homework on latin

Snopes fact-checked the presidential debate live!

Does 'Homework' Spelled Backwards Mean 'Child Abuse' in Latin?

Thousands of languages have existed throughout the history of humanity. there is no evidence the word "krowemoh" ever belonged to any of them., alex kasprak, published jan. 31, 2021.

About this rating

The claim that the word "homework" spelled backwards translates to "child abuse" in Latin has been a feature of the internet since at least March 2013 . In January 2021, a Reddit thread brought the assertion renewed interest .

The claim is false. The word "krowemoh" does not exist in the Latin language. In fact, not even the character "W" existed in Latin, whose alphabet contained 23 characters . Latin, the language of the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church, had largely died out by the 6th century AD — replaced by regional dialects that would ultimately become the Romance languages of Europe.

A form of the character W was first used around the 7th century AD, because the Latin alphabet did not have a character to represent the sound /w/ spoken in Germanic and old English languages. As a solution, writers began using "uu" (or "vv" as u and v referred to the same character in the classical Latin alphabet) to represent the sound /w/. The character we now know as "W" did not see widespread use until the 1500s , well after Latin-speaking humans were creating new words in that language.

All of this is to say that "krowemoh" is not a word and it certainly does not mean "child abuse" in Latin or any other language we are aware of.

By Alex Kasprak

Alex Kasprak is an investigative journalist and science writer reporting on scientific misinformation, online fraud, and financial crime.

Ethics & Leadership
Fact-Checking
Media Literacy
The Craig Newmark Center
Reporting & Editing
Ethics & Trust
Tech & Tools
Business & Work
Educators & Students
Training Catalog
Custom Teaching
For ACES Members
All Categories
Broadcast & Visual Journalism
Fact-Checking & Media Literacy
In-newsroom
Memphis, Tenn.
Minneapolis, Minn.
St. Petersburg, Fla.
Washington, D.C.
Poynter ACES Introductory Certificate in Editing
Poynter ACES Intermediate Certificate in Editing
Ethics Training
Ethics Articles
Get Ethics Advice
Fact-Checking Articles
IFCN Grants
International Fact-Checking Day
Teen Fact-Checking Network
International
Media Literacy Training
MediaWise Resources
Ambassadors
MediaWise in the News

Support responsible news and fact-based information today!

Does homework spelled backward translate to ‘child abuse’ in Latin?

Scrolling through social media recently, you may have come across the viral claim that the word “homework” spelled backward translates to “child abuse” in Latin. This claim has been everywhere lately, racking up thousands of views across Instagram , Twitter , Reddit and YouTube .

But is “krowemoh” really a Latin word, or just a random jumble of letters? Here’s how we fact-checked it.

Practice click restraint

Taking a closer look at the claim on YouTube. The video is a screen recording of the YouTuber doing a keyword search and clicking on the very first result from Urban Dictionary. Automatically clicking on the first result is not really a great technique for vetting information. Instead, practice a media literacy skill from the Stanford History Education Group called click restraint. This is a web-browsing tactic that involves scanning search results for better sources before deciding which website to visit. Spending a couple of extra seconds looking for credible sources is always worth it in the end.

Head directly to the source of information

Heading over to Urban Dictionary, there are several definitions for “ krowemoh .” The top definition was written by someone with the username Sherli Damelio and was posted on Jan. 6. And here lies the issue with Urban Dictionary as a source — anyone on the internet can submit a definition.

For those who aren’t familiar with Urban Dictionary, it’s a sort of rebellious younger sibling to the Merriam-Webster dictionary. It’s key differences? Instead of professional editors defining the words, Urban Dictionary is fully crowdsourced. The website is also mostly for defining slang words and phrases. So is it a credible source when it comes to Latin? No.

See what other sources are saying

Doing a keyword search on Google brought up several articles debunking this claim, including a fact-check from Snopes . According to Snopes, “krowemoh” is definitely not a Latin word, since the letter W doesn’t exist in the Latin language.

Other ways to fact-check this claim would be to simply find an online Latin dictionary or use the Google Translate tool . The Latin dictionary brought up no results for “krowemoh.” And when consulting Google Translate, the Latin phrase for child abuse is completely different.

Not Legit. There is no truth to the claim that homework spelled backwards translates to “child abuse” in Latin.

The American Journalism Project takes on its biggest initiative yet — covering underserved LA communities.

The project will initially focus on growing and knitting together existing nonprofits, with startups coming in the future

Opinion | Looking back at Tuesday night’s presidential debate, including ABC News’ solid performance

The moderators shined in doing something the first 2024 debate moderators didn’t do: a little fact-checking in real time

Fact check: Kamala Harris and Donald Trump’s first 2024 presidential debate

Here’s how the candidates’ answers stood up to the facts.

LIVE: Fact-checking the presidential debate between Kamala Harris and Donald Trump

ABC News anchors David Muir and Linsey Davis will moderate the debate, which starts at 9 p.m. Eastern

Amid urban and news business declines, a reporter finds hope at the end of the line

In a new memoir, an old-school Detroit newsman documents urban recovery and how he has survived and thrived in the digital age

Start your day informed and inspired.

Get the Poynter newsletter that's right for you.

Learning Latin

Feature highlights, interactive charts.

Master Latin grammar with dynamic charts and exercises.

Latin Translator

Translate between Latin and English with grammar insights.

Custom Textbook

Learn systematically with our curated Latin textbook.

Open Source Community

Contribute to a growing library of resources and tools, making Latin accessible to everyone.

Latest Updates

Upcoming features & roadmap.

Get a glimpse of what we're working on and what's coming next to enhance your Latin learning experience.

- More practice charts - Some Time 2024

Frequently Asked Questions

Can i contribute to the latin textbook.

Absolutely! Our project is open source, and we welcome contributions from everyone. Visit our GitHub page to get started.

Do I need any prior knowledge of Latin to start?

No, our resources are designed to accommodate beginners with no prior knowledge of Latin, guiding you through from the basics to advanced topics.

Are there any costs involved?

No, all our resources are completely free, including the Latin textbook, practice charts, and translator tool.

Fact check: 'Homework' spelled backwards does not translate to 'child abuse' in Latin

The claim: 'Homework' spelled backward means 'child abuse' in Latin

Many words and phrases are known to have different meanings in other languages, and much of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin roots.

Some social media users are claiming that the word "homework" spelled backward has a meaning in the Latin language.

A Feb. 27 Instagram post with almost 18,000 likes features a screenshot of the Google search, "what is homework backwards." The result purportedly reads, "So basically 'Homework' spelled backwards is 'krowemoh' which in Latin translates to child abuse."

The same screenshot included in the Instagram meme also appears in several viral TikToks, and the hashtag #Krowemoh has more than 246,000 views on the platform .

The Google search screenshot that users have used to make the claim is taken from a March 7, 2013, viral post that has recently resurfaced on Twitter, where many users have shared similar versions of the claim.

"I knew that this homework was just a way to abuse children," one Twitter user wrote along with the claim on Jan. 24.

USA TODAY reached out to the Instagram user for comment.

Fact check: Altered image shows rhino horns, elephant tusks dyed pink to deter poaching

'Krowemoh' is not a Latin word

The word "krowemoh" does not exist in Latin. According to Google translate , child abuse in Latin is actually "puer abusus."

A search of "krowemoh" on online Latin - to-English dictionaries results in no matches.

The classical Latin alphabet consists of 23 characters, and the letter W is not one of them. In Latin, the letter U represented a W sound which could only occur only before a vowel, according to Dictionary.com .

European languages that use the Latin alphabet do not use the letters K and W, and they add letters with diacritical marks or pairs of letters that read as one sound, according to Britannica .

Get these in your inbox: We're fact-checking the news and sending it to your inbox. Sign up here to start receiving our newsletter.

The claim that "krowemoh" translates to "child abuse" in Latin was added in January to Urbandictionary.com , a crowdsourced online dictionary of slang words and phrases.

The Urban Dictionary definition of "krowemoh" makes a joke of the word and children having loads of homework assignments.

Fact check: Israel launching 'Green Pass' for COVID-19 vaccinated

Our rating: False

The claim that "homework" spelled backward translates to "child abuse" in Latin is FALSE, based on our research. "Krowemoh" does not exist in the Latin language and the letter W is not part of the Latin alphabet.

Our fact-check sources:

Google Translate, accessed March 3, English to Latin, 'puer abusus'
Latin Dictionary, accessed March 3, 'Krowemoh' search
Latin-Dictionary.net, accessed March 3, 'Krowemoh' search Latin to English
Latin-English Dictionary, accessed March 3, 'Krowemoh' search Latin to English
Dictionary.com, accessed March 3, 'What Does the Letter 'U' Have to do with 'W'?'
Britannica, accessed March 3, Latin alphabet
Urban Dictionary, Jan. 6, 'Krowemoh'

Thank you for supporting our journalism. You can subscribe to our print edition, ad-free app or electronic newspaper replica here.

Our fact check work is supported in part by a grant from Facebook.

Homework spelled backwards does not mean child abuse in Latin

Medium Text

Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles. , opens new tab

Fact Check: Fact Check: German study did not find mRNA shots ‘eat away’ at children’s immune systems

A German study published in July 2024 did not find that mRNA COVID-19 vaccines damaged children’s immune systems, contrary to posts shared online suggesting the study found signs of an immune disorder known as IgG4-related disease that is not associated with vaccines, according to immunology experts.

JAM with Latin

Henle Latin for Modern Learners

Click Below to access purchased classes

Popular Classes

People around the world are learning to love Latin with our classes. See which one is right for you and your student.

Class A; First Year Latin

Class B; First Year Latin

Class C; First Year Latin

Class Novus

What is jam.

JAM with Latin was created to help students and parents learn and love Latin. Students in our classroom have access to fun and engaging videos tailor-made to explain each lesson in the Henle First Year textbook. Alongside our videos JAM with Latin includes a workbook that presents Henle's exercises in digestible chunks.

“ For all my homeschooling peeps out there struggling to teach your child Latin, especially with Classical Conversations, JAM with Latin has become a lifesaver in our house. Yes, it cost us extra, but seriously, the short videos, the organized, well-formatted exercises and answer keys, etc are SO worth it. If you've been on the fence, just do it! ”

- Grateful Mom

This is the perfect tee for Jam with Latin learners, tutors, directors, and teachers!

T-shirts and stickers are sold through our partner PS31MARKETPLACE. Embrace the joy of JAM with Latin while lending your support to a homeschool family business.

Circle Stickers

3 Inch circle cut vinyl

Square Stickers

3x3 Durable Vinyl

Connect With Me

JAM with Latin is more than just a digital classroom, it's a support system. I am dedicated to seeing students learn to love Latin. If you or your student ever feel lost, confused, or just need help reach out to me through one of our many social platforms below.

Scholarships

JAM with Latin offers scholarships! We want to see your student succeed as much as you do, a price tag should not get in the way of that. To apply for a scholarship, email us at JAMwithLatin.com

[email protected]

FACT CHECK: No, ‘Homework’ Spelled Backwards Is Not Latin For ‘Child Abuse’

A post shared on Facebook claims the word “homework” spelled backwards translates to “child abuse” in Latin.

Verdict: False

The word “krowemoh” does not have meaning in Latin.

Fact Check:

Latin, the language of Ancient Rome, spread with the Roman Empire’s expansion, survived its collapse and remained in learned use throughout the Middle Ages, according to The British Library . Modern “Romance” languages, including Spanish, French and Italian, originated from Latin, Illinois Wesleyan University’s Greek and Roman Studies Department’s website states.

In recent weeks, multiple Facebook users have attempted to suggest in posts that the Latin term for “child abuse” is “krowemoh,” the word “homework” spelled backwards. There is, however, no evidence that is the case. (RELATED: Did Cicero Say This Quote About Ancient Rome?)

Several Latin-to-English online dictionaries show that there is no translation for the word “krowemoh.” The Latin phrase for “child abuse” is “puer abusus,” according to Google Translate . The application’s Latin translation for “homework” is “duis congue sem.”

The classical Latin alphabet had 23 letters, not including the letter “W,” further adding to the claim’s dubiousness. In the Latin language, the letter “W” developed out of the letter “V” in the Middle Ages, the Encyclopaedia Britannica states . The letter “U” originated from “V” in a similar way, according to the encyclopedia.

It’s possible the inaccurate notion that “krowemoh” is the Latin word for “child abuse” may stem from a March 2013 tweet sent by the Twitter handle @mallorymac97. An image of Google search results featuring the tweet appeared on TikTok in January 2021 with the hashtag “#krowemoh.”

Trevor Schakohl

Legal reporter.

The world's largest resource database for learning Latin

Tutorlatin is a free and anonymous platform offering learners, tutors and teachers free access to educational resources. Learn the Latin language using over 900 freely available modules or create your own.

LATIN 101 - Lingua Latina

COURSE GOALS AND EXPECTATIONS

Latin 101 will cover the first 15 chapters of Lingua Latina . The approach is intensively grammatical. Each chapter will be translated in class, with all grammatical constructions explained. Students are expected to master ( i.e. memorize) the vocabulary and the various paradigms (declension and conjugation patterns) necessary to progress in reading proficiency.

Our required texts will be Lingua Latina I (Familia Romana) and its supplemental commentary and grammar Lingua Latina, A College Companion . A Latin-English dictionary is required (the New College Latin-English Dictionary is in the campus bookstore, but any good dictionary will do). A systematic Latin grammar is recommended (the introductory Cambridge Student's Latin Grammar is quite good). For students lacking a strong foundation in English grammar, English Grammar for Students of Latin is essential. It is available in the campus bookstore or on-line.

ON-LINE RESOURCES

Full grammatical and vocabulary commentary for our text is provided on line. These sheets provide essential aid in understanding the text and the grammar involved. Please download and study them continuously:

Grammar Commentary:

Capitulum I - Imperium Romanum Capitulum II - Familia Romana Capitulum III - Puer Improbus Capitulum IV - Dominus et Servi Capitulum V - Villa et Hortus Capitulum VI - Via Latina Capitulum VII - Puella et Rosa Capitulum VIII - Taberna Romana Capitulum IX - Pastor et Oves Capitulum X - Bestiae et Homines Capitulum XI - Corpus Humanum Capitulum XII - Miles Romanus Capitulum XIII - Annus et Menses Capitulum XIV - Novus Dies Capitulum XV - Magister et Discipuli

Reading Commentary:

VOCABULARY SHEETS

Capitulum I Capitulum II Capitulum III Capitulum IV Capitulum V Capitulum VI Capitulum VII Capitulum VIII Capitulum IX Capitulum X Capitulum XI Capitulum XII Capitulum XIII Capitulum XIV Capitulum XV

Third Declension Nouns (Chapters 9-15)

Master Vocabulary

LATIN HANDOUTS

THE DECLENSION SYSTEM

Latin is an inflected language. That is, the endings of words change to reflect grammatical function. The changes of a noun are called "Declensions" and the changes of a verb are called "Conjugations". It is absolutely ESSENTIAL in the study of Latin that the declension system and its grammatical functions be mastered. Below are introductory handouts that will aid the student in beginning this process.

The Declension of Nouns

There is also an on-line exercise program for learning the declension of Latin nouns:

On-Line Declension Exerciser

CLASS SCHEDULE

Students should be prepared to spend a regular amount of time on homework before each class session. In addition to brief written homework to be turned in at most class sessions, homework consists of preparation of the next session's quiz and reading passage, and the following essential tasks:

1) Work through and translate for yourself the text in each chapter of our textbook and regularly read through earlier chapters for review. 2) Do all the exercises in each chapter in writing. 3) Memorize all new vocabulary in each chapter and review old vocabulary. 4) Review all new grammar and consult your grammar books for reinforcement whenever necessary. 5) Practice new morphology in connection with previously covered materials, especially in preparation for quizzes. 6) Prepare a list of questions to be asked in class if you have any problems, e.g. with translating or understanding grammatical constructions.

QUIZZES AND EXAMS

There will be a quiz each class, which will cover either 1) the vocabulary of the chapter or 2) a major grammatical construction introduced in the chapter. No "make-ups" of daily quizzes are available.

We will have four exams. The first exam will cover Chapters I-V, the second Chapters VI-IX, the third Chapters X-XII, and the final exam Chapters XIII-XV. The exams will test memorization of forms, comprehension of grammatical concepts, and translation of passages from each of the chapters covered. The exams (including the Final) will not be cumulative, since the subject itself is cumulative by nature. Absences from an exam are excused only in cases of emergency with appropriate notification in advance to the instructor.

MASTER SYLLABUS

Class Syllabus

Those who miss the readings, explanations, discussions, queries and suggestions of a class session have handicapped themselves in a number of obvious ways which cannot easily be remedied.

The Instructor

William L. Carey, Esq. Blankingship & Keith, P.C. 4020 University Drive, Suite 300 Fairfax, Virginia 22030 703-691-1235

Email: wcarey@gmu.edu

Additional Information

Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies

Latin 101: introduction to latin.

The aim of LATIN 101 is to introduce students to the fundamentals of classical Latin (forms, syntax, and vocabulary) as soon as possible. Classical Latin is the literary dialect spoken and written by Romans from the first century BCE to the second century CE. This is the language that the classical Roman authors wrote, poets such as Catullus, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, and Seneca and prose writers such as Caesar, Sallust, Cicero, Livy, Petronius, Tacitus, and Suetonius. The purpose of the course is to teach students the morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of classical Latin and train them to read and translate simple and complex sentences. The course consists of short weekly presentations of new grammatical and lexical content, vocabulary to be memorized, drills to practice forms and concepts, exercises in reading sentences, homework assignments translating sentences from Latin into English and English into Latin, and regular quizzes and tests to ensure retention and comprehension of material. The goal of the course in the first semester is for students to be able to read short passages of continuous prose based on classical Latin models. The course focuses on reading, translating, and writing rather than speaking, although students will be expected to be able to read Latin aloud with correct pronunciation. LATIN 101 prepares students for Latin 102, the second semester of Introductory Latin, which in turn prepares students to take a 400-level course in Latin.

Instructor:

Erin M. Hanses

108 Weaver Building, University Park, PA
[email protected]
814-865-8851

Quick Links:

CAMS Events
Stay in Touch
Latin Placement Exam

Latin is Simple

The forum romanorum - your all-in-one tool.

Search for Latin forms, English & German translations and vocabulary groups. Latin - English, English - Latin

Sentence Analysis

Analyse a text passage to help you translate it.

Latin Library

Read ancient works, find usages of words.

Practice for tomorrows vocabulary quiz.

Testimonials

Abuent studia in mores – Using this site becomes a habit Publius Ovidius Naso

Veni Vidi Vici – I came, I saw, I latin-is-simpled Gaius Julius Caesar

Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? – When, o offline-dictionary, will you cease to annoy us? Marcus Tullius Cicero

Audentis fortuna iuvat – Fortune favours our users Publius Vergilius Maro

Sign Up with the Latin community!

Want to create personal word-lists for you to study and share with friends? Create an account and gain access to word-editing and custom word-lists.

Get Started:

Vocabulary Trainer
All Vocabulary
Image Analysis

These are the homework assignments for LATN 1111 (Basic Latin) in Fall 2024 at Fairfield University. Many of these assignments will likely require consultation of the Complete Vocabulary or the Paradigms , and you can find all answers to the homework at the Answer Key .

Practice homework 1 (due r 9/5), practice homework 2 (due m 9/9), homework 1 (due w 9/11), homework 2 (due r 9/12), homework 3 (due m 9/16), homework 4 (due w 9/18), homework 5 (due r 9/19), homework 6 (due m 9/23), homework 7 (due w 9/25), homework 8 (due r 9/26), homework 9 (due m 9/30), homework 10 (due w 10/2), homework 11 (due r 10/3), homework 12 (due m 10/7), homework 13 (due w 10/9), homework 14 (due r 10/10), homework 15 (due w 10/16), homework 16 (due r 10/17), homework 17 (due m 10/21), homework 18 (due w 10/23), homework 19 (due r 10/24), homework 20 (due m 10/28), homework 21 (due w 10/30), homework 22 (due r 10/31), homework 23 (due m 11/4), homework 24 (due w 11/6), homework 25 (due r 11/7), homework 26 (due m 11/11), homework 27 (due w 11/13), homework 28 (due r 11/14), homework 29 (due m 11/18), homework 30 (due w 11/20), homework 31 (due r 11/21), homework 32 (due m 11/25), homework 33 (due m 12/2), homework 34 (due w 12/4), homework 35 (due r 12/5), homework 36 (due m 12/9).

Use this website (especially the Course Info , Policies , and Grading pages, or you can use the website’s search function at the top) to answer the following questions:

When are my (Prof. Libatique’s) student hours, and where are they held? (See the Course Info and Policies pages).
What defines an “unexcused absence”? (See Policies.)
How many semester points do you have to accumulate to earn an A for the semester? (See Grading.)
True or false: you are allowed to use ChatGPT to generate answers for your assignments. (See Policies and Grading.)
True or false: you can find the answers to all homework assignments on this website. (Hint: see Answer Key ).

Answer key here .

Answer the following questions:

What is the definition of a diphthong?
Which of these is not a part of speech: verb, adjective, subjunctive, preposition?
What is the term for the act of changing the endings of verbs to reflect different verb aspects like its person, number, tense, voice, and mood?
What is the term for the act of changing the endings of nouns to reflect a noun’s different cases and numbers?
True or false: we use word order in Latin to determine the functions of words.

Each of the following exercises gives the first and second principal parts of a Latin verb’s dictionary entry. Indicate the conjugation to which each of the following verbs belongs. For example:

teneō, tenēre 2nd conjugation

Note: If a verb is 3rd -iō, you must include the “-iō” in your answer to be correct.

puniō, punīre
faciō, facere
cadō, cadere
terreō, terrēre
fugiō, fugere
audiō, audīre
regō, regere
videō, vidēre
ambulō, ambulāre

Conjugate the following verbs into the 3rd person singular and the 3rd person plural of the perfect tense and active voice. Then, give one sample translation for each form. For example:

amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus - to love amāvit - ‘she loved’ amāvērunt - ‘they have loved’
videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus - to see; (passive) to seem
regō, regere, rexī, rectus - to rule
cadō, cadere, cecidī, casus - to fall
interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectus - to kill
audiō, audīre, audīvī / audiī, audītus - to hear

Indicate to which declension (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) each of the following nouns belongs.

arbūtus, arbūtī, f. - strawberry bush
caput, capitis, n. - head
umbra, umbrae, f. - shadow
vir, virī, m. - man
tempus, temporis, n. - time
hortus, hortī, m. - garden
corpus, corporis, n. - body
gratia, gratiae, f. - favor, thanks
via, viae, f. - road
aurum, aurī, n. - gold

Each of the following prompts gives you the nominative singular of a noun in the Week 3 Vocabulary . Use the Week 3 Vocabulary and the Week 3 Paradigms to decline the noun into the requested case and number. Remember to pay attention to the noun’s gender . For example:

puer, genitive plural puerōrum

caput, accusative plural
nauta, dative singular
taurus, nominative plural
rex, genitive plural
via, ablative plural

Use the Week 3 Vocabulary and the Week 3 Paradigms again to indicate the gender, case, and number of the given noun form. In cases of ambiguity, give just one possible answer (you do not need to state them all). For example:

puellās feminine accusative plural

agricolārum

Use the Week 3 Vocabulary and the Week 3 paradigms to identify the case and use of the bolded noun in each of the following sentences. You can assume that each bolded noun is either nominative or genitive case. Then translate each sentence . For example:

puer stetit.

puer = nominative, subject. “The boy stood.”
puella dormīvit.
dux nautārum cucurrit.
puerī vēnērunt.
arbōrēs agricolae stetērunt.
fīlius virī fūgit.

Use the Week 3 Vocabulary and the Week 3 paradigms to identify the case and use of the bolded noun in each of the following sentences. Then translate the sentence (for which you will likely also need the Week 2 Vocabulary ).

nautae aquam cēpērunt.
mater et pater cībum fīliīs dedit.
puer templum deōrum vīdit.
vir aurum mīsit.
puellae equōs agricolārum dūxērunt.

Each of the following gives an adjective’s dictionary entry, followed by a declined noun. Make the adjective match the given noun in gender, case, and number. If there is more than one option, you need only give one. (For this, you may need the Week 3 Vocabulary [nouns] and Week 3 Paradigms [nouns] in addition to the Week 4 Vocabulary and Week 4 Paradigms [adjectives].)

For example: bonus, bona, bonum - good -> ducibus bonīs

malus, mala, malum - bad, evil -> agricolārum
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum - beautiful, pretty, handsome -> oppida
frigidus, frigida, frigidum - cold, cool -> aquam
prīmus, prīma, prīmum - first -> filiās
multus, multa, multum - (singular) much; (plural) many -> patrēs
parvus, parva, parvum - small -> arbōre
ultimus, ultima, ultimum - last, final -> taurōs
magnus, magna, magnum - great, large, big -> corpus
tōtus, tōta, tōtum - whole, entire -> oppidī (NOTE: tōtus is an -īus adjective!)
bonus, bona, bonum - good -> liber

Each of the following sentences contains a 2-1-2 adjective. Indicate the adjective; then indicate which noun the adjective modifies; and finally, translate the sentence. For example:

puella puerum bonum vīdit. bonum modifies puerum ; “The girl saw the good boy.”

You will likely need the resources linked in Part 1 above.

agricola bonus equum duxit.
fīlia matrī calidam aquam dedit.
fīlia matrī bonae aquam dedit.
dux aurum laetōrum nautārum cēpit.
puerī pulchrum corpus aquae vīdērunt.
sapiens, sapientis - wise -> agricolā
fēlix, fēlicis - lucky, fortunate -> nōmen
velox, velōcis - swift, fast, quick -> aquam
tristis, triste - sad -> filiae
celer, celeris, celere - swift, fast, quick -> patrum
similis, simile - similar -> arbōre
ācer, ācris, ācre - sharp, keen, fierce -> taurīs
omnis, omne - (singular) each, every; (plural) all -> corpus
fortis, forte - brave, strong -> oppidī
gravis, grave - heavy, serious -> librōrum

Each of the following sentences contains a 3rd declension adjective. Indicate the adjective; then indicate which noun the adjective modifies; and finally, translate the sentence. For example:

puella puerum fēlicem vīdit. fēlicem modifies puerum ; “The girl saw the lucky boy.”

agricola tristem equum duxit.
fīlia matrī gravem aquam dedit.
fīlia matrī gravī aquam dedit.
dux aurum fēlicium nautārum cēpit.
puerī velox corpus aquae vīdērunt.

Translate each of the following sentences into Latin.

The horses were fast.
The sailor was a leader.
The war was fierce.
The girls were brave.
The towns were lucky.

Use the Week 5 Vocabulary and Week 5 Paradigms to replace the bolded noun with an appropriate form of is, ea, id . For example:

puella taurōs duxit. eōs

dux nautārum dormīvit.
puer parvus arbōrem vīdit.
pater omnia matrī dedit.
agricolae multa fēcērunt.
agricolae oppidum relīquērunt.

Each sentence contains a form of is, ea, id ; suī, sibi, sē, sē ; or the reflexive adjective suus, sua, suum . Identify the form, indicate whether it is personal or reflexive, and then translate the sentence. For example:

puer sē vīdit. sē - reflexive - “The boy saw himself.”

fīliae dōna eī dedērunt.
fīliae dōna sibi dedērunt.
fīlius dōna sibi dedit.
vir uxōrem suam amāvit.
vir uxōrem eius amāvit.

Each of the following sentences uses a demonstrative pronoun or adjective . Indicate the demonstrative; give its gender, case, and number; and translate the sentence. For example:

agricola hoc oppidum vīdit. hoc - neuter accusative singular - “The farmer saw this town.”

pater verba huius fīliī audīvit.
mater omnia fīliae illī dedit.
puella hunc taurum amāvit.
dux illōs mīsit.
nauta hoc nōmen nōn audīvit.

Translate each of the following sentences from English into Latin, making sure to use the correct version of the pronoun/adjective.

The farmers saw themselves.
The farmers saw the horses themselves.
The girl led that bull.
The girl led this bull.
The woman did good things, but the man did bad things. The former slept, and the latter left the town.

Translate each of the following sentences using the Week 5 Vocabulary . Keep in mind that there will be expressions of space and expressions of time amongst the following.

equī ex agrīs cucurrērunt.
equī ūnām hōram cucurrērunt.
equī ad agrōs cucurrērunt.
vir malum ducem hāc nocte interfēcit.
vir malum ducem prō templō interfēcit.
vir malum ducem ultimā hōrā interfēcit.

Each of the following prompts gives you a first principal part of a verb followed by a nominative noun . Conjugate the verb into the perfect passive in an appropriate gender and number for the subject, and then translate the sentence . For example:

amō -> puerī __ __ . puerī amātī sunt . “The boys were loved” or “The boys have been loved”

You will likely need the Complete Vocabulary to help.

capiō -> taurus __ __ .
videō -> corpus __ __ .
audiō -> verba __ __ .
relinquō -> via __ __ .
interficere -> ducēs __ __ .

In each of the following sentences, identify the subject and the verb and then translate the sentence . Be aware that each sentence contains substantives in non-nominative cases and uses, including ablatives of agent.

dōna fīliīs ā patre data sunt.
fīlius ob cībum laetus factus est.
equī ex agrīs ab agricolā ductī sunt.
dux nautārum fortis vīsus est.
monstrum ultimā hōrā captum est.

Each of the following gives you the first principal part of a verb. Conjugate the verb into the requested parse , and then give a sample translation of the form that you just created . Keep in mind that not all prompts will ask you to conjugate in the imperfect tense. Make sure to use the Complete Vocabulary to check your verb’s conjugation, 2nd principal part spelling, and meaning. For example:

relinquō -> 3rd singular imperfect active indicative relinquēbat - “she was leaving”

amō -> 3rd singular imperfect passive indicative
moveō -> 3rd plural imperfect passive indicative
capiō -> 3rd singular perfect active indicative
capiō -> 3rd singular imperfect active indicative
sum -> 3rd plural imperfect active indicative
regō -> 3rd plural perfect passive indicative (masculine)
faciō -> 3rd singular imperfect active indicative
currō -> 3rd plural perfect active indicative
stō -> 3rd plural imperfect active indicative
veniō -> 3rd singular perfect active indicative

For each of the following conjugated verb forms, identify the verb’s tense and voice and indicate what clues you used to determine them . Optionally, give a sample translation for each form. For example:

amābant imperfect active: stem from 2nd principal part, -bā- tense marker, -nt personal ending “They were loving”

positum est

Each of the following prompts gives you the first principal part of an adjective followed by a declined noun. Using the Week 6 Vocabulary , Complete Vocabulary , and the Week 6 Paradigms , make the adjective match the noun. If more than one possibility exists, you need only give one. For example:

magnus -> lacibus magnīs

ācer -> animālī
brevis -> diērum
nullus -> noctium
sapiens -> cīvium
magnus -> maria
hic -> faciēbus
longus -> diēs
parvus -> lacuum
ille -> animālia
celer -> motūs

Use the Complete Vocabulary and Week 7 Paradigms to conjugate each of the following verbs, of which you’re given just the first principal part, into the requested person, number, tense, and mood . Then, give a sample translation of the verb you just created . For example:

amō -> 3rd sg. present active amat – “she loves”

canō -> 3rd sg. present active
dormiō -> 3rd pl. present active
habeō -> 3rd sg. present passive
audiō -> 3rd pl. present passive
demonstrō -> 3rd sg. present active
regō -> 3rd pl. present active
ducō -> 3rd sg. present passive
moveō -> 3rd pl. present passive
scrībō -> 3rd sg. present active
teneō -> 3rd pl. present active

Translate each of the following sentences.

puerī carmina cum matribus suīs canunt.
equī ab agricolā ducuntur.
periculum ab omnibus nautīs vidētur.
hostēs in domūs cīvium currunt.
monstrum ē marī venit.

Use the Complete Vocabulary and Week 7 Paradigms to conjugate each of the following verbs, of which you’re given just the first principal part, into the requested person, number, tense, and mood . Read carefully, as not all prompts will ask you to conjugate in the future tense.

Then, give a sample translation of the form that you’ve created.

habeō -> 3rd sg. future active
habeō -> 3rd sg. imperfect active
demonstrō -> 3rd pl. future passive
demonstrō -> 3rd pl. imperfect passive
moveō -> 3rd sg. future passive
moveō -> 3rd sg. imperfect passive
teneō -> 3rd pl. future active
teneō -> 3rd pl. imperfect active
amō -> 3rd sg. future active
amō -> 3rd sg. future passive

Then, give a sample translation of the verb you just created . For example:

amō -> 3rd sg. future active amābit – “she will love”

canō -> 3rd sg. future active
moveō -> 3rd sg. present active
dormiō -> 3rd pl. future active
moneō -> 3rd sg. future passive
moneō -> 3rd sg. imperfect passive
scrībō -> 3rd pl. future passive
scrībō -> 3rd pl. present passive
scrībō -> 3rd pl. imperfect passive
audiō -> 3rd pl. present active
audiō -> 3rd pl. future active
faciō -> 3rd sg. imperfect active
faciō -> 3rd sg. future active
faciō -> 3rd sg. present active
faciō -> 3rd sg. future passive

Complete a synopsis in the 3rd person singular across all the verb tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect) and voice (active, passive) that you know of the verb cupiō .

Each of the following gives you the first principal part of a verb that can be found in our Complete Vocabulary . Give the requested form of the infinitive of that verb. If asked for the perfect passive infinitive , use the neuter singular participle. Then, translate the infinitive . For example:

amō -> perfect active amāvisse, “to have loved”

amō -> perfect passive amātum esse, “to have been loved”

canō -> present passive
moveō -> present passive
interficiō -> present active
stō -> perfect active
videō -> perfect passive
sciō -> present passive
sum -> present active
sum -> perfect active
rogō -> perfect passive
relinquō -> perfect passive

Each of the following sentences contains either a subjective infinitive or complementary infinitive . Indicate the infinitive , whether it’s subjective or copmlementary , and then translate the sentence . For example:

puer potest in domum currere. currere - complementary The boy is able to run into the home. or The boy can run into the home.

est bonum illō aurum dare.
nautae ē nāvibus venīre debent.
carmina illa ab omnibus audīrī poterunt.
licet cībum capere.
fīlia dormīre tōtam noctem poterat.

Each of the following sentences presents a direct statement. Turn it into an indirect statement following the main verb dīcit (“she says”), and then translate the indirect statement . For example:

fīlius ā matre amātur. dīcit fīlium ā matre amārī. She says that the son is (being loved) by his mother.

agricola equōs ā viā duxit.
pater prīmā hōrā in domum venit. (present tense)
vocēs ā liberīs audītae sunt.

Each of the following sentences presents an indirect statement introduced by the main verb dīcit (“she says”). Turn the indirect statement into a direct statement , and translate the direct statement . For example:

dīcit arbōrem magnam esse. arbor magna est. The tree is large.

dīcit cīvēs laetōs factōs esse.
dīcit carmen ā virō canī.
dīcit puellās in agrōs cucurrisse.

Translate each of the following sentences into Latin. Be aware of the tenses of your main verb and your infinitive in terms of relativity of time.

The leader recognized that the sailor had given the gold to the farmers.
The boy saw that the horses were in the fields.
The father believes that the sons were able to see the trees.
The girls are learning that their father wrote many things.
The soldier said that the enemies had taken the city.

Identify the dependent clause in each of the following sentences, and then translate the sentence . For example:

quia in domō erat, agricola equōs nōn vīdit.

dependent clause: quia in domō erat
translation: “Because he was in the house, the farmer did not see the horse.”
līberī dormiunt dum mater et pater laborant.
cum mīles nāvēs vīdit, dixit hostēs venīre.
puerī ubi arborēs magnae erant sēdērunt.
pater laetus erat quia fīlium cum sorōre vīdit.
dum puer cum matre carmina canēbat, puella cum patre in templum veniēbat.

For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with an appropriate form of the relative pronoun , based on an antecedent that immediately precedes the blank and the clue following the sentence, and then translate the whole sentence . For example:

puer __ _____ carmina cecinit in domō erat. [Make the relative pronoun a subject .]

quī [masc. nominative sg.]
The boy who sang the songs was in the house.
mater __ fīliae amāvērunt patrī lībrōs dedit. [Make the relative pronoun a direct object .]
oppidum __ ā cīvibus vīsum est pulchrum erat. [Make the relative pronoun a subject .]
ducēs __ mīlitēs fortēs erant ā nāvibus vēnērunt. [Make the relative pronoun a possessor .]
pater dīxit nōmina __ puella cognōvit. [Make the relative pronoun a direct object .]
rex __ _ cīvēs aurum dant malus est. [Make the relativfe pronoun an indirect object .]

Identify the person, number, tense, and voice of each of the following irregular verbs and give a sample translation .

Each of the following sentences contains a blank. Fill it in with an appropriate form of the requested verb in the requested tense, and then translate the whole sentence. For example:

puer __ ___ matrem vidēre. [volō -> present]

vult - “The boy wants to see his mother.”
mīles __ ___ ē nāve venīre. [nōlō -> future]
equī __ ___ currere in agrīs quam in urbe. [mālō -> present]
dux __ ___ cum mīlitibus ad hostēs īre. [vōlō -> imperfect]
puella __ ___ urbem relinquere. [nōlō -> present]
sorōrēs __ ___ dōna frātribus dare. [mālō -> future]

Conjugate the verb into the given PNTVM and give a sample translation of the form that you just created. For example:

amō - 3rd sg. future perfect active indicative

amāverit - she will have loved
videō - 3rd pl. pluperfect passive indicative (masculine)
regō - 3rd sg. pluperfect active indicative
relinquō - 3rd pl. future perfect passive indicative (feminine)
audiō - 3rd sg. future perfect active indicative
demonstrō - 3rd sg. pluperfect passive indicative (neuter)

Translate the following sentences.

urbem rege!
aspicite hanc domum.
vocem magistrī audī!
dūc equōs in agrōs.

Generate the requested form of the given verb. Read each parse carefully, especially the mood .

regō -> 3rd sg. present active subjunctive
regō -> 3rd sg. future active indicative
regō -> 3rd sg. present active indicative
capiō -> 3rd pl. future passive indicative
capiō -> 3rd pl. present passive indicative
capiō -> 3rd pl. present passive subjunctive
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. imperfect active subjunctive
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. imperfect active indicative
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. future active indicative
moveō -> 3rd pl. imperfect passive indicative
moveō -> 3rd pl. future passive indicative
moveō -> 3rd pl. imperfect passive subjunctive
ferō -> 3rd sg. imperfect passive subjunctive
ferō -> 3rd sg. future passive indicative
ferō -> 3rd sg. present passive subjunctive
eō -> 3rd pl. present active subjunctive
eō -> 3rd pl. present active indicative
eō -> 3rd pl. imperfect active subjunctive
sum -> 3rd pl. present active subjunctive
sum -> 3rd pl. present active indicative
regō -> 3rd sg. perfect active subjunctive
regō -> 3rd sg. future perfect active indicative
regō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect active indicative
capiō -> 3rd pl. perfect passive indicative (masculine)
capiō -> 3rd pl. pluperfect passive subjunctive (masculine)
capiō -> 3rd pl. perfect passive subjunctive (masculine)
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect active subjunctive
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. perfect active indicative
dēmonstrō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect passive subjunctive (neuter)
moveō -> 3rd pl. perfect passive indicative (feminine)
moveō -> 3rd pl. future perfect active indicative
moveō -> 3rd pl. perfect active subjunctive
ferō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect passive subjunctive (neuter)
ferō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect active subjunctive
ferō -> 3rd sg. pluperfect active indicative

Each of the following sentences contains an independent use of the subjunctive. Identify whether the sentence contains a deliberative, potential, or optative subjunctive, and then translate the sentence.

utinam nē monstrum in domum eat!
forsitan equī ex agrīs veniant.
nauta pecūniam caperet?
utinam periculum vīdisset.
magister hanc epistulam scrībat?

Each of the following sentences contains a blank for the dependent verb, followed by the first principal part of a verb and relationship between the dependent verb and main verb (e.g., “in progress/incomplete” or “completed”). Use the sequence of tenses and the context of the full sentence to conjugate the verb into the subjunctive mood in an appropriate person, number, tense, and voice, and then translate the whole sentence. For example:

puella laeta est quia mater epistulam __ __. (scrībō, completed)

scrīpserit , “The girl is happy because her mother wrote the letter.”
cum pecūniam __ __ , dux in templō sedēbat. (dō, completed)
sorōrēs ē domō currunt quod pater __ __ . (canō, in progress)
nautae in templum iērunt cum periculum __ __ . (cognoscō, completed)
cum ex agrīs __ __ , agricola dormit. (veniō, completed)
quia mīles haec verba __ __ , puer territus est. (dīcō, completed)

Each of the following sentences is followed by a specific type of dependent clause (relative, temporal, circumstantial, causal, or concessive). Translate the sentence according to the dependent clause type.

puerī dormiēbant cum nox vēnisset. (causal)
puerī dormiēbant cum nox vēnisset. (circumstantial)
cum nox vēnisset, puerī tamen nōn dormiēbant. (concessive)
cīves oppidum rēliquērunt quod hostēs cēperant. (relative)
cīves oppidum rēliquērunt quod hostēs id cēpissent. (causal)

Render the following English sentences into Latin.

He went into the house in order to write a letter.
Although she was willing to hear the song, nevertheless her son did not sing it.
The leader does not see the gold because the sailor placed it in the temple.
The daughter was happy after she (had) received her father’s letter.

Determine whether each of the following sentences contains a purpose clause or a result clause – then, translate the sentence.

equī ita magnī erant ut puer terrērētur.
puer in domum cucurrit nē ab equīs vidērētur.
discipulī sīc rīsērunt ut magister flēret.
magister docet ut discipulī discant.
magister sīc docet ut discipulī discant.

Identify which type of indicative condition each sentence contains, and then render each indicative condition into Latin.

If the book was not in the home, the daughter took it.
The sailor will go into the temple if the road is short.
The father is happy if his son has a wife.

Identify which type of subjunctive condition each sentence contains, and then render each subjunctive condition into Latin.

The enemy would have taken the city if the soldiers had not been in the road.
If the man should sing that song, the daughter would run away from the house.
If the man were singing that song, the daughter would run away from the house.

Latin - English Dictionary

How to search, declensions / conjugations latin, english - latin dictionary.

Olivetti Media Communication

Translation of "homework" into Latin

pensum is the translation of "homework" into Latin. Sample translated sentence: I am tired; nevertheless, I must finish my homework. ↔ Fessus sum; tamen debeo conficere pensum scholare.

Work that is done at home, especially school exercises set by a teacher. [..]

English-Latin dictionary

preliminary or preparatory work [..]

I am tired; nevertheless, I must finish my homework .

Fessus sum; tamen debeo conficere pensum scholare.

Show algorithmically generated translations

Automatic translations of " homework " into Latin

Translations with alternative spelling

Homework (film)

"Homework" in English - Latin dictionary

Currently we have no translations for Homework in the dictionary, maybe you can add one? Make sure to check automatic translation, translation memory or indirect translations.

Images with "homework"

Translations of "homework" into latin in sentences, translation memory.

What's the opposite of

Meaning of the word

Words that rhyme with

Sentences with the word

Translate

Find Words

Use * for blank tiles (max 2) Use * for blank spaces

Find the

Pronounce the word

Find Names

	Appearance
✓	Use device theme
✓	Dark theme
✓	Light theme

in Latin word for ? Here's how you say it.

adverb











Use * for blank tiles (max 2)
Use * for blank spaces

bottom_desktop desktop:[300x250]

Word Tools	Finders & Helpers	Apps	More	Synonyms

Copyright WordHippo © 2024

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Homework and academic achievement in latin america: a multilevel approach.

$\r\nRubn Fernndez-Alonso,*$

1 Department of Education and Culture, Government of the Principality of Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
2 Department of Education Sciences, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
3 Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
4 Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
5 Center for Biomedical Research in Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Oviedo, Spain

The relationship between homework and academic results has been widely researched. Most of that research has used English-speaking, European or Asian samples, and to date there have been no detailed studies into that relationship in Latin America and the Caribbean. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of quantitative homework characteristics on achievement in science. The sample comprised 61,938 students at 2,955 schools in the 15 Latin American countries (plus the Mexican state of New Leon) which participated in the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (TERCE), carried out by the Latin American Laboratory for Educational Quality (LLECE) in 2013. The mean age was 12.42 years old (±0.94). Within each country, three hierarchical-linear models were applied at two levels: student and school. The individual level considered time spent doing homework and the school level considered the amount and frequency of homework assignment. In addition, ten control variables were included in order to control the net effect of the characteristics of the homework on the result. The results confirmed that homework is widely assigned in the Latin American region. At the individual level, time spent on homework had little effect on academic performance, while in the quantitative homework characteristics it was the frequency of homework assignment which demonstrated a clearer effect rather than the amount of homework assigned.

Introduction

Student academic performance is influenced by a broad mix of factors which recent research and reviews have identified: opportunities to learn, time on tasks, classroom organization and management, teaching strategies, learner evaluation and feedback, the school environment, and family involvement and expectations about learning ( Scheerens and Bosker, 1997 ; Scheerens et al., 2007 , 2013b ; Towsend, 2007 ; Hattie, 2009 ; Scheerens, 2016 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017b ). In addition, one must consider the contributions of educational theories originating from sociology which confirm that educational success is largely determined by cultural capital and by belonging to dominant groups ( White, 1982 ; Sirin, 2005 ; Palardy et al., 2015 ) as well as the theories of learning which indicate that neurobiological principles, prior knowledge, and cognitive and affective-motivational personality factors are basic components in the formula for academic success ( Shell et al., 2010 ).

Although homework does not feature in the most important factors in the studies cited above, it has attracted a great deal of attention and been the subject of much research as it is the only teaching factor which is done at home. This characteristic of homework fuels social and family debate, and affects other key variables in school performance, such as family involvement, time on tasks, and learning self-regulation.

Research into homework has progressed toward comprehensive models, which include multiple variables related to the characteristics of the homework, teachers, students and their families ( Epstein and Pinkow, 1988 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2016 ). Nonetheless, the aspect which has been studied the most is the relationship between homework time and school results ( Goldstein, 1960 ; Paschal et al., 1984 ; Cooper, 1989 ; Cooper and Valentine, 2001 ; Trautwein and Köller, 2003 ; Cooper et al., 2006 , 2012 ; Blazer, 2009 ; Canadian Council on Learning, 2009 ; Scheerens et al., 2013a ; Fan et al., 2017 ). Despite the mountains of data gathered so far, the results are far from conclusive, as Scheerens et al. (2013a) clearly indicated. They reviewed 128 independent effects of homework time on individual performance with samples in dozens of countries and found varying results: 32% of studies showed negative effects, 33% showed non-significant effects, and 35% showed positive effects. In short, the debate remains open, and there are no simple, unequivocal answers to key questions like whether homework should be assigned or not, or how much time is most appropriate. This apparent contradiction in results, however, is down to two questions that most of the studies we reviewed had not considered. In the first place, when examining the association between achievement and homework time, much of the research had not addressed a key prior question: Why do some students spend longer than others completing their homework? Flunger et al. (2015) identified five student profiles according to time spent and students’ behavior and effort related to homework. In addition, behavior and time spent on homework are conditioned by other variables which also have an influence on school results, such as cognitive capacity, school history, prior knowledge, motivation, sex, age, and sociological factors ( De Jong et al., 2000 ; Trautwein et al., 2002 ; Trautwein, 2007 ; Dettmers et al., 2009 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2014 , 2015 , 2017a ). Many studies which have examined the relationship between time spent on homework and school results have not included the effects of these variables in their analyses, hence these apparent contradictions. It is only by controlling for these variables that one may estimate a net effect of the relationship between the quantitative measures of homework and school achievement which is not confounded or affected by other factors.

As indicated by Trautwein and Köller (2003) , a significant amount of the research has not addressed the fact that quantitative homework measures are multilevel variables which have different meanings and effects depending on the level being considered. We suppose that the item “How long do you spend on your homework?” when analyzed at the individual level would reflect the student’s dedication and work habits. However, if this item is considered at the classroom or school level, it would tend to be an estimation of the amount of homework assigned. In that case it is capturing the effect of the teachers’ homework policies, a measure with a completely different meaning. In addition, the effect of these two variables on performance is different, the individual measure has little effect on school results ( Farrow et al., 1999 ; De Jong et al., 2000 ; Dettmers et al., 2010 ; Murillo and Martínez-Garrido, 2013 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2014 ; Núñez et al., 2014 ), and when it is statistically significant, the effect is negative ( Trautwein, 2007 ; Trautwein et al., 2009 ; Lubbers et al., 2010 ; Chang et al., 2014 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 , 2017a ; Núñez et al., 2015 ). This is consistent with the idea that the time spent on homework by the different types of students is not related to school results ( Flunger et al., 2015 ). Multilevel studies, on the other hand, have found positive effects at class and school level when using variables such as frequency and amount of homework ( Farrow et al., 1999 ; De Jong et al., 2000 ; Dettmers et al., 2009 ; OECD, 2013 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017a ). It has also been found that when these two variables go together, the frequency of homework has more explanatory power than homework amount ( Trautwein et al., 2002 , 2009 ; Trautwein, 2007 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2014 , 2015 , 2017a ). The classical statistical models do not permit the consideration of student and class level effects at the same time. For that reason, it is necessary to use hierarchical-linear models which can separate the effects of the quantitative homework measures into the two levels noted above.

One of the most hotly debated questions is whether the effect of quantitative homework measures is universal or whether there are factors within educational systems which lead to varying effects in different countries, regions and cultures. The amount of homework tends to be higher in Asian countries, whereas the effect of homework on results seems to be more significant in studies in English-speaking and European samples compared to Asian students ( Scheerens et al., 2007 , 2013a ; Dettmers et al., 2009 ; Fan et al., 2017 ). There have not been sufficient studies in Latin America to allow conclusions to be drawn in this regard, although it is worth mentioning the work by Murillo and Martínez-Garrido (2013 , 2014 ), the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study ( UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE, 2016a ), and the analysis by Dettmers et al. (2009) , which includes the three countries in this region which took part in the second edition of the Program for Student Assessment (PISA) in 2003.

Murillo and Martínez-Garrido (2013) used data from nine countries (in addition to Spain), their three level model (student-class-school) did not segregate data by country. The homework variables were reported by teachers and only considered at school level, with neither the amount, nor the frequency being statistically significant. The only positive relationship was between assigning homework and the result in mathematics, but not in Spanish. In their second study Murillo and Martínez-Garrido (2014) once again used measures of frequency and amount of homework reported by teachers, aggregated to school-level. They reported descriptive statistics by country, but the data were not segregated at that level in the hierarchical-linear model, so there is no way to compare effects between countries. Once again they found that neither variable demonstrated a relationship with reading or mathematics results in students in the 3rd–6th years of primary education. UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE (2016a) did compare effects between countries, but the study only looked at one dichotomous variable at the student level reported by parents, not students: spending 30 min or more on homework every day (or not). Finally, the study by Dettmers et al. (2009) is the only one which used quantitative measures at two levels (student and school), although only three countries in the region participated. Once controlled for socio-economic level, the results are rather variable: in Mexico they found positive effects at both levels, in Brazil there was only a positive effect at student-level, and in Uruguay there were no significant effects at either level.

In summary, in the Latin American context, there are no studies which systematically compare the effects of quantitative homework measures using multilevel analysis and control variables. The data available are only general, not segregated by country or strata, and only include quantitative measures at a single level ( Murillo and Martínez-Garrido, 2013 , 2014 ; UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE, 2016a ), and where those conditions are met, the studies include only a limited number of countries from the region ( Dettmers et al., 2009 ). New intercultural analysis models allow much more rigorous comparisons between countries ( Byrne and van de Vijver, 2017 ). In this context, our current study has two objectives. Firstly, to establish the prevalence of homework in Latin America, describing and comparing the quantitative characteristics of homework in the different Latin American countries. Secondly, to estimate the effects of homework time and characteristics of homework assignment (frequency and amount) on school results, adjusting the analysis models according to the socio-demographics of the students, schools, and countries.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The sample population was defined as those students in the 6th grade of compulsory education in 2013 in the 15 participating Latin American countries and the Mexican state of New Leon. In each country the sample was selected following a two-stage stratified cluster method ( OECD, 2009 ; Joncas and Foy, 2012 ). In the first stage, schools were selected with a probability proportional to their size, and in the second stage a complete class-group was selected from each school, giving a sample of more than 67,000 students. In this current study we excluded students lacking information in the science test, leading to a final sample made up of 61,938 students from 2,955 schools, representing a population of almost 9 million students. The mean age of the students was 12.42 years old with a standard deviation of 0.94. Over two thirds (69.4%) attended state schools, 65.8% attended an urban school; 49.6% were girls, and 81.9% were in the school year corresponding to their age, meaning that the remaining 18.1% had repeated at least one school year at the time of the test.

Instruments

Two types of instrument were used in the study: (a) tests of academic knowledge, from which we constructed the dependent variable in the study; (b) questionnaires about context for the students, their families, the teachers, and school management, from which we extracted the variables of interest and control variables for our study, with the exception of the relative levels of wealth in each country. The tests were taken during the TERCE evaluation program run by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) whose databases are freely available for secondary analysis ( UNESCO-OREALC, 2016 ).

Tests of Academic Performance

Students completed a battery of tests evaluating reading, mathematics and science, in this study we decided to use the science results as a dependent variable. The science test was produced from a table of specifications organized into five domains and three cognitive processes ( UNESCO-OREALC, 2016 ). It contained 92 items, mostly multiple-choice, grouped in six blocks which were distributed in six test booklets following a matrix design ( Fernández-Alonso and Muñiz, 2011 ). Each student completed one test booklet containing 31 to 33 items they had to answer in 60 min. The items were adjusted to the Rasch model using the Winsteps program ( Linacre, 2005 ). Each student’s score was calculated via the methodology of plausible values, which is the most effective for recovering population parameters in evaluations of education systems ( Mislevy et al., 1992 ; OECD, 2009 ; von Davier et al., 2009 ) In TERCE, the individual scores were estimated by combining students’ item responses with information from various co-variables which functioned as imputation factors, they were expressed on a scale with a mean of 700 points and standard deviation 100 ( UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE, 2016b ).

Control Variables

When the dependent variable is school performance, it is necessary to include control variables to avoid overestimating the effects of the variables of interest ( Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017b ). We chose seven control variables from those available in TERCE, all of which are important in the prediction of academic achievement ( Liu and Whitford, 2011 ; UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE, 2016a ; Woitschach et al., 2017 ). Four describe student socio-demographic characteristics: Gender (1 = female); Indigenous (1 = member of indigenous population); In paid work (1 = works and is paid for that work); and Student’s Socioeconomic and cultural level (SEC) , a standardized index created by TERCE composed of 17 items about parents’ levels of education, type of work, family income range, amenities and services in the area where they live, and availability of reading material at home. The values of Cronbach’s alpha for this index range between 0.8 and 0.9 depending on the country ( UNESCO-OREALC, 2016 ). The remaining three variables refer to previous school history and the student’s learning resources: Repetition (1 = the student has repeated a year during their schooling); Textbook (1 = the student has a science textbook); and Notebook (1 = the student has a school notebook).

We used three variables to describe the social and demographic context of the schools, two were dichotomous: School Type (1 = private school) and whether a school was Rural . The third variable was the School socioeconomic and cultural level , which was the mean of the student SEC in that school.

Homework Variables

The questionnaire about student context contained two multiple choice items that were used to construct the variables of interest. Item 1 asked how many days a week do you study or do homework? with response options between 0 and 7. Item 2 asked how long do you spend doing homework on the days when you study? and had four options: (a) I don’t study; (b) less than 1 h a day; (c) between 1 and 2 h; (d) more than 2 h. The responses were coded as 0, 30, 90, and 150 min, respectively.

These items were used to construct four variables: Does no homework (NoHW), a dichotomous variable where 1 indicates students who do not do homework; Homework time (HWTime), the mean daily minutes spent doing homework calculated as follows: HWTime = Item1 ∗ Item2/7 . HWTime was squared in order to add a quadratic element to the regression ( HWTime_2 ). Teachers’ homework policies were described with two variables: The amount of homework ( HWAmount ), the mean homework time per school; and Frequency of homework assignment ( HWFreq ), the mean number of days in a school that students do homework.

The cognitive tests were applied by expert personnel who were not employed by the school being tested. Tests were carried out on 2 days, the first day for reading and writing, and the second for mathematics and science. The tests for each subject took between 45 and 60 min, with a 30-min break in the middle; following that, after a 15-min break, the student context questionnaires took about 45 min to complete. The questionnaires for the schools, teachers and families were distributed on the first day, and collected at the end of the second day. UNESCO ethical guidelines were followed, and the families of the students selected to participate in the evaluation were informed about the study by the school administrations, and were able to choose whether those students would participate in the study or not.

Data Analysis

The first step in the analysis was to calculate the descriptive statistics for all variables. Following that, for each country three random-intercept hierarchical-linear models were created with two levels: student and school. The modeling strategy was as follows: first produce a null model without predictors to check the distribution of variance in each level. The second model included the four homework variables, and the third model added the control variables described previously. We used the maximum likelihood estimation method with robust standard errors using the HLM 7.01 program ( Raudenbush et al., 2011 ). In all analyses we used the weightings provided by TERCE which were designed so that each country, regardless of size, would have an equal contribution in the analysis of results ( UNESCO-OREALC, 2016 ), with the sum total of weights in each country being equivalent to 5000 students.

The amount of missing data in the variables ranged from 2 to 12%. We used a two-step strategy to recover missing data. Firstly, the incomplete cases were imputed with the mean of the subject, then the completely missing data were recovered using the iterative EM method with auxiliary variables in the Missing Value Analysis module of SPSS 24. Fernández-Alonso et al. (2012) found that this two-step strategy produces the best recovery of population data in studies with this (non-random) type of missing data and levels of missing data similar to those in TERCE.

Table 1 shows the data related to the first research objective, the two basic characteristics of homework assignment habits in each country.

Table 1. Frequency and amount of homework in Latin American countries.

The median number of days doing homework (between 4 and 5 in almost all countries) indicates that Latin American teachers set homework most days of the week. The median is less than 4 in only two cases (Costa Rica and Chile). For the combined TERCE data the estimated amount of homework is a little more than 50 min a day, the equivalent of a weekly volume of a little more than 6 h. However, there are huge variations between countries. For example, homework in the Dominican Republic requires 3.5 h a week more than in Chile. The final column shows the percentage of students who do not do homework. The correlation between this percentage and the amount of homework by country is negative ( r xy = −0.66), in other words countries with a smaller amount of homework tend to have a higher proportion of students who report not doing homework.

In the hierarchical-linear models, the effect of homework is small in Latin American countries (Table 2 ). In most countries not doing homework has a negative effect, which is statistically significant ( p < 0.10) in half of the cases. In general the effect of homework time is not significant when considered at the individual level. Of the five statistically significant cases, four were positive and the other negative. Nevertheless, homework time has a small effect. In Ecuador, for example, where the positive effect is largest, once the control variables are added, the model predicts a gain of less than 8 points for each extra hour spent on homework. In the variables which describe the teachers’ homework policies, the effect of the frequency of setting homework is positive in most countries and statistically significant in six cases. The amount of homework set exhibits mainly small, negative effects that are not statistically significant. The introduction of control variables in model 3 does not change the direction of the effects but it does mitigate them somewhat, with some cases losing statistical significance.

Table 2. Regression coefficients and SE of homework variables in models 2 and 3.

Table 3 shows the effects of the control variables in model 3. The most determinative variable is socioeconomic level, which is significant in all countries at the individual level, and in almost all countries at school level. Individual variables which stand out include repeating school years which has a negative effect in all cases, and availability of basic learning resources (science textbook and school notebook). Once the effect of those variables is controlled for, the variables of gender, being indigenous, and being in work have a smaller effect. A similar situation occurs with the type of school and whether it is urban or rural, which do not demonstrate statistically significant effects in most cases, probably because their effects are overshadowed by the dominance of the effects of the schools’ socioeconomic and cultural levels.

Table 3. Regression coefficients and SE for the control variables.

Table 4 shows the distribution of the percentage of variance between the two levels of analysis in model 1 (without predictors) and the percentage of that variance explained by models 2 and 3. The percentage of variance in model 1 at school level (L2) indicates that there are significant differences between schools in Latin American countries. One group of countries (Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay and Peru) have approximately 50% of the variance in level 2, whereas in those cases where the variance is smaller, it is around 20% (Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic). The results indicate that the percentage of total variance explained by the homework model (model 2) is small, when it is not practically null. In countries where the effect of the homework variables is greater (Argentina and Colombia), the reduction of the total variance is about 7%, but in other cases (Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Paraguay) the data explain less than 1% of the total variance. Furthermore, the reduction of variance between students is very small in all cases, which confirms that quantitative homework variables have more impact on the differences between schools than the differences between students. Finally, model 3 indicates that the control variables explain more than half of the variance between schools in most cases and between 15 and 30% of the total variance.

Table 4. Distribution of the variance in model 1 and percentage of variance explained in models 2 and 3.

Discussion and Conclusion

There are three main reasons justifying interest in this work. The first is its general scientific character: the effect of quantitative homework variables on school results is something which has been widely researched (v. g., Goldstein, 1960 ; Paschal et al., 1984 ; Trautwein and Köller, 2003 ; Cooper et al., 2006 , 2012 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ; Scheerens et al., 2013a ; Fan et al., 2017 ) but which has not produced a unanimous answer which is why it is important to add new evidence in that regard. Nonetheless, in the context of Latin America and the Caribbean, a region which represents approximately 8% of the world’s population, there are no studies which focus on systematically analyzing this topic. Research available up to now has not presented data separated by country and has only assessed homework variables in aggregate ( Murillo and Martínez-Garrido, 2013 , 2014 ; UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE, 2016a ). The second justification is the need to examine whether the results from the research cited above are also found in the Latin American context, which will let us see for the first time the prevalence of homework in those countries, and look at the possible differences between countries. In other words, allow us to analyze the invariance of the relationships in the various Latin American countries ( Byrne and van de Vijver, 2017 ). This study aims to provide transcultural validity by offering data which can be compared with the evidence accumulated by studies in English-speaking, European and Asian populations. Finally, the third reason is that our research may serve as a guide and a stimulus for other similar research in Latin American countries.

If we consider the first objective, we can conclude that more than 90% of Latin American and Caribbean students do homework to some extent, which is comparable with Western and Asian countries ( Dettmers et al., 2009 ; Fan et al., 2017 ), and which seems to confirm that homework assignment is a universal teaching resource. The amount of daily homework in each region is highly variable. For example, in the Dominican Republic students report spending twice as long on homework as in Chile. Nonetheless, the time spent on homework in most countries ranges between 45 and 60 min a day, which is in line with what one would expect for students in the 6th grade according to Cooper (2001) “10 min rule.”

Previous evidence from multilevel analyses indicated that the effect of homework time at the individual level is small and when it is statistically significant, this effect is negative ( Trautwein, 2007 ; Dettmers et al., 2010 ; Núñez et al., 2014 , 2015 ). These results seem to be confirmed in Latin America and the Caribbean, as in the model with control variables only Ecuador, Mexico (including New Leon) and Peru gave results contrary to that hypothesis. In the case with the greatest effect (Ecuador), the model predicts gains of less than 8% of a standard deviation for each extra hour spent on homework; little yield for the effort and dedication needed.

In general, the quantitative variables describing teachers’ homework policies produce expected results, although the proportion of statistically significant effects is rather lower than one might expect based on the evidence available from other contexts. After applying the control variables, only half of the countries demonstrated statistical significance for the frequency or amount of homework set. Nevertheless, these data are consistent with previous research indicating that the frequency of homework seems to have more impact on results than the amount of homework set ( Trautwein et al., 2002 , 2009 ; Trautwein, 2007 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2014 ). These results have clear educational implications for teachers’ homework policies, as they seem to indicate that the frequent assignment of homework has more positive effects than assigning large amounts of homework.

It is worth noting that the effects of homework frequency and homework amount on scores in science are closely related as the correlation between these effects is very negative ( r = −0.88). This would seem to indicate that in those countries where frequency has less influence, homework amount has a greater effect. The most extreme case is Uruguay, the only country where homework frequency shows a statistically significant negative effect, but one which is compensated for by the opposite effect of homework amount. These data have new educational implications: very large amounts of homework not only seem detrimental (in most countries the effect of homework amount is negative), but there is also evidence indicating that within-class differences between students are greater in those class groups with a larger amount of homework ( Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017a ).

These results must be interpreted in light of our study’s limitations. The most important of which is probably the lack of a measure of prior performance. In the data, the only variable related to school history was the repetition of a school year, which as one might expect, had a negative effect in every case. However, research has repeatedly shown that measures of previous performance are the best predictors in this type of study ( Murillo and Martínez-Garrido, 2013 ; Núñez et al., 2014 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 ). In addition, the statistical models used in this study are correlational and therefore the conclusions cannot be read in causal terms. As Trautwein and Lüdtke (2009) clearly indicated, the word “effect” must be understood as “predictive effect,” as it is not possible to establish the direction of the association. Our study predicts achievement in science with generic homework measures. It would have been better to employ measures which were specific to the subject being studied (e.g., time spent on science homework, Trautwein and Lüdtke, 2007 , 2009 ). Nevertheless, studies which have looked at the relationship between results in various subjects and specific homework time measures have found similar effect sizes in the subjects they evaluated ( Lubbers et al., 2010 ; Chang et al., 2014 ). An additional limitation is that although TERCE evaluated two age cohorts: 3rd and 6th year of compulsory education, in the context questionnaire for the 3rd year there was insufficient information to construct variables such as homework time and homework amount. For that reason in this study we only focus on the 6th year sample, something which should be borne in mind when considering the generalizability of the results. Future research must be directed toward including other variables which have been shown to be important. The specification and confirmation of a comprehensive model which addresses student behavior and motivation, homework characteristics, teachers’ use of homework, teaching quality, teacher review and feedback, and the role of the family in homework is an unresolved issue in the Latin American context, while there is already evidence of this type available in other regions ( Epstein and Pinkow, 1988 ; Cooper, 1989 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ; Cunha et al., 2018 ; León et al., 2018 ).

Ethics Statement

This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Author Contributions

RF-A and JM designed the research. RF-A, PW, and AG-L analyzed the data. MÁ-D and MC interpreted the data. RF-A, PW, AG-L, MÁ-D, and MC drafted the paper. JM revised it critically. All authors gave final approval of the version to be published and have ensured the accuracy and integrity of the work.

This research was funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad del Gobierno de España. References: PSI2017-85724-P and BES2012-053488.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Blazer, C. (2009). Literature Review: Homework. Miami: Miami Dade County Public Schools . Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536245.pdf

Google Scholar

Byrne, B., and van de Vijver, F. (2017). The maximum likelihood alignment approach to testing for approximate measurement invariance: a paradigmatic cross-cultural application. Psicothema 29, 539–551. doi: 10.7334/psicothema2017.178

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Canadian Council on Learning (2009). A Systematic Review of Literature Examining the Impact of Homework on Academic Achievement. Available at: http://edu.au.dk/fileadmin/edu/Udgivelser/SystematicReview_HomeworkApril27-2009.pdf

Chang, C. B., Wall, D., Tare, M., Golonka, E., and Vatz, K. (2014). Relations of attitudes toward homework and time spent on homework to course outcomes: the case of foreign language learning. J. Educ. Psychol. 106, 1049–1065. doi: 10.1037/a0036497

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research in homework. Educ. Leadersh. 47, 85–91.

Cooper, H. (2001). The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., and Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Rev. Educ. Res. 76, 1–62. doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001

Cooper, H., Steenbergen-Hu, S., and Dent, A. L. (2012). “Homework,” in APA Educational Psychology Handbook: Application to Learning and Teaching , Vol. 3, eds K. R. Harris, S. Graham, and T. Urdan (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 475–495. doi: 10.1037/13275-019

Cooper, H., and Valentine, J. C. (2001). Using research to answer practical questions about homework. Educ. Psychol. 36, 143–153. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3603_1

Cunha, J., Xu, J., Rosario, P., and Núñez, J. C. (2018). Validity and reliability of the parental homework management scale. Psicothema 30, 337–343. doi: 10.7334/psicothema2017.426

De Jong, R., Westerhof, K. J., and Creemers, B. P. M. (2000). Homework and student math achievement in junior high schools. Educ. Res. Eval. 6, 130–157. doi: 10.1076/1380-3611(200006)6:2;1-E;F130

Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, M., Kunter, M., and Baumert, J. (2010). Homework works if homework quality is high: using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics. J. Educ. Psychol. 102, 467–482. doi: 10.1037/a0018453

Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., and Lüdtke, O. (2009). The relationship between homework time and achievement is not universal: evidence from multilevel analyses in 40 countries. Sch. Effect. Sch. Improv. 20, 375–405. doi: 10.1080/09243450902904601

Epstein, J. L., and Pinkow, L. (1988). A Model for Research on Homework Based on U.S. and International Studies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.

Fan, H., Xu, J., Cai, Z., He, J., and Fan, X. (2017). Homework and students’ achievement in math and science: a 30-year meta-analysis, 1986-2015. Educ. Res. Rev. 20, 35–54. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.003

Farrow, S., Tymms, P., and Henderson, B. (1999). Homework and attainment in primary schools. Br. Educ. Res. J. 25, 323–341. doi: 10.1080/0141192990250304

Fernández-Alonso, R., Álvarez-Díaz, M., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Muñiz, J. (2017a). Students’ achievement and homework assignment strategies. Front. Psychol. 8:286. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00286

Fernández-Alonso, R., Álvarez-Díaz, M., Woitschach, P., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Cuesta, M. (2017b). Parental involvement and academic performance: less control and more communication. Psicothema 29, 453–461. doi: 10.7334/psicothema2017.181

Fernández-Alonso, R., and Muñiz, J. (2011). Diseños de cuadernillos para la evaluación de competencias básicas [Booklets design for the assessment of basic competences]. Aula Abierta 39, 3–34.

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Muñiz, J. (2012). Imputación de datos perdidos en las evaluaciones diagnósticas educativas [Imputation methods for missing data in educational diagnostic evaluation]. Psicothema 24, 167–175.

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Muñiz, J. (2014). Tareas escolares en el hogar y rendimiento en matemáticas: una aproximación multinivel con estudiantes de enseñanza primaria [Homework and academic performance in mathematics: a multilevel approach with primary school student]. Rev. Psicol. Educ. 9, 15–30.

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Muñiz, J. (2015). Adolescents’ homework performance in mathematics and science: personal factors and teaching practices. J. Educ. Psychol. 107, 1075–1085. doi: 10.1037/edu0000032

Fernández-Alonso, R., Suárez-Álvarez, J., and Muñiz, J. (2016). Homework and performance in mathematics: the role of the teacher, the family and the student’s background. Rev. Psicodidáctica 21, 5–23. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.13939

Flunger, B., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Niggli, A., and Schnyder, I. (2015). The Janus-faced nature of time spent on homework: using latent profile analyses to predict academic achievement over a school year. Learn. Instr. 39, 97–106. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.008

Goldstein, A. (1960). Does homework help? A review of research. Element. Sch. J. 60, 212–224. doi: 10.1086/459804

Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. London: Routledge.

Joncas, M., and Foy, P. (2012). Sample Design in TIMSS and PIRLS. Available at: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/methods/pdf/TP_Sampling_Design.pdf

León, J., Medina-Garrido, E., and Ortega, M. (2018). Teaching quality: high school students’ autonomy and competence. Psicothema 30, 218–223. doi: 10.7334/psicothema2017.23

Linacre, J. M. (2005). A User’s Guide to WINSTEPS/MINISTEP Rasch-Model Computer Programs (Version 3.55). Chicago, IL: MESA Press.

Liu, X., and Whitford, M. (2011). Opportunities-to-learn at home: profiles of students with and without reaching science proficiency. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 20, 375–387. doi: 10.1007/s10956-010-9259-y

Lubbers, M. J., Van Der Werf, M. P. C., Kuyper, H., and Hendriks, A. A. J. (2010). Does homework behavior mediate the relation between personality and academic performance? Learn. Individ. Differ. 20, 203–208. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2010.01.005

Mislevy, R. J., Beaton, A. E., Kaplan, B., and Sheehan, K. M. (1992). Estimating population characteristics from sparse matrix samples of item responses. J. Educ. Meas. 29, 133–161. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-3984.1992.tb00371.x

Murillo, F. J., and Martínez-Garrido, C. (2013). Homework influence on academic performance. A study of Iberoamerican students of primary education. Rev. Psicodidáctica 18, 157–171. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.6156

Murillo, F. J., and Martínez-Garrido, C. (2014). Homework and primary-school students’ academic achievement in Latin America. Int. Rev. Educ. 60, 661–681. doi: 10.1007/s11159-014-9440-2

Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A., and Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental involvement in homework, student homework behaviors and academic achievement: differences among elementary, junior high and high school students. Metacognit. Learn. 10, 375–406. doi: 10.1007/s11409-015-9135-5

Núñez, J. C., Vallejo, G., Rosário, P., Tuero, E., and Valle, A. (2014). Student, teacher, and school context variables predicting academic achievement in biology: analysis from a multilevel perspective. Rev. Psicodidáctica 19, 145–171. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.7127

OECD (2009). PISA Data Analysis Manual: SPSS , 2nd Edn. Paris: OECD Publishing.

OECD (2013). PISA 2012 Results: What Makes Schools Successful? Resources, Policies and Practices , Vol. 4. Paris: OECD Publishing.

Palardy, G., Rumberger, R., and Butler, T. (2015). The effect of high school socioeconomic, racial, and linguistic segregation on academic performance and school behaviors. Teach. Coll. Rec. 117, 1–52.

Paschal, R. A., Weinstein, T., and Walberg, H. J. (1984). The effects of homework on learning: a quantitative synthesis. J. Educ. Res. 78, 97–104. doi: 10.1080/00220671.1984.10885581

Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., Congdon, R. T., and du Toit, M. (2011). HLM7: Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International.

Scheerens, J. (2016). Educational Effectiveness and Ineffectiveness a Critical Review of the Knowledge Base. Berlin: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-7459-8

Scheerens, J., and Bosker, R. J. (1997). The Foundations of Educational Effectiveness. Oxford: Elsevier.

Scheerens, J., Hendriks, M., Luyten, H., Sleegers, P., and Cees, G. (2013a). Productive Time in Education. A Review of the Effectiveness of Teaching Time at School, Homework and Extended Time Outside School Hours. Enschede: University of Twente.

Scheerens, J., Witziers, B., and Steen, R. (2013b). A meta-analysis of school effectiveness studies. Rev. Educ. 361, 619–645. doi: 10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2013-361-235

Scheerens, J., Luyten, H., Steen, R., and Luyten-de Thouars, Y. (2007). Review and Meta-Analyses of School and Teaching Effectiveness. Enschede: University of Twente.

Shell, D. F., Brooks, D. W., Trainin, G., Wilson, K. M., Kauffman, D. F., and Herr, L. M. (2010). The Unified Learning Model. Dordrecht: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-3215-7

Sirin, S. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: a meta-analytic review of research. Rev. Educ. Res. 75, 417–453. doi: 10.3102/00346543075003417

Towsend, T. (2007). International Handbook of School Effectiveness and Improvement. Dordrecht: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-5747-2

Trautwein, U. (2007). The homework–achievement relation reconsidered: differentiating homework time, homework frequency, and homework effort. Learn. Instr. 17, 372–388. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.02.009

Trautwein, U., and Köller, O. (2003). The relationship between homework and achievement: still much of a mystery. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 15, 115–145. doi: 10.1023/A:1023460414243

Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Schmitz, B., and Baumert, J. (2002). Do homework assignments enhance achievement? A multilevel analysis in 7th grade mathematics. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 27, 26–50. doi: 10.1006/ceps.2001.1084

Trautwein, U., and Lüdtke, O. (2007). Students’ self-reported effort and time on homework in six school subjects: between-student differences and within-student variation. J. Educ. Psychol. 99, 432–444. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.432

Trautwein, U., and Lüdtke, O. (2009). Predicting homework motivation and homework effort in six school subjects: the role of person and family characteristics, classroom factors, and school track. Learn. Instr. 19, 243–258. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.05.001

Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Schnyder, I., and Niggli, A. (2006). Predicting homework effort: support for a domain-specific, multilevel homework model. J. Educ. Psychol. 98, 438–456. doi: 10.1037/00220663.98.2.438

Trautwein, U., Schnyder, I., Niggli, A., Neumann, M., and Lüdtke, O. (2009). Chameleon effects in homework research: the homework–achievement association depends on the measures used and the level of analysis chosen. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 34, 77–88. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.001

UNESCO-OREALC (2016). Reporte Técnico Tercer Estudio Regional Comparativo y Explicativo. TERCE [Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study – TERCE Technical Report]. Santiago: UNESCO.

UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE (2016a). Informe de Resultados del Tercer Estudio Regional Comparativo y Explicativo. Factores Asociados [Report of the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study. Effectiveness factors]. Santiago: UNESCO.

UNESCO-OREALC and LLECE (2016b). Informe de Resultados del Tercer Estudio Regional Comparativo y Explicativo. Logros de aprendizaje [Report of the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study. Learning outcomes]. Santiago: UNESCO.

von Davier, M., Gonzalez, E., and Mislevy, R. J. (2009). What are Plausible Values and Why are They Useful? IERI Monograph Series. Issues and Methodologies in Large-Scale Assessments. Available at: http://www.ierinstitute.org/fileadmin/Documents/IERI_Monograph/IERI_Monograph_Volume_02.pdf

White, K. R. (1982). The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. Psychol. Bull. 91, 461–481. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.91.3.461

Woitschach, P., Fernández-Alonso, R., Martínez-Arias, R., and Muñiz, J. (2017). Influencia de los centros escolares sobre el rendimiento académico en Latinoamérica [Effects of the schools on the academic achievement in Latinamerica]. Rev. Psicol. Educ. 12, 138–154. doi: 10.23923/rpye2017.12.152

Keywords : homework time, science, academic performance, multilevel models, Latin America

Citation: Fernández-Alonso R, Woitschach P, Álvarez-Díaz M, González-López AM, Cuesta M and Muñiz J (2019) Homework and Academic Achievement in Latin America: A Multilevel Approach. Front. Psychol. 10:95. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00095

Received: 19 November 2018; Accepted: 14 January 2019; Published: 01 February 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 Fernández-Alonso, Woitschach, Álvarez-Díaz, González-López, Cuesta and Muñiz. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Rubén Fernández-Alonso, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

COMMENTS

Does 'Homework' Spelled Backwards Mean 'Child Abuse' in Latin?
The claim that the word "homework" spelled backwards translates to "child abuse" in Latin has been a feature of the internet since at least March 2013.In January 2021, a Reddit thread brought the ...
Does homework spelled backward translate to 'child abuse' in Latin
Not Legit. There is no truth to the claim that homework spelled backwards translates to "child abuse" in Latin. Support high-integrity, independent journalism that serves democracy. Make a ...
Learning Latin
Master Latin grammar with dynamic charts and exercises. Latin Translator. Translate between Latin and English with grammar insights. Learn More. Custom Textbook. Learn systematically with our curated Latin textbook. Open Source Community. Contribute to a growing library of resources and tools, making Latin accessible to everyone.
Fact check: 'Krowemoh' does not mean 'child abuse' in Latin
The claim: 'Homework' spelled backward means 'child abuse' in Latin. Many words and phrases are known to have different meanings in other languages, and much of the English vocabulary is derived ...
Homework spelled backwards does not mean child abuse in Latin
A search of the term "Latin" in the user's Twitter feed ( bit.ly/3v2Kbwd) revealed another alleged definition for "krowemoh": ""Homework" spelled backwards is "krowemoh" Which in Latin ...
Home
JAM with Latin was created to help students and parents learn and love Latin. Students in our classroom have access to fun and engaging videos tailor-made to explain each lesson in the Henle First Year textbook. Alongside our videos JAM with Latin includes a workbook that presents Henle's exercises in digestible chunks. " For all my ...
FACT CHECK: No, 'Homework' Spelled Backwards Is Not Latin For 'Child
A post shared on Facebook claims the word "homework" spelled backwards translates to "child abuse" in Latin. Verdict: False. The word "krowemoh" does not have meaning in Latin. Fact Check: Latin, the language of Ancient Rome, spread with the Roman Empire's expansion, survived its collapse and remained in learned use throughout the ...
The world's largest resource database for learning Latin
Improved Ciceronian composition module. Tutorlatin is a free, anonymous platform that offers a plethora of educational resources to learners, tutors, and teachers alike. With over 900 available modules and a multitude of other tools, TutorLatin is the largest database of resources for learning the Latin language that is completely free to access.
Latin 101
Latin 101 will cover the first 15 chapters of Lingua Latina. The approach is intensively grammatical. Each chapter will be translated in class, with all grammatical constructions explained. ... HOMEWORK. Students should be prepared to spend a regular amount of time on homework before each class session. In addition to brief written homework to ...
LatinTutorial
20,542 Views. 334 likes. Latin has different words for the summer and winter solstice, solstitium and bruma. Each of these words has interesting origins, and this video goes through the etymology of each word, and why solstice isn't necessarily the best word to describe December 21. At least for those of us in the northern hemisphere!
5 Great Online Resources for Learning Latin
2. The Latin Library. This is the go-to site for Latin texts. As far as Classical Latin literature is concerned, you'd be hard-pressed to find something missing here. All the major names are ...
Free Latin Resources
Beginner Latin Homework Worksheets: Free Resources I do not give paper worksheets every night, since I use online homework assignments that grade my students' work automatically most nights. I do think it is important for students to have handwritten practice, so we do use paper worksheets about once a week.
LATIN 101: Introduction to Latin
The aim of LATIN 101 is to introduce students to the fundamentals of classical Latin (forms, syntax, and vocabulary) as soon as possible. ... homework assignments translating sentences from Latin into English and English into Latin, and regular quizzes and tests to ensure retention and comprehension of material. The goal of the course in the ...
Latin is Simple
Veni Vidi Vici - I came, I saw, I latin-is-simpled Gaius Julius Caesar. Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? - When, o offline-dictionary, will you cease to annoy us? Marcus Tullius Cicero. Audentis fortuna iuvat - Fortune favours our users Publius Vergilius Maro. Find Latin Vocabulary quickly in the Online Dictionary and ...
Homework Questions
Homework. These are the homework assignments for LATN 1111 (Basic Latin) in Spring 2024 at Fairfield University. Many of these assignments will likely require consultation of the Complete Vocabulary or the Paradigms, and you can find all answers to the homework at the Answer Key. Table of contents. Practice Homework 1 (Due R 1/18)
Online Latin Dictionary
Welcome to the Latin Dictionary, the largest and most complete online Latin dictionary with a conjugator and a declension tool included. A very valuable resource for students and specialists. The Latin dictionary is available for free: do not hesitate to let us know about your comments and impressions. continue below.
"Homework" Spelled Backwards
On March 17th, 2013, Twitter / X [1] [2] user @mallorymac97 tweeted, "So basically 'Homework' spelled backwards is 'krowemoh' which in Latin translates to 'child abuse,'" receiving over 1,000 likes in eight years (shown below). In January 2021, Google sourced @mallorymac97's tweet to answer the search query "what is homework backwards," as ...
Latin Homework Free
Practice or homework assignment for Latin teachers: This document is a review of uses of present and perfect participles, as well as uses of the genitive and the formation and translation of adverbs. The vocabulary is tailored to accompany Stage 22 of the Cambridge Latin Course. Created by Jennifer Oditt.
Does "Homework" spelled backwards translate to "Child Abuse" in Latin
Scrolling through social media recently, you might have come across the viral claim that the word "homework" spelled backwards translates to "child abuse" in...
homework in Latin
Translation of "homework" into Latin. pensum is the translation of "homework" into Latin. Sample translated sentence: I am tired; nevertheless, I must finish my homework. ↔ Fessus sum; tamen debeo conficere pensum scholare.
TikTokers Allege That "Homework" Spelled Backward Means Something ...
According to TikTok, "homework" spelled backward, or "krowemoh," translates to "child abuse" in Latin. However, according to highly respected fact-checking site Reuters, "krowemoh" doesn't mean ...
How to say homework in Latin
What's the Latin word for homework? Here's how you say it. Latin Translation. duis congue sem. More Latin words for homework. duis adverb. homework, twice, doubly, twofold. Duis congue.
Frontiers
The results confirmed that homework is widely assigned in the Latin American region. At the individual level, time spent on homework had little effect on academic performance, while in the quantitative homework characteristics it was the frequency of homework assignment which demonstrated a clearer effect rather than the amount of homework ...