write an essay on theories of motivation

20 Most Popular Theories of Motivation in Psychology

The many approaches to defining what drives human behavior are best understood when considering the very purpose of creating them, be it increased performance, goal pursuit, resilience, or relapse prevention, to name a few.

There is nothing more practical than a good theory.

There is no single motivation theory that explains all aspects of human motivation, but these theoretical explanations do often serve as the basis for the development of approaches and techniques to increase motivation in distinct areas of human endeavor.

This article briefly summarizes existing theories of motivation and their potential real-world applications.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

What is motivation psychology, theories of motivation, content theories of motivation, process theories of motivation, cognitive theories of motivation, motivational theories in business, motivational theories in sports psychology, textbooks on motivation, a take-home message.

Motivation psychologists usually attempt to show how motivation varies within a person at different times or among different people at the same time. The purpose of the psychology of motivation is to explain how and why that happens.

Broad views of how to understand motivation were created by psychologists based on various types of analyses. Cognitive analyses, behavioral anticipation, and affective devices are often used to account for motivation in terms of expecting an end-state or goal.

Motivation psychology is a study of how biological, psychological, and environmental variables contribute to motivation. That is, what do the body and brain contribute to motivation; what mental processes contribute; and finally, how material incentives, goals, and their mental representations motivate individuals.

Psychologists research motivation through the use of two different methods. Experimental research is usually conducted in a laboratory and involves manipulating a motivational variable to determine its effects on behavior.

Correlational research involves measuring an existing motivational variable to determine how the measured values are associated with behavioral indicators of motivation.

Whether you think you can, or think you can’t, you’re right.

Henry Ford, 1863–1947

To be motivated means to be moved into action. We are induced into action or thought by either the push of a motive or the pull of an incentive or goal toward some end-state. Here a motive is understood as an internal disposition that pushes an individual toward a desired end-state where the motive is satisfied, and a goal is defined as the cognitive representation of the desired outcome that an individual attempts to achieve.

While a goal guides a behavior that results in achieving it, an incentive is an anticipated feature of the environment that pulls an individual toward or away from a goal. Incentives usually enhance motivation for goal achievement. Emotions act like motives as well. They motivate an individual in a coordinated fashion along multiple channels of affect, physiology, and behavior to adapt to significant environmental changes.

See our discussion of the motivation cycle and process in the blog post entitled What is Motivation .

In short, content theories explain what motivation is, and process theories describe how motivation occurs.

There are also a large number of cognitive theories that relate to motivation and explain how our way of thinking and perceiving ourselves and the world around us can influence our motives.

From self-concept, dissonance and mindset to values, orientation and perceived control, these theories explain how our preference toward certain mental constructs can increase or impair our ability to take goal-directed action.

Theories of motivation are also grouped by the field of human endeavor they apply to. Several theories relate to motivating employees where incentives and needs take a central stage as well as theories used in sports and performance psychology where affect is considered a more prominent driver of human behavior. Some of these theories are also applied to education and learning.

Read our insightful post on motivation in education .

The self-concordance model of goal setting differentiates between four types of motivation (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These are:

External motivation

Goals are heavily guided by external circumstances and would not take place without some kind of reward or to prevent a negative outcome.

For example, an individual who clocks extra hours in their day job purely to receive a bigger paycheck.

Introjected motivation

Goals are characterized by self-image or ego-based motivation, reflecting the need to keep a certain self-image alive.

For example, our worker in the example above staying longer in the office so that they are perceived as a ‘hard worker’ by their manager and co-workers.

Identified motivation

The actions needed to accomplish the goal are perceived as personally important and meaningful, and personal values are the main drivers of goal pursuit.

For example, the worker putting in extra hours because their personal values align with the objective of the project they are working on.

Intrinsic motivation

When a behavior is guided by intrinsic motivation, the individual strives for this goal because of the enjoyment or stimulation that this goal provides. While there may be many good reasons for pursuing the goal, the primary reason is simply the interest in the experience of goal pursuit itself.

For example, the worker spends more time at their job because they enjoy and are energized by using their skills in creativity and problem-solving.

Goals guided by either identified or intrinsic motivation can be considered self-concordant. A self-concordant goal is personally valued, or the process towards the goal is enjoyable and aligns with interests. Self-concordant goals are associated with higher levels of wellbeing, enhanced positive mood, and higher levels of life satisfaction compared to non-self-concordant goals.

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s achievement motivation theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory focused on what motivates people and addressed specific factors like individual needs and goals.

Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs

The most recognized content theory of motivation is that of Abraham Maslow, who explained motivation through the satisfaction of needs arranged in a hierarchical order. As satisfied needs do not motivate, it is the dissatisfaction that moves us in the direction of fulfillment.

Needs are conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and the nurturance of growth and well-being. Hunger and thirst exemplify two biological needs that arise from the body’s requirement for food and water. These are required nutriments for the maintenance of life.

The body of man is a machine which winds its own spring.

J. O. De La Mettrie

Competence and belongingness exemplify two psychological needs that arise from the self’s requirement for environmental mastery and warm interpersonal relationships. These are required nutriments for growth and well-being.

Needs serve the organism, and they do so by:

• generating wants, desires, and strivings that motivate whatever behaviors are necessary for the maintenance of life and the promotion of growth and well-being, and
• generating a deep sense of need satisfaction from doing so.

Maslow’s legacy is the order of needs progressing in the ever-increasing complexity, starting with basic physiological and psychological needs and ending with the need for self-actualization. While basic needs are experienced as a sense of deficiency, the higher needs are experienced more in terms of the need for growth and fulfillment.

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Alderfer’s theory of motivation expands on the work of Maslow and takes the premise of need categories a bit further. He observes that when lower needs are satisfied, they occupy less of our attention, but the higher needs tend to become more important, the more we pursue them.

He also observed a phenomenon that he called the frustration-regression process where when our higher needs are thwarted, we may regress to lower needs. This is especially important when it comes to motivating employees.

When a sense of autonomy or the need for mastery is compromised, say because of the structure of the work environment, the employee may focus more on the sense of security or relatedness the job provides.

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory

McClelland took a different approach to conceptualize needs and argued that needs are developed and learned, and focused his research away from satisfaction. He was also adamant that only one dominant motive can be present in our behavior at a time. McClelland categorized the needs or motives into achievement, affiliation, and power and saw them as being influenced by either internal drivers or extrinsic factors.

Among all the prospects which man can have, the most comforting is, on the basis of his present moral condition, to look forward to something permanent and to further progress toward a still better prospect.

Immanuel Kant

The drive for achievement arises out of the psychological need for competence and is defined as a striving for excellence against a standard that can originate from three sources of competition: the task itself, the competition with the self, and the competition against others.

High need for achievement can come from one’s social environment and socialization influences, like parents who promote and value pursuit and standards of excellence, but it can also be developed throughout life as a need for personal growth towards complexity (Reeve, 2014).

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory, also known as motivation-hygiene theory, was originally intended to address employee motivation and recognized two sources of job satisfaction. He argued that motivating factors influence job satisfaction because they are based on an individual’s need for personal growth: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement.

On the other hand, hygiene factors, which represented deficiency needs, defined the job context and could make individuals unhappy with their job: company policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions.

Motivation theories explained in 10 minutes – EPM

Process theories like Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory, Adams’ equity theory, and Locke’s goal-setting theory set out to explain how motivation occurs and how our motives change over time.

Reinforcement theory

The most well-known process theory of motivation is the reinforcement theory, which focused on the consequences of human behavior as a motivating factor.

Based on Skinner’s operant conditioning theory , it identifies positive reinforcements as promoters that increased the possibility of the desired behavior’s repetition: praise, appreciation, a good grade, trophy, money, promotion, or any other reward (Gordon, 1987).

It distinguished positive reinforcements from negative reinforcement and punishment, where the former gives a person only what they need in exchange for desired behavior, and the latter tries to stop the undesired behavior by inflicting unwanted consequences.

See our articles on Positive Reinforcement in the Workplace and Parenting Children with Positive Reinforcement .

Other process motivation theories combine aspects of reinforcement theory with other theories, sometimes from adjacent fields, to shine a light on what drives human behavior.

Adams’ equity theory of motivation

For example, Adams’ equity theory of motivation (1965), based on Social Exchange theory, states that we are motivated when treated equitably, and we receive what we consider fair for our efforts.

It suggests that we not only compare our contributions to the amount of rewards we receive but also compare them to what others receive for the same amount of input. Although equity is essential to motivation, it does not take into account the differences in individual needs, values, and personalities, which influence our perception of inequity.

Vroom’s expectancy theory

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964), on the other hand, integrates needs, equity, and reinforcement theories to explain how we choose from alternative forms of voluntary behavior based on the belief that decisions will have desired outcomes. Vroom suggests that we are motivated to pursue an activity by appraising three factors:

• Expectancy that assumes more effort will result in success
• Instrumentality that sees a connection between activity and goal
• Valence which represents the degree to which we value the reward or the results of success.

Locke’s goal-setting theory

Finally, Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal-setting theory, an integrative model of motivation, sees goals as key determinants of behavior. Possibly the most widely applied, the goal-setting theory stresses goal specificity, difficulty, and acceptance and provides guidelines for how to incorporate them into incentive programs and management by objectives (MBO) techniques in many areas.

Lock’s recipe for effective goal setting includes:

• Setting of challenging but attainable goals. Too easy or too difficult or unrealistic goals don’t motivate us.
• Setting goals that are specific and measurable. These can focus us toward what we want and can help us measure the progress toward the goal.
• Goal commitment should be obtained. If we don’t commit to the goals, then we will not put adequate effort toward reaching them, regardless of how specific or challenging they are.
• Strategies to achieve this could include participation in the goal-setting process, the use of extrinsic rewards (bonuses), and encouraging intrinsic motivation through providing feedback about goal attainment. It is important to mention here that pressure to achieve goals is not useful because it can result in dishonesty and superficial performance.
• Support elements should be provided. For example, encouragement, needed materials and resources, and moral support.
• Knowledge of results is essential. Goals need to be quantifiable, and there needs to be feedback.

There are several articles on effective goal setting in our blog series that cover Locke’s theory and it’s many applications.

They address specific cognitive phenomena that can influence motivation, represent a particular factor of motivation, describe a form of expression of motivation, or explain a process through which it can occur or be enhanced.

The list of cognitive phenomena is by no means comprehensive, but it does give us a taste of the complexity of human motivation and includes references for those who want to read further into more nuanced topics:

• Plans (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1998)
• Goals (Locke & Latham, 2002)
• Implementation intentions (Gollwitzer, 1999)
• Deliberative versus implementation mindsets (Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989)
• Promotion versus prevention orientations (Higgins, 1997)
• Growth versus fixed mindsets (Dweck, 2006)
• Dissonance (Festinger, 1957; Harmon-Jones & Mills, 1999)
• Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986)
• Perceived control (Skinner, 1996)
• Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966)
• Learned helplessness theory (Miller & Seligman, 1975)
• Mastery beliefs (Diener & Dweck, 1978)
• Attributions (Wiener, 1986)
• Values (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)
• Self-concept (Markus, 1977)
• Possible selves (Oyserman, Bybee, & Terry, 2006)
• Identity (Eccles, 2009)
• Self-regulation (Zimmerman, 2000)
• Self-control (Baumeister & Tierney, 2011)

There are also several different approaches to understanding human motivation which we have discussed in greater detail in our article on Benefits and Importance of Motivation which amass a large body of motivational studies and are currently attracting a lot of attention in contemporary research in motivational science, namely intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and the flow theory (Csíkszentmihályi, 1975).

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There are many theories developed for the purpose of application to the organizational setting and motivation of employees.

In addition to the Two Factor theory and equity theory, some theories focus on autonomy, wellbeing, and feedback as core motivational aspects of employees’ performance; theories X, Y and Z, and the Hawthorne effect, respectively.

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two theories, Theory X and Theory Y, to explain employee motivation and its implications for management. He divided employees into Theory X employees who avoid work and dislike responsibility and Theory Y employees who enjoy work and exert effort when they have control in the workplace.

He postulated that to motivate Theory X employees, the company needs to enforce rules and implement punishments. For Theory Y employees, management must develop opportunities for employees to take on responsibility and show creativity as a way of motivating. Theory X is heavily informed by what we know about intrinsic motivation, and the role satisfaction of basic psychological needs plays in effective employee motivation.

The Hawthorne Effect

Elton Mayo developed an explanation known as the Hawthorne Effect that suggested that employees are more productive when they know their work is being measured and studied.

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There are also several theories on motivation that are used in sports and performance psychology. The core concept in understanding motivation from the performance perspective is how physiological and psychological arousal accompanies behavior.

Arousal is basically a form of mobilization of energy and activation either before or while engaged in the behavior. Arousal occurs in different modes. Physiological arousal refers to the excitement of the body, while psychological arousal is about how subjectively aroused an individual feels.

When we say that our palms are sweaty or our heart is pounding, it implies physiological arousal. When we feel tense and anxious, it signifies psychological arousal.

Robert Thayer (1989) evolved the theory of psychological arousal into two dimensions: energetic arousal and tense arousal, composed of energetic and tense dimensions. Energetic arousal is associated with positive affect, while tense arousal is associated with anxiety and fearfulness.

Tense arousal can be divided further into two types of anxiety: trait anxiety and state anxiety. One refers to the degree we respond to the environment in general negatively and with worry, while state anxiety refers to feelings of apprehension that occur in response to a particular situation.

Arousal originates from several sources. It can be generated by a stimulus that has an arousing function and a cue function. But background stimuli that do not capture our attention also increase arousal.

Thayer found that arousal varies with time of day, for many of us being highest around noon and lower in the morning and evening. Coffee, for example, can boost arousal, as can an instance of being evaluated during exams, music performance, or sports competitions.

Arousal also depends on more complex variables like novelty, complexity, and incongruity. The interaction of various stimuli explains why sometimes arousal increases behavioral efficiency and in other instances, decreases it.

Optimal functioning hypothesis

The zone of optimal functioning hypothesis in sports psychology identifies a zone of optimal arousal where an athlete performs best (Hanin, 1989). As arousal increases, performance on a task increases and then decreases, as can be seen on the inverted-U arousal–performance relationship diagram below.

According to the zone of optimal functioning hypothesis, each individual has her preferred area of arousal based on cognitive or somatic anxiety. The Yerkes–Dodson law explains further that the high point of the inverted-U or arousal–performance relationship depends on the complexity of the task being performed.

Several theories have been proposed to explain the relationship between the inverted-U nature of the arousal–performance relationship.

Hull–Spence drive theory

The classic Hull–Spence drive theory emphasizes how arousal affects performance with little regard for any cognitive awareness by the individual. Also known as drive reduction theory, it postulates that human behavior could be explained by conditioning and reinforcement.

This oversimplification is part of the reason why more nuanced and complex cognitive theories have largely replaced the theory. The cusp catastrophe model in sports psychology, arousal-biased competition theory, processing efficiency theory, and attentional control theory are more concerned with the cognitive aspects of arousal and how this affects behavioral efficiency.

Arousal-biased competition theory

Mather and Sutherland (2011) developed an arousal-biased competition theory to explain the inverted-U arousal–performance relationship. It suggests that arousal exhibits biases toward information that is the focus of our attention.

Arousal effects and therefore increases the priority of processing important information and decrease the priority of processing less critical information. The presence of arousal improves the efficiency of behavior that concerns a crucial stimulus, but it is done at the expense of the background stimuli.

Two memory systems theory

Metcalfe and Jacobs (1998) postulated the existence of two memory systems that influence the level of arousal we experience: a cool memory system and a hot memory system, each in a different area of the brain. The cool system, located in the hippocampus, serves the memory of events occurring in space and time and would allow us to remember where we parked our car this morning.

The hot system in the amygdala serves as the memory of events that occur under high arousal. Metcalfe and Jacobs theorized that the hot system remembers the details of stimuli that predict the onset of highly stressful or arousing events, such as events that predict danger and is responsible for the intrusive memories of individuals who have experienced extremely traumatic events.

Processing efficiency theory

The processing efficiency theory of Eysenck and Calvo theorized on how anxiety, expressed as worry, can influence performance. Preoccupation with being evaluated and being concerned about one’s performance turns to worry, which takes up working memory capacity and causes performance on cognitive tasks to decline (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992).

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Here are a suggested book references for tertiary-level study of motivation for those who want to dive deeper into some of these topics:

1. Understanding Motivation and Emotion – Johnmarshall Reeve

IT provides a toolbox of practical interventions and approaches for use in a wide variety of settings.

Available on Amazon .

2. Motivation: Theories and Principles – Robert C. Beck

It covers a broad range of motivational concepts from both human and animal theory and research, with an emphasis on the biological bases of motivation.

3. Motivation – Lambert Deckers

How motivation is the inducement of behavior, feelings, and cognition.

4. Motivation and Emotion Evolutionary Physiological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives – Denys A. deCatanzaro

5. Motivation: A Biosocial and Cognitive Integration of Motivation and Emotion – Eva Dreikurs Ferguson

These include hunger and thirst, circadian and other biological rhythms, fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, achievement, attachment, and love.

6. Human Motivation – Robert E. Franken

7. The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior – Peter M. Gollwitzer and John Bargh

These programs are effectively mapping the territory, providing new findings, and suggesting innovative strategies for future research.

8. Motivation and Self-Regulation Across the Life Span – Jutta Heckhausen and Carol S. Dweck

9. Reclaiming Cognition: The Primacy of Action, Intention, and Emotion (Journal of Consciousness Studies) – Rafael Nunez and Walter J. Freeman

This leads to the claim that cognition is representational and best explained using models derived from AI and computational theory. The authors depart radically from this model.

10. Motivation: Theory, Research, and Applications – Herbert L. Petri and John M. Govern

The book clearly presents the advantages and drawbacks to each of these explanations, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions.

11. Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation: The Search for Optimal Motivation and Performance – Carol Sansone and Judith M. Harackiewicz

12. The Psychobiology of Human Motivation (Psychology Focus) – Hugh Wagner

It starts from basic physiological needs like hunger and thirst, to more complex aspects of social behavior like altruism.

There is no shortage of explanations for what constitutes human motivation, and the research on the topic is as vast and dense as the field of psychology itself. Perhaps the best course of action is to identify the motivational dilemma we’re trying to solve and then select one approach to motivation if only to try it out.

By annihilating desires you annihilate the mind. Every man without passions has within him no principle of action, nor motive to act.

Claude Adrien Helvetius, 1715–1771

As Dan Kahneman argues, teaching psychology is mostly a waste of time unless we as students can experience what we are trying to learn or teach about human nature and can deduce if it is right for us.

Then and only then, can we choose to act on it, move in the direction of change, or make a choice to remain the same. It’s all about experiential learning and connecting the knowledge we acquire to our own experience.

What motivational theory do you find most useful?

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

• Image 1 : Maslow pyramid adapted from “Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built upon Ancient Foundations” by D. T. Kenrick et al., 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 292–314 (see p. 293), and from “A Theory of Human Needs Should Be Human-Centered, Not Animal-Centered: Commentary on Kenrick et al. (2010)” by S. Kesebir et al., 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 315–319 (see p. 316), and from “Human Motives, Happiness, and the Puzzle of Parenthood: Commentary on Kenrick et al. (2010)” by S. Lyubormirsky & J. K. Boehm, 2010, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 327–334.
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Thanks for this article, great summary of the content and process theories. I’m studying for my CHRP exam so just trying to condense a lot of info into concise study notes. Have previously taken courses in Organizational Behaviour that explored the theories in much more depth.

Hi Nicole, I love this site! I am a PhD student but in international development, not psychology and my methodology is multi-disciplinary, but that is quite difficult I am finding now I am looking at psychology! I have been sent down a path by an Australian academic about the role of action to motivation to action – do you have any good references to recommend on this? Thx, Sue Cant, Charles Darwin University

It sounds like you’re delving into an exciting interdisciplinary study! The role of action and motivation is indeed a key topic in psychology and relevant to international development too.

First, you might find “ Self-Determination Theory ” by Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci interesting. It delves into the relationship between motivation, action, and human behavior, exploring how our needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence our motivation and actions.

Another reference to consider is “ Mindset: The New Psychology of Success ” by Carol S. Dweck. It explores the concept of “growth mindset” and how our beliefs about our abilities can impact our motivation to act and overcome challenges.

These references should provide a good starting point for understanding the psychological aspects of action and motivation. I hope they prove useful for your research!

Best of luck with your PhD journey!

Kind regards, Julia | Community Manager

I enjoyed the fact that there is plenty information, if I were to write an essay on Motivation.

It’s so informative and inclusive! I just wonder if there are relevant theories on how to motivate communities (e.g. residents, companies, experts) to participate in decision-making (e.g. protection of cultural heritage)? Thank you!

Glad you liked the article! I’m not sure if there are theories that specifically cover this (they may be more in sociology and a bit beyond my expertise). But I’d recommend having a read of my article on positive communities. If you follow some of the references throughout, I suspect you’ll find some great resources and advice, particularly on participative decision-making: https://positivepsychology.com/10-traits-positive-community/

Hope this helps a little!

– Nicole | Community Manager

Deci and Ryans Self Determination Theory needs to be discussed… NOT just given an afterthought. Their argument that human behaviour is driven by the 3 fundamental needs of 1) Affiliation 2) Competence and 3) Self Determination is supported by developmental science (attachment theory, Tomosello’s cross species work, developmental work on competence and learning, and finally the huge body of work on intrinsic motivation and self-regulation.

This overview is well written but appears to have a big hole in it.

Hi Dr. Martin,

Thanks for your comment. We agree SDT is a powerful theory, and it has many different applications. We’ve addressed these in depth in some of our other articles on the topic:

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation: Why Intrinsic Motivation Matters – https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/ 21 Self-Determination Skills and Activities to Utilize Today: https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-skills-activities/ Intrinsic Motivation Explained: 10 Factors & Real-Life Examples: https://positivepsychology.com/intrinsic-motivation-examples/

Hey Nicole. This summary is amazing and pin points what I’m looking for. In the case where I have to evaluate this theory for example Maslow’s hierarchy theory in relation to an organization’s needs. How do I go about that or what’s the best way to do so?

Hi Deborah,

So glad you enjoyed the article. Could you please give a little more information about what you’re looking to do? For instance, are you looking for a theory you can apply to assess individual employees’ motivation at work? Note that not all of the theories discussed here are really applicable to an organizational context (e.g., I would personally avoid Maslow’s hierarchy for this), so it would be helpful to have a little more information.

Yes. Precisely that. I am looking for theories that I am adapt to do an intervention , implementation and evaluation of employee motivation in an organization. And how exactly these theories are implemented.

Thank you Nicole. Excellent summary of available theories. Could you tell me please which may be the best theory to explain involvement in extremism and radicalization?

Glad you liked the article. Research on motivations underlying extremism and radicalization tend to point to our beliefs having a central role. This paper by Trip et al. (2019) provides an excellent summary of the thinking in this space. It looks at the factors from an REBT perspective. It addresses a whole range of motivational perspectives including uncertainty-identity theory and integrated threat theory.

I hope this article is helpful for you.

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3 Goal Achievement Exercises Pack

Motivation Theories and Principles Essay

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• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Theories of motivation, works cited.

People always engage in various activities throughout their lives. The main reason as to why human beings do various things is because they have a purpose that drives them every time. According to experts, motivation refers to a psychological feature that arouses someone to act towards a desired goal. It gives someone a reason and energy to take action. Motivation gives purpose and direction to behavior (Beck 30).

Studies have established that motivation plays a crucial role in the ability of human beings to set and achieve their goals. For example, people have the ability to determine their level of motivation by identifying various needs, understanding the requirements for meeting them, and using numerous abilities to achieve satisfaction. Basically, the concept of motivation involves the elements of needs, behavior, and satisfaction (Beck 45).

People have needs to meet and rely on their abilities to achieve satisfaction. There are two types of motivation, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to a reason for action derived from within an individual’s fundamental nature (Beck 52). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation refers to an incentive that gives purpose and direction to behavior influenced by external forces (Beck 52).

According to experts, there are numerous theories of motivation. The various theorists who explain this concept use certain beliefs that explain factors that influence human behavior. Some of the common hypotheses used to explain motivation include the drive or needs theory and arousal theory. According to the drive theory of motivation, human beings have needs that must be met in order to have the required level motivation (Beck 100).

There are five levels of human needs, namely psychological, safety, social, admiration, and self-actualization (Beck 100). According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, it is important to meet the lowest ranked needs in the hierarchy before those in the higher level are triggered (Beck 104). The higher someone goes in the hierarchy, the more motivation one gets. According to experts, people get the drive to push for their goals in life whenever they have enough motivation and belief to do it.

According to the arousal theory of motivation people are driven into doing certain things in life in order to maintain a state of heightened physiological activity (Beck 123). Experts argue that people often feel bored when their levels of arousal are low. In such situations, people often look out for ways of elevating their arousal levels using various stimulating activities. A good example is people who go to night clubs or engage in sporting activities because it helps to keep their arousal levels high.

However, in some instances the arousal level can be very high and unpleasant. In such cases, people often look out for more relaxed environments or activities that can help them lower the stimulation (Beck 129). A good example is sleeping, going for a walk, or watching a romantic movie. It is important to understand that optimal states of heightened physiological activity vary from one person to another, depending on one’s needs (Beck 140).

Motivation plays a crucial role in the ability of living organisms to set and achieve their goals. There are two types of motivation, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. People get the drive to push for their goals in life whenever they have enough motivation and belief to do it. However, it is important to note that people require different levels of motivation to achieve satisfaction depending on their needs.

Beck, Robert. Motivation: Theories and Principles . New York: Pearson Hall, 2004. Print.

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Theories of Motivation

Motivation  describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal, but, why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors? Is motivation an inherited trait or is motivation influenced by reinforcement and consequences that strengthen some behaviors and weaken others? Is the key to motivating learners a lesson plan that captures their interest and attention? In other words, is motivation something innate that we are born with that can be strengthened by reinforcers external to the learning task, or is it something interwoven with the learning process itself?

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Some motives are biological, like our need for food or water. However, the motives that we will be more interested in are more psychological. In general, we discuss motivation as being  intrinsic  (arising from internal factors) or  extrinsic  (arising from external factors). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

Video 6.1.1.  Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation  explains the difference and provides examples of these types of motivation.

Think about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work. Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it. What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).

Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.

These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).

In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group, rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. (You will learn more about collectivistic and individualistic cultures when you learn about social psychology.)

In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts the results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based but centers on a student-designed research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning activities.

Think About It

Schools often use concrete rewards to increase adaptive behaviors. How might this be a disadvantage for students intrinsically motivated to learn? What are the educational implications of the potential for concrete rewards to diminish intrinsic motivation for a given task?

We would expect to see a shift from learning for the sake of learning to learning to earn some reward. This would undermine the foundation upon which traditional institutions of higher education are built. For a student motivated by extrinsic rewards, dependence on those may pose issues later in life (post-school) when there are not typically extrinsic rewards for learning.

Like motivation itself, theories of it are full of diversity. For convenience in navigating through the diversity, we have organized the theories around two perspectives about motion. The first set of theories focuses on the innateness of motivation. These theories emphasize instinctual or inborn needs and drives that influence our behavior. The second set of theories proposes cognition as the source of motivation. Individual motivation is influenced by thoughts, beliefs, and values. The variation in these theories is due to disagreement about which cognitive factors are essential to motivation and how those cognitive factors might be influenced by the environment.

Innate Motivation Theories

First, we will describe some early motivational theories that focus on innate needs and drives. Not all of these theories apply to the classroom, but learning about them will show you how different theorists have approached the issue of motivation. You are sure to find some elements of your own thinking about motivation in each of them. We will examine instinct theory, drive theory, and arousal theory as early explanations of motivation. We will also discuss the behavioral perspective on motivation and the deficiency-growth perspective, as exemplified by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation assume that behavior is a result of cognitive processes. These theories presume that individuals are interpreting information and making decisions, not just acting on basic needs and drives. Cognitive motivation theories share strong ties with the cognitive and social learning theories that we discussed previously. We will examine several cognitive motivation theories: interest, attribution theory, expectancy-value theory, and self-efficacy theory. All emphasize that learners need to know, understand, and appreciate what they are doing in order to become motivated. Then, along with these cognitive motivation theories, we will examine a motivational perspective called self-determination theory, which attempts to reconcile cognitive theory’s emphasis on intrinsic motivation with more traditional notions of human needs and drives.

Video 6.1.2.  Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives  provides a brief overview of some of the major motivational theories.

Candela Citations

• Theories of Motivation . Authored by : Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose. Provided by : Hudson Valley Community College. Retrieved from : . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Educational Psychology. Authored by : Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton. Provided by : The Saylor Foundation. Retrieved from : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Educational Psychology. Authored by : Borlin. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Psychology 2e. Authored by : Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett. Provided by : Open Stax. Retrieved from : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation. Provided by : ASCatRIT. Retrieved from : https://youtu.be/kUNE4RtZnbk. License : All Rights Reserved

Educational Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Theories of Motivation: 8 Most Popular Theories You Must Know

Whether you are striving to achieve your goals or looking to inspire your team to achieve their best, a solid understanding of the motivation theories can help you unlock your full potential.

Motivation is a complex and multi-faceted concept that has been studied extensively by psychologists and behavioral scientists for decades and they develop various theories of motivation over the years. 

These theories attempt to explain the underlying mechanisms that drive human behavior, particularly in relation to goal attainment and achievement. In this article, We will explore the 8 most popular theories of motivation that you must know. From Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to self-determination theory.

We will discuss the concepts, principles, and practical applications of each theory to help you better understand the psychology of motivation. So get ready to unlock the secrets of motivation and discover how to harness its power to achieve your goals and dreams.

Table of Contents

What are Theories of Motivation and why it is important?

Motivation is the driving force behind everything you do and understanding what motivates you can help you reach your full potential in all aspects of life. It’s like having a personal cheerleader in your mind, cheering you on every step of the way.

But have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface? what magical secrets unlock your inner drive and push you toward greatness? well, let me introduce you to the captivating world of theories of motivation.

Motivation theories are frameworks developed by psychologists to understand what drives and sustains human behavior. They seek to explain why individuals act in certain ways and what factors influence their choices, desires, and aspirations.

These theories act like treasure maps, guiding you to uncover the hidden motivations that lie within you and act as a trusty compass, guiding you through the highs and lows of this journey called life.

Understanding these theories is like having a superpower. It allows you to gain a deeper understanding of yourself and those around you. You become more aware of your own strengths and weaknesses, your dreams and ambitions.

This knowledge empowers you to set meaningful goals that align with your true desires and opens up a world of possibilities when it comes to personal growth. By understanding what drives you, you can tap into your inner potential and unlock the best version of yourself. 

Whether it is excelling in your career, pursuing your passions, or maintaining a healthy lifestyle, motivation theories provide you with valuable insights and strategies to keep pushing forward.

Why it is important to understand motivation theories:

Self-awareness:

By understanding these theories of motivation, you gain valuable insights into your own desires, strengths, and weaknesses. It’s like peering into a mirror that reveals your deepest aspirations and illuminates the path to personal growth. 

With this knowledge, you can align your goals with your values, make informed decisions, and create a life that truly reflects who you are.

Goal setting and achievement:

Motivation theories provide a roadmap for setting and achieving goals. They help you identify what motivates you, whether it’s the desire for success, the need for autonomy, or the joy of making a positive impact.

Armed with this understanding, you can set realistic and more meaningful goals, devise action plans, and stay committed even when faced with obstacles.

Enhancing performance:

Motivation theories shed light on the factors that drive peak performance. Whether you are an athlete, artist, student, or professional, understanding these theories can help you unleash your full potential.

By tapping into the right source of motivation, such as intrinsic motivation (doing something for its inherent satisfaction) you can experience a sense of flow, where time flies and you excel in your endeavors.

Building relationships:

Motivation is not limited to individual pursuits, it also plays a vital role in our interactions with others. By understanding these theories of motivation you can grasp what motivates those around you, including friends, family, and colleagues.

This knowledge allows you to support and inspire others effectively, fostering stronger relationships and creating a positive social environment.

Overcoming challenges:

Life is filled with challenges, setbacks, and moments of doubt. Understanding these theories of motivation equips you with the tools to navigate the tough times and difficult situations in life.

By recognizing your own motivational drivers and developing resilience you can bounce back from failures, maintain perseverance and stay focused on your long-term vision. (Check out – Is Motivation Important for Personal Growth? )

8 Most Popular Theories You Must Know

Now you know what is motivation theories and why it is important for you to understand these theories. It’s time to understand these 8 types of theories one by one with examples. So that you can apply these theories to your personal growth and development.

1. Maslow’s Theory:

Abraham Maslow was a psychologist who believed that humans have certain needs that drive our behavior and shape our lives. He developed a theory that suggests we have a natural tendency to fulfill these needs in a specific order forming a hierarchy.

This theory of motivation suggests that there are 5 different levels of human needs in the form of a pyramid, and these needs must be met in order for people to reach their full potential and live a fulfilling life. Let’s understand these 5 levels one by one.

A. Physiological needs:

At the bottom of the pyramid, we have our physiological needs which are the most fundamental requirements for our survival. These include things like food, water, air, sleep, and shelter.

Without satisfying these needs, it’s challenging to focus on anything else. You have to satisfy these needs first and once it is satisfied then these needs no longer motivate you.

For example, people work to earn money to buy food, find a safe place to live, and ensure they have enough rest and sleep.

B. Safety needs:

Once our physiological needs are met, we seek safety and security. This level encompasses the need for physical safety, financial stability, a sense of order, and protection from harm or danger.

To meet these needs you need to work a lot and earn more money. It’s about feeling secure in our environment and having a stable foundation to build upon.

For example, People seek job security, save money for emergencies, protect themselves from uncertainty, and look for a stable living environment.

C. Social needs:

As social beings, we have a natural desire for connection, affection, and a sense of belonging. This level includes our need for friendship, family, intimate relationships, and a sense of community. We strive for acceptance and to be part of a group where we feel loved and valued.

For example, people join social clubs, form friendships, seek out romantic relationships, and actively participate in communities to fulfill their need for connection and belonging.

D. Esteem needs:

Once we have our basic social needs met, we move on to the need for esteem, both from others and ourselves. This level involves the desire for recognition, respect, status, and achievement. We seek to develop self-confidence, independence, and a positive self-image.

For example, people work hard to achieve recognition in their careers, pursue education or certifications, seek promotion, and set personal goals to boost their self-esteem.

E. Self-actualization needs:

This is the pinnacle of the pyramid, representing our highest level of fulfillment and personal growth. Self-actualization involves realizing our full potential, pursuing our passions, and finding meaning and purpose in life. It’s about personal development, creativity, & being in alignment with our core values.

For example, people engage in activities they are passionate about, such as hobbies, painting, writing, or volunteering to fulfill their need for personal growth and self-fulfillment. 

In a nutshell, Maslow’s theory is a reminder to take care of your basic needs, build strong relationships, cultivate self-esteem, and pursue your passion. By working on each level of the pyramid, you are on your way to reaching your full potential and living a truly fulfilling life.

2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:

Imagine you are at work, or even pursuing your passion. You are doing your thing, pouring your heart and soul into it. But have you ever stopped to wonder what truly fuels your motivation and satisfaction in those situations? Well, that’s where Herzberg’s Two Factor theory comes into play.

Federick Herzberg a psychologist came up with this theory by diving deep into what makes people happy and fulfilled at work. He believed that our motivation and job satisfaction are influenced by two types of factors i.e. Hygiene factors and motivators. Let’s talk about them.

Hygiene factors:

Hygiene factors are the things that people need to have in place in order to be satisfied with their job or work, but they don’t actually motivate people to do the best work.

These basic foundation factors include things like your salary, job security, work environment, company policies, and your relationship with coworkers and supervisors.

These factors are essential for your well-being, but they don’t necessarily make you jump out of bed excited to tackle the day. When hygiene factors are lacking or unsatisfactory, they can cause dissatisfaction or make you feel unhappy.

But when they are met, they simply prevent dissatisfaction. They are like the must-haves that ensure you don’t feel miserable and unhappy at the workplace or in daily life.

Motivators:

Motivators are the things that actually drive people to do their best work. These are the factors that actually make you feel fulfilled, engaged, and eager to put in your best effort. They go beyond the basics and tap into your intrinsic motivation.

Motivators include things like challenging work, recognition, personal growth opportunities, achievement, responsibility, and the chance to make a meaningful impact.

When you have motivators in your life or in your career, they can spark a sense of accomplishment, satisfaction, and a drive to excel personally as well as professionally.

The fascinating thing about Herzberg’s theory of motivation is that it believes that motivators have a more significant impact on our happiness and fulfillment than hygiene factors. Motivators really drive us to do our best work.

In other words, once our hygiene factors are met, it’s the motivators that truly ignite our passion and make us thrive in what we do. So if you want to lead a truly fulfilling life, find a career that lights up your soul, and focus on motivators for long-term satisfaction.

3. Expectancy Theory:

Imagine you have a dream, a goal, or something you really want to achieve in your life. You might be thinking, how can I make it happen? how can I increase my chances of actually reaching my goal? well, that’s where expectancy theory comes into play.

Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory is all about how we perceive the link between our actions and the results we expect to achieve it. It suggests that we are motivated to put effort into something when we believe that our efforts will lead to a desired outcome.

It’s like having a clear vision of the treasure at the end of the journey and being confident that our actions will get us there. This theory basically suggests that individuals are motivated to act based on their beliefs about the future outcomes of their actions.

Let’s break down the three key components of this theory:

Expectancy:

Expectancy is all about your belief in your ability to succeed and achieve your goal. It’s like having confidence in yourself. For example, if you want to learn a new skill, like playing the guitar, your expectancy is the belief that you actually become a skilled guitarist.

If you genuinely believe in yourself and your ability to learn and practice, your expectancy is high and you will be more motivated to put in the effort and take the necessary actions to become a great guitarist. The higher your expectancy, the more motivated you are to take action.

Instrumentality:

This component focuses on the belief that your efforts will definitely lead to the desired outcomes. It’s like understanding that your actions have a direct impact on your results.

Going back to our guitar example, Instrumentality is the belief that if you put in the time and effort to practice regularly, you will eventually become a skilled guitarist.

If you strongly believe that your efforts will pay off and lead to the desired outcome, your instrumentality is high, and you will be motivated to keep practicing and pushing forward.

Valence is all about the value or attractiveness you assign to the outcome or reward you are expecting to receive. It’s like asking yourself, how much do I really want this? how important is this goal to me? 

Continuing with the guitar example, if becoming a skilled guitarist is something you are truly passionate about and you find great joy and fulfillment in playing music then the valence of the outcome is high for you.

The more you value and desire the outcome, the more motivated you will be to put in the necessary effort and overcome any obstacles along the way to achieve the end goal.

So in a nutshell, expectancy theory tells us that our motivation to achieve a goal depends on three things: our belief in our ability to succeed (expectancy), our belief that our efforts will lead to the desired outcome (instrumentality), and the value we assign to that outcome(valence).

When you believe in your abilities, see a clear connection between your actions and outcomes, and highly value the rewards, your motivation skyrockets. And you approach any goal or challenge with a clear focus and determination.

So the key to leveraging this theory of motivation is to boost your belief in yourself, understand how your actions contribute to your goals, and find great value in the rewards you are striving for.

4. Goal-Setting Theory:

Imagine you are playing a video game without any clear objectives. It might be fun for a little while, but soon enough, you will lose interest and motivation because there is no target to aim for.

However, if the game presents you with specific missions and challenges, it becomes much more engaging and exciting. The same principle applies to life and there comes the Goal-Setting theory.

Edwin Loke a renowned psychologist believed that having specific and challenging goals can greatly enhance motivation and performance. That’s how he created a goal-setting theory which is all about setting goals to achieve success.

Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance of setting clear and measurable goals. By defining what you want to achieve and breaking it down into smaller, manageable tasks, you can create a roadmap that guides your actions.

By having a target to work towards, you give yourself a sense of direction and purpose. This approach not only fuels your motivation but also helps you stay focused and determined along the way.

This is one of the most powerful theories of motivation one can apply to achieve success in personal as well as professional life.

Relationship between goals and motivation:

Goals and motivation are like a dynamic duo that goes hand in hand. Let’s say you have a goal in mind, like completing a challenging project or running a marathon. This goal acts as a powerful motivator.

It gives you something to strive for, ignites your passion, and fuels your determination to take action. When you set a goal, it triggers your brain’s reward system.

As you progress towards your goal, you experience a sense of accomplishment, which releases feel-good chemicals in your brain like dopamine. This creates a positive feedback loop, making you more motivated to continue working toward your goal.

On the other hand, without clear goals, you may feel lost or uncertain about what you are trying to achieve. This lack of direction can lead to a decrease in motivation, as there is no specific target to focus on.

That means the goal provides clarity and fuels your motivation to keep going. Motivation gives you the energy and determination to stay committed to your goals, even when faced with obstacles or setbacks.

Effective strategies to boost motivation using goal-setting theory:

• Be clear about what you want to achieve and ensure your goals are measurable and specific so that you can track your progress. For example – instead of saying “I want to exercise more”, set a goal like “I will go to the gym 5 times a week for 45 min each day.”
• Aim for goals that stretch you out of your comfort zone but are still realistic. Setting challenging goals can ignite your motivation and inspire you to push yourself.
• Break your big goals into smaller, manageable tasks. This way you can tackle them step by step, which helps you stay focused and prevents overwhelm.
• Give yourself a timeframe to complete your goals. Deadlines create a sense of urgency and prevent procrastination.
• Share your goals with someone you trust or find an accountability partner. This way you have someone who can support and motivate you and you will feel a sense of responsibility to follow your goals.
• When you achieve a milestone or make progress toward your goal, take a moment to celebrate and reward yourself. Celebrating your achievements reinforces your motivation and boosts your confidence.

5. Self-Determination Theory:

Imagine you are sitting in a room and you have a choice between two activities. One is something you genuinely enjoy, like playing video games or painting. The other is something you are forced to do like cleaning the house or doing paperwork.

Which one you would choose? I am sure you would go for the activity that you enjoy, right? That is where Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s Self-determination theory comes into play. This is again one of the most powerful theories of motivation because it is based on intrinsic motivation.

Edward and Richard believe that when it comes to motivation and personal growth, we are driven by something called intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is all about doing things that we find inherently enjoyable, interesting, or meaningful.

It’s like a fire that burns within us, pushing us to pursue activities that bring us joy and fulfillment. Asper this theory there are 3 psychological needs that play a vital role in fueling our intrinsic motivation.

Let’s understand 3 psychological needs:

Picture yourself as the captain of your own ship, steering it in the direction you want to go. Autonomy is all about having a sense of control and choice in your life. It means being able to make decisions and take actions that align with your values and interest.

When you feel autonomous, you are more motivated and likely to engage in activities you are doing because you believe they are important and valuable to you.

Competence:

Imagine the feeling of mastering a new skill or accomplishing a challenging task, That’s nothing but competence. We all have an innate desire to feel competent and capable in what we do.

When we engage in activities that allow us to grow and develop our skills, it boosts our self-confidence and motivates us to keep pushing forward.

Relatedness:

Humans are social beings and our connections with others matter. Relatedness is all about feeling a sense of belonging and connection to others. When we have healthy relationships with friends, family, or community, it creates a supportive environment that fuels our motivation.

We are more likely to engage in activities when we feel connected to others who share similar interests or values. This boosts our motivation as well as overall well-being.

When these 3 psychological needs are satisfied, we experience intrinsic motivation. It’s like having a personal cheerleader inside us who constantly encourage us to pursue activities that bring us joy and fulfillment.

Self-determination theory also recognizes extrinsic motivation, which is driven by external factors like rewards or pressures from others. Extrinsic motivation is useful in some situations but it is not long-lasting as intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation helps us keep going when extrinsic motivation fades away. So as per self-determination theory, if you want to lead a truly fulfilling life, seek activities that align with your values and interests.

6. McClelland’s Theory of Needs:

Imagine you are on a quest to unlock your full potential and achieve great things in life. McClelland’s theory of needs can be your best guide on this journey.

McClelland’s theory suggests that there are 3 core needs that guide our actions and desires. These needs are like 3 superpowers and each person has a different combination of them, just like unique fingerprints.

These 3 needs are deep within us like our internal desires that shape our behavior and these needs can have a big impact on how we approach life, work, and relationships. 

Let’s understand these 3 needs:

Need for achievement:

This need is all about the thrill of setting and reaching goals. If you are someone who craves challenges, loves to excel, and feels incredibly satisfied when you accomplish something meaningful, then you have got a strong need for achievement.

People with a high need for achievement are those who always strive to excel, setting challenging goals, and pushing themselves to reach new heights. They have a strong thirst for accomplishments and personal victories. They love overcoming obstacles and achieving their goals.

Need for affiliation:

This need is all about building strong connections and relationships with others. If you are someone who thrives on building relationships, enjoys being part of a team, and feels happiest when you are surrounded by friends and loved ones, then you have got a strong need for affiliation.

People with a high need for affiliation thrive on social interactions and enjoy being part of a supportive community. They are great team players and love to collaborate. Building and maintaining meaningful relationships is what fuels their happiness.

Need for power:

The need for power is all about having an impact and influencing others in a positive way. If you are someone who seeks authority, enjoys taking charge, and feels empowered when you can make a difference in the world, then you have got a strong need for power.

People with a high need for power are natural leaders who enjoy taking charge, making decisions, and guiding others. They seek positions of authority and are driven by the desire to make a difference in the world around them.

Everyone has unique combinations of these needs that can change over time. Some people have a strong need for achievement and affiliation, while others have a high need for power and affiliation. It’s like having your own personal identity.

Understanding your dominant needs can be incredibly powerful because it helps you align your goals and activities with what truly drives you and guide you toward a life filled with fulfillment and happiness.

7. Reinforcement Theory:

Imagine you are training a pet dog. You want that dog to learn how to sit on command. So, every time a dog sits down when you say ‘sit’, you give him a delicious treat.  What do you think happens next?

Well, the dog starts associating sitting with tasty treats, and the dog is more likely to sit in the future because he wants those treats. That’s basically the essence of Skinner’s reinforcement theory.

Skinner’s theory is all about how rewards and punishments affect behavior. According to B.F. Skinner, the psychologist who developed this theory, when we receive a reward for a particular behavior, we are more likely to repeat that behavior in the future.

It’s like our brains say, “Hey, that felt good! Let’s do it again.” Similarly, if we face a negative consequence or punishment for a certain behavior, we are less likely to repeat it. Our brains go, “Hmm, that didn’t turn out so well. Let’s avoid that in the future.”

Let’s talk about two reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement is like adding a sprinkle of sweetness to our lives. It happens when we receive something pleasurable, reward, or desirable as a result of our behavior.

When we receive positive reinforcement, we are more likely to continue the behavior that led to it. It’s like a little pat on the back for doing something well.

Negative reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement involves the removal of something unpleasant or undesirable. Let’s say you have a noisy alarm clock that wakes you up every morning. You hit the snooze button to make it stop.

In this case, the annoying sound is the negative stimulus, and when you hit snooze, it goes away. As a result, you are more likely to hit snooze again in the future because it helps you avoid the unpleasant noise.

Both positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again. They are like rewards or incentives that motivate us to continue certain actions.

Reinforcement theory teaches us two more concepts:

Extinction:

Extinction occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced. Let’s say you used to get a reward for cleaning your room, but suddenly your parents stop giving you that reward. Without reinforcement, you might stop cleaning your room because you don’t see the point anymore.

Punishment:

Punishment is when an unpleasant consequence is given to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Let’s say you break a rule and your parents ground you for a week. This punishment makes you think twice before breaking the rule again because you don’t want to go through that unpleasant experience.

This is one of the most powerful theories of motivation which can help you shape your own behavior and even influence others positively. If you want to develop good habits , like going to the gym regularly, you can use positive reinforcement by rewarding yourself with something you enjoy after each successful gym session.

This will make you more likely to keep going because your brain loves those rewards. If you want to break a bad habit , you can use punishment by creating an unpleasant consequence for yourself whenever you engage in that behavior.

For example, if you are trying to quit spending too much time on social media, you could make a rule that for every hour you spend scrolling, you have to do an extra hour of studying. (Check out – 20 Bad habits you need to Quit now )

So reinforcement theory is understanding the effects of rewards and punishment on your behavior. By using it, you can develop good habits, break bad ones, and create a positive impact on your own life. (Check out – 70 Good habits that can change your life forever )

8. Equity Theory:

Adam’s equity theory helps you understand the motivation and fairness in your life. Imagine, you are sitting in a room with your friend, and each of you is given a piece of cake. But you notice that your friend’s cake piece is twice as big as yours.

How would you feel? probably a bit unfair, right? That is where Adam’s equity theory comes into play. It suggests that we all have an innate sense of fairness and equality. We all strive for fairness in our relationships and interactions.

According to this theory, we constantly compare the ratio of our inputs (like effort, time, and skills) to the outcomes (rewards, recognition) we receive and also compare these inputs and outcomes to the people around us.

In simple words, if you feel that the ratio of your inputs to outcomes is balanced and similar to others around us, you likely feel satisfied and motivated. This is applicable in personal as well as professional situations.

On the other hand, if you perceive an imbalance, like someone else getting more rewards for the same amount of effort, it creates a sense of unfairness and can lead to demotivation, frustration, or even resentment.

Importance of perceived fairness in motivation:

Equity theory emphasizes that ensuring perceived fairness in our personal and professional lives is important for maintaining high levels of motivation and satisfaction.

Let’s say you are working at a company, and you see that your colleague, who puts in the same effort as you, is getting promoted while you are left behind. How would that make you feel? Not great, right?

Perceived fairness plays a significant role in how motivated we are to give out best. When we believe that the rewards and recognition we receive are fair and just, it creates a positive motivational environment.

We feel valued and appreciated which encourages us to continue putting in effort and striving for success. This is super useful to leaders and higher-level managers. (Check out – Psychology of Motivation )

On the other hand, when we perceive unfairness, it can have the opposite effect. If we see someone receiving more rewards and benefits without deserving them, it can down our motivation and make us question the worth of our efforts. 

We might start feeling demotivated, and unappreciated. In personal relationships, equity is about ensuring a fair distribution of efforts and rewards between partners, family members, or friends. It means both parties should contribute to the relationship in a way that feels equal and satisfying to the individual.

Similarly, in professional settings, equity is crucial for maintaining a motivated and productive workforce. Leaders or managers need to ensure that employees or team members’ efforts are recognized and rewarded fairly.

Ultimately Adam’s equity theory reminds us that fairness matters in relationships, both personal and professional. It highlights the importance of open communication, transparency, and ensuring that everyone feels valued and respected for their contributions.

Understanding the theories of motivation is like holding a key to unlock the door to personal and professional success. Throughout this article, we have explored the 8 most popular theories in detail that shed light on what truly drives human behavior.

From Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to the self-determination theory, each theory offers valuable insights into the complex mechanisms behind motivation. By delving into these motivation theories, you can gain a deeper understanding of yourself and those around you.

So whether you seek to inspire others, ignite your own inner fire, or unravel the mysteries of human behavior, delve into these motivation theories and unleash the untapped potential within you.

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The Incentive Theory of Motivation

• How It Works

Some psychologists feel that we are motivated to do things because of our internal desires and wishes (e.g., going to the gym every day because it makes us feel better). Others say that our actions are driven by external rewards (working out daily to win a cash prize).

Incentive theory is one of the psychological theories of motivation that suggests that behavior is motivated by outside reinforcement or incentives versus internal forces. Understanding how incentive theory works can help you better recognize what might be motivating you to act a certain way or engage in specific behaviors. It also enables you to put your own incentives in place, potentially making it easier to reach your desired goals.

History of Incentive Theory

The idea that our behaviors are influenced or reinforced by external factors is credited largely to psychologist B. F. Skinner . In Skinner's 1938 book Behavior of Organisms , he argued that people are not driven to act by internal states, such as acting aggressively due to feeling angry. Instead, we are driven or incentivized to act based primarily on three environmental events: deprivation, satiation, and aversive stimulation.

Incentive theory continued to be revised in the 1940s and 1950s. During this time, its development was influenced by several drive theories, such as those established by psychologist Clark Hull .

Hull contended that behavior is driven by biological deprivation, which thereby creates motivation to act.

In the late 1950s, Frederick Herzberg expanded this ideology even more, creating what is known as the two-factor incentive theory. This theory is based on a study that Herzberg conducted on employees to learn what contributed to or took away from their feelings of job satisfaction.

This study involved asking employees what made them feel good about their job and what made them feel bad. Based on their answers, Herzberg proposed that job satisfaction was based on two factors:

• Motivators , such as the desire for recognition, achievement, or advancement
• Hygiene , which includes company policies, salary, working conditions, etc.

How Incentive Theory Works

In contrast with other theories that suggest we are pushed into action by internal or intrinsic forces of motivation , incentive theory proposes that we are pulled into action by outside incentives. More specifically, people are pulled toward behaviors that lead to outside rewards and pushed away from actions that lead to negative consequences.

Incentive theory can be likened to operant conditioning , where behaviors are performed to either gain reinforcement or avoid punishment.

What type of rewards might we want to gain? Good grades are an incentive that can motivate students to study hard and do well in school. Gaining esteem and accolades from teachers and parents might be another. Money is also an excellent example of an external reward that motivates behavior.

Rewards must be obtainable in order to be motivating. For example, a student will not be motivated to earn a top grade on an exam if the assignment is so difficult that it is not realistically achievable. Rewards must also be important or they won't be powerful enough to spur a person into action.

In many cases, external rewards can motivate you to do things that you might otherwise avoid, such as chores, work, and other tasks you find unpleasant. They can also be used to get you to stop performing certain actions, such as quitting smoking to prevent the negative consequence of developing lung cancer.

Types of Incentives

In psychology, an incentive is defined as "an external stimulus, such as a condition or an object, that enhances or serves as a motive for behavior." Incentive theory includes two different types of incentives:

• Positive incentives . These are the rewards received from taking certain actions, such as receiving a commission if you make a specific number of sales.
• Negative incentives . These are punishments received from taking certain actions, such as getting a speeding ticket if you drive faster than the law allows.

Examples of Incentive Theory

You can probably think of many different situations where your behavior was directly influenced by the promise of a reward. Perhaps you studied for an exam in order to get a good grade, ran a marathon to receive a ribbon, or took a new position at work to get a raise. All of these actions involve being influenced by an incentive to gain something in return for your efforts.

Or maybe your behavior was more incentivized by avoiding punishment . Examples of incentive theory in this context include turning in a big assignment to avoid failing the class, eating a salad instead of a burger to not gain more weight, or biting your tongue in an argument to keep from getting into a fight.

Challenges of Incentive Theory

Not all incentives are created equal, and the rewards that you find motivating might not be enough to inspire another person to take action. Physiological, social, and cognitive factors can all play a role in what incentives you find motivating.

For example, you are more likely to be motivated by food when you are actually hungry versus when you are full. Additionally, while one teenager might be motivated to clean their room by the promise of a coveted video game, another teen could find such a game completely unappealing, thereby not motivating them into action.

Incentives can also change depending on the situation. In Psychology: A Discovery Experience , author Stephen L. Franzoi gives an example: "When you are home, your parents' praise may be a positive incentive. However, when your friends visit, you may go out of your way to avoid receiving parental praise, because your friends may tease you."

Two people may act differently in the same situation based on the type of incentives that are appealing to them at that time.

Incentive Theory vs. Other Motivational Theories

Incentive theory is just one of several theories of motivation. Other motivational theories include:

• Arousal theory : our motivation to act is based on trying to achieve our desired level of physiological arousal, such as jumping out of a plane to feel more alive or listening to soothing music to relax
• Drive-reduction theory of motivation : our behaviors are a result of our desire to reduce certain biological drives, such as putting on a coat if we feel cold
• Instinct theory : our actions are a result of our inborn need to engage in certain actions for survival, such as getting something to eat when you are hungry to avoid starvation

How to Use Incentive Theory to Improve Motivation

Setting up your own incentives can increase your motivation to reach your desired goals . Here are a few tips to do this effectively:

• Create a reward that is important to you . If your reward isn't strong enough, it likely won't compel you to take action consistently over time. If you have a favorite show, for example, only let yourself watch it after you've done your daily workout.
• Develop a list of reward options . Since incentives can change based on situation or time, it can help to have a list of rewards from which to choose. This helps motivate you to take your desired action based on what is important to you at the time.
• Engage in visualization . Take a few moments and sit with your eyes closed while visualizing how good the reward feels once it is received. Use all your senses. The more you can "feel" what it would mean to have the reward, the more this motivates you into action.
• Set realistic guidelines for receiving the reward . If you have to have to run 20 miles to earn a reward and you can't even run one, your feelings of overwhelm are likely to be strong enough to reduce your motivation to lace up your shoes. Keep your guidelines realistic so they don't stop you from even getting started.

A Word From Verywell

Consider what motivates you as you work on your goals. Are you trying to gain an incentive or do you want to avoid a negative consequence? Understanding the forces behind your actions can help you determine how to best motivate yourself to reach your specific goals.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research

• First Online: 03 May 2018

Cite this chapter

• Paulina Arango 4  

Part of the book series: Literacy Studies ((LITS,volume 15))

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Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the disposition to act and direct behavior according to a goal. Like most of psychological processes, motivation develops throughout the life span and is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The aim of this chapter is to summarize research on the development of motivation from infancy to adolescence, which can help understand the typical developmental trajectories of this ability and its relation to learning. We will start with a review of some of the most influential theories of motivation and the aspects each of them has emphasized. We will also explore how biology and experience interact in this development, paying special attention to factors such as: school, family, and peers, as well as characteristics of the child including self-esteem, cognitive development, and temperament. Finally, we will discuss the implications of understanding the developmental trajectories and the factors that have an impact on this development, for both teachers and parents.

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Understanding and Supporting Student Motivation for Learning

Motivation and Action: Introduction and Overview

Intrinsic Motivation

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Arango, P. (2018). Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research. In: Orellana García, P., Baldwin Lind, P. (eds) Reading Achievement and Motivation in Boys and Girls. Literacy Studies, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75948-7_1

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Chapter 5 Theories of Motivation

Learning objectives.

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Understand the role of motivation in determining employee performance.
• Classify the basic needs of employees.
• Describe how fairness perceptions are determined and consequences of these perceptions.
• Understand the importance of rewards and punishments.
• Apply motivation theories to analyze performance problems.

What inspires employees to provide excellent service, market a company’s products effectively, or achieve the goals set for them? Answering this question is of utmost importance if we are to understand and manage the work behavior of our peers, subordinates, and even supervisors. Put a different way, if someone is not performing well, what could be the reason?

Job performance is viewed as a function of three factors and is expressed with the equation below. Mitchell, T. R. (1982). Motivation: New directions for theory, research, and practice. Academy of Management Review , 7 , 80–88; Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance . Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. According to this equation, motivation, ability, and environment are the major influences over employee performance.

Performance is a function of the interaction between an individual’s motivation, ability, and environment.

Motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance. Motivation The desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior. is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior. When we refer to someone as being motivated, we mean that the person is trying hard to accomplish a certain task. Motivation is clearly important if someone is to perform well; however, it is not sufficient. Ability Having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job. —or having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job—is also important and is sometimes the key determinant of effectiveness. Finally, environmental External factors that affect performance. factors such as having the resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance. At different times, one of these three factors may be the key to high performance. For example, for an employee sweeping the floor, motivation may be the most important factor that determines performance. In contrast, even the most motivated individual would not be able to successfully design a house without the necessary talent involved in building quality homes. Being motivated is not the same as being a high performer and is not the sole reason why people perform well, but it is nevertheless a key influence over our performance level.

So what motivates people? Why do some employees try to reach their targets and pursue excellence while others merely show up at work and count the hours? As with many questions involving human beings, the answer is anything but simple. Instead, there are several theories explaining the concept of motivation. We will discuss motivation theories under two categories: need-based theories and process theories.

5.1 A Motivating Place to Work: The Case of Zappos

It is unique to hear about a CEO who studies happiness and motivation and builds those principles into the company’s core values or about a company with a 5-week training course and an offer of $2,000 to quit anytime during that 5 weeks if you feel the company is not a good fit. Top that off with an on-site life coach who also happens to be a chiropractor, and you are really talking about something you don’t hear about every day. Zappos is known as much for its 365-day return policy and free shipping as it is for its innovative corporate culture. Although acquired in 2009 by Amazon (NASDAQ: AMZN), Zappos managed to move from number 23 in 2009 on Fortune magazine’s “100 Best Companies to Work For” list to 15 in 2010.

Performance is a function of motivation, ability, and the environment in which you work. Zappos seems to be creating an environment that encourages motivation and builds inclusiveness. The company delivers above and beyond basic workplace needs and addresses the self-actualization needs that most individuals desire from their work experience. CEO Tony Hsieh believes that the secret to customer loyalty is to make a corporate culture of caring a priority. This is reflected in the company’s 10 core values and its emphasis on building a team and a family. During the interview process, applicants are asked questions relating to the company’s values, such as gauging their own weirdness, open-mindedness, and sense of family. Although the offer to be paid to quit during the training process has increased from its original number of $400, only 1% of trainees take the offer. Work is structured differently at Zappos as well. For example, there is no limit to the time customer service representatives spend on a phone call, and they are encouraged to make personal connections with the individuals on the other end rather than try to get rid of them.

Although Zappos has over 1,300 employees, the company has been able to maintain a relatively flat organizational structure and prides itself on its extreme transparency. In an exceptionally detailed and lengthy letter to employees, Hsieh spelled out what the new partnership with Amazon would mean for the company, what would change, and more important, what would remain the same. As a result of this type of company structure, individuals have more freedom, which can lead to greater satisfaction.

Although Zappos pays its employees well and offers attractive benefits such as employees receiving full health-care coverage and a compressed workweek, the desire to work at Zappos seems to go beyond that. As Hsieh would say, happiness is the driving force behind almost any action an individual takes. Whether your goals are for achievement, affiliation, or simply to find an enjoyable environment in which to work, Zappos strives to address these needs.

Case written by [citation redacted per publisher request] . Based on information from Robischon, N. (2009, July 22). Amazon buys Zappos for $847 million. Fast Company . Retrieved February 28, 2010, from http://www.fastcompany.com/blog/noah-robischon/editors-desk/amazon-buys-zappos-807-million ; Walker, A. (2009, March 14). Zappos’ Tony Hsieh on Twitter, phone calls and the pursuit of happiness. Fast Company . Retrieved February 27, 2010, from http://www.fastcompany.com/blog/alissa-walker/member-blog/tony-hsiehs-zapposcom ; Happy feet—Inside the online shoe utopia. (2009, September 14). New Yorker . Retrieved February 28, 2010, from http://about.zappos.com/press-center/media-coverage/happy-feet-inside-online-shoe-utopia ; 100 best companies to work for. (2010, February 8). Fortune . Retrieved February 26, 2010, from http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/bestcompanies/2010/snapshots/15.html .

Discussion Questions

• What potential organizational changes might result from the acquisition by Amazon?
• Why do you think Zappos’ approach is not utilized more often? In other words, what are the challenges to these techniques?
• Why do you think Zappos offers a $2,000 incentive to quit?
• Would you be motivated to work at Zappos? Why or why not?

5.2 Need-Based Theories of Motivation

• Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• Explain how the ERG (existence, relatedness, growth) theory addresses the limitations of Maslow’s hierarchy.
• Describe the differences among factors contributing to employee motivation and how these differ from factors contributing to dissatisfaction.
• Describe need for achievement, power, and affiliation, and identify how these acquired needs affect work behavior.

The earliest studies of motivation involved an examination of individual needs. Specifically, early researchers thought that employees try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior in order to satisfy needs. For example, an employee who is always walking around the office talking to people may have a need for companionship, and his behavior may be a way of satisfying this need. At the time, researchers developed theories to understand what people need. Four theories may be placed under this category: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s acquired-needs theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the twentieth century. His hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to most business students and managers. The theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review , 50 , 370–396; Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality . New York: Harper. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence nothing else matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs. In other words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.

Figure 5.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs The need for air, food, and water. . Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These needs are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them may overpower all other urges. Imagine being very hungry. At that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you eat, though, the search for food ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs The need to be free from danger and pain. . Are they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an uncertain future? On the next level up, social needs The needs of bonding with other human beings, being loved, and forming lasting attachments with them. refer to the need to bond with other human beings, be loved, and form lasting attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are associated with our health and well-being. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin , 117 , 497–529. The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs The desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated. more salient. Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization The need to become all you are capable of becoming. refers to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges, and behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals.

Maslow was a clinical psychologist, and his theory was not originally designed for work settings. In fact, his theory was based on his observations of individuals in clinical settings; some of the individual components of the theory found little empirical support. One criticism relates to the order in which the needs are ranked. It is possible to imagine that individuals who go hungry and are in fear of their lives might retain strong bonds to others, suggesting a different order of needs. Moreover, researchers failed to support the arguments that once a need is satisfied it no longer serves as a motivator and that only one need is dominant at a given time. Neher, A. (1991). Maslow’s theory of motivation: A critique. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 31 , 89–112; Rauschenberger, J., Schmitt, N., & Hunter, J. E. (1980). A test of the need hierarchy concept by a Markov model of change in need strength. Administrative Science Quarterly , 25 , 654–670.

Despite the lack of strong research support, Maslow’s theory found obvious applications in business settings. Understanding what people need gives us clues to understanding them. The hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking about the different needs employees may have at any given point and explains different reactions they may have to similar treatment. An employee who is trying to satisfy esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor praises an accomplishment. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy social needs may resent being praised by upper management in front of peers if the praise sets the individual apart from the rest of the group.

How can an organization satisfy its employees’ various needs? In the long run, physiological needs may be satisfied by the person’s paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and esteem as well. Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security, will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment and providing a workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Company picnics and other social get-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are not and if they have to sacrifice a Sunday afternoon for a company picnic). Providing promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person’s accomplishments verbally or through more formal reward systems, and conferring job titles that communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status within the organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging. By making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

ERG theory includes existence, relatedness, and growth.

Source: Based on Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance , 4 , 142–175.

ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance , 4 , 142–175. Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence A need corresponding to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness A need corresponding to Maslow’s social needs. corresponds to social needs, and growth A need referring to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization. refers to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization.

ERG theory’s main contribution to the literature is its relaxation of Maslow’s assumptions. For example, ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given time. Moreover, the theory has a “frustration-regression” hypothesis suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another. For example, someone who is frustrated by the growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career goals may regress to relatedness need and start spending more time socializing with coworkers. The implication of this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and properly motivate them.

Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way. By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work . New York: John Wiley; Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology , 18 , 393–402. Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors Company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job. included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent but take for granted if they are present.

In contrast, motivators Factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities. are factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg’s research, motivators are the conditions that truly encourage employees to try harder.

The two-factor theory of motivation includes hygiene factors and motivators.

Sources: Based on Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work . New York: John Wiley and Sons; Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology , 18 , 393–402.

Herzberg’s research is far from being universally accepted. Cummings, L. L., & Elsalmi, A. M. (1968). Empirical research on the bases and correlates of managerial motivation. Psychological Bulletin , 70 , 127–144; House, R. J., & Wigdor, L. A. (1967). Herzberg’s dual-factor theory of job satisfaction and motivation: A review of the evidence and a criticism. Personnel Psychology , 20 , 369–389. One criticism relates to the primary research methodology employed when arriving at hygiene versus motivators. When people are asked why they are satisfied, they may attribute the causes of satisfaction to themselves, whereas when explaining what dissatisfies them, they may blame the situation. The classification of the factors as hygiene or motivator is not that simple either. For example, the theory views pay as a hygiene factor. However, pay may have symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized for their contributions as well as communicating that they are advancing within the company. Similarly, the quality of supervision or the types of relationships employees form with their supervisors may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether they are recognized for their potential, and whether they take on more responsibilities.

Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable aid to managers because it points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees. Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter because their absence causes dissatisfaction. However, solely focusing on hygiene factors will not be enough, and managers should also enrich jobs by giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities, advancement opportunities, and a job in which their subordinates can feel successful.

Acquired-Needs Theory

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory is the one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power. All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior.

McClelland used a unique method called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) A test that assesses a person’s dominant needs. to assess the dominant need. Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin , 112 , 140–154. This method entails presenting research subjects an ambiguous picture asking them to write a story based on it. Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is she doing? Why is she doing it? The story you tell about the woman in the picture would then be analyzed by trained experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person.

If the story you come up with contains themes of success, meeting deadlines, or coming up with brilliant ideas, you may be high in need for achievement. Those who have high need for achievement Having a strong need to be successful. have a strong need to be successful. As children, they may be praised for their hard work, which forms the foundations of their persistence. Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 , 33–52. As adults, they are preoccupied with doing things better than they did in the past. These individuals are constantly striving to improve their performance. They relentlessly focus on goals, particularly stretch goals that are challenging in nature. Campbell, D. J. (1982). Determinants of choice of goal difficulty level: A review of situational and personality influences. Journal of Occupational Psychology , 55 , 79–95. They are particularly suited to positions such as sales, where there are explicit goals, feedback is immediately available, and their effort often leads to success. In fact, they are more attracted to organizations that are merit-based and reward performance rather than seniority. They also do particularly well as entrepreneurs, scientists, and engineers. Harrell, A. M., & Stahl, M. J. (1981). A behavioral decision theory approach for measuring McClelland’s trichotomy of needs. Journal of Applied Psychology , 66 , 242–247; Trevis, C. S., & Certo, S. C. (2005). Spotlight on entrepreneurship. Business Horizons , 48 , 271–274; Turban, D. B., & Keon, T. L. (1993). Organizational attractiveness: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology , 78 , 184–193.

Are individuals who are high in need for achievement effective managers? Because of their success in lower level jobs where their individual contributions matter the most, those with high need for achievement are often promoted to higher level positions. McClelland, D. C., & Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). Leadership motive pattern and long-term success in management. Journal of Applied Psychology , 67 , 737–743. However, a high need for achievement has significant disadvantages in management positions. Management involves getting work done by motivating others. When a salesperson is promoted to be a sales manager, the job description changes from actively selling to recruiting, motivating, and training salespeople. Those who are high in need for achievement may view managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a waste of time and may neglect these aspects of their jobs. Moreover, those high in need for achievement enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to delegate any meaningful authority to their subordinates. These individuals often micromanage, expecting others to approach tasks a particular way, and may become overbearing bosses by expecting everyone to display high levels of dedication. McClelland, D. C., & Burnham, D. H. (1976). Power is the great motivator. Harvard Business Review , 25 , 159–166.

If the story you created in relation to the picture you are analyzing contains elements of making plans to be with friends or family, you may have a high need for affiliation. Individuals who have a high need for affiliation Wanting to be liked and accepted by others. want to be liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they prefer to interact with others and be with friends. Wong, M. M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Affiliation motivation and daily experience: Some issues on gender differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 , 154–164. Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring frequent interpersonal interaction, such as a social worker or teacher. In managerial positions, a high need for affiliation may again serve as a disadvantage because these individuals tend to be overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. They may find it difficult to perform some aspects of a manager’s job such as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor performers. Thus, the work environment may be characterized by mediocrity and may even lead to high performers leaving the team.

Finally, if your story contains elements of getting work done by influencing other people or desiring to make an impact on the organization, you may have a high need for power. Those with a high need for power Wanting to influence others and control their environment. want to influence others and control their environment. A need for power may in fact be a destructive element in relationships with colleagues if it takes the form of seeking and using power for one’s own good and prestige. However, when it manifests itself in more altruistic forms such as changing the way things are done so that the work environment is more positive, or negotiating more resources for one’s department, it tends to lead to positive outcomes. In fact, the need for power is viewed as an important trait for effectiveness in managerial and leadership positions. McClelland, D. C., & Burnham, D. H. (1976). Power is the great motivator. Harvard Business Review , 25 , 159–166; Spangler, W. D., & House, R. J. (1991). Presidential effectiveness and the leadership motive profile. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 , 439–455; Spreier, S. W. (2006). Leadership run amok. Harvard Business Review , 84 , 72–82.

McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for the motivation of employees. Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to be able to motivate them. While people who have a high need for achievement may respond to goals, those with a high need for power may attempt to gain influence over those they work with, and individuals high in their need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their peers and supervisors. Finally, those who have a high drive for success may experience difficulties in managerial positions, and making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.

Key Takeaway

Need-based theories describe motivated behavior as individuals’ efforts to meet their needs. According to this perspective, the manager’s job is to identify what people need and make the work environment a means of satisfying these needs. Maslow’s hierarchy describes five categories of basic human needs, including physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. These needs are hierarchically ranked, and as a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator. ERG theory is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy, in which the five needs are collapsed into three categories (existence, relatedness, and growth). The theory recognizes that when employees are frustrated while attempting to satisfy higher level needs, they may regress. The two-factor theory differentiates between factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees (motivators). Finally, acquired-needs theory argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others. The type of need that is dominant will drive behavior. Each of these theories explains characteristics of a work environment that motivates employees. These theories paved the way to process-based theories that explain the mental calculations employees make to decide how to behave.

• Many managers assume that if an employee is not performing well, the reason must be a lack of motivation. Do you think this reasoning is accurate? What is the problem with the assumption?
• Review Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Do you agree with the particular ranking of employee needs?
• How can an organization satisfy employee needs that are included in Maslow’s hierarchy?
• Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in explaining why people behave in a certain way? Why?
• Review the hygiene and motivators in the two-factor theory of motivation. Do you agree with the distinction between hygiene factors and motivators? Are there any hygiene factors that you would consider to be motivators?
• A friend of yours demonstrates the traits of achievement motivation: This person is competitive, requires frequent and immediate feedback, and enjoys accomplishing things and doing things better than she did before. She has recently been promoted to a managerial position and seeks your advice. What would you tell her?

5.3 Process-Based Theories

• Explain how employees evaluate the fairness of reward distributions.
• Describe the three types of fairness that affect employee attitudes and behaviors.
• List the three questions individuals consider when deciding whether to put forth effort at work.
• Describe how managers can use learning and reinforcement principles to motivate employees.

A separate stream of research views motivation as something more than action aimed at satisfying a need. Instead, process-based theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain ways. Process theories attempt to explain the thought processes of individuals who demonstrate motivated behavior. Under this category, we will review equity theory, expectancy theory, and reinforcement theory.

Equity Theory

Imagine that you are paid $10 an hour working as an office assistant. You have held this job for 6 months. You are very good at what you do, you come up with creative ways to make things easier around you, and you are a good colleague who is willing to help others. You stay late when necessary and are flexible if requested to change hours. Now imagine that you found out they are hiring another employee who is going to work with you, who will hold the same job title, and who will perform the same type of tasks. This particular person has more advanced computer skills, but it is unclear whether these will be used on the job. The starting pay for this person will be $14 an hour. How would you feel? Would you be as motivated as before, going above and beyond your duties? How would you describe what you would be feeling?

Equity is determined by comparing one’s input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of a referent. When the two ratios are equal, equity exists.

Source: Based on Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 267–299). New York: Academic Press.

If your reaction to this scenario is along the lines of “this would be unfair,” your behavior may be explained using equity theory. Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 267–299). New York: Academic Press. According to this theory, individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions. Moreover, our sense of fairness is a result of the social comparisons we make. Specifically, we compare our inputs and outcomes with other people’s inputs and outcomes. We perceive fairness if we believe that the input-to-outcome ratio we are bringing into the situation is similar to the input-to-outcome ratio of a comparison person, or a referent A person we compare ourselves to in equity theory. . Perceptions of inequity create tension within us and drive us to action that will reduce perceived inequity.

What Are Inputs and Outcomes?

Inputs are the contributions people feel they are making to the environment. In the previous example, the person’s hard work; loyalty to the organization; amount of time with the organization; and level of education, training, and skills may have been relevant inputs. Outcomes are the perceived rewards someone can receive from the situation. For the hourly wage employee in our example, the $10 an hour pay rate was a core outcome. There may also be other, more peripheral outcomes, such as acknowledgment or preferential treatment from a manager. In the prior example, however, the person may reason as follows: I have been working here for 6 months. I am loyal, and I perform well (inputs). I am paid $10 an hour for this (outcomes). The new person does not have any experience here (referent’s inputs) but will be paid $14 an hour. This situation is unfair.

We should emphasize that equity perceptions develop as a result of a subjective process. Different people may look at the same situation and perceive different levels of equity. For example, another person may look at the same scenario and decide that the situation is fair because the newcomer has computer skills and the company is paying extra for those skills.

Who Is the Referent?

The referent other may be a specific person as well as a category of people. Referents should be comparable to us—otherwise the comparison is not meaningful. It would be pointless for a student worker to compare himself to the CEO of the company, given the differences in the nature of inputs and outcomes. Instead, individuals may compare themselves to someone performing similar tasks within the same organization or, in the case of a CEO, a different organization.

Reactions to Unfairness

The theory outlines several potential reactions to perceived inequity. Oftentimes, the situation may be dealt with perceptually by altering our perceptions of our own or the referent’s inputs and outcomes . For example, we may justify the situation by downplaying our own inputs (I don’t really work very hard on this job), valuing our outcomes more highly (I am gaining valuable work experience, so the situation is not that bad), distorting the other person’s inputs (the new hire really is more competent than I am and deserves to be paid more), or distorting the other person’s outcomes (she gets $14 an hour but will have to work with a lousy manager, so the situation is not unfair). Another option would be to have the referent increase inputs . If the other person brings more to the situation, getting more out of the situation would be fair. If that person can be made to work harder or work on more complicated tasks, equity would be achieved. The person experiencing a perceived inequity may also reduce inputs or attempt to increase outcomes . If the lower paid person puts forth less effort, the perceived inequity would be reduced. Research shows that people who perceive inequity reduce their work performance or reduce the quality of their inputs. Carrell, M. R., & Dittrich, J. E. (1978). Equity theory: The recent literature, methodological considerations, and new directions. Academy of Management Review , 3 , 202–210; Goodman, P. S., & Friedman, A. (1971). An examination of Adams’ theory of inequity. Administrative Science Quarterly , 16 , 271–288. Increasing one’s outcomes can be achieved through legitimate means such as negotiating a pay raise. At the same time, research shows that those feeling inequity sometimes resort to stealing to balance the scales. Greenberg, J. (1993). Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and interpersonal moderators of theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 54 , 81–103. Other options include changing the comparison person (e.g., others doing similar work in different organizations are paid only minimum wage) and leaving the situation by quitting. Schmidt, D. R., & Marwell, G. (1972). Withdrawal and reward reallocation as responses to inequity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 8 , 207–211. Sometimes it may be necessary to consider taking legal action as a potential outcome of perceived inequity. For example, if an employee finds out the main reason behind a pay gap is gender related, the person may react to the situation by taking legal action because sex discrimination in pay is illegal in the United States.

Table 5.1 Potential Responses to Inequity

Source: Based on research findings reported in Carrell, M. R., & Dittrich, J. E. (1978). Equity theory: The recent literature, methodological considerations, and new directions. Academy of Management Review , 3 , 202–210; Goodman, P. S., & Friedman, A. (1971). An examination of Adams’s theory of inequity. Administrative Science Quarterly , 16 , 271–288; Greenberg, J. (1993). Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and interpersonal moderators of theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 54 , 81–103; Schmidt, D. R., & Marwell, G. (1972). Withdrawal and reward reallocation as responses to inequity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 8 , 207–211.

Overpayment Inequity

What would you do if you felt you were over-rewarded? In other words, how would you feel if you were the new employee in our student-worker scenario? Originally, equity theory proposed that over-rewarded individuals would experience guilt and would increase their effort to restore perceptions of equity. However, research does not provide support for this argument. Instead, it seems that individuals experience less distress as a result of being over-rewarded. Austin, W., & Walster, E. (1974). Reactions to confirmations and disconfirmations of expectancies of equity and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 30 , 208–216. It is not hard to imagine that individuals find perceptual ways to deal with a situation like this, such as believing they have more skills and bring more to the situation compared to the referent person. Therefore, research does not support equity theory’s predictions with respect to people who are overpaid. Evan, W. M., & Simmons, R. G. (1969). Organizational effects of inequitable rewards: Two experiments in status inconsistency. IEEE Engineering Management Review , 1 , 95–108.

Individual Differences in Reactions to Inequity

So far, we have assumed that once people feel a situation is inequitable, they will be motivated to react. However, does inequity disturb everyone equally? Researchers have identified a personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity and named this trait as equity sensitivity A personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity. . Huseman, R. C., Hatfield, J. D., & Miles, E. W. (1987). A new perspective on equity theory: The equity sensitivity construct. Academy of Management Review , 12 , 222–234. Equity-sensitive individuals expect to maintain equitable relationships, and they experience distress when they feel they are over-rewarded or under-rewarded. At the same time, there are some individuals who are benevolents Individuals who give without waiting to receive much in return. , those who give without waiting to receive much in return, and entitleds Individuals who expect to receive a lot without giving much in return. , who expect to receive substantial compensation for relatively little input. Therefore, the theory is more useful in explaining the behavior of equity-sensitive individuals, and organizations will need to pay particular attention to how these individuals view their relationships.

Fairness Beyond Equity: Procedural and Interactional Justice

Equity theory looks at perceived fairness as a motivator. However, the way equity theory defines fairness is limited to fairness of rewards. Starting in the 1970s, research on workplace fairness began taking a broader view of justice. Equity theory deals with outcome fairness, and therefore it is considered to be a distributive justice theory. Distributive justice The degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are fair. refers to the degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair. Two other types of fairness have been identified: procedural justice and interactional justice.

Figure 5.8 Dimensions of Organizational Justice

Let’s assume that you just found out you are getting a promotion. Clearly, this is an exciting outcome and comes with a pay raise, increased responsibilities, and prestige. If you feel you deserve to be promoted, you would perceive high distributive justice (your getting the promotion is fair). However, you later found out upper management picked your name out of a hat! What would you feel? You might still like the outcome but feel that the decision-making process was unfair. If so, you are describing feelings of procedural justice. Procedural justice The degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. refers to the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. People do not care only about reward fairness. They also expect decision-making processes to be fair. In fact, research shows that employees care about the procedural justice of many organizational decisions, including layoffs, employee selection, surveillance of employees, performance appraisals, and pay decisions. Alge, B. J. (2001). Effects of computer surveillance on perceptions of privacy and procedural justice. Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 , 797–804; Bauer, T. N., Maertz, C. P., Jr., Dolen, M. R., & Campion, M. A. (1998). Longitudinal assessment of applicant reactions to employment testing and test outcome feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology , 83 , 892–903; Kidwell, R. E. (1995). Pink slips without tears. Academy of Management Executive , 9 , 69–70. People also tend to care more about procedural justice in situations in which they do not get the outcome they feel they deserve. Brockner, J., & Wiesenfeld, B. M. (1996). An integrative framework for explaining reactions to decisions: Interactive effects of outcomes and procedures. Psychological Bulletin , 120 , 189–208. If you did not get the promotion and later discovered that management chose the candidate by picking names out of a hat, how would you feel? This may be viewed as adding insult to injury. When people do not get the rewards they want, they tend to hold management responsible if procedures are not fair. Brockner, J., Fishman, A. Y., Reb, J., Goldman, B., Spiegel, S., & Garden, C. (2007). Procedural fairness, outcome favorability, and judgments of an authority’s responsibility. Journal of Applied Psychology , 92 , 1657–1671.

Why do employees care about procedural justice? There are three potential reasons. Cropanzano, R., Bowen, D. E., & Gilliland, S. W. (2007). The management of organizational justice. Academy of Management Perspectives , 21 , 34–48; Tyler, T. R. (1994). Psychological models of the justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 , 850–863; Tyler, T., Degoey, P., & Smith, H. (1996). Understanding why the justice of group procedures matters: A test of the psychological dynamics of the group-value model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 , 913–930. First, people tend to believe that fairness is an end in itself and it is the right thing to do. Second, fair processes guarantee future rewards. If your name was picked out of a hat, you have no control over the process, and there is no guarantee that you will get future promotions. If the procedures are fair, you are more likely to believe that things will work out in the future. Third, fairness communicates that the organization values its employees and cares about their well-being.

Research has identified many ways of achieving procedural justice. For example, giving employees advance notice before laying them off, firing them, or disciplining them is perceived as fair. Kidwell, R. E. (1995). Pink slips without tears. Academy of Management Executive , 9 , 69–70. Advance notice helps employees get ready for the changes facing them or gives them an opportunity to change their behavior before it is too late. Allowing employees voice in decision making is also important. Alge, B. J. (2001). Effects of computer surveillance on perceptions of privacy and procedural justice. Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 , 797–804; Kernan, M. C., & Hanges, P. J. (2002). Survivor reactions to reorganization: Antecedents and consequences of procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice. Journal of Applied Psychology , 87 , 916–928; Lind, E. A., Kanfer, R., & Earley, C. P. (1990). Voice, control, and procedural justice: Instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 , 952–959. When designing a performance-appraisal system or implementing a reorganization, it may be a good idea to ask people for their input because it increases perceptions of fairness. Even when it is not possible to have employees participate, providing explanations to employees is helpful in fostering procedural justice. Schaubroeck, J., May, D. R., & William, B. F. (1994). Procedural justice explanations and employee reactions to economic hardship: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology , 79 , 455–460. Finally, people expect consistency in treatment. Bauer, T. N., Maertz, C. P., Jr., Dolen, M. R., & Campion, M. A. (1998). Longitudinal assessment of applicant reactions to employment testing and test outcome feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology , 83 , 892–903. If one person is given extra time when taking a test while another is not, individuals would perceive decision making as unfair.

Now let’s imagine the moment your boss told you that you are getting a promotion. Your manager’s exact words were, “Yes, we are giving you the promotion. The job is so simple that we thought even you can handle it.” Now what is your reaction? The feeling of unfairness you may now feel is explained by interactional justice. Interactional justice The degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. refers to the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. We expect to be treated with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers. When the opposite happens, we feel angry. Even when faced with negative outcomes such as a pay cut, being treated with dignity and respect serves as a buffer and alleviates our stress. Greenberg, J. (2006). Losing sleep over organizational injustice: Attenuating insomniac reactions to underpayment inequity with supervisory training in interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology , 91 , 58–69.

OB Toolbox: Be a Fair Person!

• When distributing rewards, make sure you pay attention to different contribution levels of employees . Treating everyone equally could be unfair if they participated and contributed at different levels. People who are more qualified, skilled, or those who did more than others expect to receive a greater share of rewards.
• Sometimes you may have to disregard people’s contributions to distribute certain rewards . Some rewards or privileges may be better distributed equally (e.g., health insurance) or based on the particular employee’s needs (such as unpaid leave for health reasons).
• Pay attention to how you make decisions . Before making a decision, ask people to give you their opinions if possible. Explain your decisions to people who are affected by it. Before implementing a change, give people advance notice. Enforce rules consistently among employees.
• Pay attention to how you talk to people . Treat others the way you want to be treated. Be kind, courteous, and considerate of their feelings.
• Remember that justice is in the eye of the beholder . Even when you feel you are being fair, others may not feel the same way, and it is their perception that counts. Therefore, pay attention to being perceived as fair.
• People do not care only about their own justice level . They also pay attention to how others are treated as well. Therefore, in addition to paying attention to how specific employees feel, creating a sense of justice in the entire organization is important.

Sources: Adapted from ideas in Colquitt, J. A. (2004). Does the justice of the one interact with the justice of the many? Reactions to procedural justice in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 , 633–646; Cropanzano, R., Bowen, D. E., & Gilliland, S. W. (2007). The management of organizational justice. Academy of Management Perspectives , 21 , 34–48.

Employers would benefit from paying attention to all three types of justice perceptions. In addition to being the right thing to do, paying attention to justice perceptions leads to outcomes companies care about. Injustice is directly harmful to employees’ psychological health and well-being and contributes to stress. Greenberg, J. (2004). Managing workplace stress by promoting organizational justice. Organizational Dynamics , 33 , 352–365; Tepper, B. J. (2001). Health consequences of organizational injustice: Tests of main and interactive effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 86 , 197–215. High levels of justice create higher levels of employee commitment to organizations, and they are related to higher job performance, higher levels of organizational citizenship (behaviors that are not part of one’s job description but help the organization in other ways, such as speaking positively about the company and helping others), and higher levels of customer satisfaction. Conversely, low levels of justice lead to retaliation and support of unionization. Blader, S. L. (2007). What leads organizational members to collectivize? Injustice and identification as precursors of union certification. Organization Science , 18 , 108–126; Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 86 , 278–321; Colquitt, J. A., Conlon, D. E., Wesson, M. J., Porter, C. O. L. H., & Ng, K. Y. (2001). Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research. Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 , 425–445; Cropanzano, R., Bowen, D. E., & Gilliland, S. W. (2007). The management of organizational justice. Academy of Management Perspectives , 21 , 34–48; Masterson, S. S. (2001). A trickle-down model of organizational justice: Relating employees’ and customers’ perceptions of and reactions to fairness. Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 , 594–604; Masterson, S. S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B. M., & Taylor, S. M. (2000). Integrating justice and social exchange: The differing effects of fair procedures and treatment on work relationships. Academy of Management Journal , 43 , 738–748; Moorman, R. H. (1991). Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship? Journal of Applied Psychology , 76 , 845–855; Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology , 82 , 434–443.

Expectancy Theory

According to expectancy theory, individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation. Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance . Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation . New York: Wiley. According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions.

Figure 5.9 Summary of Expectancy Theory

Sources: Based on Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance . Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation . New York: Wiley.

The first question is whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest, such as performance or success. This perception is labeled expectancy Whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest such as performance or success. . For example, do you believe that the effort you put forth in a class is related to performing well in that class? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.

The second question is the degree to which the person believes that performance is related to subsequent outcomes, such as rewards. This perception is labeled instrumentality The degree to which the person believes that performance is related to secondary outcomes such as rewards. . For example, do you believe that getting a good grade in the class is related to rewards such as getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, or from your friends or parents? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.

Finally, individuals are also concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting them as a result of performance. The anticipated satisfaction that will result from an outcome is labeled valence The value of the rewards awaiting the person as a result of performance. . For example, do you value getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, friends, or parents? If these outcomes are desirable to you, your expectancy and instrumentality is high, and you are more likely to put forth effort.

Expectancy theory is a well-accepted theory that has received a lot of research attention. Heneman, H. G., & Schwab, D. P. (1972). Evaluation of research on expectancy theory predictions of employee performance. Psychological Bulletin , 78 , 1–9; Van Eerde, W., & Thierry, H. (1996). Vroom’s expectancy models and work-related criteria: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 81 , 575–586. It is simple and intuitive. Consider the following example. Let’s assume that you are working in the concession stand of a movie theater. You have been selling an average of 100 combos of popcorn and soft drinks a day. Now your manager asks you to increase this number to 300 combos a day. Would you be motivated to try to increase your numbers? Here is what you may be thinking:

• Expectancy : Can I do it? If I try harder, can I really achieve this number? Is there a link between how hard I try and whether I reach this goal or not? If you feel that you can achieve this number if you try, you have high expectancy.
• Instrumentality : What is in it for me? What is going to happen if I reach 300? What are the outcomes that will follow? Are they going to give me a 2% pay raise? Am I going to be named the salesperson of the month? Am I going to receive verbal praise from my manager? If you believe that performing well is related to certain outcomes, instrumentality is high.
• Valence : How do I feel about the outcomes in question? Do I feel that a 2% pay raise is desirable? Do I find being named the salesperson of the month attractive? Do I think that being praised by my manager is desirable? If your answers are yes, valence is positive. In contrast, if you find the outcomes undesirable (you definitely do not want to be named the salesperson of the month because your friends would make fun of you), valence is negative.

If your answers to all three questions are affirmative—you feel that you can do it, you will get an outcome if you do it, and you value the reward—you are more likely to be motivated to put forth more effort toward selling more combos.

As a manager, how can you motivate employees? In fact, managers can influence all three perceptions. Cook, C. W. (1980). Guidelines for managing motivation. Business Horizons , 23 , 61–69.

Influencing Expectancy Perceptions

Employees may not believe that their effort leads to high performance for a multitude of reasons. First, they may not have the skills, knowledge, or abilities to successfully perform their jobs. The answer to this problem may be training employees or hiring people who are qualified for the jobs in question. Second, low levels of expectancy may be because employees may feel that something other than effort predicts performance, such as political behaviors on the part of employees. If employees believe that the work environment is not conducive to performing well (resources are lacking or roles are unclear), expectancy will also suffer. Therefore, clearing the path to performance and creating an environment in which employees do not feel restricted will be helpful. Finally, some employees may perceive little connection between their effort and performance level because they have an external locus of control, low self-esteem, or other personality traits that condition them to believe that their effort will not make a difference. In such cases, providing positive feedback and encouragement may help motivate employees.

Influencing Instrumentality Perceptions

Showing employees that their performance is rewarded is going to increase instrumentality perceptions. Therefore, the first step in influencing instrumentality is to connect pay and other rewards to performance using bonuses, award systems, and merit pay. However, this is not always sufficient, because people may not be aware of some of the rewards awaiting high performers. Publicizing any contests or award programs is needed to bring rewards to the awareness of employees. It is also important to highlight that performance, not something else, is being rewarded. For example, if a company has an employee of the month award that is rotated among employees, employees are unlikely to believe that performance is being rewarded. This type of meritless reward system may actually hamper the motivation of the highest performing employees by eroding instrumentality.

Influencing Valence

Employees are more likely to be motivated if they find the reward to be attractive. This process involves managers finding what their employees value. Desirable rewards tend to be fair and satisfy different employees’ diverging needs. Ensuring high valence involves getting to know a company’s employees. Talking to employees and surveying them about what rewards they find valuable are some methods to gain understanding. Finally, giving employees a choice between multiple rewards may be a good idea to increase valence.

Figure 5.10 Ways in Which Managers Can Influence Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov on behavioral conditioning and the later work of B. F. Skinner on operant conditioning. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior . New York: Free Press. According to reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its outcomes. Imagine that even though no one asked you to, you stayed late and drafted a report. When the manager found out, she was ecstatic and took you out to lunch and thanked you genuinely. The consequences following your good deed were favorable, and therefore you are more likely to demonstrate similar behaviors in the future. In other words, your taking initiative was reinforced. Instead, if your manager had said nothing about it and everyone ignored the sacrifice you made, you are less likely to demonstrate similar behaviors in the future.

Reinforcement theory is based on a simple idea that may be viewed as common sense. Beginning at infancy we learn through reinforcement. If you have observed a small child discovering the environment, you will see reinforcement theory in action. When the child discovers manipulating a faucet leads to water coming out and finds this outcome pleasant, he is more likely to repeat the behavior. If he burns his hand while playing with hot water, the child is likely to stay away from the faucet in the future.

Despite the simplicity of reinforcement, how many times have you seen positive behavior ignored, or worse, negative behavior rewarded? In many organizations, this is a familiar scenario. People go above and beyond the call of duty, yet their actions are ignored or criticized. People with disruptive habits may receive no punishments because the manager is afraid of the reaction the person will give when confronted. Problem employees may even receive rewards such as promotions so they will be transferred to a different location and become someone else’s problem. Moreover, it is common for people to be rewarded for the wrong kind of behavior. Steven Kerr has labeled this phenomenon “the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B.” Kerr, S. (1995). On the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B. Academy of Management Executive , 9 , 7–14. For example, a company may make public statements about the importance of quality. Yet, if they choose to reward shipments on time regardless of the amount of defects contained in the shipments, employees are more likely to ignore quality and focus on hurrying the delivery process. Because people learn to repeat their behaviors based on the consequences following their prior activities, managers will need to systematically examine the consequences of employee behavior and make interventions when needed.

Reinforcement Interventions

Reinforcement theory describes four interventions to modify employee behavior. Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired behaviors, while the remaining two are methods of reducing the frequency of undesired behaviors.

Figure 5.11 Reinforcement Methods

Positive reinforcement Making sure that behavior is met with positive consequences. is a method of increasing the desired behavior. Beatty, R. W., & Schneier, C. E. (1975). A case for positive reinforcement. Business Horizons , 18 , 57–66. Positive reinforcement involves making sure that behavior is met with positive consequences. For example, praising an employee for treating a customer respectfully is an example of positive reinforcement. If the praise immediately follows the positive behavior, the employee will see a link between the behavior and positive consequences and will be motivated to repeat similar behaviors.

Negative reinforcement Removal of unpleasant outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated. is also used to increase the desired behavior. Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated. Nagging an employee to complete a report is an example of negative reinforcement. The negative stimulus in the environment will remain present until positive behavior is demonstrated. The problem with negative reinforcement is that the negative stimulus may lead to unexpected behaviors and may fail to stimulate the desired behavior. For example, the person may start avoiding the manager to avoid being nagged.

Extinction The removal of rewards following negative behavior. is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviors. Extinction is the removal of rewards following negative behavior. Sometimes, negative behaviors are demonstrated because they are being inadvertently rewarded. For example, it has been shown that when people are rewarded for their unethical behaviors, they tend to demonstrate higher levels of unethical behaviors. Harvey, H. W., & Sims, H. P. (1978). Some determinants of unethical decision behavior: An experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology , 63 , 451–457. Thus, when the rewards following unwanted behaviors are removed, the frequency of future negative behaviors may be reduced. For example, if a coworker is forwarding unsolicited e-mail messages containing jokes, commenting and laughing at these jokes may be encouraging the person to keep forwarding these messages. Completely ignoring such messages may reduce their frequency.

Punishment Presenting negative consequences following unwanted behaviors. is another method of reducing the frequency of undesirable behaviors. Punishment involves presenting negative consequences following unwanted behaviors. Giving an employee a warning for consistently being late to work is an example of punishment.

Reinforcement Schedules

In addition to types of reinforcements, researchers have focused their attention on schedules of reinforcement as well. Beatty, R. W., & Schneier, C. E. (1975). A case for positive reinforcement. Business Horizons , 18 , 57–66. Reinforcement is presented on a continuous schedule When reinforcers follow all instances of positive behavior. if reinforcers follow all instances of positive behavior. An example of a continuous schedule would be giving an employee a sales commission every time he makes a sale. In many instances, continuous schedules are impractical. For example, it would be difficult to praise an employee every time he shows up to work on time. Fixed-ratio schedules Rewarding behavior after a set number of occurrences. involve providing rewards every nth time the right behavior is demonstrated. An example of this would be giving the employee a bonus for every tenth sale he makes. Variable ratio Providing the reinforcement on a random pattern. involves providing the reinforcement on a random pattern, such as praising the employee occasionally when the person shows up on time. In the case of continuous schedules, behavioral change is more temporary. Once the reward is withdrawn, the person may stop performing the desired behavior. The most durable results occur under variable ratios, but there is also some evidence that continuous schedules produce higher performance than do variable schedules. Beatty, R. W., & Schneier, C. E. (1975). A case for positive reinforcement. Business Horizons , 18 , 57–66; Cherrington, D. J., & Cherrington, J. O. (1974). Participation, performance, and appraisal. Business Horizons , 17 , 35–44; Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1982). Employee reactions to continuous and variable ratio reinforcement schedules involving a monetary incentive. Journal of Applied Psychology , 67 , 506–508; Yukl, G. A., & Latham, G. P. (1975). Consequences of reinforcement schedules and incentive magnitudes for employee performance: Problems encountered in an industrial setting. Journal of Applied Psychology , 60 , 294–298.

OB Toolbox: Be Effective in Your Use of Discipline

As a manager, sometimes you may have to discipline an employee to eliminate unwanted behavior. Here are some tips to make this process more effective.

• Consider whether punishment is the most effective way to modify behavior . Sometimes catching people in the act of doing good things and praising or rewarding them is preferable to punishing negative behavior. Instead of criticizing them for being late, consider praising them when they are on time. Carrots may be more effective than sticks. You can also make the behavior extinct by removing any rewards that follow undesirable behavior.
• Be sure that the punishment fits the crime . If a punishment is too harsh, both the employee in question and coworkers who will learn about the punishment will feel it is unfair. Unfair punishment may not change unwanted behavior.
• Be consistent in your treatment of employees . Have disciplinary procedures and apply them in the same way to everyone. It is unfair to enforce a rule for one particular employee but then give others a free pass.
• Document the behavior in question . If an employee is going to be disciplined, the evidence must go beyond hearsay.
• Be timely with discipline . When a long period of time passes between behavior and punishment, it is less effective in reducing undesired behavior because the connection between the behavior and punishment is weaker.

Sources: Adapted from ideas in Ambrose, M. L., & Kulik, C. T. (1999). Old friends, new faces: Motivation research in the 1990s. Journal of Management , 25 , 231–292; Guffey, C. J., & Helms, M. M. (2001). Effective employee discipline: A case of the Internal Revenue Service. Public Personnel Management , 30 , 111–128.

A systematic way in which reinforcement theory principles are applied is called Organizational Behavior Modification (or OB Mod A systematic application of reinforcement theory to modify employee behaviors in the workplace. ). Luthans, F., & Stajkovic, A. D. (1999). Reinforce for performance: The need to go beyond pay and even rewards. Academy of Management Executive , 13 , 49–57. This is a systematic application of reinforcement theory to modify employee behaviors in the workplace. The model consists of five stages. The process starts with identifying the behavior that will be modified. Let’s assume that we are interested in reducing absenteeism among employees. In step 2, we need to measure the baseline level of absenteeism. How many times a month is a particular employee absent? In step 3, the behavior’s antecedents and consequences are determined. Why is this employee absent? More importantly, what is happening when the employee is absent? If the behavior is being unintentionally rewarded (e.g., the person is still getting paid or is able to avoid unpleasant assignments because someone else is doing them), we may expect these positive consequences to reinforce the absenteeism. Instead, to reduce the frequency of absenteeism, it will be necessary to think of financial or social incentives to follow positive behavior and negative consequences to follow negative behavior. In step 4, an intervention is implemented. Removing the positive consequences of negative behavior may be an effective way of dealing with the situation, or, in persistent situations, punishments may be used. Finally, in step 5 the behavior is measured periodically and maintained.

Studies examining the effectiveness of OB Mod have been supportive of the model in general. A review of the literature found that OB Mod interventions resulted in 17% improvement in performance. Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975–1995. Academy of Management Journal , 40 , 1122–1149. Particularly in manufacturing settings, OB Mod was an effective way of increasing performance, although positive effects were observed in service organizations as well.

Figure 5.12 Stages of Organizational Behavior Modification

Source: Based on information presented in Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975–1995. Academy of Management Journal , 40 , 1122–1149.

Process-based theories use the mental processes of employees as the key to understanding employee motivation. According to equity theory, employees are demotivated when they view reward distribution as unfair. Perceptions of fairness are shaped by the comparisons they make between their inputs and outcomes with respect to a referent’s inputs and outcomes. Following equity theory, research identified two other types of fairness (procedural and interactional) that also affect worker reactions and motivation. According to expectancy theory, employees are motivated when they believe that their effort will lead to high performance (expectancy), when they believe that their performance will lead to outcomes (instrumentality), and when they find the outcomes following performance to be desirable (valence). Reinforcement theory argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. By properly tying rewards to positive behaviors, eliminating rewards following negative behaviors, and punishing negative behaviors, leaders can increase the frequency of desired behaviors. These three theories are particularly useful in designing reward systems within a company.

• Your manager tells you that the best way of ensuring fairness in reward distribution is to keep the pay a secret. How would you respond to this assertion?
• When distributing bonuses or pay, how would you ensure perceptions of fairness?
• What are the differences between procedural, interactional, and distributive justice? List ways in which you could increase each of these justice perceptions.
• Using examples, explain the concepts of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
• Some practitioners and researchers consider OB Mod unethical because it may be viewed as a way of manipulation. What would be your reaction to such a criticism?

5.4 The Role of Ethics and National Culture

• Consider the role of motivation for ethical behavior.
• Consider the role of national culture on motivation theories.

Motivation and Ethics

What motivates individuals to behave unethically? Motivation theories have been applied to explain this interesting and important question. One theory that has been particularly successful in explaining ethical behavior is reinforcement theory. Just like any other behavior such as performance or cooperation, ethical behavior is one that is learned as a result of the consequences following one’s actions. For example, in an experiment simulating the job of a sales manager, participants made a series of decisions using a computer. Partway through the simulation, subjects were informed that salespeople reporting to them were giving kickbacks to customers. Subjects in this experiment were more likely to cut the kickbacks if there was a threat of punishment to the manager. On the other hand, subjects playing the sales manager were more likely to continue giving away the kickbacks if they made a profit after providing the kickbacks. Hegarty, W. H., & Sims, H. P. (1978). Some determinants of unethical decision behavior: An experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology , 63 , 451–457. In a separate study highlighting the importance of rewards and punishments, researchers found that the severity of expected punishment was the primary predictor of whether subjects reported inclination to behave unethically. In addition to the severity of the punishment, the perceived likelihood of punishment was also a major influence of ethical behavior. Rettig, S., & Rawson, H. E. (1963). The risk hypothesis in predictive judgments of unethical behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 66 , 243–248. These findings highlight the importance of rewards and punishments for motivating unethical behaviors.

There are many organizational situations in which individuals may do unethical things but then experience positive consequences such as being awarded promotions for meeting their sales quotas. For example, in many hotels, staff members routinely receive kickbacks from restaurants or bars if they refer customers to those locations. Elliott, C. (2007). Is your bellhop on the take? National Geographic Traveler , 24 (3), 18–20. Similarly, sales staff rewarded with spiffs (product-specific sales incentives) may give customers advice that goes against their own personal beliefs and in this sense act unethically. Radin, T. J., & Predmore, C. E. (2002). The myth of the salesperson: Intended and unintended consequences of product-specific sales incentives. Journal of Business Ethics , 36 , 79–92. As long as unethical behavior is followed by positive consequences for the person in question, we would expect unethical behavior to continue. Thus, in order to minimize the occurrence of unethical behavior (and in some instances legal problems), it seems important to examine the rewards and punishments that follow unethical behavior and remove rewards following unethical behavior while increasing the severity and likelihood of punishment.

Motivation Around the Globe

Motivation is a culturally bound topic. In other words, the factors that motivate employees in different cultures may not be equivalent. The motivation theories we cover in this chapter are likely to be culturally bound because they were developed by Western researchers and the majority of the research supporting each theory was conducted on Western subjects.

Based on the cultural context, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may require modification because the ranking of the needs may differ across cultures. For example, a study conducted in 39 countries showed that financial satisfaction was a stronger predictor of overall life satisfaction in developing nations compared to industrialized nations. In industrialized nations, satisfaction with esteem needs was a more powerful motivator than it was in developing nations. Oishi, S., Diener, E. F., & Suh, E. M. (1999). Cross-cultural variations in predictors of life satisfaction: Perspectives from needs and values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 25 , 980–990.

People around the world value justice and fairness. However, what is perceived as fair may be culturally dependent. Moreover, people in different cultures may react differently to perceived unfairness. Erdogan, B., & Liden, R. C. (2006). Collectivism as a moderator of responses to organizational justice: Implications for leader-member exchange and ingratiation. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 27 , 1–17; Mueller, C. W., & Wynn, T. (2000). The degree to which justice is valued in the workplace. Social Justice Research , 13 , 1–24. For example, in cross-cultural studies, it was found that participants in low power distance cultures such as the United States and Germany valued voice into the process (the opportunities for explanation and appealing a decision) more than those in high power distance cultures such as China and Mexico. At the same time, interactional justice was valued more by the Chinese subjects. Brockner, J., Ackerman, G., Greenberg, J., Gelfand, M. J., Francesco, A. M., Chen, Z. X., et al. (2001). Culture and procedural justice: The influence of power distance on reactions to voice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 37 , 300–315; Tata, J. (2005). The influence of national culture on the perceived fairness of grading procedures: A comparison of the United States and China. Journal of Psychology , 139 , 401–412. There is also some evidence indicating that equity (rewarding employees based on their contributions to a group) may be a culture-specific method of achieving fairness. One study shows that Japanese subjects viewed equity as less fair and equality-based distributions as more fair than did Australian subjects. Kashima, Y., Siegal, M., Tanaka, K., & Isaka, H. (1988). Universalism in lay conceptions of distributive justice: A cross-cultural examination. International Journal of Psychology , 23 , 51–64. Similarly, subjects in different cultures varied in their inclination to distribute rewards based on subjects’ need or age, and in cultures such as Japan and India, a person’s need may be a relevant factor in reward distributions. Kashima, Y., Siegal, M., Tanaka, K., & Isaka, H. (1988). Universalism in lay conceptions of distributive justice: A cross-cultural examination. International Journal of Psychology , 23 , 51–64; Murphy-Berman, V., Berman, J., Singh, P., Pachauri, A., & Kumar, P. (1984). Factors affecting allocation to needy and meritorious recipients: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 46 , 1267–1272.

Motivation theories are particularly useful for understanding why employees behave unethically. Based on reinforcement theory, people will demonstrate higher unethical behaviors if their unethical behaviors are followed by rewards or go unpunished. Similarly, according to expectancy theory, if people believe that their unethical actions will be rewarded with desirable outcomes, they are more likely to demonstrate unethical behaviors. In terms of culture, some of the motivation theories are likely to be culture-bound, whereas others may more readily apply to other cultures. Existing research shows that what is viewed as fair or unfair tends to be culturally defined.

• What is the connection between a company’s reward system and the level of ethical behaviors?
• Which of the motivation theories do you think would be more applicable to many different cultures?

5.5 Motivation in Action: The Case of Trader Joe’s

People in Hawaiian T-shirts. Delicious fresh fruits and vegetables. A place where parking is tight and aisles are tiny. A place where you will be unable to find half the things on your list but will go home satisfied. We are, of course, talking about Trader Joe’s (a privately held company), a unique grocery store headquartered in California and located in 22 states. By selling store-brand and gourmet foods at affordable prices, this chain created a special niche for itself. Yet the helpful employees who stock the shelves and answer questions are definitely key to what makes this store unique and helps it achieve twice the sales of traditional supermarkets.

Shopping here is fun, and chatting with employees is a routine part of this experience. Employees are upbeat and friendly to each other and to customers. If you look lost, there is the definite offer of help. But somehow the friendliness does not seem scripted. Instead, if they see you shopping for big trays of cheese, they might casually inquire if you are having a party and then point to other selections. If they see you chasing your toddler, they are quick to tie a balloon to his wrist. When you ask them if they have any cumin, they get down on their knees to check the back of the aisle, with the attitude of helping a guest that is visiting their home. How does a company make sure its employees look like they enjoy being there to help others?

One of the keys to this puzzle is pay. Trader Joe’s sells cheap organic food, but they are not “cheap” when it comes to paying their employees. Employees, including part-timers, are among the best paid in the retail industry. Full-time employees earn an average of $40,150 in their first year and also earn average annual bonuses of $950 with $6,300 in retirement contributions. Store managers’ average compensation is $132,000. With these generous benefits and above-market wages and salaries, the company has no difficulty attracting qualified candidates.

But money only partially explains what energizes Trader Joe’s employees. They work with people who are friendly and upbeat. The environment is collaborative, so that people fill in for each other and managers pick up the slack when the need arises, including tasks like sweeping the floors. Plus, the company promotes solely from within, making Trader Joe’s one of few places in the retail industry where employees can satisfy their career aspirations. Employees are evaluated every 3 months and receive feedback about their performance.

Employees are also given autonomy on the job. They can open a product to have the customers try it and can be honest about their feelings toward different products. They receive on- and off-the-job training and are intimately familiar with the products, which enables them to come up with ideas that are taken seriously by upper management. In short, employees love what they do, work with nice people who treat each other well, and are respected by the company. When employees are treated well, it is no wonder they treat their customers well daily.

Case written by [citation redacted per publisher request] . Based on information from Lewis, L. (2005). Trader Joe’s adventure . Chicago: Dearborn Trade; McGregor, J., Salter, C., Conley, L., Haley, F., Sacks, D., & Prospero, M. (2004). Customers first. Fast Company, 87 , 79–88; Speizer, I. (2004). Shopper’s special. Workforce Management, 83 , 51–55.

• How much of Trader Joe’s success can be attributed to the fact that most larger chain grocery stores do not sell the type of food available at Trader Joe’s?
• Is pay enough of an incentive to continue at a job you do not enjoy?
• Trader Joe’s promotes entirely from within the organization. This means that if you are a good, dedicated worker, you can rise up within the company. Do you feel employees would be as dedicated to the company if this were not the case? Would high pay be enough to keep employees? What if the company only promoted from within but pay were not as good?

5.6 Conclusion

In this chapter we have reviewed the basic motivation theories that have been developed to explain motivated behavior. Several theories view motivated behavior as attempts to satisfy needs. Based on this approach, managers would benefit from understanding what people need so that the actions of employees can be understood and managed. Other theories explain motivated behavior using the cognitive processes of employees. Employees respond to unfairness in their environment, they learn from the consequences of their actions and repeat the behaviors that lead to positive results, and they are motivated to exert effort if they see their actions will lead to outcomes that would get them desired rewards. None of these theories are complete on their own, but each theory provides us with a framework we can use to analyze, interpret, and manage employee behaviors in the workplace.

5.7 Exercises

Ethical dilemma.

Companies are interested in motivating employees: Work hard, be productive, behave ethically—and stay healthy. Health care costs are rising, and employers are finding that unhealthy habits such as smoking or being overweight are costing companies big bucks.

Your company is concerned about the rising health care costs and decides to motivate employees to adopt healthy habits. Therefore, employees are given a year to quit smoking. If they do not quit by then, they are going to lose their jobs. New employees will be given nicotine tests, and the company will avoid hiring new smokers in the future. The company also wants to encourage employees to stay healthy. For this purpose, employees will get cash incentives for weight loss. If they do not meet the weight, cholesterol, and blood pressure standards to be issued by the company, they will be charged extra fees for health insurance.

Is this plan ethical? Why or why not? Can you think of alternative ways to motivate employees to adopt healthy habits?

Individual Exercise

Your company provides diversity training programs to ensure that employees realize the importance of working with a diverse workforce, are aware of the equal employment opportunity legislation, and are capable of addressing the challenges of working in a multicultural workforce. Participation in these programs is mandatory, and employees are required to take the training as many times as needed until they pass. The training program lasts one day and is usually conducted in a nice hotel outside the workplace. Employees are paid for the time they spend in the training program. You realize that employees are not really motivated to perform well in this program. During the training, they put in the minimum level of effort, and most participants fail the exam given at the conclusion of the training program and then have to retake the training.

Using expectancy and reinforcement theories, explain why they may not be motivated to perform well in the training program. Then suggest improvements in the program so that employees are motivated to understand the material, pass the exam, and apply the material in the workplace.

Group Exercise

A Reward Allocation Decision

You are in charge of allocating a $12,000 bonus to a team that recently met an important deadline. The team was in charge of designing a Web-based product for a client. The project lasted a year. There were five people in the team. Your job is to determine each person’s share from the bonus.

Devin: Project manager . He was instrumental in securing the client, coordinating everyone’s effort, and managing relationships with the client. He put in a lot of extra hours for this project. His annual salary is $80,000. He is independently wealthy, drives an expensive car, and does not have any debt. He has worked for the company for 5 years and worked for the project from the beginning.

Alice: Technical lead . She oversaw the technical aspects of the project. She resolved many important technical issues. During the project, while some members worked extra hours, she refused to stay at the office outside regular hours. However, she was productive during regular work hours, and she was accessible via e-mail in the evenings. Her salary is $50,000. She is a single mother and has a lot of debt. She has worked for the company for 4 years and worked for the project for 8 months.

Erin: Graphic designer . She was in charge of the creative aspects of the project. She experimented with many looks, and while doing that she slowed down the entire team. Brice and Carrie were mad at her because of the many mistakes she made during the project, but the look and feel of the project eventually appealed to the client, which resulted in repeat business. Her salary is $30,000. She is single and lives to party. She has worked for the company for 2 years and worked for this project from the beginning.

Brice: Tester . He was in charge of finding the bugs in the project and ensuring that it worked. He found many bugs, but he was not very aggressive in his testing. He misunderstood many things, and many of the bugs he found were not really bugs but his misuse of the system. He had a negative attitude toward the whole project, acted very pessimistically regarding the likelihood of success, and demoralized the team. His salary is $40,000. He has accumulated a large credit card debt. He has worked for the company for 3 years and worked for the project in the last 6 months.

Carrie: Web developer . She was in charge of writing the code. She was frustrated when Erin slowed down the entire project because of her experimentation. Carrie was primarily responsible for meeting the project deadline because she put in a lot of extra work hours. Her salary is $50,000. Her mother has ongoing health issues, and Carrie needs money to help her. She worked for the company for the past year and was involved in this project for 6 months.

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Motivational Theories, Essay Example

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Part of a manager’s duties in the workplace involves motivating employees. A manager who successfully motivates his or her employees will be able to reap the benefits tied to better employee performance. A manager who unsuccessfully motivates employees earns the consequences of a poorly functioning organization. Managers can apply different motivational theories to assist them in motivating staff. Three motivational theories, Expectancy Theory, Reinforcement Theory, and Adam’s Equity Theory of Motivation, are useful tools for motivating employees.

Expectancy Theory points to the relationship between motivation and outcome (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). Essentially, the theory states that people will work hard when they expect the outcome of their hard work to be positive (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). As such, expectancy theory states that motivating people should come down to three things (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). First, motivation is a factor of effort (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). In order to motivate others, employers should encourage the belief that more effort equals better performance. Second, employers should encourage the belief that better performance will lead to better rewards (“Expectency Theory” n.d.).Finally, employers should focus on the outcome by making sure that the reward is attractive to the employee (“Expectency Theory” n.d.).

Expectancy theory has both pros and cons when managers use it in the application of performance improvement. First, since expectancy theory is dependent upon individual perspective, the outcome is dependent on each employee’s individual perspective. If the manager has an understanding of the perspective, it will be successful; otherwise it will fail miserably. If managers want to see the results of expectancy theory, they can utilize several tools. First they can use a reward system that is closely tied to pay-for-performance (“Expectency Theory” n.d.). Second, they can use training to instill the belief that added effort will lead to better performance.

A second motivational theory, Reinforcement Theory, states that individuals behaviors are a function of the consequences (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). In other words, an individual will repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences and fail to repeat behaviors that lead to negative consequences (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). Management should be sure to tie the consequence directly to the behavior in order to see the results.

While Reinforcement Theory can be helpful to managers, it has been criticized for failing to focus on the causes of individuals’ behavior. On the positive side, the theory can be a strong tool for analyzing the controlling mechanisms of human behavior (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.). Under this theory, managers can use several tools to motivate individuals’ behavior including positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement (“Reinforcement Theory” n.d.).

The third motivational theory is Adam’s Equity Theory of Motivation. This theory states that employees will strive to achieve equity between them and their coworkers (buzz). This can be achieved when the outcome to input ratio is equal for all employees (buzz). Managers can implement this theory by tying rewards to performance and by setting goals effectively for workers (buzz).

Adam’s Equity Theory can work in situations where the work employees perform is easy to measure and compare. When employees perform similar, standardized procedures, managers can easily compare the data. However, sometimes employees perform job duties that may not tie directly to a quantifiable measure. In cases such as this, equity theory falls short.

Motivated employees will work harder. This hard work leads to a more profitable company. Motivation theories explain ways managers can ensure that their organizations are more profitable. With proper application, both employees and managers can reap the benefits.

Expectency Theory: Motivate Your Team by Linking Effort With Outcome. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.lacpa.org.lb/Includes/Images/Docs/TC/TC341.pdf

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation. (n.d.). Retreived from http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm

Equity Theory of Motivation. (n.d.) Retreived from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html

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How to Apply Motivational Theories in the Workplace

• Small Business
• Managing Employees
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Employee Motivation & Empowerment Process

Difference between a need & a want in advertising, description of how marketers can use maslow's hierarchy of needs.

• Difference Between Situational Leadership & Path Leadership Theories
• The Advantages of Using Money to Motivate Employees

Small-business leaders often have big visions, goals and plans for the future. When your workplace is motivated, achieving those goals can feel invigorating and pleasurable, rather than stressful and burdensome. There are a variety of approaches to motivation in the workplace that might appeal, depending on personal preference, your team and your industry. Consistency is key to getting results and building momentum, so choose a theory or two and then stick with them long enough to observe the results.

Benefits of Motivation in the Workplace

No matter which of the approaches to motivation in the workplace you choose to run with, once motivation and morale are high, you stand to experience many benefits in your small business. Take time to observe results as you apply different theories to see which of these benefits you notice most:

• Increased momentum
• Increased productivity
• Increased job satisfaction
• Increased loyalty
• Increased commitment
• Increased focus
• Increased customer satisfaction
• Increased ease of teamwork
• Increased profit

Try rating these measures on a scale of one to 10 at the beginning of your efforts. Then, commit to reevaluating every two weeks or month to see your progress. Some measures, such as profit, are easy to measure simply by looking at the balance sheet.

Approaches to Motivation in the Workplace

When you analyze theories and models of motivation and their application in the workplace, you may notice that all of them fall into two categories that Psychology Today describes as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is when we do something because it is enjoyable. We are happy to do whatever it is, whether we are paid or not. For example, when you hire a kitchen employee who loves to make jam at home and then give them the opportunity to make jam from scratch at work, they are intrinsically motivated by their enjoyment of the activity itself.

Extrinsic motivation is when we do something because of an external reward or recognition. When an employee wants to earn certain marks on their next review so that they're eligible for promotion, they increase their performance due to extrinsic motivation. The review marks and promotion provide an external reward and recognition.

Often, the application of motivation theories in organizations involves some combination of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Different approaches are appropriate for different situations and with different personalities.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

One of the best places to start analyzing theories and models of motivation and their application in the workplace is Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Of all the types of approaches to motivation in workplaces, this is probably the most famous. Maslow's needs form a pyramid with physiological needs at the base and self-actualization needs at the top. Simply Psychology lists the needs as:

• Physiological needs: Water, food, sleep, shelter
• Safety and security needs: Financial security, employment, housing, health
• Love and belonging needs: Relationships at home, with friends and at work
• Self-esteem or status needs: Recognition, raise at work, prizes
• Self-actualization needs: Living out dreams and potential

The most basic physiological, safety and love needs are intrinsic in nature, while status and self-actualization needs are extrinsic. To meet the extrinsic needs, you must first address the intrinsic ones.

In your small business, this means looking at your team's physiological, security, and belonging needs before introducing things such as recognition or coaching. Offer a living wage and ensure that your employees have what they need to care for their health and feel they belong. Introduce company picnics, health benefits, and referrals for financial planners, housing professionals and more.

After the most basic intrinsic needs are met, consider addressing extrinsic motivation through:

• Sales competitions
• Recognition events
• Coaching and mentoring

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory uses different categories than Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is less concerned with an employee's life outside of work. According to the MindTools website, the theory still addresses intrinsic needs before extrinsic needs. As you analyze theories and models of motivation and their application in the workplace, this is a pattern you see repeatedly. When in doubt, ask yourself what needs you need to address for an employee before they exhibit the level of motivation you need for success.

Herzberg uses the categories of hygiene and motivation to increase motivation, and this model insists that hygiene needs must be met before motivation is possible. When hygiene is addressed, job dissatisfaction decreases, and when motivation is met, job satisfaction increases. These are how things break down in this model:

• Hygiene: security, status, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, supervision, company policy, administration
• Motivation: growth, advancement, responsibility, enjoyable work, recognition, achievement

McClelland's Human Motivation Theory

McClelland's human motivation theory assumes that people have one of three driving needs, depending on their life experiences. According to Mind Tools , they are:

• Achievement: Extrinsically motivated by rewards, recognition and quick affirmation
• Affiliation: Intrinsically motivated by a need for love, belonging and relationship
• Power: Extrinsically motivated by power, status, and control over their own work or others' work

McClelland's approach to applying motivation theories in organizations is not centered around meeting everyone's intrinsic needs before addressing extrinsic motivation. In a small business, you identify which driving need each employee has and work with that one driving need.

For example, someone with an affiliation need should be on a team with people they like and with low conflict. However, someone with an achievement need can work on a higher stress team, as long as they are provided quick recognition and affirmation of their efforts. Those with power needs can also thrive on a team with conflict, as long as they have enough control over their own work or are put in a position of leadership where they can direct others.

Vroom's Theory of Expectancy

Vroom's application of motivation theories in organizations involves addressing intrinsic and extrinsic needs simultaneously. According to the Management Is a Journey website, this is done through the following two beliefs:

• People believe they are likely to be successful and reach goals
• Those people believe they will be rewarded for their success

Using Vroom's approach is relatively simple for most small-business owners. You might look at your company's overall goals and break them down into small manageable chunks for each employee, ensuring you personalize expectations to each person. For example, you might meet with each employee to determine their strengths and set achievable, customized goals. Then, meet with them again later to assess their progress and offer rewards or recognition.

When people feel goals are achievable for them, they buy into your company's culture, mission and values. They feel that what they do makes a difference, which grants them a sense of purpose. Your consistent and reliable recognition affirms that and makes them want to continue giving their best.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, as covered on the Management Study Guide website, describe two types of people who are likely present in your workplace. Your motivational strategies can be tailored to one of these two types:

• Type X: These people are lazy and focused on themselves. They benefit from top-down leadership and expectations.
• Type Y: These people are self-starters who are intrinsically motivated to give their best. They benefit from a positive work environment, rewards and recognition.

As a small-business owner, keep tabs on employee behavior and work patterns. For those who would rather play on their phones than quickly serve a customer, impose top-down expectations and consequences. For those who go the extra mile for customer satisfaction, ensure they have proper support on the job and receive the recognition they have earned.

• Psychology Today: Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation
• Simply Psychology: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
• Mind Tools: Herzberg's Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Mind Tools: McClelland's Human Motivation Theory
• Management Is a Journey: There’s Room For Vroom’s Expectancy Theory in Employee Motivation
• Management Study Guide: Theory X and Theory Y

Anne Kinsey is an entrepreneur and business pioneer, who has ranked in the top 1% of the direct sales industry, growing a large team and earning the title of Senior Team Manager during her time with Jamberry. She is the nonprofit founder and executive director of Love Powered Life, as well as a Certified Trauma Recovery Coach and freelance writer who has written for publications like Working Mother, the San Francisco Chronicle, Bizfluent and Our Everyday Life. Anne works from her home office in rural North Carolina, where she resides with her husband and three children.

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What We Know About the Assassination Attempt Against Trump

The former president was holding a rally when he said he was shot in his ear. Two people, including the suspected gunman, were killed and two were critically injured.

• Share full article

By Michael Levenson

• July 18, 2024

A man fired “multiple shots” toward the stage during former President Donald J. Trump’s rally in Butler, Pa., on Saturday evening, killing one spectator and critically injuring two others, according to the Secret Service.

Mr. Trump was rushed off the stage, blood visible around his right ear, and was pronounced fine. The Secret Service said its agents had killed the shooter, whom federal law enforcement officials identified as Thomas Matthew Crooks, a 20-year-old from Bethel Park, Pa.

The attorney general’s office and the F.B.I. are investigating the shooting as an assassination attempt and possible domestic terrorism attack.

Here’s what we know about the shooting.

The Former President

Mr. Trump ducked quickly after the shots began and as members of the crowd began to scream. Secret Service agents then rushed Mr. Trump off the stage. As he was escorted to his motorcade, Mr. Trump, whose face and right ear were bloodied, pumped his fist in a defiant gesture to the crowd.

How the Assassination Attempt on Trump Unfolded

Footage from the scene of the shooting at a rally in pennsylvania on saturday shows the suspected gunman had a clear line of sight toward the former president, despite being outside the rally’s secure perimeter..

Former President Trump was speaking at a campaign rally in Pennsylvania when shots rang out. Multiple people at the rally were filming at the time. The F.B.I. has said the shots were fired by a 20-year-old man from Bethel Park, Pennsylvania, which is about an hour’s drive from the rally. Trump was on stage speaking for just over six minutes and talking about illegal immigration when the first sound of gunfire is heard. There are two bursts of fire. First three shots and then five shots Three seconds after the first shot is fired, he is surrounded by Secret Service agents who attempt to hurry him from the stage. They’re followed by other law enforcement personnel who are more heavily armed. For a brief moment, Trump tells them to stop until he can get his shoes. Let me get my shoes. Let me get my shoes. Sir, I got you, sir. Let me get my shoes on. When he gets up, blood is visible on his right ear. He pauses again before being rushed off stage and raises his fist in the air, appearing to mouth the word fight. The former president was standing on stage at this location. Soon after the first gunfire is heard, a video captured what appears to be the suspected shooter dead on the roof of this building. The building is the closest one to the rally that wasn’t within the security perimeter and is roughly 400 feet north of where Trump is standing. The location of the body matches the likely firing position. This is because the injury to the ear of Trump, who is facing northwest, is consistent with gunfire from that location. An audio analysis of the shots by an acoustic expert at Montana State University found the gunfire reached the stage from the same approximate distance as the body’s location. A Secret Service spokesman also said the suspected shooter fired from an elevated position and was killed. A video filmed during the rally showed a law enforcement sharpshooter positioned here on a roof roughly 400 feet from that suspected gunman and aiming in the gunman’s general direction before Trump was shot. Footage recorded after the shooting shows one spectator bleeding from a head wound in the bleachers to the north of where Trump was standing. According to the Secret Service, one person at the rally was killed and two others were critically injured. The shooting is being investigated as an assassination attempt.

He later said in a post on Truth Social, his social media platform , that he had been “shot with a bullet that pierced the upper part of my right ear.”

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