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Definition of anthesis

Examples of anthesis in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'anthesis.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

borrowed from New Latin, borrowed from Greek ánthēsis "blooming," from anthē-, variant stem of antheîn "to blossom, bloom" (verbal derivative of ánthos "flower") + -sis -sis — more at antho-

circa 1823, in the meaning defined above

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Cite this entry.

“Anthesis.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anthesis. Accessed 29 Jul. 2024.

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Antithesis Definition

What is antithesis? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting or opposing ideas, usually within parallel grammatical structures. For instance, Neil Armstrong used antithesis when he stepped onto the surface of the moon in 1969 and said, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." This is an example of antithesis because the two halves of the sentence mirror each other in grammatical structure, while together the two halves emphasize the incredible contrast between the individual experience of taking an ordinary step, and the extraordinary progress that Armstrong's step symbolized for the human race.

Some additional key details about antithesis:

• Antithesis works best when it is used in conjunction with parallelism (successive phrases that use the same grammatical structure), since the repetition of structure makes the contrast of the content of the phrases as clear as possible.
• The word "antithesis" has another meaning, which is to describe something as being the opposite of another thing. For example, "love is the antithesis of selfishness." This guide focuses only on antithesis as a literary device.
• The word antithesis has its origins in the Greek word antithenai , meaning "to oppose." The plural of antithesis is antitheses.

How to Pronounce Antithesis

Here's how to pronounce antithesis: an- tith -uh-sis

Antithesis and Parallelism

Often, but not always, antithesis works in tandem with parallelism . In parallelism, two components of a sentence (or pair of sentences) mirror one another by repeating grammatical elements. The following is a good example of both antithesis and parallelism:

To err is human , to forgive divine .

The two clauses of the sentence are parallel because each starts off with an infinitive verb and ends with an adjective ("human" and "divine"). The mirroring of these elements then works to emphasize the contrast in their content, particularly in the very strong opposite contrast between "human" and "divine."

Antithesis Without Parallelism

In most cases, antitheses involve parallel elements of the sentence—whether a pair of nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other grammar elements. However, it is also possible to have antithesis without such clear cut parallelism. In the Temptations Song "My Girl," the singer uses antithesis when he says:

"When it's cold outside , I've got the month of May ."

Here the sentence is clearly cut into two clauses on either side of the comma, and the contrasting elements are clear enough. However, strictly speaking there isn't true parallelism here because "cold outside" and "month of May" are different types of grammatical structures (an adjective phrase and a noun phrase, respectively).

Antithesis vs. Related Terms

Three literary terms that are often mistakenly used in the place of antithesis are juxtaposition , oxymoron , and foil . Each of these three terms does have to do with establishing a relationship of difference between two ideas or characters in a text, but beyond that there are significant differences between them.

Antithesis vs. Juxtaposition

In juxtaposition , two things or ideas are placed next to one another to draw attention to their differences or similarities. In juxtaposition, the pairing of two ideas is therefore not necessarily done to create a relationship of opposition or contradiction between them, as is the case with antithesis. So, while antithesis could be a type of juxtaposition, juxtaposition is not always antithesis.

Antithesis vs. Oxymoron

In an oxymoron , two seemingly contradictory words are placed together because their unlikely combination reveals a deeper truth. Some examples of oxymorons include:

• Sweet sorrow
• Cruel kindness
• Living dead

The focus of antithesis is opposites rather than contradictions . While the words involved in oxymorons seem like they don't belong together (until you give them deeper thought), the words or ideas of antithesis do feel like they belong together even as they contrast as opposites. Further, antitheses seldom function by placing the two words or ideas right next to one another, so antitheses are usually made up of more than two words (as in, "I'd rather be among the living than among the dead").

Antithesis vs. Foil

Some Internet sources use "antithesis" to describe an author's decision to create two characters in a story that are direct opposites of one another—for instance, the protagonist and antagonist . But the correct term for this kind of opposition is a foil : a person or thing in a work of literature that contrasts with another thing in order to call attention to its qualities. While the sentence "the hare was fast, and the tortoise was slow" is an example of antithesis, if we step back and look at the story as a whole, the better term to describe the relationship between the characters of the tortoise and the hare is "foil," as in, "The character of the hare is a foil of the tortoise."

Antithesis Examples

Antithesis in literature.

Below are examples of antithesis from some of English literature's most acclaimed writers — and a comic book!

Antithesis in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities

In the famous opening lines of A Tale of Two Cities , Dickens sets out a flowing list of antitheses punctuated by the repetition of the word "it was" at the beginning of each clause (which is itself an example of the figure of speech anaphora ). By building up this list of contrasts, Dickens sets the scene of the French Revolution that will serve as the setting of his tale by emphasizing the division and confusion of the era. The overwhelming accumulation of antitheses is also purposefully overdone; Dickens is using hyperbole to make fun of the "noisiest authorities" of the day and their exaggerated claims. The passage contains many examples of antithesis, each consisting of one pair of contrasting ideas that we've highlighted to make the structure clearer.

It was the best of times , it was the worst of times , it was the age of wisdom , it was the age of foolishness , it was the epoch of belief , it was the epoch of incredulity , it was the season of Light , it was the season of Darkness , it was the spring of hope , it was the winter of despair , we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven , we were all going direct the other way —in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.

Antithesis in John Milton's Paradise Lost

In this verse from Paradise Lost , Milton's anti-hero , Satan, claims he's happier as the king of Hell than he could ever have been as a servant in Heaven. He justifies his rebellion against God with this pithy phrase, and the antithesis drives home the double contrast between Hell and Heaven, and between ruling and serving.

Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.

Antithesis in William Shakespeare's Othello

As the plot of Othello nears its climax , the antagonist of the play, Iago, pauses for a moment to acknowledge the significance of what is about to happen. Iago uses antithesis to contrast the two opposite potential outcomes of his villainous plot: either events will transpire in Iago's favor and he will come out on top, or his treachery will be discovered, ruining him.

This is the night That either makes me or fordoes me quite .

In this passage, the simple word "either" functions as a cue for the reader to expect some form of parallelism, because the "either" signals that a contrast between two things is coming.

Antithesis in William Shakespeare's Hamlet

Shakespeare's plays are full of antithesis, and so is Hamlet's most well-known "To be or not to be" soliloquy . This excerpt of the soliloquy is a good example of an antithesis that is not limited to a single word or short phrase. The first instance of antithesis here, where Hamlet announces the guiding question (" to be or not to be ") is followed by an elaboration of each idea ("to be" and "not to be") into metaphors that then form their own antithesis. Both instances of antithesis hinge on an " or " that divides the two contrasting options.

To be or not to be , that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them ...

Antithesis in T.S. Eliot's "Four Quartets"

In this excerpt from his poem "Four Quartets," T.S. Eliot uses antithesis to describe the cycle of life, which is continuously passing from beginning to end, from rise to fall, and from old to new.

In my beginning is my end . In succession Houses rise and fall , crumble, are extended, Are removed, destroyed, restored, or in their place Is an open field, or a factory, or a by-pass. Old stone to new building , old timber to new fires ...

Antithesis in Green Lantern's Oath

Comic book writers know the power of antithesis too! In this catchy oath, Green Lantern uses antithesis to emphasize that his mission to defeat evil will endure no matter the conditions.

In brightest day , in blackest night , No evil shall escape my sight. Let those who worship evil's might Beware my power—Green lantern's light!

While most instances of antithesis are built around an "or" that signals the contrast between the two parts of the sentence, the Green Lantern oath works a bit differently. It's built around an implied "and" (to be technical, that first line of the oath is an asyndeton that replaces the "and" with a comma), because members of the Green Lantern corps are expressing their willingness to fight evil in all places, even very opposite environments.

Antithesis in Speeches

Many well-known speeches contain examples of antithesis. Speakers use antithesis to drive home the stakes of what they are saying, sometimes by contrasting two distinct visions of the future.

Antithesis in Patrick Henry's Speech to the Second Virginia Convention, 1775

This speech by famous American patriot Patrick Henry includes one of the most memorable and oft-quoted phrases from the era of the American Revolution. Here, Henry uses antithesis to emphasize just how highly he prizes liberty, and how deadly serious he is about his fight to achieve it.

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take: but as for me, give me liberty or give me death .

Antithesis in Martin Luther King Jr.'s Oberlin Commencement Address

In this speech by one of America's most well-known orators, antithesis allows Martin Luther King Jr. to highlight the contrast between two visions of the future; in the first vision, humans rise above their differences to cooperate with one another, while in the other humanity is doomed by infighting and division.

We must all learn to live together as brothers —or we will all perish together as fools .

Antithesis in Songs

In songs, contrasting two opposite ideas using antithesis can heighten the dramatic tension of a difficult decision, or express the singer's intense emotion—but whatever the context, antithesis is a useful tool for songwriters mainly because opposites are always easy to remember, so lyrics that use antithesis tend to stick in the head.

Antithesis in "Should I Stay or Should I Go" by The Clash (1981)

In this song by The Clash, the speaker is caught at a crossroads between two choices, and antithesis serves as the perfect tool to express just how confused and conflicted he is. The rhetorical question —whether to stay or to go—presents two opposing options, and the contrast between his lover's mood from one day (when everything is "fine") to the next (when it's all "black") explains the difficulty of his choice.

One day it's fine and next it's black So if you want me off your back Well, come on and let me know Should I stay or should I go ? Should I stay or should I go now? Should I stay or should I go now? If I go, there will be trouble If I stay it will be double ...

Antithesis in "My Girl" by the Temptations (1965)

In this song, the singer uses a pair of metaphors to describe the feeling of joy that his lover brings him. This joy is expressed through antithesis, since the singer uses the miserable weather of a cloudy, cold day as the setting for the sunshine-filled month of May that "his girl" makes him feel inside, emphasizing the power of his emotions by contrasting them with the bleak weather.

I've got sunshine on a cloudy day When it's cold outside I've got the month of May Well I guess you'd say, What can make me feel this way? My girl, my girl, my girl Talkin' bout my girl.

Why Do Writers Use Antithesis?

Fundamentally, writers of all types use antithesis for its ability to create a clear contrast. This contrast can serve a number of purposes, as shown in the examples above. It can:

• Present a stark choice between two alternatives.
• Convey magnitude or range (i.e. "in brightest day, in darkest night" or "from the highest mountain, to the deepest valley").
• Express strong emotions.
• Create a relationship of opposition between two separate ideas.
• Accentuate the qualities and characteristics of one thing by placing it in opposition to another.

Whatever the case, antithesis almost always has the added benefit of making language more memorable to listeners and readers. The use of parallelism and other simple grammatical constructions like "either/or" help to establish opposition between concepts—and opposites have a way of sticking in the memory.

Other Helpful Antithesis Resources

• The Wikipedia page on Antithesis : A useful summary with associated examples, along with an extensive account of antithesis in the Gospel of Matthew.
• Sound bites from history : A list of examples of antithesis in famous political speeches from United States history — with audio clips!
• A blog post on antithesis : This quick rundown of antithesis focuses on a quote you may know from Muhammad Ali's philosophy of boxing: "Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

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Definition of Antithesis

Examples of antithesis in everyday speech, common examples of antithesis from famous speeches, examples of proverbs featuring antithesis, utilizing antithesis in writing, antithesis and parallelism, antithesis and juxtaposition, use of antithesis in sentences  , examples of antithesis in literature, example 1:  hamlet (william shakespeare).

Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice ; Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy judgment.

Example 2:  Paradise Lost  (John Milton)

Here at least We shall be free; the Almighty hath not built Here for his envy, will not drive us hence: Here we may reign secure, and in my choice To reign is worth ambition though in Hell: Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.

Example 3:  Fire and Ice  (Robert Frost)

Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I’ve tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice.

Example 4: The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln

We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives so that nation might live.

The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.

The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.

Function of Antithesis

Synonyms of antithesis, post navigation.

postanthesis

• 1.1 Alternative forms
• 1.2 Etymology
• 1.3.1 Antonyms

Alternative forms

• post-anthesis

From post- +‎ anthesis .

postanthesis ( not comparable )

• occurring after the opening of a flower
• preanthesis

• English terms prefixed with post-
• English lemmas
• English adjectives
• English uncomparable adjectives

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First days of anthesis: C. texana

First days of anthesis: C. carduacea

Last days of anthesis: c. texana.

Last days of anthesis: C. carduacea

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[ an- tith - uh -sis ]

the antithesis of right and wrong.

Her behavior was the very antithesis of cowardly.

Synonyms: reverse , opposite

• the placing of a sentence or one of its parts against another to which it is opposed to form a balanced contrast of ideas, as in “Give me liberty or give me death.”
• the second sentence or part thus set in opposition, as “or give me death.”
• Philosophy. Hegelian dialectic

/ ænˈtɪθɪsɪs /

• the exact opposite
• contrast or opposition
• rhetoric the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, phrases, or words so as to produce an effect of balance, such as my words fly up, my thoughts remain below
• philosophy the second stage in the Hegelian dialectic contradicting the thesis before resolution by the synthesis

Other Words From

• self-an·tithe·sis noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of antithesis 1

Example Sentences

In the Democratic primary in his home state, he was humiliated by his old antithesis Wallace, who beat him decisively.

It cannot be stressed enough that the behavior of the sitting president is the antithesis of the ideals of American democracy, institutions or peaceful transitions.

American Christians may have chosen cynicism in 2016, but cynicism is the antithesis of the Christian faith, and cynicism won’t have the final word in America, either.

The transhuman cannot exist outside of ubuntu, of course, which is the antithesis of the colonial order for a number of reasons.

Tesla’s being touted as a go-go player in the antithesis of a go-go sector.

Belle Knox is the antithesis of Jenna Jameson—and not just in looks.

To me this is the antithesis of what travel should be about.

Married at First Sight is the antithesis of The Bachelor and The Bachelorette.

Yet its sound is the musical antithesis of a blended Frappuccino.

Now Joffrey, the Starks' black-hearted antithesis, has met a similar fate.

If you did fail, you would try Exclusion, and you would find nothing which is the antithesis of the area of New York.

Thus seen, socialism appeared as the very antithesis of law and order, of love and chastity, and of religion itself.

There is, however, but little danger of overdoing the parallel construction where there is no antithesis.

Nor is it to be wondered at, if we consider the antithesis which is presented to their usual mode of life.

He is a sentimental Classicist, and his subjects the antithesis of the Grco-Roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique.

• Literary Terms
• Definition & Examples
• How to Use Antithesis

I. What is an Antithesis?

“Antithesis” literally means “opposite” – it is usually the opposite of a statement, concept, or idea. In literary analysis, an antithesis is a pair of statements or images in which the one reverses the other. The pair is written with similar grammatical structures to show more contrast. Antithesis (pronounced an-TITH-eh-sis) is used to emphasize a concept, idea, or conclusion.

II. Examples of Antithesis

That’s one small step for a man – one giant leap for mankind .  (Neil Armstrong, 1969)

In this example, Armstrong is referring to man walking on the moon. Although taking a step is an ordinary activity for most people, taking a step on the moon, in outer space, is a major achievement for all humanity.

To err is human ; to forgive , divine . (Alexander Pope)

This example is used to point out that humans possess both worldly and godly qualities; they can all make mistakes, but they also have the power to free others from blame.

The world will little note , nor long remember , what we say here, but it can never forget what they did  (Abraham Lincoln, The Gettysburg Address )

In his speech, Lincoln points out that the details of that moment may not be memorable, but the actions would make history, and therefore, never entirely forgotten.

Antithesis can be a little tricky to see at first. To start, notice how each of these examples is separated into two parts . The parts are separated either by a dash, a semicolon, or the word “but.” Antithesis always has this multi-part structure (usually there are two parts, but sometimes it can be more, as we’ll see in later examples). The parts are not always as obvious as they are in these examples, but they will always be there.

Next, notice how the second part of each example contains terms that reverse or invert terms in the first part: small step vs. giant leap; human vs. divine; we say vs. they do. In each of the examples, there are several pairs of contrasted terms between the first part and the second, which is quite common in antithesis.

Finally, notice that each of the examples contains some parallel structures and ideas in addition to the opposites. This is key! The two parts are not simply contradictory statements. They are a matched pair that have many grammatical structures or concepts in common; in the details, however, they are opposites.

For example, look at the parallel grammar of Example 1: the word “one,” followed by an adjective, a noun, and then the word “for.” This accentuates the opposites by setting them against a backdrop of sameness – in other words, two very different ideas are being expressed with very, very similar grammatical structures.

To recap: antithesis has three things:

• Two or more parts
• Reversed or inverted ideas
• (usually) parallel grammatical structure

III. The Importance of Verisimilitude

Antithesis is basically a complex form of juxtaposition . So its effects are fairly similar – by contrasting one thing against its opposite, a writer or speaker can emphasize the key attributes of whatever they’re talking about. In the Neil Armstrong quote, for example, the tremendous significance of the first step on the moon is made more vivid by contrasting it with the smallness and ordinariness of the motion that brought it about.

Antithesis can also be used to express curious contradictions or paradoxes. Again, the Neil Armstrong quote is a good example: Armstrong is inviting his listeners to puzzle over the fact that a tiny, ordinary step – not so different from the millions of steps we take each day – can represent so massive a technological accomplishment as the moon landing.

Paradoxically, an antithesis can also be used to show how two seeming opposites might in fact be similar.

IV. Examples of Verisimilitude in Literature

(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Forgive us this day our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us . (The Lord’s Prayer)

The antithesis is doing a lot of work here. First, it shows the parallel between committing an evil act and being the victim of one. On the surface, these are opposites, and this is part of the antithesis, but at the same time they are, in the end, the same act from different perspectives. This part of the antithesis is basically just an expression of the Golden Rule.

Second, the antithesis displays a parallel between the speaker (a human) and the one being spoken to (God). The prayer is a request for divine mercy, and at the same time a reminder that human beings should also be merciful.

All the joy the world contains has come through wanting happiness for others . All the misery the world contains has come through wanting pleasure for yourself . (Shantideva, The Way of the Bodhisattva )

The antithesis here comes with some pretty intense parallel structure. Most of the words in each sentence are exactly the same as those in the other sentence. (“All the ___ the world contains has come through wanting ____ for ____.”) This close parallel structure makes the antithesis all the more striking, since the words that differ become much more visible.

Another interesting feature of this antithesis is that it makes “pleasure” and “happiness” seem like opposites, when most of us might think of them as more or less synonymous. The quote makes happiness seem noble and exalted, whereas pleasure is portrayed as selfish and worthless.

The proper function of man is to live , not to exist . I shall not waste my days in trying to prolong  (Jack London, Credo )

The opening antithesis here gets its punch from the fact that we think of living and existing as pretty similar terms. But for London, they are opposites. Living is about having vivid experiences, learning, and being bold; simply existing is a dull, pointless thing. These two apparently similar words are used in this antithesis to emphasize the importance of living as opposed to mere existing.

The second antithesis, on the other hand, is just the opposite – in this case, London is taking two words that seem somewhat opposed (waste and prolong), and telling us that they are in fact the same . Prolonging something is making it last; wasting something is letting it run out too soon. But, says London, when it comes to life, they are the same. If you try too hard to prolong your days (that is, if you’re so worried about dying that you never face your fears and live your life), then you will end up wasting them because you will never do anything worthwhile.

V. Examples of Verisimilitude in Pop Culture

Everybody doesn’t like something, but nobody doesn’t like Sara Lee. (Sara Lee pastry advertisement)

This classic ad uses antithesis to set up a deliberate grammatical error. This is a common technique in advertising, since people are more likely to remember a slogan that is grammatically incorrect. (Even if they only remember it because they found it irritating, it still sticks in their brain, which is all that an ad needs to do.) The antithesis helps make the meaning clear, and throws the grammatical error into sharper relief.

What men must know , a boy must learn . (The Lookouts)

Here’s another example of how parallel structure can turn into antithesis fairly easily. (The structure is noun-“must”-verb. ) The antithesis also expresses the basic narrative of The Lookouts , which is all about kids learning to fend for themselves and become full-fledged adults.

Shut Your Mouth and Open Your Eyes (the band “AFI” – album title)

The antithesis here is a juxtaposition of two different actions (opening and shutting) that are actually part of the same sort of behavior – the behavior of somebody who wants to understand the world rather than be the center of attention. It’s basically a restatement of the old adage that “those who speak the most often have the least to say.”

VI. Related Terms

• Juxtaposition

Antithesis is basically a form of juxtaposition . Juxtaposition, though, is a much broader device that encompasses any deliberate use of contrast or contradiction by an author. So, in addition to antithesis, it might include:

• The scene in “The Godfather” where a series of brutal murders is intercut with shots of a baptism, juxtaposing birth and death.
• “A Song of Ice and Fire” (George R. R. Martin book series)
• Heaven and Hell
• Mountains and the sea
• Dead or alive
• “In sickness and in health”

Antithesis performs a very similar function, but does so in a more complicated way by using full sentences (rather than single words or images) to express the two halves of the juxtaposition.

Here is an antithesis built around some of the common expressions from above

• “ Sheep go to Heaven ; goats go to Hell .”
• “Beethoven’s music is as mighty as the mountains and as timeless as the sea .”
• “In sickness he loved me; in health he abandoned ”

Notice how the antithesis builds an entire statement around the much simpler juxtaposition. And, crucially, notice that each of those statements exhibits parallel grammatical structure . In this way, both Juxtaposition and parallel structures can be used to transform a simple comparison, into antithesis.

List of Terms

• Alliteration
• Amplification
• Anachronism
• Anthropomorphism
• Antonomasia
• APA Citation
• Aposiopesis
• Autobiography
• Bildungsroman
• Characterization
• Circumlocution
• Cliffhanger
• Comic Relief
• Connotation
• Deus ex machina
• Deuteragonist
• Doppelganger
• Double Entendre
• Dramatic irony
• Equivocation
• Extended Metaphor
• Figures of Speech
• Flash-forward
• Foreshadowing
• Intertextuality
• Literary Device
• Malapropism
• Onomatopoeia
• Parallelism
• Pathetic Fallacy
• Personification
• Point of View
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Red Herring
• Rhetorical Device
• Rhetorical Question
• Science Fiction
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Synesthesia
• Turning Point
• Understatement
• Urban Legend
• Verisimilitude
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What is antithesis? A guide with examples

Find out how to use antithesis to improve your writing and see examples of antithesis being used in literature, poetry and advertising.

Introduction

This blog post is part of the Semantix copywriters’ toolkit, which is a great resource for writing professionals and all those looking to improve their writing, including language and marketing students. Firstly, we’ll discuss the definition of antithesis, including how it differs from similar rhetorical devices . Then, we’ll look at how other writers have used antithesis to set contrast and add impact to their work, including some famous examples of antithesis in literature, poetry and marketing.

What is antithesis?

The word antithesis is sometimes used to mean ‘opposite’. For example, “She is slim and sporty – the very antithesis of her brother”. However, ‘antithesis’ (or ‘antitheses’ if plural) is also the name given to a particular rhetorical or literary device. In this blog post, we’ll be looking at ‘antithesis’ in its role as the rhetorical and literary device.

The word ‘antithesis’ comes from the Greek for ‘setting opposite’. It means to express a concept by creating contrast. This can be done in different ways according to different definitions: either using only the content of the expression, or the content and the grammatical structure. Using the content can be as simple as using words with opposite meanings in close proximity to each other, or more complex by describing concepts that contrast with one another. This draws the reader’s attention to the differences between the two things.

Antithesis often presents opposing ideas and presents those ideas in a parallel grammatical structure. This is unlike general parallelism, which presents a balance of elements in a structure (sentence, clause or other) without necessarily involving the content. Antithesis is usually created in two parts, but can also be formed by three or more opposing clauses.

Writers can use antithesis to communicate a concept that is best expressed through opposites. It’s a simple yet effective way to really drive a point home. As with other literary devices , the rules aren’t set in stone, it’s more about using the device in ways that create impact and bring the words to life.

Examples of antithesis in literature

What makes a good piece of writing truly great? You might argue that the key ingredients include memorability, impact and the beauty of a rhythmical grammatical structure – deliverables that can be served skillfully with antitheses.

When you put two antithetical concepts together in a short phrase, you get drama. And drama is what keeps the reader turning the pages.

In addition, the parallel structure often used in antithesis makes the words stand out from the other text on a page. Working like a mental stop sign, it compels the reader to notice the contrasting ideas and consider the meaning of that contrast.

Using antithesis, writers can present contradictions by balancing opposing words and statements. This builds contrasting images in a reader’s mind and creates a powerful impression of either a character or circumstance.

A good portion of the best-known writers in history have been masters of antithesis. For example, antithesis plays a big part in the language used by William Shakespeare. In fact, nearly every character he created uses it. For example, in Mac beth the witches chant, “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” – a simple but dramatic antithesis. One of the best-known Shakespearean quotes of all time is an antithesis from the play Hamlet , when the prince says, “To be, or not to be...”. In just six words Shakespeare creates a perfect contrast between existing and not existing, inviting the audience to ponder the meaning of life itself.

Another famous use of antithesis is the expression, “To err is human; to forgive, divine”, which was written in 1711 by English poet Alexander Pope in ‘ An Essay on Criticism, Part II ’. After the original creation of the statement, further iterations have added the word ‘is’ so, “To err is human; to forgive is divine”, which, arguably, improves the rhythm by creating an equal number of words in each part of the sentence.

And it’s not just the writers of old who wield the sword of antithesis so well: their modern counterparts are equally aware of its power. For example, the Green Lantern comic writers use antithesis at the start of Green Lantern’s oath in order to emphasise his mission to defeat evil at all costs:

In brightest day , in blackest night , No evil shall escape my sight. Let those who worship evil’s might Beware my power – Green Lantern’s light!

Antithesis in poetry.

Poetry is perhaps the writing genre where we find the most graceful use of words. That’s why there are lots of antitheses used in poetry throughout history.

Take a look at the two-part structures and conceptual contrasts from some of the world’s best-known poems:

"Better to reign in Hell , then serve in Heav’n" – Paradise Lost , John Milton, 1667

“much madness is divinest sense ” – 620, emily dickinson, “some say the world will end in fire / some say in ice ” – fire and ice, robert frost, 1920.

Occasionally, a writer might even make use of a triple antithesis:

“Herein lives wisdom, beauty , and increase ; / Without this, folly, age , and cold decay ” – Sonnet 11, William Shakespeare, 1609

Antithesis in speeches.

Of course, what works on paper often works in its spoken form too. Some of the best speeches of all time can thank, at least in part, antithesis for their success.

“That’s one small step for a man – one giant leap for mankind” – Neil Armstrong, 1969

“we must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools ” – martin luther king jr, 1964, “on this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord ” – barack obama, 2009, antithesis in advertising.

Marketers love to make us remember how truly wonderful their services or products are. Antithesis provides marketers with a powerful tool: contrast to underline a unique selling proposition (USP) and a memorable rhythm. That’s why you’ll find the path to marketing gold is littered with antitheses: the antithesis is the life-blood of the tagline or slogan.

Take a look at how each of these taglines uses a parallel structure and creates opposition:

“ Small business. Big future” – Santander

“ heavy on features. light on price” – apple, “ tough on stains. gentle on skin” – persil, “ less calories; more taste” – so good, “inspired by yesterday , built for tomorrow ” – nokia, “ all of the taste. none of the sugars” – alpro, “ smart listens to the head. stupid listens to the heart” – diesel, antithesis, chiasmus and parallelism – what are the differences.

Parallelism, sometimes called parallel structure or parallel construction, is the repetition of grammatical structures in a piece of writing in order to create a balanced, harmonious effect.

Parallelism requires only the repeated grammatical structure, while antithesis uses the content – you can’t set up opposing concepts by only using the structure!

Look at this example, “They have plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns – all while caring for their own oceans and cities.” The beginning of this statement repeats the same structure while changing the verbs and nouns. It doesn’t create a contrast between each clause or suggest any form of opposition. That’s the key difference between other forms of parallelism and antithesis: parallelism doesn’t need to present opposites, but antithesis is all about the opposites.

If a similar phrase was written using antitheses, it might read something like this. “They have plundered our seas; but have nurtured their seas. They ravaged our coasts; they cared for their own. They burnt our towns while they built their cities.” In the ‘antithesis version’, each clause is juxtaposed with another concept to create impact. You can hear how much more powerful the second phrase is if you read both versions out loud.

While antithesis is parallelism, not all parallelism is antithesis! For example, chiasmus is also a form of parallelism. In fact, it’s sometimes described as an inverted parallelism and happens when word order or grammatical structure is reversed in two phrases. For example, the phrase, “Do I love you because you are beautiful? Or are you beautiful because I love you?” qualifies as a parallelism and a chiasmus but there’s no opposition so it’s not an antithesis.

Semantix’s copywriting toolkit

Our copywriting toolkit is a valuable resource for anyone aiming to improve their writing skills. It contains definitions and examples of rhetorical devices in action, with guidelines on how and why they are used.

Using rhetorical devices, such as antitheses, is a time-proven method of taking your writing to another level and making sure that your words are impactful, memorable and effective. Whether you’re writing for pleasure or writing for business, they create drama and keep your readers or listeners engaged.

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Our copywriting services are available in more than 200 languages, and we only work with native-speaking translators . By matching you with a multilingual copywriter with experience in your specific industry, we’ll help you make every word work hard for your business in every language.

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Further reading.

• A Handlist Of Rhetorical Terms – Richard Lanham, University of California Press, 2013
• Simplified Glossary Of Literary Terms/Devices: An Easy-To-Use Source Of Definitions, Examples And Exercises For Students And Teachers – Victor Igiri, 2022
• The Oxford Dictionary Of Literary Terms (Oxford Quick Reference) 4th Edition – Chris Baldick, OUP Oxford, 2015
• The Elements Of Eloquence – Mark Forsyth, Icon Books, 2013
• The Elements Of Rhetoric – Ryan N S Topping, Angelico Press, 2016
• The Penguin Dictionary Of Literary Terms And Literary Theory – J A Cuddon, Penguin, 2014
• The Rhetorical Device: Literary Resources For The Writer Vol. 1 of 2 – Paul F Kisak, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016
• Writing With Clarity And Style: A Guide To Rhetorical Devices For Contemporary Writers – Robert A Harris, Routledge, 2017
• The Use Of Rhetorical Devices In Selected Speeches by Clinton & Trump: Discourse From The Electoral Campaign 2016 – Larissa Wolf, AV Akademikerverlag, 2018
• American rhetoric (online) Antithesis blog post
• Studiobinder (online) ‘What is antithesis’ blog post
• The Oxford Dictionary O f Literary Terms (Oxford Quick Reference) 4th Edition – Chris Baldick, OUP Oxford, 2015
• Voltaire, The Project Gutenberg EBook Of A Philosophical Dictionary, Volume 4 (of 10).
• Toastmasters (online) ‘The Crafting of Eloquence’ blog post .

Related content

A guide to the literary device anaphora – for professional wordsmiths

Literary devices list: examples of literary devices and how to use them

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• noun the time and process of budding and unfolding of blossoms synonyms: blossoming , efflorescence , florescence , flowering , inflorescence see more see less type of: development , growing , growth , maturation , ontogenesis , ontogeny (biology) the process of an individual organism growing organically; a purely biological unfolding of events involved in an organism changing gradually from a simple to a more complex level

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anthesis noun

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Earlier version

• anthesis in OED Second Edition (1989)

What does the noun anthesis mean?

There is one meaning in OED's entry for the noun anthesis . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definition, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the noun anthesis ?

How is the noun anthesis pronounced?

British english, u.s. english, where does the noun anthesis come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun anthesis is in the late 1700s.

OED's earliest evidence for anthesis is from 1783, in C. Linnaeus' Syst. Veg.

anthesis is a borrowing from Latin.

Etymons: Latin anthesis .

Nearby entries

• antheridium, n. 1818–
• antheriferous, adj. 1799–
• antheriform, adj. 1802–
• antherine, n. 1689–
• antherless, adj. 1798–
• antherogenous, adj. 1847
• antheroid, adj. 1818–
• antherozoid, n. 1853–
• antherozoidal, adj. 1865–
• anther valve, n. 1839–
• anthesis, n. 1783–
• anthias, n. 1601–
• anthill, n. Old English–
• ant-hillock, n. 1656–
• ant-hilly, adj. 1796–
• anthine, n. & adj. 1601–1768
• ant-hive, n. 1817–
• antho-, comb. form
• anthobian, n. & adj. 1835–
• anthocarpous, adj. 1835–
• anthocephalous, adj. 1847

Meaning & use

The Anthesis [Latin Anthesis ] takes place, when the burnt Anthers scatter their bags of Dust upon the Stigma.

Bractea of the female flowers very much enlarged after anthesis , when the spike presents the appearance of a pine-apple; bright yellow, with red apices.

The term anthesis is sometimes used to indicate the period at which the flower-bud opens.

There were both delayed and extended antheses and most of the time the flowers were semi-open.

Histologically the ovary and style are relatively simple at anthesis .

From the time of anthesis , when the floral parts open to receive pollen, the developing grain becomes the dominant sink.

A later planting date reduced pre-anthesis moisture stress by reducing the number of days..for the crop to reach anthesis .

• efflorescence 1626– The process of producing flowers, or bursting into flower; the period of flowering.
• blow 1748– Manner, style, or time of blossoming. Also figurative .
• anthesis 1783– The stage at which a flower is open, allowing fertilization to occur. Also: an instance of this.
• florescence 1793– The process of producing flowers or bursting into flower; the period or state of flowering. Also concrete . Flowers collectively.

Pronunciation

Plural: antheses.

• ð th ee
• ɬ rhingy ll

Some consonants can take the function of the vowel in unstressed syllables. Where necessary, a syllabic marker diacritic is used, hence <petal> /ˈpɛtl/ but <petally> /ˈpɛtl̩i/.

• a trap, bath
• ɑː start, palm, bath
• ɔː thought, force
• ᵻ (/ɪ/-/ə/)
• ᵿ (/ʊ/-/ə/)

Other symbols

• The symbol ˈ at the beginning of a syllable indicates that that syllable is pronounced with primary stress.
• The symbol ˌ at the beginning of a syllable indicates that that syllable is pronounced with secondary stress.
• Round brackets ( ) in a transcription indicate that the symbol within the brackets is optional.

View the pronunciation model here .

* /d/ also represents a 'tapped' /t/ as in <bitter>

Some consonants can take the function of the vowel in unstressed syllables. Where necessary, a syllabic marker diacritic is used, hence <petal> /ˈpɛd(ə)l/ but <petally> /ˈpɛdl̩i/.

• i fleece, happ y
• æ trap, bath
• ɑ lot, palm, cloth, thought
• ɔ cloth, thought
• ɔr north, force
• ə strut, comm a
• ər nurse, lett er
• ɛ(ə)r square
• æ̃ sal on

Simple Text Respell

Simple text respell breaks words into syllables, separated by a hyphen. The syllable which carries the primary stress is written in capital letters. This key covers both British and U.S. English Simple Text Respell.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w and z have their standard English values

• arr carry (British only)
• a(ng) gratin
• o lot (British only)
• orr sorry (British only)
• o(ng) salon

Inflections

anthesis typically occurs about 0.2 times per million words in modern written English.

anthesis is in frequency band 4, which contains words occurring between 0.1 and 1 times per million words in modern written English. More about OED's frequency bands

Frequency of anthesis, n. , 1810–2010

* Occurrences per million words in written English

Historical frequency series are derived from Google Books Ngrams (version 2), a data set based on the Google Books corpus of several million books printed in English between 1500 and 2010.

The overall frequency for a given word is calculated by summing frequencies for the main form of the word, any plural or inflected forms, and any major spelling variations.

For sets of homographs (distinct entries that share the same word-form, e.g. mole , n.¹, mole , n.², mole , n.³, etc.), we have estimated the frequency of each homograph entry as a fraction of the total Ngrams frequency for the word-form. This may result in inaccuracies.

Smoothing has been applied to series for lower-frequency words, using a moving-average algorithm. This reduces short-term fluctuations, which may be produced by variability in the content of the Google Books corpus.

Frequency of anthesis, n. , 2017–2023

Modern frequency series are derived from a corpus of 20 billion words, covering the period from 2017 to the present. The corpus is mainly compiled from online news sources, and covers all major varieties of World English.

Smoothing has been applied to series for lower-frequency words, using a moving-average algorithm. This reduces short-term fluctuations, which may be produced by variability in the content of the corpus.

Compounds & derived words

• synanthesis , n. 1880– Simultaneous ripening of the stamens and pistils in a flower.

Entry history for anthesis, n.

anthesis, n. was revised in March 2016.

anthesis, n. was last modified in July 2023.

oed.com is a living text, updated every three months. Modifications may include:

• further revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into anthesis, n. in July 2023.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

OED First Edition (1885)

• Find out more

OED Second Edition (1989)

• View anthesis in OED Second Edition

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Citation details

Factsheet for anthesis, n., browse entry.

• English Grammar
• Figures Of Speech

Antithesis: Meaning, Definition and Examples

Figures of speech , otherwise known as rhetorical devices, are used in the English language to beautify and make your language look and sound a lot more effective rather than a literal presentation of information. Each figure of speech has its function and is meant to perform its roles giving the context a unique effect. In this article, you will learn about one such figure of speech called antithesis. Read through the article to learn more about what antithesis is, its definition and how it differs from an oxymoron. You can also check out the examples and analyse how it is written for an in-depth understanding of the same.

Table of Contents

What is antithesis – meaning and definition, what differentiates an antithesis from an oxymoron, some common examples of antithesis, frequently asked questions on antithesis.

An antithesis is a figure of speech that states strongly contrasting ideas placed in juxtaposition. They contain compound sentences with the two independent clauses separated by a comma or a semicolon , in most cases. However, there are also instances where the antithesis is a compound sentence with a conjunction . An antithesis is mainly used to portray the stark difference between the two opposing ideas.

Antithesis, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined as “a contrast between two things”, and according to the Cambridge Dictionary, “a difference or opposition between two things”. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives a more explanatory definition. According to it, antithesis is “the rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences”.

Knowing the difference between an antithesis and an oxymoron will help you comprehend and use both the rhetorical devices effectively. Take a look at the table given below to learn more.

Here are some of the most common examples of antithesis for your reference.

• Hope for the best; prepare for the worst.
• Keep your mouth closed and your eyes open.
• “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. It was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness.” – Charles Dickens
• “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” – Neil Armstrong
• “Better to reign in Hell, than to serve in Heaven.” – John Milton
• Speech is silver, but silence is gold.
• “Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.” – William Shakespeare
• Keep your friends close; keep your enemies closer.
• “To err is human; to forgive divine.” – Alexander Pope
• Money is the root of all evil: poverty is the fruit of all goodness.

What is antithesis?

An antithesis is a figure of speech that states strongly contrasting ideas placed in juxtaposition. They contain compound sentences with the two independent clauses separated by a comma or a semicolon, in most cases. However, there are also instances where the antithesis is a compound sentence with a conjunction.

What is the definition of antithesis?

What is the difference between antithesis and oxymoron.

The main difference between an antithesis and an oxymoron is that antithesis refers to the use of two contrasting ideas or thoughts conveyed in two independent clauses placed in juxtaposition, separated by a comma, a semicolon or a conjunction; whereas, the term ‘oxymoron’ refers to the use of two opposite words within a phrase to create an effect.

Give some examples of antithesis.

Here are a few examples of antithesis for your reference.

• “Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing.” – Goethe
• “Folks who have no vices have very few virtues.” – Abraham Lincoln
• “Man proposes, God disposes.”
• Beggars can’t be choosers.
• Be slow in choosing, but slower in changing.

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• Open access
• Published: 27 August 2018

Effects of Post-Anthesis Nitrogen Uptake and Translocation on Photosynthetic Production and Rice Yield

• Hui Wu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2038-3120 1 , 2 ,
• Jing Xiang 1 ,
• Yuping Zhang 1 ,
• Yikai Zhang 1 ,
• Shaobing Peng 2 ,
• Huizhe Chen 1 &
• Defeng Zhu 1  

Scientific Reports volume  8 , Article number:  12891 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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• Plant physiology

Post-anthesis nitrogen uptake and translocation play critical roles in photosynthetic assimilation and grain filling. However, their effects on leaf stay-green characteristics, dry matter accumulation, and translocation after anthesis remain unclear. In this study, post-anthesis N uptake and translocation between two different rice genotypes (Yongyou12 and Zhongzheyou1) were compared through soil nitrogen leaching treatments at the meiosis stage (MST) and anthesis stage(AST) respectively, and their effects on leaf stay-green duration, photosynthesis, dry matter accumulation and translocation during ripening and yield formation were estimated. The results showed that the soil nitrate-N and ammonium-N contents in Yongyou12 pots decreased significantly, and post-anthesis N uptake was 2.0–3.4 fold higher in Yongyou12 than in Zhongzheyou1. The activities of N-metabolism enzymes and antioxidant enzymes were higher, and flag-leaf photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation during ripening were greater, in Yongyou12 than in Zhongzheyou1. However, insufficient available soil N led to significant decreases in the activities of N- metabolism enzymes, decreased flag-leaf photosynthesis, increased translocation of dry matter and N pre-anthesis, accelerated leaf senescence, shorter duration of the leaf stay-green period, and decreased dry matter accumulation and grain plumpness. In addition, the effect of N uptake after anthesis on yield is greater for rice genotypes that depend on post-anthesis dry matter accumulation and an expanded sink capacity.

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Introduction.

Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal crops globally, being the primary food source for more than half the world’s population 1 , 2 . Grain filling, a crucial determinant of grain yield and rice productivity, is characterized by the duration and rate of grain filling, and varies widely among genotypes. It has been reported that a longer period of grain filling, which leads to higher cumulative mean temperature and cumulative solar radiation, leads to greater dry matter accumulation and is the main determinant of grain yield 3 , 4 . Park and Lee proposed that leaf stay-green characteristics and delayed senescence of upper leaves would contribute to increasing grain yield through improved photosynthesis during the grain-filling period 5 , 6 . At present, super rice, especially inter-subspecific hybrid rice cultivars, have characteristics of large dry matter accumulation after anthesis, a long grain-filling period (>60 d), and large yield potential in China 7 , 8 .

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer is one of the most important agronomic inputs and a limiting factor for realizing potential grain production, and high-yield productivity of rice is usually accompanied by greater N accumulation 9 , 10 . Positive correlations have been found between grain yield and N accumulation after heading, suggesting that increasing N accumulation after heading is crucial to increase grain yields 11 . Meanwhile, the accumulation of N in upper leaves after anthesis is also vital for maintaining the stay-green state of rice leaves 12 . Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) in leaves accumulates to a level in excess of photosynthetic requirements, and serves as a store of N for grain filling 13 . The insufficient accumulation of N in the leaves and high N translocation from leaves after anthesis can accelerate leaf senescence, weaken the leaf photosynthetic capacity, and ultimately result in less assimilates for grain filling 14 .

The uptake and assimilation of N is achieved via an N-metabolizing enzyme pathway in which nitrate reductase (NR), the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase (GS/GOGAT) cycle and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) play important roles 15 . The regulation of N uptake by N-metabolism enzymes can not only enhance the photosynthetic capacity of leaves, but also prolong the stay-green duration of leaves, so that N-metabolism enzymes remain present and active in the leaves for longer. This seems to be a beneficial cycle. In addition, N deficiency or excess increase the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants, which results in lipid peroxidation of cell membranes 16 , the senescence and even death of plants. The antioxidant enzyme system plays an important role in scavenging ROS, delaying leaf senescence and prolonging the stay-green period of leaves 17 , 18 .

Although the relationships among dry matter, N accumulation and translocation, and rice yield have been studied 4 , 8 , 19 , more attention was focus on the nitrogen transport and leaf senescence 6 , 20 , 21 , as well as models of nitrogen accumulation after anthesis 22 , little information is available on the effects of post-anthesis N uptake and translocation on leaf stay-green characteristics, photosynthetic production, and yield in different rice genotypes. Indica-Japonica hybrid rice Yongyou12 (YY12) and Indica hybrid rice Zhongzheyou1 (ZZY1), were selected in this study, which are super rice varieties with high yield and large panicles and widely planted in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China 4 , 23 . The main objectives of this study were to investigate the difference in post-anthesis N uptake and translocation between two rice genotypes and their effects on leaf stay-green duration, dry matter assimilation and redistribution after anthesis, and grain yield formation. Finally, a schematic diagram incorporating the physiological roles of N metabolism and antioxidant enzymes is presented to explain the mechanisms by which post-anthesis N uptake and translocation and leaf stay-green duration affect grain yield development.

Dynamics of nitrogen content in soil and plant

Two different soil N-leaching treatments were applied; one at the meiosis stage (MST, starting from the 14 th day before anthesis), and one at anthesis (AST, starting from the 3 rd day before anthesis). Plants in the control group were not subjected to a leaching treatment. Both of the soil N-leaching treatments significantly affected the amounts of nitrate-N and ammonium-N in soil around the two rice genotypes, but the total soil N content was unchanged (Fig.  1E,F ). The contents of nitrate-N and ammonium-N in soil decreased rapidly and remarkably by 53.6–59.3% and 43.5–43.9% in the MST treatment, and by 42.1–43.1% and 35.0–40.9% in the AST treatment, compared with the control (no soil N-leaching). This effectively decreased the soil available N supply. After anthesis, the soil nitrate-N and ammonium-N contents in ZZY1 pots gradually increased, and the treatments could be ranked, from highest soil nitrate-N and ammonium-N contents to lowest, as follows: control > MST > AST (Fig.  1A,C ). During grain filling, the soil available N content again decreased, and there were no significant differences among the treatments. In contrast, the soil available N content clearly decreased in YY12 pots from leaching to maturity, except for a slight increase within 10 days after anthesis (Fig.  1B,D ). Similarly, the soil available N content was highest in the YY12 control pots, followed those in the MST treatment and finally those in the AST treatment. At the same time, the total nitrogen content of rice plant was decreased significantly under soil leaching treatments, and the treatments could be ranked, from highest plant nitrogen content to lowest, as follows: control > AST > MST (Fig.  1G,H ). In addition, the total nitrogen accumulation per plant of YY12 was significantly higher than that of ZZY1.

The changes of nitrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen and total nitrogen content in soil and total nitrogen content per plant after soil leaching in 2016. MST: leaching treatment at meiosis stage, 14 th day before anthesis; AST: leaching treatment at anthesis stage; Con: control, plants without leaching. Values are means ± SE of five pots (five replicates) of Zhongzheyou1 ( A , C , E , G ) and Yongyou12 ( B , D , F , H ). Different letters on columns indicate significant difference ( p  < 0.05, Tukey’s multiple test).

Activities of nitrogen-metabolism enzymes

The activities of NR, GS, and NADH-GOGAT in the flag leaf exhibited the same trend in both rice genotypes. Their activities decreased markedly during soil leaching in the MST treatment, but were not significantly affected by soil leaching in the AST treatment (Fig.  2 ). From the meiosis stage to the maturity stage, the activities of NR, GS, and NADH-GOGAT first increased rapidly, and then gradually decreased during leaf senescence. In both genotypes, the treatments could be ranked, from highest enzyme activities to lowest, as follows: control > AST > MST. The activities of all three enzymes were higher in YY12 than in ZZY1 under the same treatment (Fig.  2A–F ). In contrast, GDH activity was lowest from before anthesis to 10 days after anthesis, and then increased during leaf senescence. The treatments could be ranked, from highest GDH activity to lowest, as follows AST > MST > Control. The GDH activity was lower in YY12 than in ZZY1 regardless of the leaching period (Fig.  2G,H ).

Nitrate reductase (NR), glutamine synthase (GS), glutamate synthase (NADH–GOGAT) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activities in the flag leaf from soil leaching to maturity. Values are means ± SE of five pots (five replicates) of Zhongzheyou1 ( A , C , E , G ) and Yongyou12 ( B , D , F , H ).

Differences in photosynthetic capacity

Regardless of the leaching period or rice genotype, leaf SPAD decreased markedly during soil N leaching until grain maturity. The differences in leaf SPAD between MST and AST were not significant (Fig.  3A–D ). A similar trend was observed for Pn and leaf N content, but the differences among the three treatments were more pronounced than those observed for SPAD values (Fig.  3E–H ). On the whole, the AST treatment had the greatest impact on leaf Pn during the grain filling period, followed by the MST treatment. The SPAD, leaf N content and Pn values were higher in YY12 leaves than in ZZY1 leaves in each treatment.

Effects of different leaching treatments on SPAD value and net photosynthesis rate (Pn) of flag leaf, and leaf N content in two years. SPAD values are means ± SE of 10 flag leaves of Zhongzheyou1 ( A , C ) and Yongyou12 ( B , D ) in 2015 ( A , B ) and 2016 ( C , D ), respectively. Pn values are means ± SE of 5 flag leaves of Zhongzheyou1 ( E , G ) and Yongyou12 ( F , H ) in 2015 ( E , F ) and 2016 ( G , H ), respectively. Leaf N content are means ± SE of five plants of Zhongzheyou1 ( E , G ) and Yongyou12 ( F , H ) in 2015 ( E , F ) and 2016 ( G , H ), respectively, which were sampled and measured synchronously with Pn. Within the same year, different letters on columns indicate significant difference ( p  < 0.05, Tukey’s multiple test).

Activities of antioxidant enzymes

The malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased rapidly during leaf senescence. Soil N-leaching accelerated this trend, regardless of whether the leaching occurred pre- or post-anthesis (Fig.  4A,B ). Soil N-leaching at different periods also affected the antioxidant enzyme activities in the two rice genotypes. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in ZZY1 flag leaves increased rapidly before anthesis, even when soil N-leaching occurred at the meiosis stage, but decreased continuously during leaf senescence. These effects were stronger in the AST treatment than in the MST treatment (Fig.  4C ). In contrast, the SOD activity in YY12 leaves markedly increased during ripening. The treatments could be ranked, from highest SOD activity to lowest, as follows: control > MST > AST (Fig.  4D ). The CAT activity in the two genotypes also increased significantly after soil leaching, peaked at 10 days post-anthesis, and then decreased quickly. The CAT activity was highest in the control, followed by the MST treatment and then the AST treatment (Fig.  4E,F ). Similar to SOD activity in ZZY1 leaves, APX activity in ZZY1 leaves first increased and then decreased (Fig.  4G ). In contrast, APX activity in YY12 leaves first decreased and then increased (Fig.  4H ). Overall, the inhibition of antioxidant enzyme activities and the increase in MDA content were more pronounced in the AST treatment than in the MST treatment, and YY12 always had lower MDA levels and higher antioxidant enzyme activities than did ZZY1.

Changes in malondialdehyde (MDA) content, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities in the flag leaf from soil leaching to maturity. Values are means ± SE of five pots (five replicates) of Zhongzheyou1 ( A , C , E , G ) and Yongyou12 ( B , D , F , H ).

Characteristics of nitrogen uptake and translocation

There were significant differences in pre-anthesis translocation and post-anthesis N uptake between the two rice genotypes and between the two N-leaching treatments (Fig.  5 ). The pre-anthesis N translocation (Pre-NT) and pre-anthesis N translocation efficiency (Pre-NTE) were significantly lower in YY12 than in ZZY1 (Fig.  5A,B ). In contrast, the post-anthesis N uptake (Post-NU) and the ratio of Post-NU to total N accumulation (Post-NR) were higher in YY12 than in ZZY1 (Fig.  5C,D ). Compared with the control, the MST treatment resulted in significant decreases in Pre-NT, by 10.3% ZZY1 and by 21.0% in YY12. The Pre-NTE of YY12 also decreased in the MST treatment, but that of ZZY1 showed little change. The AST treatment slightly increased the Pre-NT and Pre-NTE of both rice varieties. The Post-NU decreased by 31.1% in ZZY1 in the MST treatment, and its Post-NR also decreased. In contrast, the Post-NU of YY12 increased by 14.7% in the MST treatment. Both Post-NU and Post-NR in the two genotypes decreased significantly in the AST treatment. Furthermore, the contribution of Pre-NT to grain N (pre-anthesis NC) in YY12 decreased sharply in the MST treatment, and the contribution of Post-NU to grain N (post-anthesis NC) increased significantly, whereas the opposite trend was observed for ZZY1 (Fig.  5E,F ). In the AST treatment, the pre-anthesis NC increased in both genotypes, while the post-anthesis NC decreased. These effects were greater for YY12 than for ZZY1.

Characteristics of nitrogen uptake and translocation in rice subjected to leaching treatments in 2015 and 2016. ( A ) Pre-NT, pre-anthesis nitrogen translocation. ( B ) Pre-NTE, pre-anthesis nitrogen translocation efficiency. ( C ) Post-NU, post-anthesis nitrogen uptake. ( D ) Post-NR, ratio of Post-NU to total nitrogen accumulation. ( E , F ) NC, contribution of Pre-NT or Post-NU to grain nitrogen in Zhongzheyou1 ( E ) and Yongyou12 ( F ), respectively. Values are means ± SE of five pots (five replicates). Within the same year, different letters on columns indicate significant difference among leaching treatments and varieties ( p  < 0.05, Tukey’s multiple test).

Characteristics of dry matter accumulation and translocation

The pre-anthesis dry matter translocation (Pre-DMT) and post-anthesis dry matter accumulation (Post-DMA) were significantly higher in YY12 than in ZZY1 (Fig.  6A,C ), but the pre-anthesis dry matter translocation efficiency (Pre-DMTE) and the ratio of Post-DMA to total dry matter accumulation (Post-DMR) were much lower in YY12 because of its large biomass (Fig.  6B,D ). Similar to the characteristics of N uptake and translocation, the Pre-DMT and Pre-DMTE in both varieties and the Post-DMA and Post-DMR in ZZY1 declined under the MST treatment. The Post-DMA and Post-DMR in YY12 increased under the MST treatment, which resulted in a remarkable increase in post-anthesis DMC (contribution of Post-DMA to grain yield) in YY12 (Fig.  6F ). At the same time, the Pre-DMT and Pre-DMTE of both genotypes slightly increased in the AST treatment, while the Post-DMA and Post-DMR decreased significantly. This led to an obvious decrease in post-anthesis DMC both genotypes. The AST treatment had a stronger effect on the post-anthesis DMC in ZZY1 than in YY12 (Fig.  6E,F ).

Characteristics of dry matter accumulation and translocation subjected to leaching treatments in 2015 and 2016. ( A ) Pre-DMT, pre-anthesis dry matter translocation. ( B ) Pre-DMTE, pre-anthesis dry matter translocation efficiency. ( C ) Post-DMA, post-anthesis dry matter accumulation. ( D ) Post-DMR, ratio of Post-DMA to total dry matter accumulation. ( E , F ) DMC, contribution of Pre-DMT or Post-DMA to grain yield in Zhongzheyou1 ( E ) and Yongyou12 ( F ), respectively. Values are means ± SE of five pots (five replicates). Within the same year, different letters on columns indicate significant difference among leaching treatments and varieties ( p  < 0.05, Tukey’s multiple test).

Leaf area, grain yield and its components

Since the leaching treatments were carried out only after plant leaves and plant types had been shaped, the effect of leaching on leaf area was negligible and there was no significant difference among different treatments. (Table  1 ). At the same time, the difference in total dry mass per plant did not reach a significant level among three treatments. The yield and its components were strongly affected by the N-leaching treatments and differed between the two rice genotypes in 2015 and 2016. In the MST treatment, the grain yield decreased significantly by 6.2% (ZZY1) and 10.4% (YY12). ZZY1 mainly showed a significant decrease in 1000-grain weight and seed-setting rate, while YY12 showed a marked decrease in 1000-grain weight and number of spikelets per panicle. There were significant differences in grain yield and 1000-grain weight of YY12 between the AST treatment and the control. However, there was no apparent difference in the yield of ZZY1 between the AST treatment and the control, despite a significant reduction in its 1000-grain weight. Overall, the grain yield of YY12 was significantly higher than that of ZZY1 (by 6.0–8.4%), while soil N-leaching had a greater impact on the yield of YY12.

Grain yield is determined by the translocation of dry matter stored in vegetative organs before anthesis and the accumulation of photosynthates after anthesis 24 . More than 60% of the assimilates for grain filling are generated through current photosynthesis 25 , 26 , 27 . In this study, 50.8–62.3% of the assimilates for grain filling were generated through current photosynthesis (Fig.  6E,F ), indicating that dry matter accumulation after anthesis had a greater effect on increasing rice yield 28 . An expanded sink capacity is a key factor underlying the yield advantage of modern high-yield rice cultivars, and this also creates a higher demand for assimilates during the grain-filling stage 29 . Increased N accumulation after anthesis is crucial for grain yield improvement 11 . In the present study, the content of soil available N in the pots of the Indica-Japonica hybrid YY12 decreased rapidly after anthesis, while that in the pots of the Indica hybrid ZZY1 increased during grain-filling stage (Fig.  1 ). This clearly demonstrated the difference in soil N demands between the two genotypes after anthesis. At the same time, the N uptake (Post-NU) of YY12 and ZZY1 was 166.6–243.9 mg plant −1 and 51.2–105.4 mg plant −1 , respectively, and the ratio to total N accumulation (Post-NR) was 17.7–26.5% and 6.7–12.8%, respectively (Fig.  5 ), resulting a 6.0–8.4% difference in grain yield between the two cultivars (Table  1 ).

The leaf is not only the main photosynthetic organ but also the main organ for N storage. It was reported that 40–65% of above-ground N is stored in rice leaves at heading 30 , 31 , while two rice genotypes distributed 43.3–45.5%(ZZY1) and 42.6–48.1% (YY12) in leaves in this study respectively, and total N accumulation and N stored in the leaves of YY12 were significantly higher than those of ZZY1 (Fig.  1G,H ). Nitrogen-metabolism enzymes play an important role in the absorption and assimilation of soil N. In higher plants, NR catalyses the reduction of nitrate to nitrite with pyridine nucleotide during N assimilation 32 . The GS/GOGAT cycle is the main pathway of ammonium assimilation in higher plants, and approximately 95% of NH 4 + assimilation occurs via this cycle 33 , 34 . In this study, when the soil N was sufficient during grain filling, the higher activities of N-metabolism enzymes in leaves promoted N uptake and assimilation from the soil (Fig.  2 ). However, when the soil N supply was insufficient, the enzyme activities decreased significantly. An increase in GDH activity provides ammonium that can re-enter the N cycle to meet the N demands during grain filling 35 . Higher activities of N-metabolism enzymes increased post-anthesis N uptake, thereby allowing leaves to stay green for longer. This meant that N-metabolism enzymes were retained and remained active for longer, which further promoted N absorption and formed a beneficial cycle (Fig.  7 ). The strong and active root systems of high-yield rice are another reason for the high N uptake at the grain-filling stage, but the main reason was that the grain-filling period was long enough for sufficient N absorption, rather than relying on the N uptake rate after anthesis 22 .

Descriptive model of the roles of post-anthesis nitrogen uptake and translocation in grain yield development. Arrow “→” indicates induction or promotion, while bar “˧” indicates inhibition.

A longer duration of the green-leaf period means there is more time for photosynthesis, and more temperature and radiation resources are available to satisfy the huge demands of carbon assimilation after anthesis 3 . Modern super-rice cultivars have many spikelets and a long grain-filling period of up to 2 months or more 4 , 8 . Besides improving the photosynthetic capacity, a long green-leaf period delays leaf senescence and prolongs the period of effective photosynthesis, but it requires a large amount of N uptake after anthesis. It had been reported that higher rates of nutrient accumulation and remobilization resulted in greater leaf area and a delay of leaf senescence in rice 36 , 37 . This research showed that the higher the N uptake after anthesis, the higher the chlorophyll content and Pn of the functional leaves (Fig.  4 ) and dry matter accumulation during grain filling (Fig.  6C ), although it had little effect on total dry mass per plant at maturity (Table  1 ). In contrast, the N content and photosynthetic function of the leaves decreased significantly when the N supply was insufficient (Fig.  3 ). At the same time, the leaf MDA content increased significantly (Fig.  4 ) and leaf senescence was accelerated, which shortened the duration of the photosynthetic period. Carbon is the main dry matter source for grain filling, and carbon assimilation decreased after anthesis, which affected grain plumpness and grain weight. Antioxidant enzymes also play important roles in delaying senescence and prolonging the stay-green period of leaves 18 . We observed that a high capacity to scavenge reactive species resulted in lower membrane lipid peroxidation and a prolonged stay-green period of leaves (Fig.  4 ). This was most obvious in YY12.

The N in grains is mainly derived from translocation of N accumulated before anthesis and N uptake from soil after anthesis 31 , 38 . It was reported that a major proportion of grain N was redistributed from vegetative organs to panicles during grain filling 4 , 10 . In Japonica rice and Indica rice grown in the Mediterranean region, the Pre-NTE ranged from 44.7% to 66.7% 19 , compared with 75.4–83.1% (ZZY1) and 56.1–68.8% (YY12) in this study (Fig.  5B ). In another study, 64% of the pre-anthesis N translocation was derived from the leaves 20 , while excessive loss of leaf N led to leaf senescence 21 and shortening of the photosynthetic period. Our results confirmed that a deficiency in N uptake after anthesis accelerated the transport of stored carbon and N, decreased the photosynthetic capacity, accelerated leaf senescence, reduced post-anthesis dry matter assimilation, and decreased the 1000-grain weight, which was the main cause of yield reduction. Nitrogen uptake after anthesis in ZZY1 was only one-third to one-half of that in YY12 (Fig.  5C ). Although post-anthesis N deficiency in ZZY1 also reduced the photosynthetic capacity, photosynthetic duration, and 1000-grain weight, it had a much smaller effect on grain yield than in YY12 (Table  1 ). The meiosis stage is a critical period for rice yield formation. A poor soil N supply at this stage reduced not only the 1000-grain weight of YY12, but also the number of spikelets per panicle, which is highly detrimental to rice genotypes that achieve a high yield through producing a large spikelet population (Table  1 ).

As discussed above, high activities of N-metabolism enzymes and antioxidant enzymes and low pre-anthesis N translocation were related to high N uptake after anthesis, inhibition of leaf senescence, increased photosynthetic capacity, and a prolonged leaf stay-green period so as to take full advantage of light and temperature resources. These characteristics conferred a strong advantage for post-anthesis dry matter accumulation (Fig.  7 ). Furthermore, large N uptake after anthesis also promoted the translocation of pre-anthesis stored dry matter instead of N, which could realize the yield potential based on the huge spikelet population. In contrast, weak N uptake after anthesis enhanced the excessive translocation of accumulated N before anthesis, accelerated leaf senescence, reduced the assimilation capacity, and decreased the period of carbon and N assimilation after anthesis, which led to insufficient grain filling and lower yield.

Materials and Methods

Plant material and growth conditions.

This experiment was conducted from May to November in 2015 and 2016 at the China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou (30°04′N, 119°55′E), China. Indica-Japonica hybrid rice Yongyou12 (YY12) and Indica hybrid rice Zhongzheyou1 (ZZY1) were used as the experimental materials. Pre-germinated seeds were sown in a bowl tray (162 points) covered with a special rice transplanting seedling substrate, with two seeds per point. The 22-day-old seedlings were transplanted into pots (1 plant per pot, each pot 25.5 cm long, 20.0 cm wide, 26.5 cm high, and the volume 13.5 L) with the nitrogen leaching structure as the following description.

The pots were placed in an open space under natural environmental conditions. Alternate wetting and drying irrigation was conducted throughout the cropping season. To each pot, 3.0 g urea was supplied at planting (40%), tillering (30%), and panicle initiation (30%); 3.0 g calcium superphosphate (P 2 O 5 ) was applied 1 day before transplanting; and 2.0 g potassium chloride (KCl) was applied at tillering (50%) and panicle initiation (50%). Pests, diseases, and weeds were intensively controlled. Other management practices for high grain yield cultivation were in accordance with local recommendations. All the main stems of the plant were labelled to determine the development stage. The main growth periods of the tested varieties are shown in Table  2 .

Nitrogen leaching structure and treatments

The leaching system in the potted soil was created by layering different substrates. The substrates were arranged, from the bottom to the top of each pot, as follows: pumice stone, drainage board (PVC material), non-woven fabric (40 g·m −2 ), 10.0-kg sandy/soil mixed substrate (1:4 ratio) (Fig.  8 ). The drainage hole at the base of the pot was blocked by a rubber plug. Several pumice stones were placed at the bottom of the pot, and a suitable draining board with many drainage holes was placed on top of the stones. To prevent the soil from plugging the drain hole during the leaching process, the surface of the draining board was covered with two layers of non-woven fabric.

Nitrogen leaching structure in potted soil. Values show length of each part of leaching structure (cm).

In 2015, plants at the same developmental stage were selected for the AST leaching treatment. Non-treated plants served as the control. In 2016, the plants at the same developmental stage were selected for the leaching treatments at MST and at AST. Non-treated plants served as the control.

One day before the leaching treatment, each pot was placed in a turnover box (25 cm long, 18 cm wide, and 8 cm high), and irrigated with 1 L water to ensure soil moisture saturation. The rubber plug was removed on the next afternoon to start the first leaching. After 12 hours, the rubber plug was replaced, and 1 L water was added to each pot. A second leaching was started 12 hours later. This process was repeated three times in total with 50 pots in each treatment. All the pots were slightly inclined during the leaching process so that the leachate could drain freely. To reduce the evaporation of the leachate under high daytime temperatures and the loss of ammonia by volatilization, all the pots were placed under shelter, and leaching treatments were carried out at night.

Sampling and measurement of soil nitrogen

Soil samples were collected as cores (0–15 cm depth) from each pot at 14, 11, and 3 d before anthesis, at anthesis (0 d), and at 10, 20, and 37 (maturity stage of ZZY1) or 40 d (YY12), and at 60 d (maturity stage of YY12) after anthesis. The concentration of soil ammonium-N and nitrate-N were determined using the method of Mizota 39 , and the total N content of soil samples was determined with a Kjeltec TM 2400 Kjeldahl meter (FOSS Ltd. Warrington, UK). Five replicates (5 pots) were analysed at each sampling time. At the same time, flag leaves of five main stems were frozen in liquid N for 30 minutes and then stored at −80 °C for further analyses of N-metabolism and antioxidant enzymes.

Photosynthetic and chlorophyll content measurements

At the anthesis stage (0d), 20 d, 35 d (ZZY1) and 40 d (YY12) after anthesis, the net photosynthetic rate (Pn) of the flag leaf of the labelled main stems was measured in both 2015 and 2016 with a Li-6400 portable photosynthesis system (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA) at PPFD of 1000 μ mol m −2 s −1 , leaf temperature of 30 °C, and mass flow of 0.3 mol m −2 s −1 . Five representative plants in each treatment were selected randomly at each time point. The chlorophyll content of the flag leaf was measured with a SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) meter (Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan) 40 at the same time as soil sampling, with 10 leaves as 10 replicates.

Determination of nitrogen-metabolism enzyme activities

Samples of 0.1 g frozen leaf were powdered in liquid N 2 and homogenized with 1 ml 50 mmol Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0) containing 2 mmol Mg 2+ , 2 mmol DTT, and 0.4 mol sucrose. The homogenate was centrifuged at 8,000 g for 10 min at 4 °C, and the supernatant was used for determination of the activities of NR, GS, GOGAT, and GDH. All spectrophotometric analyses were conducted using a multilabel plate reader (Infinite M200-Pro, Tecan, Milan, Italy).

The activity of NR was was assayed as described by Ahmad 32 . The reaction mixture containing 0.25 ml 100 mmol L −1 potassiumphosphate buffer (pH 6.8), 0.25 ml 10 mmol L −1 KNO 3 , 0.25 ml pyridine nucleotides (NADH, 50 mmol L −1 ); and 0.25 ml enzyme extract was incubated at 33 °C for 30 min. After the completion of incubation period, the reaction was stopped by the addition of zinc acetate and the nitrite produced was estimated chromometrically. One unit of enzyme was described as that amount which catalyzed the reduction of 1 μmol NO 3 − h −1 g −1 FW.

The activity of GS was determined as described in Zhang 41 with some modifications. The reaction mixture contained hydroxylamine hydrochloride buffer (pH7.4). After incubation of the mixture at 37 °C for 30 min, the reaction was terminated by adding acidic FeCl 3 (0.37 mol L −1 FeCl 3 and 0.2 mol L −1 TCA in 0.6 mol L −1 HCl). Samples were centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 10 min, and the absorbance at 540 nm (A540) was measured chromometrically. The blank was absence of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, and One unit of GS activity was defined as the amount of enzyme catalysing the formation of 1 µ mol γ –glutamyl hydroxamate per hour at 37 °C.

The activity of NADH–GOGAT was assayed at 30 °C as the method described in Singh and Srivastava 42 . The reaction mixture consisted of 10 mmol a-ketoglutarate, 1 mmol potassium chloride, 37.5 mmol Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.6), 0.6 mmol nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), 8 mmol L-glutamine and 0.3 ml enzyme. The absorbance at 340 nm was monitored for 300 s. The activity of NADH–GOGAT was estimated using the molar extinction coefficient of NADH, and one unit was defined as the amount reducing 1 nmol NADH per minute at 30 °C.

The activity of GDH activity was determined using the method of Masclaux 43 . The reaction mixture contained 300 mmol Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0), 600 mmol ammonium chloride, 3 mmol calcium chloride, 0.6 mmol NADH, and 0.1 mL enzyme. The reaction was started by adding enzyme extract and carried out at 30 °C. The absorbance at 340 nm was monitored for 300 s, and the activity of GDH was expressed as nmol NADH·per minute at 30 °C.

Determination of malondialdehyde content and antioxidant enzyme activities

To determine SOD and CAT activities, about 0.1 g frozen leaf tissue was ground at 4 °C in a mortar with 5 ml 50 mmol phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.8) containing 1% PVP. The homogenate was centrifuged at 8,000 g for 20 min.

The SOD activity was estimated by measuring its ability to inhibit the photochemical reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) by 50% 44 . The SOD reaction system contained 25 mmol sodium phosphate buffer (pH7.8), 13 mmol methionine, 2 mmol riboflavin, 10 mmol EDTA-Na 2 , 75 mmol nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT), and modest amount extract. Samples were put under light (300 mmol m −2 s −1 ) for 20 min. The photo-reduction of NBT was measured at 560 nm, and SOD activity was expressed as U g −1 FW.

CAT activity was determined after the reaction of the extract in the presence of 50 mmol sodium phosphate buffer (pH7.0) and 20 mmol H 2 O 2 (3 mL). The reaction was carried out at 30 °C, and the absorbance at 240 nm was monitored for 300 s 45 . CAT activity was calculated according to the molar extinct coefficient of H 2 O 2 and expressed as μ mol H 2 O 2 g −1 FW min −1 .

The MDA content and APX activity were determined using a commercial chemical assay kit (Jiangsu Keming Biotechnology Institute, Suzhou, China). For analyses of MDA content and APX activity, about 0.1 g frozen leaf tissue was homogenized in 1 ml buffer I [50 mmol phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), containing 0.1 mmol EDTA, 0.5% ( w/v ) Triton-100 and 2% PVP], which was supplied in the assay kit, at 4 °C with a mortar and pestle. The mixture was centrifuged at 8,000 g at 4 °C for 10 min and the supernatant was used for MDA and APX analyses according to the manufacturer’s instructions. All spectrophotometric analyses were conducted using a multilabel plate reader (Infinite M200-Pro, Tecan, Milan, Italy).

Dry matter and total nitrogen of plants

At the anthesis stage (0 d), and 10, 20, and 37 (maturity stage of ZZY1) or 40 d (YY12), and at 60 d (maturity stage of YY12) after anthesis, sampled plants were divided into the leaf lamina, sheath plus stem, and panicle. The plant parts were dried to constant weight and ground into a powder. Approximately 0.20 g powder was digested with H 2 SO 4 at 260 °C for measurement of total nitrogen with a KjeltecTM 2400 Kjeldahl meter (FOSS Ltd. Warrington, UK). Plants were harvested from five pots at each sampling time (five replicates). The dry matter (DM) values were used to calculate and analyse dry matter production and distribution, and the total nitrogen values were used to calculate and analyse total nitrogen uptake and translocation.

Yield and its components

The filled and unfilled spikelets were separated using a seeds air separator CFY-II (Zhejiang Top Instrument Co., Ltd., China), and then counted and weighed. These values were used to calculate the number of spikelets per panicle, seed-setting rate (%), and 1000-grain weight (g). Grain yield per plant (g), at an adjusted moisture content of 14% (YY12) or 13.5% (ZZY1) FW, was determined from five pots.

Data analysis

Data were calculated on the basis of DM and measured N values, and parameters were calculated as follows 19 , 38 :

Pre-anthesis DM translocation (Pre-DMT, g plant −1 ) = Total aboveground DM at anthesis − DM of vegetative parts (leaves and stems) at maturity.

Pre-anthesis DM translocation efficiency (Pre-DMTE, %) = Pre-DMT/Total aboveground DM at anthesis × 100.

Post-anthesis DM accumulation (Post-DMA, g plant −1 ) = Total aboveground DM at maturity − Total aboveground DM at anthesis.

Ratio of post-anthesis DM accumulation to total DM accumulation (Post-DMR, %) = Post-DMA/Total DM accumulation × 100.

Contribution of pre-anthesis translocation or post-anthesis accumulation of DM to grain yield (DMC, %) = Pre-DMT or Post-DMA/Grain weight at maturity × 100.

Pre-anthesis N translocation (Pre-NT, mg plant −1 ) = Total aboveground N at anthesis − N of vegetative parts at maturity.

Pre-anthesis N translocation efficiency (Pre-NTE, %) = Pre-NT/Total aboveground N at anthesis × 100.

Post-anthesis N uptake (Post-NU, mg plant −1 ) = Total aboveground N at maturity − Total aboveground N at anthesis.

Ratio of post-anthesis N uptake to total N accumulation (Post-NR, %) = Post-NU/Total N accumulation × 100.

Contribution of pre-anthesis translocation or post-anthesis uptake of N to grain yield (NC, %) = Pre-NT or Post-NU/Grain N at maturity × 100.

Data are presented as means ± SE. Differences among the treatments were determined based on Tukey’s multiple test ( p  < 0.05) with SPSS 23.0 software.

Data availability

The data used or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Key Research and Development Plan of China (No. 2016YFD0300502), National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number: 31501272), and Agricultural Sciences and Technologies Innovation Program of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) to Rice High Efficiency cultivation technology Group. We thank Jennifer Smith, PhD, from Liwen Bianji, Edanz Group China ( www.liwenbianji.cn/ac ), for editing the English text of a draft of this manuscript.

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H.W., J.X. and D.Z. conceived the project, and designed and coordinated the experiments, H.W., J.X., H.C., S.P., Yuping Zhang and Yikai Zhang performed the experiments and analysed the data, W.H. and X.J. wrote the manuscript.

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Wu, H., Xiang, J., Zhang, Y. et al. Effects of Post-Anthesis Nitrogen Uptake and Translocation on Photosynthetic Production and Rice Yield. Sci Rep 8 , 12891 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31267-y

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What does anthesis mean?

Definitions for anthesis ænˈθi sɪs an·the·sis, this dictionary definitions page includes all the possible meanings, example usage and translations of the word anthesis ., princeton's wordnet rate this definition: 0.0 / 0 votes.

blossoming, flowering, florescence, inflorescence, anthesis, efflorescence noun

the time and process of budding and unfolding of blossoms

Wiktionary Rate this definition: 0.0 / 0 votes

• anthesis noun

The event of a flower opening.

Etymology: ἄνθος, + -ησις, suffix indicating an event.

ChatGPT Rate this definition: 0.0 / 0 votes

Anthesis is the period or stage during which a flower is fully open and functional. It refers particularly to the time when both the male and female floral parts are mature and ready for fertilization, typically marked by the blooming or flowering phase in a plant's life cycle.

Webster Dictionary Rate this definition: 0.0 / 0 votes

Anthesis noun

the period or state of full expansion in a flower

Etymology: [Gr. bloom, fr. 'anqei^n to bloom, 'a`nqos flower.]

Wikidata Rate this definition: 0.0 / 0 votes

Anthesis is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional. It may also refer to the onset of that period. The onset of anthesis is spectacular in some species. In Banksia species, for example, anthesis involves the extension of the style far beyond the upper perianth parts. Anthesis of flowers is sequential within an inflorescence, so when the style and perianth are different colours, the result is a striking colour change that gradually sweeps along the inflorescence. Flowers with diurnal anthesis generally have brightly colored flowers to attract diurnal insects, such as butterflies. Flowers with nocturnal anthesis generally have white or less colorful flowers, that contrast more strongly with the night. These flowers typically attract nocturnal insects including many moth species.

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Chaldean Numerology

The numerical value of anthesis in Chaldean Numerology is: 9

Pythagorean Numerology

The numerical value of anthesis in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5

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• antesis Spanish
• sub anthesi Latin

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postanthesis

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postanthesis ( English)

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• post-anthesis

Origin & history

• occurring after the opening of a flower
• preanthesis

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preanthesis : preanthesis (English) Alternative forms pre-anthesis Origin & history From pre- + anthesis Adjective preanthesis (not comparable) occurring before the opening of a flower Antonyms postanthesis Anagrams interphases parenthesis

postanthetic : postanthetic (English) Origin & history See postanthesis . Adjective postanthetic (not comparable) After the opening of a flower.

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Paris Olympics organizers apologize after critics say 'The Last Supper' was mocked

Paris Olympic organizers apologized Sunday to people offended during a tableau of the opening ceremony that depicted the Greek god Dionysus and an ancient festival meant to honor him. Critics said it mocked “The Last Supper.”

During Friday's ceremony, there was a moment on the Debilly Bridge over the Seine when the camera cut to French DJ and producer Barbara Butch, who describes herself as a "love activist." Butch wore a blue dress with a silver headdress and as the camera panned out, she was flanked by drag queens on both sides. Later appeared a nearly naked man painted in blue − a portrayal of Dionysus, the god of wine-making, vegetation, fertility and ecstasy − on a dinner plate surrounded by food. He then sang as the people around him danced, and it turned into a runway scene where models walked across.

The scene has been met with backlash as people say it mocked "The Last Supper," the famous painting from Leonardo da Vinci that shows Jesus Christ with his 12 apostles at his last supper, where he announced that one of the apostles would betray him.

Several Christian and Catholic organizations around the world have denounced the moment since then. The French Bishops’ Conference, which represents the country's Catholic bishops, said in a statement that the scene was a "mockery and derision of Christianity" and it was thinking of religious followers who were "hurt by the outrageousness and provocation of certain scenes." Well-known Bishop Robert Barron in Minnesota  said in a video that it mocked "a very central moment in Christianity."

U.S. Speaker of the House Mike Johnson said on social media that it was "shocking and insulting" to Christian people.

Telecommunications provider C Spire also said it was pulling all of its advertising from the Olympics as a result of the scene.

What did Paris Olympic organizers say about controversial segment?

Thomas Jolly, the opening ceremony’s artistic director, said at  the International Olympic Committee's daily briefing at the Olympic Games on Saturday that the moment was not meant to "be subversive or shock people or mock people." During the opening ceremony, the official Olympic Games social media account said the blue person, played by French singer and actor Philippe Katerine, was Dionysus and it "makes us aware of the absurdity of violence between human beings."

Jolly also said on French TV station BFMTV on Sunday , "The Last Supper" was "not my inspiration" for the segment, and he also spoke about the meaning of Dionysus.

"The idea was to have a pagan celebration connected to the gods of Olympus. You will never find in me a desire to mock and denigrate anyone," he said.

Still, Paris 2024 spokesperson Anne Descamps apologized on Sunday for those offended by the scene.

"Clearly there was never an intention to show disrespect to any religious group. On the contrary, I think (with) Thomas Jolly, we really did try to celebrate community tolerance," Descamps said. “Looking at the result of the polls that we shared, we believe that this ambition was achieved. If people have taken any offense, we are, of course, really, really sorry.”

The IOC said on social media that it took note of the apology from Paris 2024.

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COP28: Harmony Fans the Flames of the VCM

8th December 2023

Stuart McLachlan

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This blog was written by Anthesis CEO, Stuart McLachlan and is part 4 of a series of insights on this years’ Conference of the Parties 28 (COP28) in the United Arab Emirates.

Offsetting has had a challenging year. The tide of suspicion about offsetting rolled back in, inundating the shifting sands of the carbon markets with – in my view – woeful consequences for a vital component of early climate action.

Of course, there’s plenty of complex stuff to deal with when it comes to the voluntary carbon market (VCM) and the choices companies face in their net zero roadmaps. As ever, the framing of these questions in the media tends to dial up the real or imagined dilemmas and difficulties.

• Everyone wants to move to ‘quality’ offsets – but is there a definition of quality?
• We need integrity in the VCM, but how will this be harmonised across different bodies?
• We need a mathematical correlation between a tonne of carbon sequestered or emission unit avoided and a tonne of carbon emitted – but how is this possible when we are pegging it to natural ecosystems that are dynamic and unpredictable?
• If companies invest in projects adjacent to or in their value chains, how do such insetting strategies relate to Scope 3 emissions?
• And how can we reconcile prioritising removals over avoidance credits with the impact on forestry now being destroyed because of uncertainty in the offsets market?

And so it goes on. At Anthesis we are unequivocal in our support for voluntary carbon markets and their role in unlocking capital to relieve pressure on planetary systems. At COP, it was bizarre to find myself in endless discussions about the need for a functioning carbon market when in truth we have one. It’s not perfect but isn’t it good enough? Scrutiny is vital, but when that scrutiny becomes so intense that it paralyses the entire market, something’s gone wrong. The market needs to work so that companies can at least enter it – aware of both the jeopardy and opportunity it entails. There is bound to be uncertainty – the world hasn’t gone through this level of transformation before. But we are on borrowed time so sitting in the waiting room for perfection to arrive must give way to the experimentation that will improves these markets.

The debates continue but happily, a slew of announcements at COP give me hope for a more positive direction of travel. An interesting proposal to rebadge certain nature based credits as resilience credits (i.e. you are investing in planetary resilience as opposed to neutralising your measurable residual emissions) might usefully reframe some of the debate. The Voluntary Carbon Markets Integrity Initiative, SBTI, The Integrity Council for the VCM (ICVCM) are coming together to form an end-to-end integrity framework providing guidance on decarbonisation which includes the use of offsets for residual emissions. Meanwhile, Verra, Gold Standard, Climate Action reserve, ACR at Winrock, ART and Global Carbon Council have announced that they will collaborate to establish consistent standards on quantification, verification and permanence and to connect back in to the ICVCM. And the US commodities regulator the CFTC will announce its guidance on carbon credits as a way to see carbon markets scale.

The value of the carbon trading market worldwide could expand to $100bn by 2030, up from $2bn in 2022, according to Morgan Stanley. In Dubai, John Kerry made the point that purchases linked to cuts in carbon dioxide emitted by burning fossil fuel and deforestation could create the largest marketplace the world will ever have known, but that ‘fly-by-night operations’ touting cheap carbon credits in voluntary markets in recent years have ‘done an injustice to everybody’. Scrutiny and quality are a good thing if they help rather than hinder companies taking responsible action to offset their residual emissions and, in turn, keep 1.5C alive.

Collaboration was my buzzword in yesterday’s post. In this arena it seems ‘harmonisation’ is where the action is. It’s been an uncomfortable year for the VCM but perhaps a pause for a moment of intense scrutiny is not all bad especially given Kerry’s comments. This pause may be coming to an end as COP28 and the involvement of leading NGOs fires up confidence in the future of the VCM. At Anthesis, we continue our commitment to reduction first, and then to offsetting of residual emissions, and to continuous improvement in quality as the science and the markets strengthen.

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Effects of heat stress during anthesis and grain filling stages on some physiological and agronomic traits in diverse wheat genotypes.

1. Introduction

2.1. chlorophyll index, 2.2. leaf temperature, 2.3. maximum quantum efficiency of psii, 2.4. grain yield, grain weight, and grain number per plant, 2.5. stress index, 2.6. relationships between traits, 3. discussion, 3.1. grain weight and grain number, 3.2. grain yield, 3.3. chlorophyll flourescence, 3.4. chlorophyll index, 3.5. leaf temperature, 4. materials and methods, 4.1. plant materials, 4.2. measurements, 4.3. statistical analysis, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Mirosavljević, M.; Mikić, S.; Župunski, V.; Abdelhakim, L.; Trkulja, D.; Zhou, R.; Špika, A.K.; Ottosen, C.-O. Effects of Heat Stress during Anthesis and Grain Filling Stages on Some Physiological and Agronomic Traits in Diverse Wheat Genotypes. Plants 2024 , 13 , 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13152083

Mirosavljević M, Mikić S, Župunski V, Abdelhakim L, Trkulja D, Zhou R, Špika AK, Ottosen C-O. Effects of Heat Stress during Anthesis and Grain Filling Stages on Some Physiological and Agronomic Traits in Diverse Wheat Genotypes. Plants . 2024; 13(15):2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13152083

Mirosavljević, Milan, Sanja Mikić, Vesna Župunski, Lamis Abdelhakim, Dragana Trkulja, Rong Zhou, Ankica Kondić Špika, and Carl-Otto Ottosen. 2024. "Effects of Heat Stress during Anthesis and Grain Filling Stages on Some Physiological and Agronomic Traits in Diverse Wheat Genotypes" Plants 13, no. 15: 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13152083

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