meditated. Those who did, however, drew from a long and rich tradition of Buddhist philosophical and contemplative practice. ... Read more about The Practice of Mindfulness

One Hand Clapping?

Sesshin: A Meditation Retreat

Intensive Zen meditation retreats, or sesshins , such as one in Mt. Temper, New York, are designed for participants to focus intensively on monastic Buddhist practice and meditation. Retreats include many rituals to allow students to fully immerse themselves in their practice—even during mealtime. ... Read more about Sesshin: A Meditation Retreat

Chanting the Sutras

Chanting scriptures and prayers to buddhas and bodhisattvas is a central practice in all streams of Buddhism, intended both to reflect upon content and to focus the mind. ... Read more about Chanting the Sutras

Creating a Mandala

Becoming a Monk

The many streams of Buddhism differ in their approaches to monasticism and initiation rituals. For example, is it common in the Theravada tradition for young men to become novice monks as a rite of passage into adulthood. In some Mahayana traditions, women can take the Triple Platform Ordination and become nuns. Meanwhile, in some Japanese traditions, priests and masters can marry and have children. ... Read more about Becoming a Monk

From Street Gangs to Temple

In Southern California, some Theravada temples have taken up the practice of granting temporary novice ordinations to Cambodian American gang members, with the hope of reorienting the youth toward their families’ religion and culture. ... Read more about From Street Gangs to Temple

Devotion to Guanyin

The compassionate bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, also known as Guanyin, is central to the practice of Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhists in America. A bodhisattva is an enlightened one who remains engaged in the world in order to enlighten all beings, and Buddhists channel the bodhisattva Guanyin by cultivating compassion for all beings in the world. ... Read more about Devotion to Guanyin

Buddha’s Birthday

Buddhists often consider the Buddha’s birthday an occasion for celebration, and Chinese, Thai, and Japanese temples in America all celebrate differently. ... Read more about Buddha’s Birthday

Remembering the Ancestors

Celebrating the New Year

Although the Lunar New Year is not a particularly “Buddhist” holiday, many Thai and Chinese Buddhists observe the occasion with celebration and visits to family and activities at Buddhist temples. ... Read more about Celebrating the New Year

Building a Pure Land on Earth

Pure Land Buddhists pay respect to Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, who created a paradise for Buddhist devotees called the “Land of Bliss.” Pure Land Buddhists in America seek to create a Pure Land here on Earth through ritual acts of devotion, care for animals and human beings, study, meditation, and acting compassionately in the public sphere. ... Read more about Building a Pure Land on Earth

Monastery in the Hudson Valley

The Chuang Yen Monastery in Kent, New York, is a prime example of how Chinese Buddhism has flourished in America, in all its richness and complexity. ... Read more about Monastery in the Hudson Valley

One Buddhism? Or Multiple Buddhisms?

There are two distinct but related histories of American Buddhism: that of Asian immigrants and that of American converts. The presence of the two communities raises such questions as: What is the difference between the Buddhism of American converts and Buddhism of Asian immigrant communities? How do we characterize the Buddhism of a new generation Asian-American youth—as a movement of preservation or transformation? ... Read more about One Buddhism? Or Multiple Buddhisms?

The Difficulties of a Monk

A reflection on American Buddhist monasticism from the Venerable Walpola Piyananda highlights the tensions that arise when immigrant Buddhism encounters American social customs that differ from those in Asia. ... Read more about The Difficulties of a Monk

Changing Patterns of Authority

American convert Buddhism and immigrant Asian Buddhism have dramatically different models of authority and institutional hierarchy. Buddhist organizations and communities in America are forced to attend to the question of how spiritual, social, financial, and organizational authorities will be dispersed among its leaders and members. ... Read more about Changing Patterns of Authority

Women in American Buddhism

American Buddhism has created new roles for women in the Buddhist tradition. American Buddhist women have been active in movements to revive the ordination lineages of Buddhist nuns in the Theravada and Vajrayana traditions. ... Read more about Women in American Buddhism

Buddhism and Social Action: Engaged Buddhism

Pioneered by the Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh in the 1970s, “Engaged Buddhism” brings a Buddhist perspective to the ongoing struggle for social and environmental justice in America. ... Read more about Buddhism and Social Action: Engaged Buddhism

Ecumenical and Interfaith Buddhism: Coming Together in America

Since the 1970s, Buddhist leaders from various traditions have engaged together in ecumenical councils and organizations to address prevalent challenges for Buddhism in North America. These events have brought together Buddhist traditions that, in the past, have had limited contact with one another. In addition, these groups have become involved in interfaith partnerships, particularly with Christian and Jewish organizations. ... Read more about Ecumenical and Interfaith Buddhism: Coming Together in America

Teaching the Love of Buddha: The Next Generation

How do Buddhists in America transmit their culture and tradition to new generations? In the Jodo Shinshu school of Japanese Buddhism, Sunday School classes have become an important religious educational tool to address this question, and its curriculum offers a particularly American approach to educating children about their tradition. ... Read more about Teaching the Love of Buddha: The Next Generation

Image Gallery

Awe and dread: How religions have responded to total solar eclipses over the centuries

Silicon valley start-up aims to unlock buddhist jhana states with tech, how lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and fortune, is depicted in jainism and buddhism.

• Heart Sutra
• Four Noble Truths
• Stuart-roshi, Maurine
• Mahayana Buddhism
• Baker-roshi, Richard

Buddhism Timeline

7627213d930e1981366069359e5a876e, buddhism in the world (text), ca. 6th-5th c. bce life of siddhartha gautama, the buddha.

The dates of the Buddha remain a point of controversy within both the Buddhist and scholarly communities. Though many scholars today place the Buddha’s life between 460-380 BCE, according to one widely accepted traditional account, Siddhartha was born as a prince in the Shakya clan in 563 BCE. After achieving enlightenment at the age of 36, the Buddha spent the remainder of his life giving spiritual guidance to an ever-growing body of disciples. He is said to have entered into parinirvana (nirvana after death) in 483 BCE at the age of 81.

c. 480-380 BCE The First Council

Though specific dates are uncertain, a group of the Buddha’s disciples is said to have come together shortly after the Buddha’s parinirvana in hopes of establishing guidelines to ensure the continuity of the Sangha. According to tradition, as many as 500 prominent arhats gathered in Rajagriha to recite together and standardize the Buddha’s sutras (discourses on Dharma) and vinaya (rules of conduct).

c. 350 BCE The Second Council

It remains unclear if what is known as the Second Council refers to one particular assemblage of monks or if there were several meetings convened during the 4th century BCE to clarify points of controversy. It also remains unclear precisely what matters of doctrine or conduct were in dispute. What is clear is that this council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha, between the Sthaviravada and the Mahasanghika.

269-232 BCE The Spread of Buddhism Through South Asia

After witnessing the great bloodshed and suffering caused by his military campaigns, Indian Emperor Ashoka Maurya converted to Buddhism, sending missionaries throughout India and into present day Sri Lanka.

200 BCE-200 CE Emergence of Two Schools of Buddhism

Differing interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings resulted in the development of two main schools of Buddhism. The first branch, Mahayana, referred to itself as the “Great Vehicle,” and is today principally found in China, Korea, and Japan. The second branch comprised 18 schools, of which only one exists today — Theravada, or the “Way of the Elders.” Theravada Buddhism is presently followed in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

65 CE First Mention of Buddhism in China

Han dynasty records note that Prince Ying of Ch’u, a half-brother of the Han emperor, provided a vegetarian feast for the Buddhist laity and monks living in his kingdom around 65 CE. This indicates that a Buddhist community had already formed there.

c. 100 CE Ashvaghosha Writes Buddhacarita

Among the early biographies of the Buddha was the Buddhacarita, written in Sanskrit by the Indian poet Ashvaghosha. Buddhacarita, literally “Life of the Buddha,” is regarded as one of the greatest epic poems of all history.

200s CE Nagarjuna Founds the Madhyamaka School

Nagarjuna is one of the most important philosophers of the Buddhist tradition. Based on his reading of the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, Nagarjuna argued that everything in the world is fundamentally sunya, or “empty” — that is, without inherent existence. This idea that the world is real yet radically impermanent and interdependent has played a central role in Buddhist philosophy.

372 CE Buddhism Introduced to Korea from China

In 372 CE the Chinese king Fu Chien sent a monk-envoy, Shun-tao, to the Koguryo court with Buddhist scriptures and images. Although all three of the kingdoms on the Korean peninsula soon embraced Buddhism, it was not until the unification of the peninsula under the Silla in 668 CE that the tradition truly flourished.

400s CE Buddhaghosa Systematizes Theravada Teachings

Buddhaghosa was a South Indian monk who played a formative role in the systematization of Theravada doctrine. After arriving in Sri Lanka in the early part of the fifth century CE, he devoted himself to editing and translating into Pali the scriptural commentaries that had accumulated in the native Sinhalese language. He also composed the Visuddhimagga, “Path of Purity,” an influential treatise on Theravada practice. From this point on, Theravada became the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and eventually spread to Southeast Asia.

402 CE Pure Land Buddhism Established in China

In 402 CE, Hui-yuan became the first Chinese monk to form a group specifically devoted to reciting the vow to be reborn in the Western Paradise, and founded the Donglin Temple at Mount Lu for this purpose. Subsequent practitioners of Pure Land Buddhism regard Hui-yuan as the school’s founder.

520 CE Bodhidharma and Ch’an (Zen) in China

The Ch’an (Zen) school attributes its establishment to the arrival of the monk Bodhidharma in Northern China in 520 CE. There, he is said to have spent nine years meditating in front of a wall before silently transmitting the Buddha’s Dharma to Shen-Kuang, the second patriarch. All Zen masters trace their authority to this line.

552 CE Buddhism Enters Japan from Korea

In 552 CE the king of Paekche sent an envoy to Japan in hopes of gaining military support. As gifts, he sent an image of Buddha, several Buddhist scriptures, and a memorial praising Buddhism. Within three centuries of this introduction, Buddhism would become the major spiritual and intellectual force in Japan.

700s CE Vajrayana Buddhism Emerges in Tibet

Buddhist teachings and practices appear to have first made their way into Tibet in the mid-7th century CE. During the reign of King Khri-srong (c. 740-798 CE), the first Tibetan monastery was founded and the first monk ordained. For the next four hundred years, a constant flow of Tibetan monks made their way to Northern India to study at the great Buddhist universities. It was from the university of Vikramasila around the year 767 that the yogin-magician Padmasambhava is said to have carried the Vajrayana teachings to Tibet, where they soon became the dominant form of Buddhism.

1044-1077 CE Theravada Buddhism Established in Burma

Theravada Buddhism was practiced in pockets of southern Burma since about the 6th century CE. However, when King Anawrahta ascended the throne in 1044, Shin Arahan, a charismatic Mon monk from Southern Burma, convinced the new monarch to establish a more strictly Theravadin expression of Buddhism for the entire kingdom. From that time on, Theravada would remain the tradition of the majority of the Burmese people.

c. 1050 CE Development of Jogye Buddhism in Korea

The Ch’an school, which first arrived in Korea from China in the 8th century CE, eventually established nine branches, known as the Nine Mountains. In the 11th century, these branches were organized into one system under the name of Jogye. Although all Buddhist teachings were retained, the kong-an (koan) practice of Lin-chi Yixuan gained highest stature as the most direct path to enlightenment.

1100s CE Pure Land Buddhism Established in Japan

Following a reading of a Chinese Pure Land text, the Japanese monk Honen Shonin (1133-1212 CE) became convinced that the only effective mode of practice was nembutsu: chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha. This soon became a dominant form of Buddhist practice in Japan.

1100s CE Rinzai School of Zen Buddhism Established in Japan

In the 12th century CE, a Japanese monk named Eisai returned from China, bringing with him both green tea and the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. In the form of meditation practiced by this school, the student’s only guidance is to come from the subtle hint of a raised eyebrow, the sudden jolt of an unexpected slap, or the teacher’s direct questioning on the meaning of a koan.

1203 CE Destruction of Buddhist Centers in India

By the close of the first millennium CE, Buddhism had passed its zenith in India. Traditionally, the end of Indian Buddhism is identified with the advent of Muslim Rule in Northern India. The Turk Muhammad Ghuri razed the last two great Buddhist universities, Nalanda and Vikramasila, in 1197 and 1203 respectively. However, recent histories have suggested that the destruction of these monasteries was militarily, rather than religiously, motivated.

1200s CE True Pure Land Buddhism Established

Honen’s disciple Shinran Shonin (1173-1262 CE) began the devotional “True Pure Land” movement in the 13th century CE. Considering the lay/monk distinction invalid, Shinran married and had several children, thereby initiating the practice of married Jodo Shinshu clergy and establishing a familial lineage of leadership — traits which continue to distinguish the school to this day.

1200s CE Dōgen Founds Soto Zen in Japan

Dōgen (1200-1253 CE), an influential Japanese priest and philosopher, spent most of his two years in China studying T’ien-t’ai Buddhism. Disappointed by the intellectualism of the school, he was about to return to Japan when the Ts’ao-tung monk Ju-ching (Rujing) explained that the practice of Zen simply meant “dropping off both body and mind.” Dōgen, immediately enlightened, returned to Japan, establishing Soto (the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese graphs for Ts’ao-tung) as one of the pre-eminent schools.

1253 CE Nichiren Buddhism Established in Japan

As the sun began to rise on May 17, 1253 CE, Nichiren Daishonin climbed to the crest of a hill, where he cried out “Namu Myoho Renge Kyo,” “Adoration to the Sutra of the Lotus of the Perfect Truth.” Nichiren considered the recitation of this mantra to be the core of the true teachings of the Buddha. He believed that it would eventually spread throughout the world, a conviction sustained by contemporary sects of the Nichiren school, especially the Soka Gakkai.

1279-1360 CE Theravada Buddhism Established in Southeast Asia

With Kublai Khan’s conquest of China in the thirteenth century CE, ever greater numbers of Tai migrated from southwestern China into present day Thailand and Burma. There, they established political domination over the indigenous Mon and Khmer peoples, while appropriating elements of these cultures, including their Buddhist faith. By the time that King Rama Khamhaeng had ascended the throne in Sukhothai (central Thailand) in 1279, a monk had been sent to Sri Lanka to receive Theravadin texts. During the reigns of Rama Khamhaeng’s son and grandson, Sinhala Buddhism spread northward to the Tai Kingdom of Chiangmai. Within a century, the royal houses of Cambodia and Laos also became Theravadin.

1391-1474 CE The First Dalai Lama

Gedun Drupa (1391-1474 CE), a Tibetan monk of great esteem during his lifetime, was considered after his death to have been the first Dalai Lama. He founded the major monastery of Tashi Lhunpo at Shigatse, which would become the traditional seat of Panchen Lamas (second only to the Dalai Lama).

1881 CE Founding of Pali Text Society

Ever since its founding by the British scholar T.W. Rhys Davids in 1881 CE, the Pali Text Society has been the primary publisher of Theravada texts and translations into Western languages.

1891 CE Anagarika Dharmapala Founds Mahabodhi Society

Sri Lankan writer Anagarika Dharmapala played an important role in restoring Bodh-Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment, which had badly deteriorated after centuries of neglect. In order to raise funds for this project, Dharmapala founded the Mahabodhi Society, first in Ceylon and later in India, the United States, and Britain. He also edited the society’s periodical, The Mahabodhi Journal.

1930 CE Soka Gakkai Established in Japan

Soka Gakkai is a Japanese Buddhist movement that was begun in 1930 CE by an educator named Tsunesaburo Makiguchi. Soon after its founding, it became associated with Nichiren Shoshu, a sect of Nichiren Buddhism. Today the organization has over twelve million members around the world.

1938 CE Rissho Kosei-Kai Established in Japan

The Rissho Kosei-Kai movement was founded by the Rev. Nikkyo Niwano in 1938 CE, and is based on the teachings set forth in the Lotus Sutra and works for individual and world peace. Rev. Niwano was awarded the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion in 1979 and honored by the Vatican in 1992. The Rissho Kosei-Kai has since been active in interfaith activities throughout the world.

1949 CE Buddhist Sangha Flees Mainland China

With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Buddhist monks and nuns fled to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore. Many of these monks and nuns subsequently immigrated to Australia, Europe and the United States.

1950 CE World Fellowship of Buddhists Inaugurated in Sri Lanka

The World Fellowship of Buddhists was established in 1950 CE in Sri Lanka to bring Buddhists together in promoting common goals. Since 1969, its permanent headquarters have been in Thailand, with regional offices in 34 different countries.

1956 CE Buddhist Conversions in India

On October 14, 1956 CE, Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956), India’s leader of Hindu untouchables, publicly converted to Buddhism as part of a political protest. As many as half a million of his followers also took the three refuges and five precepts on that day. In the following years, over four million Indians, chiefly from the castes of untouchables, declared themselves Buddhists.

1959 CE Dalai Lama Flees to India

With the Chinese occupation of Tibet, the Dalai Lama, the Karmapa, and other Vajrayana Buddhist leaders fled to India. A Tibetan government in exile was established in Dharamsala, India.

1966 CE Thich Nhat Hanh Visits the U.S. and Western Europe

Thich Nhat Hanh is a Vietnamese monk, teacher, and peace activist. While touring the U.S. in 1966, Nhat Hanh was outspoken against the American-supported Saigon government. As a result of his criticism, Nhat Hanh faced certain imprisonment upon his return to Vietnam. He therefore decided to take asylum in France, where he founded Plum Village, today an important center for meditation and action.

1975 CE Devastation of Buddhism in Cambodia

Pol Pot’s Marxist regime came to power in Cambodia in 1975 CE. Over the four years of his governance, most of Cambodia’s 3,600 Buddhist temples were destroyed. The Sangha was left with an estimated 3,000 of its 50,000 monks. The rest did not survive the persecution.

1989 CE Founding of the International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB)

The International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB) began in Thailand in 1989 as a conference of 36 monks and lay persons from 11 countries. Today, it has expanded to 160 members and affiliates from 26 countries. As its name suggests, INEB endeavors to facilitate Buddhist participation in social action in order to create a just and peaceful world.

1989 CE Dalai Lama Receives Nobel Peace Prize

Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 for his tireless work spreading a message of non-violence. He has said on many occasions about Buddhism, “My religion is very simple – my religion is kindness.”

2010 CE Western Buddhist Teachers call for U.S. Commission of Inquiry to Burma

In 2010, prominent Buddhist teachers in the U.S. signed a letter to President Barack Obama urging him to repudiate the results of the upcoming Burmese election, in light of crimes against ethnic groups committed by the Burmese military regime.

With over 520 million followers, Buddhism is currently the world’s fourth-largest religious tradition. Though Theravada and Mahayana are its two major branches, contemporary Buddhism comprises a wide diversity of practices, beliefs, and traditions — both throughout East and Southeast Asia and worldwide.

Buddhism in America (text)

1853 ce the first chinese temple in “gold mountain”.

Attracted by the 1850s Gold Rush, many Chinese workers and miners came to California, which they called “Gold Mountain” — and brought their Buddhist and Taoist traditions with them. In 1853, they built the first Buddhist temple in San Francisco’s Chinatown. By 1875, Chinatown was home to eight temples, and by the end of the century, there were hundreds of Chinese temples and shrines along the West Coast.

1878 CE Kuan-yin in Hawaii

In 1878, the monk Leong Dick Ying brought to Honolulu gold-leaf images of the Taoist sage Kuan Kung and the bodhisattva of compassion Kuan-yin. He thus established the Kuan-yin Temple, which is the oldest Chinese organization in Hawaii. The Temple has been located on Vineland Avenue in Honolulu since 1921.

1879 CE The Light of Asia Comes West

Sir Edwin Arnold’s The Light of Asia, a biography of the Buddha in verse, was published in 1879. This immensely popular book, which went through eighty editions and sold over half a million copies, gave many Americans their first introduction to the Buddha.

1882 CE The Chinese Exclusion Act

Two decades of growing anti-Chinese sentiment in the U.S. led to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The act barred new Chinese immigration for ten years, including that by women trying to join their husbands who were already in the U.S., and prohibited the naturalization of Chinese people.

1893 CE Buddhists at the Parliament of the World’s Religions

The 1893 Parliament of the World’s Religions, held in Chicago in conjunction with the World Columbian Exposition, included representatives of many strands of the Buddhist tradition: Anagarika Dharmapala (Sri Lankan Maha Bodhi Society), Shaku Soyen (Japanese Rinzai Zen), Toki Horyu (Shingon), Ashitsu Jitsunen (Tendai), Yatsubuchi Banryu (Jodo Shin), and Hirai Kinzo (a Japanese lay Buddhist). Days after the Parliament, in a ceremony conducted by Anagarika Dharmapala, Charles T. Strauss of New York City became the first person to be ordained into the Buddhist Sangha on American soil.

1894 CE The Gospel of Buddha

The Gospel of Buddha was an influential book published by Paul Carus in 1894. The book brought a selection of Buddhist texts together in readable fashion for a popular audience. By 1910, The Gospel of Buddha had been through 13 editions.

1899 CE Jodo Shinshu Buddhism and the Buddhist Churches of America

The Young Men’s Buddhist Association (Bukkyo Seinenkai), the first Japanese Buddhist organization on the U.S. mainland, was founded in 1899 under the guidance of Jodo Shinshu missionaries Rev. Dr. Shuya Sonoda and Rev. Kakuryo Nishijima. The following years saw temples established in Sacramento (1899), Fresno (1900), Seattle (1901), Oakland (1901), San Jose (1902), Portland (1903), and Stockton (1906). This organization, initially called the Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Mission of North America, went on to become the Buddhist Churches of America (incorporated in 1944). Today, it is the largest Buddhist organization serving Japanese-Americans, entailing some 60 temples and a membership of about 19,000.

1900 CE First Non-Asian Buddhist Association

In 1900, a group of Euro-Americans attracted to the Buddhist teachings of the Jodo Shinshu organized the Dharma Sangha of the Buddha in San Francisco.

1915 CE World Buddhist Conference

Buddhists from throughout the world gathered in San Francisco in August 1915 at a meeting convened by the Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Mission of North America. Resolutions from the conference were taken to President Woodrow Wilson.

1931 CE Sokei-an and Zen in New York

The Buddhist Society of America was incorporated in New York in 1931 under the guidance of Rinzai Zen teacher Sokei-an. Sokei-an first came to the U.S. in 1906 to study with Shokatsu Shaku in California, though he completed his training in Japan where he was ordained in 1931. Sokei-an died of poor health in 1945, after having spent two years in a Japanese internment camp. The center he established in New York City would evolve into the First Zen Institute of America.

1935 CE Relics of the Buddha to San Francisco

In 1935, a portion of the Buddha’s relics was presented to Bishop Masuyama of the Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Mission of North America, based in San Francisco. This led to the construction of a new Buddhist Church of San Francisco, with a stupa on its roof for the holy relics, located on Pine Street and completed in 1938.

1942 CE Internment of Japanese Americans

Two months after Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which eventually removed 120,000 Japanese Americans, both citizens and noncitizens, to internment camps where they remained until the end of World War II. Buddhist priests and other community leaders were among the first to be targeted and evacuated. Zen teachers Sokei-an and Nyogen Senzaki were both interned. Buddhist organizations continued to serve the internees in the camps.

1949 CE Buddhist Studies Center in Berkeley

The Buddhist Studies Center was first established in 1949 in Berkeley, California, under the auspices of the Buddhist Churches of America. In 1966, the center changed its name to the Institute of Buddhist Studies and became the first seminary for Buddhist ministry and research. The Institute affiliated with the Graduate Theological Union in 1985, and today is active in training clergy for the Buddhist Churches of America.

1955 CE Beat Zen and Zen Literature

The Beat Movement was started by American authors who explored American pop culture and politics in the post-war era, with strong themes from Eastern spirituality. The first public reading of the poem “Howl” by Allen Ginsberg in 1955 at the Six Gallery in San Francisco is said to have signalled the beginning of the Beat Zen movement. The late 1950s also saw a Zen literary boom in the U.S. Several popular books on Buddhism were published, including Alan Watt’s bestseller The Way of Zen and Jack Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums.

1960 CE Soka Gakkai in the U.S.

Daisaku Ikeda, President of Soka Gakkai, visited the United States in 1960, largely introducing Soka Gakkai to Americans. By 1992, Soka Gakkai International–USA estimated that it had 150,000 American members.

1965 CE Immigration and Nationality Act

The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act ended the quota system which had virtually halted immigration from Asia to the United States for over forty years. Following 1965, growing numbers of Asian immigrants from South, Southeast, and East Asia settled in America; many brought Buddhist traditions with them.

1966 CE The Vietnam Conflict and Thich Nhat Hanh in America

The Vietnam conflict incited a surge of Buddhist activism in Saigon, which included some monks immolating themselves as an act of protest. In response, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Cabot Lodge met with Vietnamese and Japanese Buddhist leaders, and the State Department established an Office of Buddhist Affairs headed by Claremont College Professor Richard Gard. In 1966, Vietnamese monk and peace activist Thich Nhat Hanh came to the United States to speak about the conflict. His visit, coupled with the English publication of his book, Lotus in a Sea of Fire, so impressed Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. that King nominated Nhat Hanh for the Nobel Peace Prize.

1966 CE First Buddhist Monastery in Washington D.C.

The Washington Buddhist Vihara was the first Sri Lankan Buddhist temple in America. It was established in Washington, D.C. in 1966 as a missionary center with the support of the Sri Lankan government. The Ven. Bope Vinita Thera brought an image and a relic of the Buddha to the nation’s capital in 1965. The following year, the Vihara was incorporated, and in 1968, it moved to its present location on 16th Street, NW.

1969 CE Tibetan Center in Berkeley

Tarthang Tulku, a Tibetan monk educated at Banaras Hindu University in India, came to Berkeley and in 1969 established the Nyingma Meditation Center, the first Tibetan Buddhist center in the U.S.

1970 CE Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche to America

Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche was an Oxford-educated Tibetan teacher who brought the Karma Kagyu Tibetan Buddhist lineage to the U.S. in 1970. In 1971, he established Karma Dzong in Boulder, Colorado, and in 1973, he founded Vajradhatu, an organization consolidating many Dharmadhatu centers. Cutting through Spiritual Materialism, his classic introduction to Trungpa’s form of Tibetan Buddhism, was published in 1973.

1970 CE International Buddhist Meditation Center

The International Buddhist Meditation Center was established by Ven. Dr. Thich Thien-An, a Vietnamese Zen Master, in Los Angeles in 1970. The College of Buddhist Studies is also located on the grounds of the Center, which is currently under the direction of Thien-An’s student, Ven. Karuna Dharma.

1972 CE Korean Zen Master comes to Rhode Island

Korean Zen Master Seung Sahn came to the United States in 1972 with little money and little knowledge of English. He rented an apartment in Providence and worked as a washing machine repairman. A note on his door said simply, “What am I?” and announced meditation classes. Thus began the Providence Zen Center, followed soon by Korean Zen Centers in Cambridge, New Haven, New York, and Berkeley, all part of the Kwan Um School of Zen.

1974 CE Buddhist Chaplain in California

In 1974, the California State Senate appointed Rev. Shoko Masunaga as its first Buddhist and first Asian-American chaplain.

1974 CE First Buddhist Liberal Arts College

Naropa Institute was founded in Boulder, Colorado in 1974 as a Buddhist-inspired but non-sectarian liberal arts college. It aimed to combine contemplative studies with traditional Western scholastic and artistic disciplines. The accredited college now offers courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels in Buddhist studies, contemplative psychotherapy, environmental studies, poetics, and dance.

1974 CE Redress for Internment of Japanese Americans

In 1974, Rep. Phillip Burton of California addressed the U.S. House of Representatives on the topic “Seventy-five Years of American Buddhism” as part of an ongoing debate surrounding redress for Japanese Americans interned during World War II.

1975 CE The Fall of Saigon and the Arrival of Refugees

About 130,000 Vietnamese refugees, many of them Buddhists, came to the U.S. in 1975 after the fall of Saigon. By 1985 there were 643,200 Vietnamese in the U.S. Dr. Thich Thien-an, a Vietnamese monk and scholar already in Los Angeles, began the first Vietnamese Buddhist temple in America – the Chua Vietnam – in 1976. The temple is still thriving on Berendo Street, not far from central Los Angeles. With the end of the war, some 70,000 Laotian, 60,000 Hmong, and 10,000 Mien people also arrived in the U.S. as refugees bringing their religious traditions, including Buddhism, with them.

1976 CE Council of Thai Bhikkhus

The Council of Thai Bhikkhus, a nonprofit corporation founded in 1976 and based in Denver, Colorado, became the leading nationwide network for Thai Buddhism.

1976 CE City of 10,000 Buddhas

The City of 10,000 Buddhas was established in 1976 in Talmage, California by the Dharma Realm Buddhist Association as the first Chinese Buddhist monastery for both monks and nuns. The City of 10,000 Buddhas consists of sixty buildings, including elementary and secondary schools and a university, on a 237-acre site.

1976 CE First Rinzai Zen Monastery

On July 4 1976, Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji, America’s first Rinzai Zen monastery, was established in Lew Beach, New York, under the direction of Eido Tai Shimano-roshi.

1979-1989 CE Cambodian Refugees Come to the U.S.

The regime of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge ended in 1979 with the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. Over the following ten years, 180,000 Cambodian refugees were relocated from Thailand to the United States. In 1979, the Cambodian Buddhist Society was established in Silver Spring, Maryland, as the first Cambodian Buddhist temple in America. Later in 1987, the nearly 40,000 Cambodian residents of Long Beach, California, purchased the former headquarters of the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Union and converted the huge building into a temple complex.

1980 CE First Burmese Temple

Dhammodaya Monastery, the first Burmese Buddhist temple in America, was established in Los Angeles in 1980.

1980 CE Buddhist Sangha Council

The Buddhist Sangha Council of Los Angeles (later of Southern California) was established under the leadership of the Ven. Havanpola Ratanasara in 1980. It was one of the first cross-cultural, inter-Buddhist organizations, bringing together monks and other leaders from a wide range of Buddhist traditions.

1986 CE Buddhist Astronaut on Challenger

Lt. Col. Ellison Onizuka, a Hawaiian-born Jodo Shinshu Buddhist, was killed 73 seconds after takeoff in the space shuttle Challenger in 1986. He was the first Asian-American to reach space.

1987 CE American Buddhists Get Organized

For ten days in July of 1987, Buddhists from all the Buddhist lineages in North America came together in Ann Arbor, Michigan, for a Conference on World Buddhism in North America — intended to promote dialogue, mutual understanding, and cooperation. In the same year, the Buddhist Council of the Midwest gathered twelve Chicago-area lineages of Buddhism; in Los Angeles, the American Buddhist Congress was created, with 47 Buddhist organizations attending its inaugural convention. Also in 1987, the Sri Lanka Sangha Council of North America was established in Los Angeles to serve as the national network for Sri Lankan Buddhism.

1987 CE Buddhist Books Gain Wider Audience

In 1987, Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield published what became a classic book on vipassana meditation – Seeking the Heart of Wisdom: The Path of Insight Meditation. Thich Nhat Hanh, who was residing at Plum Village in France and visiting the United States annually, also published Being Peace, a classic treatment of “engaged Buddhism” – Buddhism that is concerned with social and ecological issues.

1990s CE Popular Buddhism

Throughout the 1990s, immigrant and American-born Buddhist communities were growing and building across the United States. In the midst of this flourishing, there emerged a popular “Hollywood Buddhism” or a Buddhism of celebrities which persists today. Espoused by figures from Tina Turner to the Beastie Boys to bell hooks, Buddhism became a larger part of mass culture during the 90s.

1991 CE Tricycle: the Buddhist Review

The first issue of Tricycle: the Buddhist Review, a non-sectarian national Buddhist magazine, was published in 1991. The journal features articles by prominent Buddhist teachers and writers as well as pieces on Buddhism and American culture at large.

1991 CE Tibetan Resettlement in the United States

The National Office of the Tibetan Resettlement Project was established in New York in 1991 after the U.S. Congress granted 1,000 special visas for Tibetans, all of them Buddhists. Two years later, the Tibetan Community Assistance Program opened to assist Tibetans resettling in New York. Cluster groups of Tibetan refugees have since established their own small temples and have begun to encounter Euro-American practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism.

1991 CE Dalai Lama in Madison Square Garden

For more than a week in October in 1991, the Dalai Lama gave the “Path of Compassion” teachings and conferred the Kalachakra Initiation in Madison Square Garden in New York City.

1993 CE Centennial of the World’s Parliament of Religions

There were many prominent Buddhist speakers at the 1993 Centennial of the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago, among them Thich Nhat Hanh, Master Seung Sahn, the Ven. Mahaghosananda, and the Ven. Dr. Havanpola Ratanasara. The Dalai Lama gave the closing address. There were myriad Buddhist co-sponsors of the event, including the American Buddhist Congress, Buddhist Churches of America, Buddhist Council of the Midwest, World Fellowship of Buddhists, and Wat Thai of Washington, D.C.

2006 CE American Monk Named First U.S. Representative to World Buddhist Supreme Conference

In 2006, Venerable Bhante Vimalaramsi (Sayadaw Gyi U Vimalaramsi Maha Thera) was nominated and confirmed as the first representative from the United States for the World Buddhist Supreme Conference, which is held every two years and includes representatives from fifty countries.

2007 CE First Buddhist Congresswoman Sworn In

Rep. Mazie Hirono, a Democrat from Hawaii, in 2007 became the first Buddhist to be sworn into the United States Congress.

Today, Buddhism thrives in America, with American Buddhists comprising myriad backgrounds, identities, and religious traditions and often integrating Buddhism with other forms of spiritual practice. It is estimated that there are roughly 3.5 million Buddhist practitioners in the United States at present. Many live in Hawaii or Southern California, but there are surely followers of Buddhism around the nation.

Selected Publications & Links

Takaki, Ronald . A Different Mirror . Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1993.

Sidor, Ellen S . A Gathering of Spirit: Women Teaching in American Buddhism . Cumberland: Primary Point Press, 1987.

Tweed, Thomas A., and Stephen Prothero (eds.) . Asian Religions in America: A Documentary History . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Access to Insight

America burma buddhist association, american buddhist congress, buddha’s light international association, buddhist churches of america, explore buddhism in greater boston.

Buddhism arrived in Boston in the 19th century with the first Chinese immigrants to the city and a growing intellectual interest in Buddhist arts and practice. Boston’s first Buddhist center was the Cambridge Buddhist Association (1957). The post-1965 immigration brought new immigrants into the city—from Cambodia and Vietnam, as well as Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Korea. These groups brought with them a variety of Buddhist traditions, now practiced at over 90 area Buddhist centers and temples. Representing nearly every ethnicity, age, and social strata, the Buddhist community of Greater Boston is a vibrant presence in the city.

Essay on Buddhism

Students are often asked to write an essay on Buddhism in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction to buddhism.

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) around 2,500 years ago in India. It emphasizes personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life.

Key Beliefs of Buddhism

Buddhism’s main beliefs include the Four Noble Truths, which explain suffering and how to overcome it, and the Noble Eightfold Path, a guide to moral and mindful living.

Buddhist Practices

Buddhist practices like meditation and mindfulness help followers to understand themselves and the world. It encourages love, kindness, and compassion towards all beings.

Impact of Buddhism

Buddhism has greatly influenced cultures worldwide, promoting peace, non-violence, and harmony. It’s a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality.

250 Words Essay on Buddhism

The four noble truths.

At the heart of Buddhism lie the Four Noble Truths. The first truth recognizes the existence of suffering (Dukkha). The second identifies the cause of suffering, primarily desire or attachment (Samudaya). The third truth, cessation (Nirodha), asserts that ending this desire eliminates suffering. The fourth, the path (Magga), outlines the Eightfold Path as a guide to achieve this cessation.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path, as prescribed by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions; ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment (Nirvana). The path includes Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhists practice meditation and mindfulness to achieve clarity and tranquility of mind. They follow the Five Precepts, basic ethical guidelines to refrain from harming living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.

Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality. It encourages individuals to lead a moral life, be mindful and aware of thoughts and actions, and to develop wisdom and understanding. The ultimate goal is the attainment of enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death.

500 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction.

Buddhism, a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), has become a spiritual path followed by millions worldwide. It is a system of thought that offers practical methodologies and profound insights into the nature of existence.

The Life of Buddha

The Buddha, born in the 5th century BCE in Lumbini (present-day Nepal), was a prince who renounced his royal comforts in search of truth. After years of rigorous ascetic practices and meditation, he attained ‘Enlightenment’ under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. His teachings, known as ‘Dhamma,’ are centered around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, providing a roadmap to end suffering and achieve Nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths are the cornerstone of Buddhism. They outline the nature of suffering (Dukkha), its origin (Samudaya), its cessation (Nirodha), and the path leading to its cessation (Magga). These truths present a pragmatic approach, asserting that suffering is an inherent part of existence, but it can be overcome by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path, as taught by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions, ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment. It includes Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhist Schools of Thought

Buddhism evolved into various schools of thought, each interpreting Buddha’s teachings differently. The two main branches are Theravada, often considered the closest to the original teachings, and Mahayana, which includes Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayana, often considered part of Mahayana, incorporates esoteric practices and is dominant in Tibet.

Buddhism and Modern Science

The compatibility of Buddhism with modern science has been a topic of interest in recent years. Concepts like impermanence, interconnectedness, and the nature of consciousness in Buddhism resonate with findings in quantum physics, neuroscience, and psychology. This convergence has led to the development of fields like neurodharma and contemplative science, exploring the impact of meditation and mindfulness on the human brain.

Buddhism, with its profound philosophical insights and practical methodologies, continues to influence millions of people worldwide. Its teachings provide a framework for understanding the nature of existence, leading to compassion, wisdom, and ultimately, liberation. As we delve deeper into the realms of modern science, the Buddhist worldview continues to offer valuable perspectives, underscoring its enduring relevance in our contemporary world.

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258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for Buddhism essay topics? Being one of the world’s largest and most ancient religions, buddhism is definitely worth exploring!

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🔎 Buddhism Writing Prompts

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In your Buddhism essay, you might want to focus on the history of the religion or Buddhist attitude to controversial social issues. Another option would be to write about Buddhist philosophy or practices. Whether you need to write a short Buddhism essay or a more substantive paper, this article will be helpful. Here you’ll find a collection of 241 Buddhism topics for essays and research papers together with Buddhism essay examples.

🏆 Best Buddhism Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

• Japanese Buddhism vs. Chinese Buddhism: Differences The introduction and spread of Buddhism in Japan depended on the support that was offered by the Japanese rulers. Japanese Buddhist art has relied heavily on the Chinese art since the introduction of Buddhism in […]
• Buddhism and Sikhism Comparison: Four Noble Truths The four are dukkha, the origin of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha, and the path to the cessation of suffering. He forsook the luxuries and other benefits associated with life in the palace to join […]
• Judaism and Buddhism: Overview and Comparison If reform Judaism is on one side of the spectrum and orthodox Judaism is on the other one, conservative Jews are in the center.
• The Idea Salvation in Buddhism Religion Focusing on the discussion of the concept of salvation in Buddhism, it is important to state that salvation is the emancipation of a person from the attachment to the reality and from the person’s focus […]
• Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism Elements Hindus, the last power is discovered in the Vedas and the writing of the religious leaders willing to view the fact nature of reality.
• ”The History of God” by Karen Armstrong: An Overview of the History of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism “The History of God” by Karen Armstrong is a comprehensive overview of the history of the development of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
• Shinto and Its Relationship With China and Buddhism As such, those who identify with the two religions have continued to engage in practices of the Buddhist and Shinto faiths either knowingly or unknowingly.
• Dharma in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism This essay aims to describe the ideas of dharma in the religions of Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism in terms of their doctrines, rituals, origin tales, and modes of worship.
• Buddhism Studies: A Visit of the Jade Buddha Temple The teachings of the Buddhist are essentially meant to change ourselves and not others like a Christian believer and in the teaching the change occurs when we are “filled with” or we are awaken to […]
• Comparison of Buddhism and the Baptist Religions The other structure in the Temple is the vihan which is the place where the members of the Temple assemble for prayers.
• Wu Wei in Daoism and Zen Buddhism Therefore, the original ideas and thoughts of Taoism are believed to have influenced the development of Zen Buddhism in China. This discussion shows clearly that emptiness in Buddhism points to dependent origination as the true […]
• The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism In the third Noble Truth, the Buddha identified a cure to the problem and in the fourth Noble Truth, he identified the prescription to end suffering.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparison and Contrast The principal teachings of the religion are on enlightenment which is thought to be attained through a life of self-deprivation. Christianity is evident in the existence of one supreme being who is the creator of […]
• Buddhist Allegories in “The Monkey and the Monk” The Monkey and the Monk is not an ordinary story with a list of characters with the ability to develop particular relationships, grow in their specific ways, and demonstrate necessary lessons to the reader.
• Health Beliefs in Buddhist Religion Moreover, the body and mind are interdependent; thus, Buddhists consider greed, anger, and ignorance as the main aspects affecting the deterioration of human well-being.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Similarities and Differences The most conspicuous similarity is the origin of the two religions in sub-continent India. Some worship and religious practices are similar but there is a profound difference in the style and purpose of life in […]
• Concepts of Buddhism At the age of twenty-nine, he left the comforts of the palace and went out to seek the real meaning of life.
• Buddhism and Hinduism Thus it is each individuals role to return the soul but this is not possible because of the sins and impurities one becomes exposed to once living in this world and since the process of […]
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Comparative Analysis One of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: the soul, drowning in the “ocean of samsara,” seeks liberation and deliverance from the results of its past actions, which are part of the “net of samsara”.
• Buddhism and Christianity Comparison In Buddhism, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of the Nirvana state, a state in which one is relieved of egos, desires, and cravings and saved from the suffering experienced due to reincarnations.
• Architeture and Function in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islamic Religion In Buddhism religion, various architectural structures like Stupas which are oldest in Buddhism and Pagodas which are major form of architectural structures in Buddhism have been used for long time up to date.
• Buddhism in Different Historical Regions He became Buddha and gathered disciples in the valley of the Ganges who spread the knowledge and contributed to the scripture.
• Buddhism and Christianity The privileged persons of society such as presidents and the rich have similar chances in comparison to the destitute persons. Contrary to this, Christians appreciate the existence of God and acknowledge Him as their path […]
• Buddhism: Ancient Wisdom and Modern Times The problem of wanting more and more is often the main reason why people fail to follow the Five Precepts of Buddhism, resort to violence, get lost in indulging themselves, and defy moral principles.
• Philosophy of Confucius Compared to That of Buddhism This due to the fact that only the aspect of ethics in the Buddhist philosophy can be significantly likened to the Confucian philosophy.
• Three Jewels of Buddhism and Their Role The three jewels of Buddhism which are the main ideals at the heart of Buddhism are together identified as the Three Jewels, or the Three Treasures.
• Buddhism. Allegory in “The Monkey and the Monk” In The Monkey & the Monk: an Abridgment of the Journey to the West, the Monkey is one of the main protagonists of the book, as is apparent from its title.
• Buddhism: The History of Development 3 Perception of the world among Buddhists One of the staunch belief systems of the Buddhists is attached on the notion that solution to problems can be caused through suffering.
• Zhong Kui, The Keeper of Hearth and Home: Japanese Myth with Buddhist Philosophy Zhong Kui, the Demon Queller, or Shoki, as foreigners call this creature, is the keeper of the hearth and home in Japan and one of the most picturesque characters of Japanese legends.
• Purpose of Meditation in Buddhism One of the key roles of meditation in the Buddhist faith is the relaxation of the mind and the improvement of mental alertness.
• Confucianism and Daoism Influence on Zen Buddhism The concept of “emptiness” and “nothingness” is often mentioned and discussed in Zen philosophy. Together with the concept of ephemerality, Zen and Daoism explain that reality is conceived rather than seen.
• Four Noble Truths as Buddhism Fundamentals The first noble truth in Buddhism teachings is the truth of suffering that is frequently referred to as Dukkha. The last interpretation of the Dukkha is the expression of suffering that is inevitable.
• Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the definition of established religion.
• Religious Studies: Hinduism and Buddhism Samsara refers to the processor rebirth whereby the individual is reincarnated in a succession of lives. This is what has led to the many differences that arise, causing Buddhism to be viewed as a religious […]
• Buddhism Psychology in Changing Negative Behaviors The concept of the bad habit is nonexistent if the intention to do harm to self or others is not manifested. In Buddhism psychology, the action of intention is not immediately established from an individual […]
• Distribution Features of Confucianism and Buddhism Confucianism is more a philosophical doctrine than a religion, and its connection with the East is strong due to the specifics of the Asian mentality.
• Nirvana in Buddhism and Atman in Hinduism The Mantras which is the text of the Vedas are the personification of the Brahman and are divided into two forms which are the karma-Kanda and the Jnana-Kanda.
• Buddhism in the 19th and 20th Centuries The 19th and 20th centuries brought challenges and opportunities for Buddhism, as a religious sect, which underlined the need for change from an amorphous and disorganized outfit to the formation of institutions of governance and […]
• Descartes’ and Buddhist Ideas of Self-Existence It is the assumption of this paper that Descartes’ perspective and the teachings of Buddha on the self are inherently incompatible due to their different perspectives on what constitutes “the self”.

👍 Good Essay Topics on Buddhism

• Anapanasati: As a Method for Reading the Buddhist Goal The third state of this method is primarily related to the emotions of a person. This is one of the main aspects that should be considered by scholars and people who are interested in Buddhism.
• Comparison Between Hinduism and Buddhism The Afghans, Persians, and Arabs first used the term “Hindu” to denote the inhabitants of the aforementioned regions. The aspect of worship is one of the most vital religious practices in Hinduism.
• Tibetan Buddhist and Christian Symbols of Worship This paper is an in-depth exploration of the symbols used in Tibetan Buddhism and Christianity and their respective meanings. Some of the symbols of Tibetan Buddhism include the stupa, the wheel and the lotus.
• Buddhism and Its impact on Japan When Buddhism entered the borders of Japan, then the people started using the term Shinto to differentiate the indigenous beliefs of Japanese people.
• Buddhism: Analysis of the Religion’s Faith and Practices This includes the name of the religion followers, the history and origins of the religion including the founders, the name of the Supreme Being or God, as well as the name of the place of […]
• Buddhism: The Concept of Death and Dying Life is permanent but death is the transition of a human soul to either one of the six Buddhist realms. The purpose of this paper is to explain the concept of death from the Buddhist […]
• Reflection on Self in Buddhism and Hinduism The specificity of the Buddhist concept of the human self lies in the acceptance of the distinction between self and general in a spiritual aspect.
• Hindu and Buddhism: Concept of Karma Indeed, the teachings tend to create a balance between spirituality and ordinary human life in the sense that, by following the path of attaining knowledge and the quest to understand the oneself as human through […]
• History: Women in Hinduism and Buddhism For instance, one of the main problems that arise when examining the situation of women in Karimpur is the fact that there is a considerable level of disparity in the survival rates between male and […]
• Role of Brahmanism in the Decline of Buddhism In addition to this, the persecution of Bramanical Kings together with the anti-Buddhism propaganda was a heavy hit to the Buddhists.
• Myanmar Buddhism: Between Controversy and Ecumenism Firstly, the formation of a Buddha through the ritual performance by placing and identifying within a person’s body the traits of the Buddha that, in turn, become the Buddha.
• Buddhist Meditation’s Impact on Health My goal is to determine whether Buddhist meditation can help an individual find a sense of mental, emotional, and spiritual balance in their life.
• Hindu Pathways and Buddhist Noble Truths The Buddha relates life suffering in the Four Noble Truths to that of a physician who identifies the symptoms of the suffering, finds out the causes, identifies ways to stop, and finally administers treatment.
• Paths to Enlightenment in Hinduism and Buddhism This paper will compare the paths to moksha with the Four Noble Truths and argue that raja yoga would best utilize the Buddhist method of the Eightfold Path.
• Mahayana Buddhism: Growth and Development of Buddhism The Mahayana elaboration of this concept is unusual in that it uses the term “bodhisattva” to refer to anyone who has the desire to become a Buddha and does not require that this desire be […]
• Anatman and Atman Concepts in Buddhism and Hinduism Rendering to the Atman notion, Atman is eventually in the custody of people’s reactions to what happens in the outside world. The idea of the self in assembly to God is where Hinduism and Buddhism […]
• Ethics in the Buddhist Tradition The concept of ethics and morality is one of the perfection followers of Buddhism must strive to achieve enlightenment. Techniques include entering into the flow and control of the senses, understanding the practice of return, […]
• Indigenous Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism For example, Confucianism is one of the modern national religions of China, which was formed at the turn of the new era based on the ethical-philosophical teachings of Confucius and his followers.
• Analysis of Buddhism Idea and Paradox The most important aspect that attracted me to this film was the authentic depiction of the traditions of old Ceylon and the excellent atmosphere of the festival.
• Buddhism and the Definition of Religion On the one hand, the concepts of ‘laukika’ and ‘lokottara,’ which can be roughly translated as ‘of the world’ and ‘not of the world,’ more or less corresponding to Western ideas of profane and sacred.
• Why Was the Silk Road So Important in the Spread of Buddhism The fundamental importance was the spread of Buddhism from India to the rest of the world. Trade development along the Silk Road resulted in the expansion of Buddhism to Eastern Asia and China.
• Karma and Other Concepts in Buddhism The afflictions that propel rebirth in the wheel of existence are the teachings of new reality after death in a circumstance known as samsara.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparative Study While in the case of Hinduism, samsara is the cyclical rebirth of the soul that remains unchanged, Buddhism teaches that samsara is the transformation of a person into something else.
• Hinduism, Buddhism, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Ramayana in the News Media It also implies that the government of the country where Hinduism is the predominant religion is concerned because of the mistakes revealed by mass media.
• An Introduction to Buddhism The doctrines of suffering and rebirth are contained in dharma which is also the teachings of Buddhism. It is celebrated to remember a historical and important event that took place in the life of Budha.
• A Conversation With a Buddhist The biggest role when discussing Buddhism is often given to the ability to see the light and become one of the sources of it.
• Healthy Grief: Kübler-Ross, Job, and Buddhist Stages of Grieving The author also recognizes the fact that the five phases of grieving do not necessarily manifest in the same order in everyone. In the ‘anger’ stage, people begin to comprehend the reality of the situation.
• Comprehending Heart Sutra in Mahayana Buddhism The sutra is chanted in Chinese, but the general message is the same regardless of the language or even the version of the verses.
• Buddhism and Sexuality: Restraining Sexual Desires for Enlightenment It is considered to be more honest to refuse to stick to the aforementioned rules than to be a hypocritical member of the community, who consciously violates the codes.
• Buddhist Arts and Visual Culture In contrast, the Gandhara sculptures were usually made of grey sandstone, whereas the ones found in Sarnath are in the buff one.
• Soul Concept in Islam and Buddhism And since this pursuit is ever continual, the soul is therefore eternal.’The Soul’ in Buddhism: One of the most distinct concepts of Buddhism is the assertion that there is no soul.
• Religion. How Buddhism Views the World Evaluating the general information about this religion, it appears that Buddhism is seen as one of the most popular and widespread religions on the earth the reason of its pragmatic and attractive philosophies which are […]
• Animal Ethics From the Buddhist Perspective In biomedical research and ethics, one of the most frequently debated issues regarding the use of animals in healthcare research is the concept of animal rights.
• Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism in America: A Country of Many Religions This paper aims to explore the impact of Islam, Hindu, and Buddhism on the diversity in America today and answer the question what role they are playing in the society.
• Buddhism in ‘The World’s Religions’ by Huston Smith Although in his The World’s Religions, Huston Smith identifies speculation as one of the religious constants, Buddhism views humans’ endeavors to ascertain the truth as meaningless and fruitless pursuit: It is not on the view […]
• Buddhism in China: Yogācāra Buddhism However, the logical structure of the Yogak ra was not mere speculation, and the ultimate scopes of tradition remained the attainment of the Buddhahood and liberation from the Sams ra.
• The Emergence of Tibetan Buddhism According to modern historians, it is widely believed that the religion based on the Buddha’s teachings first came to Tibet in the seventh century of the Common Era, with the period of its most active […]
• China Impact on Transformation of Buddhist Teachings The unique Chinese Buddhist tradition was formed under the impact of the long-established worldview of the Chinese culture on the original ideas of Buddhism.
• No-Self or Anatman Concept in Buddhism In his teachings, the Buddha used the idea of no-self to disprove the logical consistency of seeing people as creatures that are independent in terms of perception and knowledge.

💡 Easy Buddhism Essay Topics

• The Unexamined Life and the Buddhist Four Noble Truths One is happy to see healthy grandkids playing in the green backyard of the beautiful house because the life goals are met and this brings happiness because there have been so many questions and uncertainties […]
• Buddhism: Definition and Origins of Buddhism However, there is admittance to the existence, reality and truth that in one general conscious awareness, Buddhism is man’s inclination to support or be loyal to and to agree to an opinion of the Teaching […]
• Comparing Early Christian and Buddhist Sculpture During his reign, the territory of the Byzantine Empire expanded significantly, having become the largest during the whole history of the Byzantine Empire; it is possible to say that the cult of Justinian existed in […]
• The Comparison of Buddhism and Taoism Philosophies In Taoism the aim is attain Tao while the Buddhists strive to reach the nirvana and adhere to the four noble truths.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparison Both of Hinduism and Buddhism have shared beliefs but they are different in the practice of duties, worshipped, the founders of the religions.
• How Tibetan Buddhism Is Represented by Hollywood LITTLE BUDDHA is a well-represented film by Hollywood that tells the story of Jesse Conrad and has a major parallels story of a prince Siddhartha in which the story talks about the birth of Buddhism.
• The History of Buddhism in Korea: Origin, Establishment, and Development The Koryo dynasty’s era witnessed the creation of the Korean Tripitaka, this is a collection of all of the Buddhist sacred books or the scriptures and era of the spread of Buddhism also the period […]
• Buddhism. “The Burmese Harp” Drama Film When the Japanese troops are supposed to surrender and a soldier is sent to other Japanese troops to tell them to drop their guns, they deny the orders and continue to fight and thereby, continue […]
• Ways in Which the Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Criticize the Body as a Source of Suffering Yet Use It as Path to Enlighten The level of how weakness and sensibility to pain, adversity is discouraged is shown when the lord Krishna makes it a point to elaborate to Arjuna, that in his position as a warrior he has […]
• Buddhism and Greater Peace: Conflict, Visions of Peace The main reason for this Buddhism teaches is that by encouraging people in the communities to live in peace with neighbors, chances of conflicts would greatly be diminished.
• The Feminine Aspect of Tibetan Buddhism One of the inspiring stories of the first of enlightened females in the literature is of Princess Yeshe Bawa who was a follower of the Buddha of her time and was determined to become enlightened.
• Existence Viewed by Modern America, Buddhism, and Christianity Humans of all generations and historical periods seek to find the answer to the cause about the cause of life, the destiny and the role of each human in the life of others.
• Death and Dying in Christianity and Buddhism Birth and death are part of everybody’s life: birth is the beginning of living, and death is the end of it.
• Karuna Part of Spiritual Path in Buddhism and Jainism The purpose of this paper is to study the concept of karuna in Buddhism and its relevance to the two major sects in that religion namely Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
• Buddhism: Brief History of Religion From Origin to Modern Days The faith of Buddhism was shaped by a man by the name of Siddhartha Gautama who is supposed to have been imagines by a miraculous conception “in which the future Buddha came to his look […]
• Buddhism in Koryo Analysis Although some of the concepts similar to the teachings Buddhism had spread to Paschke and Koguyo, the places inhabited by the Koryo people, the religion preached by Buddha could not be firmly established in two […]
• Meeting of Buddhist Monks and Nuns The stupa became a symbol of the Buddha, of his final release from the cycle of birth and rebirth – the Parinirvana or the “Final Dying,” the monk explained. He explained that the main Buddha […]
• Presenting Christianity to Buddhism A Buddhist can therefore relate to the phrase ‘kingdom of God’ as the process of living and discovering the heaven that is located within a person’s heart.
• Buddhism and William James’ Theory of Religions It can also be learned from the theory that philosophy is the head of emancipation, and the proletariat is its heart.
• Formation and Development of Tibetan Buddhist Canon Kangyur means “translations of the word” of the Buddhas and consists of sutras, tantras, and the root texts attributed to the Buddhas Buddha Shakyamuni and later enlightened beings, like Guru Padmasambhava.
• Buddhist Teachings Allegory in “Monkey” by Lamport The Monkey is one of the masterpieces of literature that contains the ethics, morality, religion, and culture of the Eastern world.
• Monkey Novel as an Allegory of Buddhist Teachings The purpose of this paper is to explain why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhist teachings in the selected novel. The reader also observed that Tripitaka is a representation of the physical outcomes and experiences […]
• Buddhism Spread as Globalization of Knowledge Modern Buddhism has been integrated as a key part of the globalization movement, and it explains why the faith has spread throughout different parts of the world. The correlation between Buddhism and globalization stems from […]
• Nirvana and Other Buddhism Concepts Different regions have adopted specific ways of being religious that have been influenced by the cultural attributes of the people, influence from other religions, and the ideas associated with various Asian philosophies.
• Changes to Buddhism in Modern Times Buddhism originated in the middle of the first millennium BC in northern India as an opposition to the religion of Brahmanism that dominated in those days. Tolerance of Buddhism undoubtedly contributes to its attractiveness in […]
• Religion in Japan: Buddhism, Shintoism, and Daoism Unlike in different European and American nations, the citizens of this country uphold unique ideas informed by the concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism.
• The Tibetan Buddhism Lecture On the journey to Nirvana, traditions of donation of money and donation of the body are important, as charity is said to benefit those around you and make the journey easier. Tibetan Buddhism is very […]
• World Religions: Confucianism and Buddhism Birth as the first stage of human life is supported by rituals that have to protect the woman and her child.
• Religions: Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam In the Bhagavad Gita, three yogas, or paths to liberation, are outlined: jnana yoga, which liberates one via knowledge; karma yoga, which liberates one via actions; and bhakti yoga, which liberates one via devotion.
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Definition and Comparison The only technique required in this context is wouldevotion.’ The followers of this religious group are required to demonstrate outstanding devotion as they strive to serve their religious faiths.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparative Religious Analysis The wiremen’s interpretation of the dream was that there was going to be born a son to the royal family. Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, Siddharta was a son to the Queen.
• Jainism and Theravada Buddhism The cause of this violence, according to Jainism, is greed and so for a person to attain the ultimate goal, which is bliss or liberation from karma.
• Buddhism Practices, Theories, Teachings, Rituals The author provides the evolution of Buddhism and the main religious figures that influenced the formation of the Buddhist vision of the world.
• Religious Rituals in Judaism and Buddhism This whole process causes the religious follower to learn that the sacred or the spiritual is a vital part of the human world.
• The Key Features of Buddhist Thought and Practice These three characteristics are always connected with existence as they tend to illuminate the nature of existence as well as helping the faithful to have knowledge of what to do with existence.
• Asian Philosophy: Veddic Period and Early Buddhism In the creation hymn of the Rg Vega, Aditi is acknowledged to be the god of all gods because he is the creator and has equally been granted the status of five men.
• Death of the Historical Buddha in Zen Buddhism The hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha is a perfect example of an idiosyncratic subgenre of the nirvana images, which permeated Japanese art in the sixth century after the adoption of Buddhism.[4] The composition […]
• Filial Piety in Zen Buddhist Discursive Paradigm Nevertheless, there appears to have been a phenomenological quality to the development in question, because during the initial phase of Buddhism’s expansion into China this concept used to be commonly regarded contradictory to the religion’s […]
• Daoism’s Influence on Chan Buddhism in China To comprehend the connection between Daoism and Buddhism and the possible influence of the former on the latter, it is expected to identify the main concepts of Taoism in Chinese philosophy and culture first.

⭐ Buddhism Research Paper Topics

• Buddhism and Confucianism in Modern China In the article “Concepts and Institutions for a New Buddhist Education: Reforming the Sa gha between and within State Agencies,” Stefania Travagnin discusses the opposition between Buddhist education and Western education in China the beginning […]
• The Role of Meditation in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism Some of the claims in the article sound farfetched, but it is apparent that one of the characteristics of the Tibetan Buddhists is the mystical powers possessed by some of the individuals.
• Denver Buddhist Temple: Cultural Outing In this connection, the paper aims at identifying Buddhist religion that is prevalent in Vietnam focusing on three paramount concepts I learned in class such as the moral policy of the Denver Buddhist Temple, symbolic […]
• Nagarjuna’s Buddhist Philosophy Investigation Additionally, it is possible to say that it is not just a religion, however, it is the way of life and philosophy.
• Buddhist Traditional Healing in Mental Health To understand the traditional healing in Buddhist culture in mental health, it is important to start by understanding the origin of Buddhism as a religion.
• Buddhism as the Most Peaceful Religion He is mainly spread on the East of our planet, that is why it is not surprising that it is one of the most popular and recognized religions all over the world, as the majority […]
• Four Noble Truths in Buddhist Teaching The Buddha said that there is dukkha, there is an origin of dukkha, there is an end of dukkha and there is a path that leads to the end of dukkha.
• Zen Buddhism Religion in Japanese Culture The uniqueness of Zen is in rejecting the importance of doctrines and emphasizing the role of the spiritual growth of the person through the practice of meditation.
• The Highest Good of Buddhism: Arahantship This state of awakening is the highest good that a human being can achieve, and all Buddhists are urged to aspire to achieve it.
• Buddhism Studies in the Far East This emanates from the fact that the religion is only popular in one part of the world. Woo writes that it is possible to have many misconceptions about a belief, a religion and a practice […]
• Asian Religions in Practice: Buddhism, Islam and Sikhism This school of thought claims that salvation is possible through believing in the power of Amitabha and the desire to be reborn in a gracious place. This means that it advocates for people to be […]
• Religious Teachings of Buddhist Doctrine To substantiate the validity of his opinion, in this respect, Nagasena came up with the ‘parable of the lamp.’ According to the monk, just as it is the case with the flame of a burning […]
• Bhagavad Gita: Buddhism and Ancient Indian Philosophy First of all, it should be said that Bhagavad Gita is a part of the great epic of Mahabharata, which is known to be one of the greatest literary works of Ancient India.
• History of Buddhism and the Life of Buddha Buddha took the opportunity of being a member of the loyal family to influence the development of Buddhism. One of the factors that contributed to the speedy development of Buddhism was its inspirational teachings.
• David Hume’s and Buddhism Self Concepts Correlation Hume’s philosophy is based on the ideas that all the knowledge of the world is gained from the interaction of human’s experiences and the thoughts.
• Women and the Buddhist Religion According to Arvandi Sharma, ancient Indian women chose to become Buddhists nuns purely due to the influence of Buddha’s positive ways, teachings and the Buddhism doctrines.
• What Brings Women to Buddhism? Once establishing the source that has the greatest influence on the women and the ways which are most typical of women to be converted into Buddhism, whether it is the doctrinal one, or the one […]
• India’s Women in Buddhism’ Religion Regarding the place of women in Buddhism, it is interesting to note that Buddhism is not attached to any gender despite the fact that Buddha himself has historically been a man.
• Buddhism Religion History in China The differences between the two regions of China led to the advancement of the northern and southern disciplines hence the emergence of the Mahayana Buddhism.
• To What Extent Was China a Buddhist Country? The religion was associated with super powers and the potential to prosper, and thus many people were challenged to learn and experience it since it had compatible aspects with the Chinese Daoism.
• Buddhism Religion in the East Asian Societies This paper explores an argument whether Buddhism was a change for better or worse for the East Asian societies and concludes that even though Buddhism created a lot of discomfort during the period of introduction, […]
• Religious Studies: Morality in Buddhism In this case, much attention should be paid to a collection of restrictions or taboos that should govern the decisions or actions of a person. This is one of the issues that should not be […]
• Buddhism Characteristics and Attributes The readings under analysis focus on the main characteristics and attributes of Buddhism, as well as on schools of thought that emerged due to the spread of this teaching.
• The Comparison of Buddhism and Daoism Principles The foundational spiritual beliefs of Daoism are the idea of Tao as the search for the right way in order to achieve the universal harmony, the idea of reincarnation and eternal soul, and the principle […]
• Dalai Lama and Buddhism Tradition Dalai Lama did not seem to care for the consequences that would follow as a result of his engagement in political activities, and was ready to engage in extremely risky activities for the sake of […]
• Buddhism in a Post- Han China However, the influence of Buddhism was because of the collapse of the Han dynasty in 220 AD. After the fall of the Han, most of the scholars in China abandoned the Confucian philosophy that had […]
• Buddhism Believer’s Practice: Meditation The basic practices in meditation are taught according to the original teachings of the historical Buddha. The practice of meditation in Buddhism is primarily divided into two categories: insight and tranquility.
• The Main Aspects of Buddhism To try to unify it, the monks and nuns still follow the teachings that existed during the ancient times. It is a sin to lie, still, kill, and engage in sexual acts and to take […]
• Exploring Buddhism: An Introduction to the Chinese Philosophy. In Search for the Enlightenment The author devotes an entire chapter of his paper to Mahayana as the teaching of Buddha, thus, allowing to understand the key differences between the former and the original Buddhist teachings.
• Buddhism on Animal Treatment Followers of Buddhism adhere to a strict code of ethics when it comes to the treatment of animals. Another prominent belief in Buddhism is the practice of releasing animals into the world.
• How Zen Buddhism Has Influenced the Development of Tea Ceremony This tea is served in a tranquil environment and involves a set of practices which hold a lot of relevance to all those who participate in the ceremony.
• Thich Nhat Hanh’s Engaged Buddhism Interreligious dialogue is a conversation and exchange of valuable ideas between religions and faiths for the purpose of discussing the subject of love, non-violence, and solutions to problems and ills of the present world.
• Christianity vs. Buddhism On the other hand, Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The use of statues is common in Buddhism while the Catholics and Orthodox are the frequent users of statues in […]
• The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind The behaviors of her father contributed greatly to her resentment of men, this is because her father was greatly opposed to her will of being a nun because he wanted her to grow into a […]
• Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals Buddhism and Hinduism are some of the popular religions in the world with their origins dating back to the Common Era in India.
• Siddhartha Gautama and Buddhism The knowledge is summarized in the four noble truths, which include life means suffering, the cessation of suffering is attainable, the origin of suffering is attachment, and the path to the cessation of suffering.
• Asian Studies: Confucianism and Buddhism in China For this reasons, Buddhism is popular followed in China and has contributed to the growth of the Chinese culture up to date.
• Morality in Buddhism The purpose of this paper is to expound on the concept of morality in Buddhism, and how the various Buddhist teachings, such as the Four Noble Truths, have enhanced my morality in me and in […]
• Buddhism, Sikhism and Baha’ism It teaches about the Gurus; the Sikhs believe in God referred to as Waheguru that is wonderful Lord and the creator of all things.
• The Zen Temple as the Place of Worship in Japanese Zen Buddhism
• Buddhism in Canada
• Newspaper Response on Buddhism
• How Does Mahayana Differ From Early Buddhism?
• Buddhism in China: Origin and Expansion
• Religion of Christianity and Buddhism – Similarities and Difference
• Anger Emotion and Buddhism
• Padmasambhava’ Effects on Buddhist Beliefs
• Buddhism as a Sacred Tradition
• Buddhism’s Things and Ideas
• The Confluence of Buddhism and Hinduism in India
• The Origin of Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism’s Religion
• Misconceptions About Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism and Oneida Community
• Dialogue Over the Interfaith Christian and Buddhist Perspectives
• Buddhism & Hinduism: Comparisons and Contractions

🥇 Most Interesting Buddhism Topics to Write about

• A Brief Comparison of Native American Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Taoism
• A Biography of Buddhism Born From a Single Man Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha in Factors in Achieving Enlightenment
• A Comparative Study between the Teachings of Two World Religions: Islam and Buddhism
• Affirmative Action Confucius Buddhism And Taoism
• An Analysis of Buddhism in Women and World Religions
• A History of Buddhism and an Analysis of the Teachings of the Buddha
• A History of the Influence of Buddhism and Hinduism on the South Asian Culture
• An Analysis of Buddhism First Sermon Which Should be Treated With Circumspection
• The Concept of Buddhism and the Figure of Buddha as a Central Symbol and Reality for Buddhist Monks
• Convergence of Ideas About Christianity and Buddhism in Living Buddha, Living Christ by Thich Nhat Hanh
• Early Life of Buddha, His Enlightenment, Founding of Buddhism and the Buddhist Literature
• An Analysis of Impermanence, Selflessness and Dissatisfaction on Buddhism as a Religion Nor a Philosophy
• Life and Teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), the Founder of Buddhism
• An Argument in Favor of the Quote Life is Dukkha and Explanation of My Opinion on the Goals of Buddhism
• An Examination of Asian Philosophy and the Different Philosophical Schools: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism and Confucianism
• An Overview of the Selflessness in Buddhism and the Works by Buddha in Contrast to the Monks
• Buddhism And Pop Culture Details The Comparison Between The Movies The Matrix And Fight Club And Buddhists Beliefs
• Buddhism: The Discipline and Knowledge for a Spiritual Life of Well-Being and the Path to Awakening the Nirvana
• Enlightened Revolutionary How King Asoka Entrenched Buddhism into Indian
• Reincarnation as an Important Part of the Teachings of Tibetan Buddhism
• Religion and Homosexuality: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam
• The Growing Popularity of the Tibetan Buddhism and the Suspicion of the Non-Believers
• Zen Buddhism And Its Relationship To The Practical Psychology Of Daily Living

✅ Controversial Buddhism Topics for Essay

• How Buddhism Reflect The Human Understanding Of God?
• How Does Buddhism Relate And Help To Formulate A Local Understanding Of Transsexuals In Thailand?
• How Climate Change is Affecting Human Civilization and the Relationship Between Buddhism and Climate Change in Today’s Society?
• How Buddhism Has Interacted With Nature And Environment?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism? Who Does It Affect, and How Does It Affect Them in This Life, the Afterlife, and the Next Life?
• What do Buddhism and Christianity Teach About the Significance, Purpose And Value of Human Life?
• What Are The Core Beliefs Of Buddhism? How Do Buddhists View Craving?
• Why Are Experiences of Stillness and Reflection (Meditation) Important to Buddhism?
• Why A Key Part Of The Beliefs Of Tibetan Buddhism Is Reincarnation?

❓ Research Questions about Buddhism

• How Applied Buddhism Affected Peoples Daily Activities?
• What Is the Influence of Shen Hui on Chinese Buddhism?
• How Buddhism and Hinduism Share a Belief That Life Suffering Is Caused by Desire?
• What Are the Similarities and Differences Between Buddhism and Jainism?
• How Has Tibetan Buddhism Been Incorporated Into Modern Psychotherapy?
• What Are the Key Differences Between Christianity and Buddhism?
• How Is Japanese Culture Related to Buddhism?
• What Parallels and Deviations Can Science Learn From Buddhism?
• Precisely How Zen Buddhism Gives Influenced the Progress of Tea Services?
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IvyPanda. (2024, March 2). 258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/buddhism-essay-topics/

"258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples." IvyPanda , 2 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/buddhism-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples'. 2 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/buddhism-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/buddhism-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/buddhism-essay-topics/.