essay on mexico

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Geologic origins

Physiographic regions.

• Plant and animal life
• Cultural regions
• Ethnic groups
• Settlement patterns
• Demographic trends
• Agriculture
• Resources and power
• Manufacturing
• Labour and taxation
• Transportation and telecommunications
• Constitutional framework
• Local government
• Political process
• Health and welfare
• Cultural milieu
• Class divisions
• Family and gender issues
• Food and drink
• Holidays and festivals
• Cultural institutions
• Sports and recreation
• Media and publishing
• Early, Middle, and Late Formative periods
• Classic Period
• Post-Classic Period
• The rise of the Aztecs
• Conquest of Mexico
• Expansion of Spanish rule
• Colonial period, 1701–1821
• The Mexican Empire, 1821–23
• The early republic
• The age of Santa Anna: Texas and the Mexican-American War
• French intervention
• The restored republic
• The age of Porfirio Díaz
• Precursors of revolution
• The military revolution
• The constitution of 1917
• The northern dynasty: Obregón and Calles
• Resurgence under Cárdenas
• World War II, 1941–45
• Prosperity and repression under the PRI
• Beyond single-party rule
• Peña Nieto and the return of PRI rule
• The election of López Obrador and the shift leftward
• Presidents of Mexico from 1917

• Where did Benito Juárez get his education?
• What did Benito Juárez believe in?
• Why was Benito Juárez significant?

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Mexico
• Mexico - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• Mexico - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Mexico , country of southern North America and the third largest country in Latin America , after Brazil and Argentina . Mexican society is characterized by extremes of wealth and poverty, with a limited middle class wedged between an elite cadre of landowners and investors on the one hand and masses of rural and urban poor on the other. But in spite of the challenges it faces as a developing country , Mexico is one of the chief economic and political forces in Latin America. It has a dynamic industrial base, vast mineral resources, a wide-ranging service sector , and the world’s largest population of Spanish speakers—about two and a half times that of Spain or Colombia . As its official name suggests, the Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States) incorporates 31 socially and physically diverse states and the Federal District .

More than half of the Mexican people live in the centre of the country, whereas vast areas of the arid north and the tropical south are sparsely settled. Migrants from impoverished rural areas have poured into Mexico’s cities, and nearly four-fifths of Mexicans now live in urban areas. Mexico City , the capital, is one of the most populous cities and metropolitan areas in the world. Mexico has experienced a series of economic booms leading to periods of impressive social gains, followed by busts, with significant declines in living standards for the middle and lower classes. The country remains economically fragile despite the forging of stronger ties with the United States and Canada through the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

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Mexico’s urban growing pains are in sharp counterpoint to the traditional lifestyles that prevail in more-isolated rural areas. In states such as Oaxaca or Chiapas , small communal villages remain where indigenous peasants live much as their ancestors did. The cultural remnants of great pre-Columbian civilizations , such as Teotihuacán or the Mayan pyramids at Chichén Itzá and Tulum, provide a contrast to colonial towns such as Taxco or Querétaro . In turn, these towns appear as historical relics when compared with the modern metropolis of Mexico City. Yet even the bustling capital city, which has been continually built and rebuilt on the rubble of past civilizations, reveals Mexico’s wide range of social, economic, and cultural struggles. As the renowned Mexican poet and intellectual Octavio Paz observed,

Past epochs never vanish completely, and blood still drips from all their wounds, even the most ancient. Sometimes the most remote or hostile beliefs and feelings are found together in one city or one soul, or are superimposed like [pre-Columbian] pyramids that almost always conceal others.

It is this tremendous cultural and economic diversity , distributed over an enormously complex and varied physical environment , that gives Mexico its unique character.

Sharing a common border throughout its northern extent with the United States, Mexico is bounded to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean , to the east by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , and to the southeast by Guatemala and Belize . Mexico also administers such islands and archipelagoes as the Tres Marías in the Pacific and Cozumel and Mujeres off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula . Including these insular territories, the roughly triangular country covers an area about three times the size of Texas . While it is more than 1,850 miles (3,000 km) across from northwest to southeast, its width varies from less than 135 miles (217 km) at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to more than 1,200 miles (1,900 km) in the north.

Mexico is located in one of the Earth’s most dynamic tectonic areas. It is a part of the circum-Pacific “ Ring of Fire ”—a region of active volcanism and frequent seismic activity. Among its towering volcanic peaks are Citlaltépetl (also called Orizaba), which forms the highest point in the country at 18,406 feet (5,610 metres), and the active volcano Popocatépetl , which rises to 17,930 feet (5,465 metres) to the southeast of Mexico City. These and other Mexican volcanoes are young in geologic terms, from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (about 65 to 2.6 million years ago), and are examples of the volcanic forces that built much of the central and southern parts of the country. Mexico is situated on the western, or leading, edge of the huge North American Plate, whose interaction with the Pacific, Cocos, and Caribbean plates has given rise to numerous and severe earthquakes as well as the earth-building processes that produce southern Mexico’s rugged landscape. It is in this dynamic and often unstable physical environment that the Mexican people have built their country.

Mexico can be divided into nine major physiographic regions: Baja California , the Pacific Coastal Lowlands, the Mexican Plateau , the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Cordillera Neo-Volcánica, the Gulf Coastal Plain, the Southern Highlands, and the Yucatán Peninsula.

The Baja California peninsula in northwestern Mexico is an isolated strip of extremely arid land extending between the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez). Unevenly divided between the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur , the peninsula is nearly 800 miles (1,300 km) long but seldom more than 100 miles (160 km) wide. The central core of the peninsula is a granitic fault block with peaks of more than 9,000 feet (2,700 metres) above sea level in the Sierra San Pedro Mártir and Sierra de Juárez . The gently sloping western side of these mountain ranges is in contrast to the steep eastern escarpment, which makes access from the Gulf of California extremely difficult. The Sonoran Desert extends onto the peninsula along the northern end of the gulf.

The Pacific Coastal Lowlands begin near Mexicali and the Colorado River delta in the north and terminate near Tepic , some 900 miles (1,450 km) to the south. For most of that distance, they face the Gulf of California while traversing the states of Sonora , Sinaloa , and Nayarit . Bounded on the east by the steep-sided Sierra Madre Occidental, the lowlands are a series of coastal terraces, mesas, and small basins interspersed with riverine deltas and restricted coastal strips. Although the vast Sonoran Desert dominates their northern section, parts of the lowlands have been irrigated and transformed into highly productive farmland.

The largest and most densely populated region is the inland Mexican Plateau , which is flanked by the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental. The plateau consists of the vast Mesa del Norte (Northern Plateau) and the smaller but heavily populated Mesa Central (Mesa de Anáhuac). The Mesa del Norte begins near the U.S. border; covers great stretches of the states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Durango , Zacatecas , Jalisco , and Aguascalientes ; and ends near San Luis Potosí city. From there the Mesa Central stretches to a point just south of Mexico City. The plateau tilts gently upward from the north toward the south; at its northern end, the Mesa del Norte is about 4,000 feet (1,200 metres) above sea level. Throughout the region, relatively flat intermontane basins and bolsones (ephemeral interior drainage basins) are interrupted by mountainous outcrops. In the north the Chihuahuan Desert covers a section of the plateau that is more extensive than the U.S. state of California.

The Mesa Central covers large parts of Michoacán , Guanajuato , Querétaro , Hidalgo , and México states and the Federal District (Mexico City). Its southern end rises 7,000–9,000 feet (2,100–2,700 metres) in the vicinity of Mexico City. The Mesa Central, moister and generally flatter than the Mesa del Norte, is divided into a series of fairly level intermontane basins separated by eroded volcanic peaks. The largest valleys rarely exceed 100 square miles (260 square km) in area, and many others are quite small. Among the generally fertile basins is the Bajío (El Bajío, or the Basin of Guanajuato), the traditional breadbasket of the country, which is located in the northern part of the Mesa Central. Many of the basins were once sites of major lakes that were drained to facilitate European and mestizo settlement. Around Mexico City the weak, structurally unstable soils that remain have caused the colonial-era Metropolitan Cathedral and other buildings to shift on their foundations and, over many years, to list or sink unevenly into the ground.

The largely volcanic Sierra Madre Occidental , which forms the western border of the Mexican Plateau, has an average elevation of 8,000–9,000 feet (2,400–2,700 metres) and extends roughly 700 miles (1,100 km) from north to south. It has been highly incised by westward-flowing streams that have formed a series of gorges, or barrancas , the most spectacular of which is the complex known as Copper Canyon (Barranca del Cobre) in southwestern Chihuahua state.

The Sierra Madre Oriental , a range of folded mountains formed of shales and limestones, is situated on the eastern side of the Mexican Plateau. Often considered an extension of the Rocky Mountains (which are cut by the Rio Grande but continue in New Mexico and western Texas), it runs roughly 700 miles (1,100 km) from north to south before merging with the Cordillera Neo-Volcánica. Its average elevations are similar to those of the Sierra Madre Occidental, but some peaks rise above 12,000 feet (3,650 metres). The mountains have major deposits of copper, lead, and zinc.

The Cordillera Neo-Volcánica , also called the Neo-Volcanic Axis or Trans-Volcanic Axis, is a geologically active mountain range whose smoldering cinder cones link the Sierra Madre Occidental with the Sierra Madre Oriental at the southern edge of the Mesa Central. As it crosses Mexico from Cape Corrientes on the west coast to Xalapa and Veracruz on the eastern coast, it forms a mountainous backdrop to the states of Jalisco , Michoacán, Guerrero , México, Morelos , and Puebla as well as the Federal District. This volcanic range includes the spectacular peaks Citlaltépetl, Popocatépetl, and Iztaccíhuatl (Ixtacihuatl), among others. One of the world’s youngest volcanoes, Parícutin emerged violently from the fields of Michoacán between 1943 and 1952. The region is rich in silver, lead, zinc, copper, and tin deposits. The hot, dry Balsas Depression, which takes its name from the major river draining the region, is immediately south of the Cordillera Neo-Volcánica. The depression is formed of small, irregular basins interrupted by hilly outcrops, which give the area a distinctive physical landscape.

The Gulf Coastal Plain , which is much wider than its Pacific coast counterpart, extends some 900 miles (1,450 km) along the Gulf of Mexico from Tamaulipas state (on the Texas border) through Veracruz and Tabasco states to the Yucatán Peninsula; it includes the Tabasco Plain in its southeastern section. The triangular northern portion of the plain, which is characterized by lagoons and low-lying swampy areas, reaches a width of more than 100 miles (160 km) near the U.S. border but tapers toward the south. North of the port of Tampico , an outlier of the Sierra Madre Oriental reaches the sea and interrupts the continuity of the Gulf Coastal Plain. South from there the plain is narrow and irregular, widening at the northern end of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

The Southern Highlands are a series of highly dissected mountain ranges and plateaus, including the Sierra Madre del Sur, Mesa del Sur, and the Chiapas Highlands , also called the Sierra Madre de Chiapas. On their southwestern side, approximately from Puerto Vallarta to the Gulf of Tehuantepec , are a series of relatively low ranges known collectively as the Sierra Madre del Sur . The crystalline mountains, which achieve elevations of 7,000–8,000 feet (2,100–2,400 metres), often reach the sea to create a rugged coastal margin, part of which is known as the Mexican Riviera. Several coastal sites, such as Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Acapulco , and Puerto Escondido, have become alluring tourist destinations. However, the less-hospitable inland basins provide a difficult environment for traditional peasant farmers. Farther northeast is the Mesa del Sur, with numerous stream-eroded ridges and small isolated valleys some 4,000–5,000 feet (1,200–1,500 metres) above sea level. The picturesque Oaxaca Valley is the largest and most densely settled of these, with a predominantly indigenous population. It is one of the poorest areas of Mexico.

Bisecting the Southern Highlands is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , a low-lying, narrow constriction of land that reaches an elevation of less than 900 feet (275 metres). Its hilly central area descends to narrow coastal plains on the south and to the Tabasco Plain on the north.

The Chiapas Highlands are an extension of the mountain ranges of Central America . Within the highlands the low, crystalline Sierra de Soconusco range lies along the Pacific coast. To the northwest and paralleling the coast is the Grijalva River valley. A group of highly dissected, folded, and faulted mountains is located between the valley and the Tabasco Plain, a southeastern extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Among the active volcanic peaks of the region is El Chichón, which destroyed several villages in 1982.

The Yucatán Peninsula lies to the northeast of the Tabasco Plain and extends northward, forming a divider between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The peninsula’s limestone (karst) terrain is generally pockmarked and uneven but seldom exceeds 500 feet (150 metres) in elevation. There is little surface drainage, and subterranean erosion has produced caverns and sinkholes (cenotes), the latter being formed when cavern roofs collapse. The islands of Cozumel and Mujeres lie off the peninsula’s northeastern tip, near the resort boomtown of Cancún .

Essay on Mexican Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Mexican Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Mexican Culture

Introduction to mexican culture.

Mexican culture is rich with history and color. It comes from ancient civilizations like the Aztecs and Mayans. Today, it’s a mix of those traditions with influences from Spain and other countries. People in Mexico are known for their love of family, music, and food.

Festivals and Holidays

Mexico is famous for its lively festivals. One of the biggest is the Day of the Dead, where families remember loved ones who have passed away. They decorate altars and graves with bright flowers and offer favorite foods.

Traditional Mexican Food

Mexican food is known worldwide. Tacos, enchiladas, and guacamole come from here. Corn, beans, and chili peppers are important ingredients. Meals are often shared with family, making eating a social event.

Music and Dance

Music and dance are key parts of Mexican culture. Mariachi bands play guitars, violins, and trumpets. Folk dances tell stories of Mexico’s history. The colorful costumes and lively rhythms are enjoyed by people of all ages.

Art and Craft

Mexican culture is a tapestry of traditions that celebrate life. It’s a blend of history, art, food, and music that brings joy to people and makes Mexico unique.

250 Words Essay on Mexican Culture

Mexican culture is a rich blend of native traditions and Spanish influence. It is known for its colorful art, lively music, and strong family values. Mexico’s history shapes its culture, from ancient civilizations like the Maya and Aztecs to the Spanish conquest.

Traditional Food

Mexican food is famous worldwide. Tacos, enchiladas, and tamales are just a few examples of the tasty dishes. Ingredients like corn, beans, and chili peppers are common. Families often gather to enjoy meals together, making food a central part of social life.

Festivals and Celebrations

Mexicans love to celebrate. One of the most famous events is the Day of the Dead, when people honor their loved ones who have passed away. There are also colorful parades, dances, and music. Christmas and Cinco de Mayo are other big celebrations full of joy and traditions.

Music and dance are vital in Mexican culture. Mariachi bands play lively tunes with violins, trumpets, and guitars. Folk dances tell stories of Mexico’s history and people. Young and old enjoy the rhythms and movements that make up Mexico’s musical heritage.

Family Values

Mexican culture is a tapestry woven from history, food, celebrations, music, and family. It is a culture full of warmth, color, and life, inviting everyone to experience its beauty and traditions.

500 Words Essay on Mexican Culture

Mexican culture is a rich and colorful tapestry woven from a history that goes back thousands of years. It includes the traditions of the ancient Maya and Aztec civilizations, as well as influences from Spanish colonists who came to Mexico over 500 years ago. Today, Mexican culture is known around the world for its vibrant music, delicious food, and festive celebrations.

Mexicans love to celebrate, and they have many festivals throughout the year. One of the most famous is the Day of the Dead, or Día de los Muertos, which is a time when people remember and honor their loved ones who have passed away. During this festival, families create altars with photos, candles, and flowers, and they might also visit the graves of their relatives. Another important celebration is Mexican Independence Day on September 16th, which marks the day Mexico began its fight for freedom from Spain.

Music and dance are at the heart of Mexican social life. Mariachi bands, with their trumpets, violins, and guitars, are a common sight at parties and celebrations. Folk dances, such as the Jarabe Tapatío, often known as the Mexican Hat Dance, tell stories through movement and are performed wearing traditional costumes. These art forms not only provide entertainment but also help to pass down history and traditions from one generation to the next.

Art and Handicrafts

Family is a very important part of life in Mexico. Many generations often live in the same house or neighborhood, and they support each other in daily life. Respect for elders is a key value, and children are taught to listen to and learn from their parents and grandparents. Family members celebrate important events together, such as birthdays and religious ceremonies, which helps to strengthen their bonds.

Mexican culture is a beautiful blend of history, art, food, and family. It is a culture that is both ancient and ever-changing, as new generations add their own stories to the rich tapestry that has been created over thousands of years. Understanding Mexican culture can help people from all over the world appreciate the diversity and depth of human traditions.

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Essay Samples on Mexico

Vibrant culture , community and customs of mexico.

Mexico has many cultural traditions, a lot of history, and a big population of people and land mass. Mexico is known for the amazing sights, the incredible food, and family oriented traditions. Mexico is a rapid growing country that is run by states and a...

Cultural Background of the Day of the Dead in Mexico and U.S.

After reading the three out of five articles; Mexico's Special Relationship with Day of the Dead, What we can learn from U. S Day of the Dead Celebration, and An Ancient and Modern Festival. All three articles mentioned many similar factual information and descriptions, but...

Running a Family Business in Mexico

Family businesses in Mexico are mostly companies, which are very small or do not have the success expected, due to the large amount of competition that exists in Mexico; Mexican companies that thrive, have planning from the first generation which are referred to the grandparents...

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The Lack of Social Mobility and Equality Theories in Mexico

The ranks in witch people are viewed in a society can be reffered to as a social staus. The status can be created by the presence or lack of wealth, prestige or career. This status can either be ascribed or achived. Ascribed meaning that it...

• Social Mobility

My Personal Experience in Subculture in Mexico

In the subculture, there are many qualities that make subculture an important group in society. We learn each other with diverse characteristics that when we born is more personal and we raise with that. Knowing a subculture could be learned by parents, the environment or...

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How Volunteers Help Others in Mexico and Japan

Mexico City volunteers formed human chains and rescued people trapped in the remains of apartments that collapsed after a massive earthquake. Mexico City mayor Miguel Angel Mancera said about 40 buildings were destroyed by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake that struck the city on Tuesday. The...

• Helping Others
• Volunteering

Drug Trafficking Problems Between Mexico and the USA and the Ways of Their Solution

Drug Trafficking is a problem in the criminal justice system. All the drugs are smuggled to get in the U.S and the big problem is how are they getting in the U.S. Plenty of drugs from different countries get in the U.S. There's plenty of...

• Drug Trafficking

Declaration Of Independence Of Mexico

Introduction The significance of a country's independence is the act of fighting for liberty and the capacity to act against a colonial external influence. The Spanish, for 300 years influenced almost all aspects of life in Mexico, from the social, economic and political aspects to...

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Implementation of Modernization and Progress in Colombia and Mexico

In both Colombia and Mexico, various initiatives were put in place which backfired and damaged the quality of life of the citizens by the hand of the state. Specifically, urban renewal projects and privatization of public utilities were the main contributors in this decline. Urban...

Critical Analysis Of The Study About Children In The Street

This essay will critically analyse an ethnographic study which discussed the issues about children in the street. The location of the study originates from Mexico, Ciudad Juárez. The uncovering from the study showed crucial concern on how it has affected in establishing childhood. Factors such...

Mythology Around The World: From Mexico And Japan

Theres 100’s of cultures on Earth, each with their own ancient stories and ways of explaining unusual natural phenomenon Introduction. What myths do you know? Most of us have grown up in the United States of America, so we probably know of Johnny AppleSeed, Paul...

Representation Of Gender Roles In Mexico In Paintings Of Olga Costa

Although the field of art was dominated by men during the Mexican Cultural Revolution of 1910-1948, Olga Costa was one of the few female artists that was recognized for her paintings. Olga Costa is from German, however her and her family fled to Mexico to...

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Screening And Diagnosis Of Depression In Rural Chiapas, Mexico

The purpose of the study was to validate the use of the (PHQ)‐2 and PHQ‐9 designed for Screening and Diagnosis of Depression. It began by providing details into why this research was necessary ,stating the necessity of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)‐2 and PHQ‐9 for...

The Female Comic Books Industry

From the very appealing book title to an eye-catching cover, you know this book is bound to keep your attention induced. It gives you a window into the cultural and political impact of comic books in the new worlds of ‘Modern Mexico’. Her examination of...

The Analysis Of The Program "Improving Worker Well-Being" On The Factory Levi Strauss In Mexico City

Summary On the factory floors of one of Levi Strauss Suppliers in Mexico City, a program called “Improving Worker Well-Being” is implemented amongst its garment workers. The program is a 10-week course that teaches about health, hygiene and sanitation, and also communication and critical thinking....

Best topics on Mexico

1. Vibrant Culture , Community And Customs Of Mexico

2. Cultural Background of the Day of the Dead in Mexico and U.S.

3. Running a Family Business in Mexico

4. The Lack of Social Mobility and Equality Theories in Mexico

5. My Personal Experience in Subculture in Mexico

6. How Volunteers Help Others in Mexico and Japan

7. Drug Trafficking Problems Between Mexico and the USA and the Ways of Their Solution

8. Declaration Of Independence Of Mexico

9. Implementation of Modernization and Progress in Colombia and Mexico

10. Critical Analysis Of The Study About Children In The Street

11. Mythology Around The World: From Mexico And Japan

12. Representation Of Gender Roles In Mexico In Paintings Of Olga Costa

13. Screening And Diagnosis Of Depression In Rural Chiapas, Mexico

14. The Female Comic Books Industry

15. The Analysis Of The Program “Improving Worker Well-Being” On The Factory Levi Strauss In Mexico City

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Essays on Mexico

Faq about mexico.

Mexico is a land of extremes, with high mountains and deep canyons in the center of the country, sweeping deserts in the north, and dense rain forests in the south and east.

Mountains cover much of Mexico. Between the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range in the east and the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west lie small mountain ranges on the Central Plateau. These regions are rich with valuable metals like silver and copper.

The stretch of land called the Yucatán Peninsula juts into the Gulf of Mexico from Mexico's southeastern tip. It was once the home of the Maya civilization, an ancient culture whose amazing buildings can still be seen today.

Map created by National Geographic Maps

PEOPLE & CULTURE

Mexico is the product of a rich Native American heritage, three centuries of Spanish rule, and a shared border with the world's richest country, the United States . Today, many Mexicans are mestizos, which means they have a mix of Native American and Spanish blood.

Throughout its history, Mexico has been home to great artists. The Maya and other Native Americans made impressive murals, sculptures, and jewelry. Modern Mexican artists include great painters, photographers, sculptors, and muralists.

Mexicans take sports seriously. In ancient times, losers of a ritual ball game were once put to death. In some dangerous sports, like bullfighting and rodeo (which was invented in Mexico), competitors still put their lives on the line.

Few nations on Earth support as many plant and animal species as Mexico does. Located partway between the Equator and the Arctic Circle, it is a refuge for animals fleeing extreme cold in the north and intense heat in the south.

In northern Mexico, deserts are full of plant and animal species that have found ways to survive the harsh environment. On Mexico's west coast, gray whales swim thousands of miles each year from Alaska to breed in the waters off Baja California .

The rain forests and coastal wetlands of eastern Mexico are home to thousands of tropical plant species and elusive animals like jaguars and quetzal birds.

GOVERNMENT & ECONOMY

Mexico is rich in natural resources, like oil, silver, copper, and agricultural products. Its economy boasts a rich diversity of agricultural crops, highly productive oil fields, a growing manufacturing base, as well as strong trade with the United States and Canada .

The Olmec people, Mexico's first complex society, emerged in the southeastern part of the country around 1200 B.C. They were later followed by the Maya, the Toltec, and the Aztec peoples.

Mexico's ancient societies built great cities and huge pyramids, created remarkable works of art, and even studied the stars and planets to determine when to plant crops and hold ceremonies.

In the early 1500s, the Spanish arrived in Mexico. The Aztec people got sick from smallpox and other diseases that the Spanish brought with them. The Spaniards also seized and destroyed the Aztec capital, called Tenochtilán. The Spanish ruled Mexico until 1821.

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Mexican culture: Customs and traditions

Mexican culture brings together elements of ancient Central-American heritage and European customs.

Population of Mexico

Languages of mexico, religions of mexico, ​​values of the mexican people, mexican food, mexican arts, mexican fashion, doing business in mexico, mexican holidays and celebrations, additional resources and reading, bibliography.

Mexican culture has undergone a tremendous transformation in its recent history with varying impacts in different regions. Many Mexicans live in cities, but smaller rural communities still play a strong role in defining the country's collective vibrant community. 

Mexico can trace some of its cultural heritage back to the Aztec and Maya peoples who once controlled much of Central America, but equally it owes a great deal to the colonial heritage from Spain. Many of the customs in Mexico can be traced back through one of these branches of history.

"Mexico's characteristics set it apart from other Spanish American nations. No other country among them has so actively traced its cultural origins [through] so dramatic a history to such deep roots; none has so thoroughly fused European and non-European cultural influences," wrote Peter Standish and Steven M. Bell in " Culture and customs of Mexico " (Greenwood, 2004).

Mexico is the 10th most populous country in the world, with over 128 million people according to the United States Census Bureau estimate published on July 1, 2021 . According to the Index Mundi , Mexico consists of several ethnic groups. The mestizo (meaning people of mixed indigenous Central American heritage and European heritage) group accounts for 62% of the population. Indigenous Central American or predominantly indigenous Central American people account for 21%, while 10% of the population has a mostly European background. These groups create a culture that is unique to Mexico. However Index Mundi notes that Mexico does not collect census data on ethnicity.

According to the Mexican National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI) the median age of the population is 29 years old, which is a jump up from 2015 when it was 27. Index Mundi adds that 26% of the population is under 14-years-old, just under 17% is 15 to 24, 41% is 25 to 54, a little over 8% is 55 to 64 and nearly 8% are 65 or older.

It's estimated that 81% of the total population of Mexico lives in urban areas with Mexico City alone having a population of nearly 22 million in the wider area, according to Index Mundi, making it the fifth most populous city in the world.

The overwhelming majority of Mexicans today speak Spanish. According to the CIA , Spanish is spoken by 93.8% of the Mexican population. About 5.4% of the population speaks Spanish as well as indigenous languages, such as Mayan, Nahuatl and other regional languages. Indigenous Mexican words have also become common in other languages, including English. For example, chocolate, coyote, tomato and avocado all originated in Nahuatl.  

"Much of Mexican culture revolves around religious values and the church, as well as the concept of family and inclusiveness," said Talia Wagner , a marriage and family therapist in Los Angeles. Around 78% of Mexicans identify themselves as Catholic, according to the CIA, although many have incorporated pre-Hispanic Mayan elements as part of their faith. Some of this dates back to the first colonists looking to merge the approaches of Europe and Central America to bring Christianity to the region.

"Public ritual had always been essential to both pre-Columbian religion and Spanish Catholicism. Consequently, priests quickly introduced their aboriginal parishioners to religious plays, music, and festivals, especially at Easter and Corpus Christi, both of which celebrated the Holy Eucharist," wrote Linda A Curcio-Nagy, professor of history at the University of Nevada in " The Oxford History of Mexico " (Oxford University Press, 2010), edited by Michael C. Meyer and William H. Beezley.

Other Christian denominations represented in Mexico include Presbyterians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists, Mormons, Lutherans, Methodists, Baptists and Anglicans. There are also small communities of Muslims, Jews and Buddhists. 

Especially outside of cities, families are typically large and Mexicans are very conscious of their responsibilities to immediate family members and extended family such as cousins and even close friends. Hosting parties at their homes plays a large part of Mexican life and making visitors feel comfortable is a large part of the values and customs of the country.

"Family units are usually large, with traditional gender roles and extensive family involvement from the external members who assist one another in day to day life," Wagner told Live Science. There is a strong connection among family members. "Parents are treated with a high degree of respect, as is the family in general and there may be constant struggle, especially for the growing children between individual wants and needs and those wants and needs of the family," added Wagner.

One large event in a Mexican family is the quinceañera. This is a celebration of a young lady's 15th birthday. It signifies the girl's journey from childhood to womanhood. The party includes an elaborate dress for the girl of honor, food, dancing, friends and families. Before the party there is often a mass at the girl's church. The girl is accompanied throughout the festivities by her damas (maids of honor) and chambelánes (chamberlains), according to Encyclopedia Britannica .

Mexican cuisine varies widely between regions, as each town has its own culinary traditions, according to "Mexico For You," a publication of the Mexican Cultural Institute of Washington, D.C. Tortillas and other food made from corn are common everywhere, though, as are pepper, tomatoes and beans. Rice is also a staple, according to History.com. 

Many foods that originated in Mexico are popular worldwide, including avocados, chocolate and pumpkins, in fact Mexican food is one of the country's most popular cultural exports. "Salsa now outsells catsup in the United States and $5 billion worth of tortillas are sold internationally each year," wrote Robert Buffington, Suzanne B. Pasztor, and Don M. Coerver in " Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History " (ABC-CLIO, 2004)

Mexico is known for its tequila, which is made from agave cactus that is well suited to the climate of central Mexico. Soda is a very popular drink in Mexico, as the country has a well-developed beverage industry.

Clay pottery, embroidered cotton garments, wool shawls and outer garments with angular designs, colorful baskets and rugs are some of the common items associated with Mexican folk art. Millennia-old traditions continue in silver-smithing, mosaics, textiles, pottery and basket-weaving, according to "Mexico For You."

The country is closely associated with the Mariachi style of folk music. Originated in the southern part of the state of Jalisco sometime in the 19th century, it involves a group of musicians — playing violins, guitars, basses, vihuelas (a five-string guitar) and trumpets — and wearing silver-studded charro suits and elaborate hats. "La Cucaracha" is a well-known Mariachi staple.

Two of Mexico's most famous artists are Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. Their paintings include vibrant colors and depictions of life in Mexico. Rivera was a pioneer of Muralism, a movement that used expansive wall art to educate the people. Kahlo's work drew from personal pain and also the deep history of Mexico itself. "The work of Frida Kahlo (1907–54) is also steeped in Mexicanness, although it is primarily a record of her difficult life, marked in pain, disappointment, and loneliness," wrote Helen Delpar, a professor of history at the University of Alabama in " The Oxford History of Mexico " (Oxford University Press, 2010). 

Many may not think of Mexico as a place that fosters high fashion, but many fashion designers hail from Mexico, such as Jorge Duque and Julia y Renata. There is also a Mexico Fashion Week . In the cities, fashion in Mexico is influenced by international trends, so the typical urban Mexican dresses similar to people in Europe and the United States.

Traditional Mexican clothing for women includes a sleeveless tunic-like dress called a huipil, according to Don Quijote Spanish School. Originally, these cotton dresses were made very simple with garnishes of color. However, traditional Mexican women's clothing now regularly includes lots of ornate embroidery, often including images and patterns that have symbolic meaning attached to them.

One distinguishing article of traditional men's clothing is a large blanket cape called a sarape. Boots are also a wardrobe staple. The charro suit, with its origins as the outfit worn by Mexican cowboys, is most associated with Mariachi musicians. The suit is also an acceptable substitute for a tuxedo at formal events in Mexico. The charro suit includes the sombrero, a wide-brimmed hat that provides plenty of shade.

Mexico's currency is the peso. Almost 65% of the country's GDP comes from the service sector with industry making up 31% and agriculture contributing 3.6%, according to the CIA. Its primary agricultural products are sugar cane, maize, milk, oranges , sorghum, tomatoes, poultry, wheat, green chillies/peppers and eggs.

Mexican business culture tends to value personal relationships, a strong hierarchy and a clear consciousness of status, according to Santander . "Doing business of any sort is normally preceded by a period of socializing," wrote Peter Standish and Steven M. Bell in "Culture and customs of Mexico."

The Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe , which is celebrated on Dec. 12, is a major Mexican holiday celebrating the appearance of the Virgin Mary to an indigenous Mexican in the first years of Spanish rule. She is the patron saint of the country. This is followed closely by Posadas, a nine-day celebration in which people re-enact Mary and Joseph's journey to Bethlehem to search for a place to stay. Families go from door to door carrying candles and singing, asking for shelter until the owners open the door, at which point the party begins.

The Day of the Dead (Día de los Muertos), celebrated on Nov. 2, is a day set aside to remember and honor those who have died, according to the University of New Mexico. Carnival is also celebrated in many communities throughout Mexico to mark the period before Lent.

Independence Day , marking the country's separation from Spain in 1810, is celebrated on Sept. 16. Cinco de Mayo, which marks a Mexican military victory over the French in 1862, is more widely celebrated in the United States (as a beer promotion) than it is in Mexico.

Learn more about the colonial history of Mexico and Central America more widely by reading about one of the men who helped to shape events, Hernán Cortés .

If the culture and life of Central America before the arrival of European colonists is what interests you, then a deep dive into the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán is for you.

• " Culture and customs of Mexico " by Peter Standish and Steven M. Bell (Greenwood, 2004)
• " The Oxford History of Mexico " edited by Michael C. Meyer and William H. Beezley (Oxford University Press, 2010)
• " Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History " by Robert Buffington, Suzanne B. Pasztor, and Don M. Coerver (ABC-CLIO, 2004)
• Mercedes Benz Fashion Week
• "Mexico Business Practices" Santander Trade Markets
• "Our Lady of Guadalupe" Catholic Online
• " The History of Mexican Independence" Mexonline

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Kim Ann Zimmermann is a contributor to Live Science and sister site Space.com, writing mainly evergreen reference articles that provide background on myriad scientific topics, from astronauts to climate, and from culture to medicine. Her work can also be found in Business News Daily and KM World. She holds a bachelor’s degree in communications from Glassboro State College (now known as Rowan University) in New Jersey. 

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How To Write An Essay About Mexico And Its Culture

Have you been assigned to write an essay on Mexico and its culture? Not sure how to go about it? If yes, you’re at the right place at the right time. We’ve put together a few steps to help you create an impressive piece.

Choose a relevant topic.

First thing first, choose a topic for your Mexican essay. Assignmentguru can help with that. Then, decide what is it about Mexico that you would like to discuss. For instance:

• Is it a Mexican friend?
• Is it a trip to Mexico?
• Is it something about that country that inspires you?
• Is it about its people in general?
• Is it about the cultural characteristics of Mexico?
• Is it about Mexican movies?
• Is it about the food?

You could choose any topic for your assignment that allows you to be creative. If you feel stuck and cannot decide on a topic, you can look for interesting argumentative topics online. These topics may not be related to Mexico, but you can alter them accordingly. All in all, you will have to spend some time researching. When you decide on a topic, jot down your ideas and research them. If the topic seems too difficult or boring to write about, it’s time to choose another one. So, never start writing right away when you come up with a topic. Some initial research and brainstorming are a must. Doing so will help you craft a well-structured essay that leaves an impression. It will also help you use authentic evidence that makes a write-up credible. Hence, never underestimate this first step.

Create an outline

No matter what your topic is, make sure you outline your draft. Outlining the draft helps you organize your ideas and develop a cohesive piece. An outline serves as a roadmap for your essay. It enables you to stay on track while writing. If you do not have an outline, you may lose track of your ideas and thoughts while you write. Also, you may not be able to connect your ideas appropriately. Therefore, always create an outline. The outline of your essays about Mexico may include:

• Introduction: Background statement and thesis;
• Body: Key arguments/ideas about Mexican culture and your experience or personal story. And evidence that you’d be using;
• Conclusion: Concluding statement.

This outline will allow you to be clear about what and how to write. So, don’t forget to create an outline for your essay. Also, you can do your research and create an outline side by side. Doing so will help keep track of the ideas and evidence.

Add a personal touch.

To craft an impressive Mexican culture essay, try adding a personal touch. Are you wondering what that means? Well, if you’re writing about a Mexican movie, also mention the feelings and emotions you had while watching it. What impression did you have about Mexico while watching a Mexican character or movie? Or, if you’re writing about a friend, do they have typical Mexican characteristics? Do you like to celebrate their cultural events such as Semana Santa or Day of the Dead? If you love traditional Mexican food, write what it is about that makes you love the food. Tell the reader about its taste and where do you eat it. You can also add a backstory about that food or festival. Whatever you write, don’t forget to add your personal opinion, feelings, or emotions attached to the experience or story. Personalizing your essay makes it sound real and more interesting. But, make sure you make the best use of the language. Choose words that help you show the reader what you’re writing. Your vocabulary and sentence structure mean a lot when crafting a compelling piece. If you can’t develop appropriate ideas and words, you can find online essays for sale at Essayzoo.org. The website has a wide range of essays written by professional writers. So, say goodbye to your stress and anxiety, and choose to take online help if that’s an option.

Make sure your essay is well-structured

Once you’re done writing your draft following your outline, ensure the structure is right. Don’t know how to structure an essay? A standard essay structure has three parts:

• Introduction;
• Conclusion.

Your sections do not have these subheadings. But, the way you structure your paragraphs makes these sections obvious. A well-structured essay is easy to read and understand. And, it has a great chance of impressing the reader.

So, try to develop some good ways to start an essay. For instance:

• A catchy or interesting opening statement;
• A controversy;
• A fun fact.

Also, don’t forget to include a thesis statement in your introduction. This statement contains the central idea of your write-up.

After the introductory paragraph, divide your body into logical sections. Use each idea or argument in a separate paragraph with evidence to back it. For example, if you have three key ideas or arguments, discuss each of them in a separate paragraph. It makes your body of three sections. If you’re writing about a Mexican friend, Netflix series, food, or trip, use three different aspects of it. Discuss each aspect in a separate paragraph and use evidence to support your ideas or thoughts.

Lastly, summarize your key points and finish it off with a food for thought concluding sentence.

Proofread and edit

Once you’re done writing, make sure you read it at least three times. Reading it repeatedly will help you eliminate errors that are easily overlooked. Make sure your draft does not have spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors. Also, ascertain that your paragraphs are well-connected; there is cohesion and cohesiveness. You can only do it if you read your piece line by line carefully several times. Remove any detail that sounds irrelevant or boring. Add anything that you think you have missed. You can also ask a family member or a friend to proofread it for you for better feedback. Their feedback is sure to make your piece better and more impressive. So, alter your draft according to their feedback. It will surely help you get the grades you deserve.

Overall, writing about Mexico and its culture is not that challenging. You need some time for your brainstorming and research session to develop interesting ideas. Once you’re done with that, use those ideas logically. And remember to follow the right structure to craft a well-written piece.

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• Essay on Government

Essay On Mexico

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Government , Christians , Church , Population , Diversity , Mexico , European Union , Spain

Published: 11/13/2019

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Mexico is located to the south of North America. It borders USA to the North, Pacific Ocean to the west, and Guatemala to the Southeast and Belize to the East. The country measures 1,972,550 in square kilometers, making it the 15th country in the world in terms of size. Its main ethnic groups are Indian-Spanish, Indians and Caucasians. The Spanish colonized Mexico for three centuries, starting from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth century. A catholic priest, father Hidalgo first proclaimed Independence on 1810, but was later executed in July 1811 by the Spanish officials (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2010). Jose Maria Morelos, who on Nov. 6, 1812 declared the second independence but was also executed by a firing squad in 1815, replaced him (Reilly, & Jermyn, 2002).

Mexico became officially independent on 1824, with its first president being Guadalupe Victoria. Mexico is a federal republic. It has three arms of governance, the executive that has the chief of state and leader of government business. The legislative arm is bicameral while the judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and other federal legal branches (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2010). Under economics, Mexican currency is the Mexican pesos and its current exchange rate against the dollar is at 11.5975. In addition, the GDP of the country is at $ 1 trillion with a growth rate of 5 %.

On the side of religion, The Roman Catholic holds the largest population of 76.5% of the entire population followed by Protestants at 6. 3% (Vatican, 2000). The rest consist of unspecified religions. Mexico is widely known for its diversity in arts. These range from woodcarvings, pottery, and weaving among others. In addition, there are many notable authors and poets in Mexico; for example, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz is a renowned poet of the seventeenth century who used her work to advocate for women rights. Mexico is also rich in food diversity at which there are numerous available cuisines present around the country (Reilly, & Jermyn, 2002).

The richness in culture, arts and traditions makes Mexico a very special country. In addition, the strong economy has enabled the country to rise above other major competitors in its bid to increase revenues and GDP from the citizens.

Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs. (2010). Background Note: Mexico. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35749.htm Reilly, M., & Jermyn, L. (2002). Mexico. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. Vatican. (2000). Homily Of His Holiness Pope John Paul Ii :Canonization Of 27 New Saints. Retrieved from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20000521_canonizations_en.html#top

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Frida Kahlo: the Birth of an Iconic Artist

This essay about Frida Kahlo highlights her life as an artist who turned personal adversity into iconic art. Born in 1907 in Mexico, Kahlo’s experiences with polio and a tragic bus accident profoundly shaped her work. Her relationship with Diego Rivera, her embrace of Mexican culture, and her defiance of societal norms are central themes. Despite chronic pain, she created powerful, symbolic paintings that resonate globally, making her a lasting symbol of resilience and creativity.

How it works

In the tapestry of art history, few figures weave a story as captivating and poignant as Frida Kahlo. Born amidst the vibrant hues of Mexico’s cultural renaissance on July 6, 1907, in Coyoacán, a suburb of Mexico City, Frida emerged as both a product of her tumultuous times and a revolutionary force in her own right. Her journey from a young girl fascinated by her father’s camera to a global icon of resilience and creativity is a testament to the transformative power of art amidst adversity.

Frida’s early years were steeped in the rich tapestry of Mexican folk culture, where every thread, every color, spoke of a nation in flux—recovering from revolution, yet forging a new identity. Raised by her father Guillermo Kahlo, a photographer capturing Mexico’s soul through his lens, Frida absorbed the essence of her heritage—a blend of indigenous roots and Spanish influences. This cultural melange would later infuse her art with a depth and vibrancy that resonated far beyond her canvas.

At six years old, fate dealt Frida a cruel hand with polio, leaving her right leg visibly thinner, a harbinger of the physical challenges that would define her life. Yet, it was a devastating bus accident at eighteen that marked her fate indelibly. The collision shattered her body, fracturing her spine, pelvis, and ribs, and condemned her to a lifetime of chronic pain and surgeries. It was during the long months of bed rest and recovery that Frida turned inward, confronting her mortality and finding solace in painting—an act that would become her lifeline.

Her art, a reflection of both her physical suffering and her unyielding spirit, defied categorization. Influenced by the surrealists yet rooted firmly in her Mexicanidad, Frida’s paintings exuded a raw honesty and emotional intensity rarely seen before. Her self-portraits, with their unflinching gaze and intricate symbolism drawn from Mexican folklore and mythology, became windows into her soul and testaments to her resilience.

Central to Frida’s narrative was her tumultuous relationship with Diego Rivera, the larger-than-life muralist who captured the revolutionary fervor of post-revolution Mexico on walls across the country. Their love was passionate and tempestuous, marked by infidelities and reconciliations, yet bound by a mutual respect for each other’s artistry. Their marriage provided Frida with both inspiration and heartache, themes she would explore with unflinching honesty in her paintings.

Beyond her personal struggles, Frida Kahlo became a beacon of strength and defiance for generations of women and marginalized communities worldwide. Her iconic Tehuana dresses, adorned with indigenous motifs, and her braided hair crowned with flowers became symbols of her unapologetic embrace of her Mexican identity and feminist ideals. In an era when women’s voices were often silenced, Frida’s art spoke loudly and unapologetically, challenging societal norms and championing the right to self-expression.

As her fame grew, so did Frida’s health struggles. Multiple surgeries and the constant pain of her injuries took a toll, yet she continued to paint, her art evolving with her experiences and emotions. Her final years were marked by declining health, yet her creative fire burned brightly until her death on July 13, 1954, at the age of 47. Frida left behind a legacy that transcends time—a testament to the enduring power of art to transform pain into beauty, suffering into strength.

In the decades since her passing, Frida Kahlo’s legacy has only grown stronger. Her paintings command awe and admiration in museums and galleries worldwide, her image adorns everything from murals to merchandise, and her life story has inspired countless books, films, and artistic tributes. Yet amidst the commercialization of her image, Frida’s art remains a poignant reminder of the human spirit’s resilience and the transformative power of creativity.

Frida Kahlo’s journey—from a girl captivated by her father’s camera to an international icon of art and defiance—is a testament to the enduring power of creativity to transcend adversity and illuminate the human experience. Her life and work continue to resonate with audiences around the globe, inviting us to confront our own pain, celebrate our identities, and find strength in our vulnerabilities. In a world often marked by turmoil and uncertainty, Frida’s legacy shines as a beacon of hope and inspiration—a reminder that art has the power to heal, to provoke, and to change the world.

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Mexican-American War

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 10, 2022 | Original: November 9, 2009

The Mexican-American War of 1846 to 1848 marked the first U.S. armed conflict chiefly fought on foreign soil. It pitted a politically divided and militarily unprepared Mexico against the expansionist-minded administration of U.S. President James K. Polk, who believed the United States had a “Manifest Destiny” to spread across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. A border skirmish along the Rio Grande that started off the fighting was followed by a series of U.S. victories. When the dust cleared, Mexico had lost about one-third of its territory, including nearly all of present-day California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico.

Causes of the Mexican-American War

Texas gained its independence from Mexico in 1836. Initially, the United States declined to incorporate it into the union, largely because northern political interests were against the addition of a new state that supported slavery . The Mexican government was also encouraging border raids and warning that any attempt at annexation would lead to war.

Did you know? Gold was discovered in California just days before Mexico ceded the land to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Nonetheless, annexation procedures were quickly initiated after the 1844 election of Polk, a firm believer in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny , who campaigned that Texas should be “re-annexed” and that the Oregon Territory should be “re-occupied.” Polk also had his eyes on California , New Mexico and the rest of what is today the American Southwest.

When his offer to purchase those lands was rejected, he instigated a fight by moving troops into a disputed zone between the Rio Grande and Nueces River that both countries had previously recognized as part of the Mexican state of Coahuila .

The Mexican-American War Begins

On April 25, 1846, Mexican cavalry attacked a group of U.S. soldiers in the disputed zone under the command of General Zachary Taylor , killing about a dozen. They then laid siege to Fort Texas along the Rio Grande. Taylor called in reinforcements, and—with the help of superior rifles and artillery—was able to defeat the Mexicans at the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma .

Following those battles, Polk told the U.S. Congress that the “cup of forbearance has been exhausted, even before Mexico passed the boundary of the United States, invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon American soil.” Two days later, on May 13, Congress declared war, despite opposition from some northern lawmakers. No official declaration of war ever came from Mexico.

U.S. Army Advances Into Mexico

At that time, only about 75,000 Mexican citizens lived north of the Rio Grande. As a result, U.S. forces led by Col. Stephen Watts Kearny and Commodore Robert Field Stockton were able to conquer those lands with minimal resistance. Taylor likewise had little trouble advancing, and he captured the city of Monterrey in September.

With the losses adding up, Mexico turned to old standby General Antonio López de Santa Anna , the charismatic strongman who had been living in exile in Cuba. Santa Anna convinced Polk that, if allowed to return to Mexico, he would end the war on terms favorable to the United States.

But when Santa Anna arrived, he immediately double-crossed Polk by taking control of the Mexican army and leading it into battle. At the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847, Santa Anna suffered heavy casualties and was forced to withdraw. Despite the loss, he assumed the Mexican presidency the following month.

Meanwhile, U.S. troops led by Gen. Winfield Scott landed in Veracruz and took over the city. They then began marching toward Mexico City, essentially following the same route that Hernán Cortés followed when he invaded the Aztec empire .

The Mexicans resisted at the Battle of Cerro Gordo and elsewhere, but were bested each time. In September 1847, Scott successfully laid siege to Mexico City’s Chapultepec Castle . During that clash, a group of military school cadets–the so-called ni ños héroes –purportedly committed suicide rather than surrender.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 

Guerrilla attacks against U.S. supply lines continued, but for all intents and purposes the war had ended. Santa Anna resigned, and the United States waited for a new government capable of negotiations to form.

Finally, on Feb. 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, establishing the Rio Grande (and not the Nueces River) as the U.S.-Mexican border. Under the treaty, Mexico also recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas, and agreed to sell California and the rest of its territory north of the Rio Grande for $15 million plus the assumption of certain damage claims.

The net gain in U.S. territory after the Mexican-American War was roughly 525,000 square miles, an enormous tract of land—nearly as much as the Louisiana Purchase’s 827,000 square miles—that would forever change the geography, culture and economy of the United States.

Though the war with Mexico was over, the battle over the newly acquired territories—and whether or not slavery would be allowed in those territories—was just beginning. Many of the U.S. officers and soldiers in the Mexican-American War would in just a few years find themselves once again taking up arms, but this time against their own countrymen in the Civil War .

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Guest Essay

Mexico’s Women Are Speaking. Will a Female President Listen?

By Cristina Rivera Garza

Ms. Rivera Garza’s book “Liliana’s Invincible Summer: A Sister’s Search for Justice” is about one of the many women killed by femicide in Mexico.

My mother was born in 1943 in a country where she was not allowed to vote. The Mexican government did not grant women the right to vote in national elections — or the right to hold public office on a national level — until Oct. 17, 1953. Now, almost 71 years later, for the first time two women are leading the race to be Mexico’s next president: Claudia Sheinbaum, who is the front-runner, and Xóchitl Gálvez. It is no small feat for a country with a longstanding and complex relationship with machismo , and where every day some 10 women or girls are killed on average.

And yet this accomplishment has often felt like an afterthought during this historic election. Ms. Sheinbaum, a scientist running on the ticket of the ruling Morena party, and Ms. Gálvez, a businesswoman representing a mix of parties from the political establishment, have nodded at the achievements of feminism and its influence on Mexico’s public life. But they have been cautious about lingering too long on women’s issues in their campaigns, conspicuously tiptoeing around abortion and reproductive rights, seemingly out of deference to conservative voters. Neither candidate has put forth a strong agenda to serve the women who put them where they are today.

For as Mexico descended into its nightmare of generalized violence, from the U.S.-backed war on drugs to the government of Felipe Calderón and the administration of outgoing President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, it has been women — their tireless work, infinite rage and deepening sorrow — who have provided a moral compass to this nation. Women’s mobilizations have grown stronger and louder in the face of government indifference and repression, mounting the only serious opposition against the status quo and making women’s issues and gender justice central to any discussion of our shared future.

To be fair, male candidates have not historically been required to present their agenda for women either. They are seldom even asked about it. But women constitute a little over half of the Mexican electorate; it is imperative that Ms. Sheinbaum and Ms. Gálvez discuss their views and positions on issues that will affect women’s bodies, security and everyday life — not because they are women, but because they are presidential candidates, striving to represent all of us in the highest political office in the country.

On June 2, a woman will almost certainly be given a mandate to govern all of us. She will preside over an electorate that is deeply concerned about insecurity and corruption. The security policy of the current administration — known as “Hugs Not Bullets” — has failed to meaningfully de-escalate the violence unleashed by America’s failed drug policy, a fact painfully brought home by the ever-growing number of disappearances and high rates of gender-related violence. A staggering number of victims’ collectives, made up mostly of the mothers, wives, sisters and daughters of the disappeared, travel the nation with little to no funding or institutional support, sometimes unearthing the remains of their loved ones.

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• What Is Cinema?

The Global Crisis That No Border Crackdown Can Fix

By Dara Lind

Photography by Go Nakamura

T his is what abandonment looks like.

First abandoned by the hope of making a life in their home countries, compelling them to flee. Then left behind by smugglers, who could successfully get them to the United States alive, but whose responsibility for their survival ends abruptly in the desert. Finally, waiting to present themselves to federal agents to start (they hope) the next phase of their lives, many newcomers find that processing is at capacity. They’re stranded before being formally apprehended.

Photojournalist Go Nakamura witnessed desperation and determination in the border deserts of California and Arizona during reporting trips in November, December, and April, and captured how the US-Mexico border has become one site of an ongoing global crisis. The UN’s refugee agency estimates that nearly 40 million refugees and asylum seekers were displaced from their home countries as of April, which would break records set since the organization’s founding in 1950. While most of these people are living in refugee camps or on the margins of society in countries that are often struggling themselves, an increasing number are seeking a new life in America.

Twenty years ago, the typical person crossing the US-Mexico border illegally—the one federal border policy was designed to catch—was a Mexican adult, traveling alone to find under-the-table work. But after the Great Recession, the demographics shifted: more Central Americans, more families, often seeking out border agents to ask for asylum. And in the last half decade, with new smuggling routes and lightning-fast social media word of mouth, it has shifted again. In 2023, the majority of people apprehended by US Border Patrol came from countries other than Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador.

Nakamura’s subjects hail from Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela—part of a broader trend of South American border crossings given the instability in the region over the last decade. But the people Nakamura met are also from China, India, Turkey, Chad, and Morocco. Some flew into South American airports, then traveled northward to the Isthmus of Panama, crossing on foot through the dangerous jungle, a place known as the Darién Gap because it was generally regarded as impassable before migrants started passing through it in large numbers. From there, they continued up to Mexico, a journey that often takes months and carries the constant risk of violence at the hands of smugglers or governments.

These vivid photos depict the moment when the odyssey has seemingly ended—when people have finally arrived in the United States. What greets them: nothing.

The US government’s approach toward border crossings under both parties has been deterrence: trying to prevent people from coming. This strategy has included physical barriers, like fencing or a border wall, in places where it’s easier to cross on foot or by car, leaving the remote desert as the best remaining option. Those who aren’t deterred are simply endangered. According to US statistics, nearly 900 bodies were discovered along the border in fiscal year 2022; when a cause of death could be determined, exposure was the most common factor.

In a way, asylum seekers are more vulnerable to the elements when they choose to wait for Border Patrol agents and turn themselves in. They are putting their well-being at the mercy of a system that has simply no capacity to accommodate them. Some of Nakamura’s photos depict open-air camps that have sprung up as agents make people wait outside for days before they are formally caught. One woman Nakamura spoke to had been waiting for six days. “She was so tired,” he says, “and kept asking ‘When is the border (patrol) coming?’ ” Another man he met gave up and left for San Diego on his own.

Most of them wait not just because they fear finding their own way in the desert, but because turning themselves in to border agents is the essential first step toward the goal of attaining full legal status in the US by receiving asylum.

International agreements developed in the wake of the Holocaust prevent the US from deporting someone to a country in which they are in danger of being persecuted based on their race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a “particular social group.” Federal law sets the same grounds as the basis for claiming asylum, which, if granted, allows the asylee to apply for permanent legal resident status and, after several years, US citizenship. While entering between official border crossings is illegal, it does not disqualify someone for asylum—the law specifically states that no matter how someone arrived on American soil, they have the right to ask the government for protection once here.

This prevents the government from simply expelling asylum seekers without potentially running afoul of the law. Instead, it forces officials to process them—to assess whether they have the right to remain in the US, and in the meantime to hold them in custody or allow them to live in American communities.

Few American citizens, much less border crossers, precisely understand asylum law. While that means plenty of people are put in the queue who don’t have a strong asylum case, it also means others would qualify if they understood what was being asked. Some people come readily equipped with stories about relatives being threatened by their country’s governing political party. Others may say at first they are here to make a living, only to reveal later they lost jobs at home because they opposed their government, which can also be the basis of an asylum claim.

An individual from Africa crosses the border wall through a gap into Lukeville.

As more border crossers have presented themselves for asylum in recent years, the immigration courts assigned to hear their cases have gone from overwhelmed to utterly swamped—most people will wait years before they get a chance to make their case. The federal government attempts to screen asylum claimants, deporting those who are less likely to qualify—and the Biden administration has attempted to tighten this screening—but there are only enough asylum officers to interview a small fraction of asylum seekers.

Some of Nakamura’s subjects were no doubt deported without an asylum hearing, as tens of thousands of people are each month. But most were likely assigned a court date and released from federal custody, given overcrowding at border facilities and a lack of officers to screen their claims. In this new era, border crossers from far-flung countries may not already have relatives or acquaintances in the US who can host and support them (in general, asylum seekers cannot work legally until months after they have filed a formal application with the court). They may only decide where to go based on word of mouth—exacerbating the glut of new arrivals in cities such as Chicago and New York.

People from India and Colombia gather around a fire while waiting to be picked up by the US Border Patrol on April 27, 2024.

The Biden administration, like its predecessors, keeps trying to crack down on those arriving now in hopes of bringing crossing levels down in the future. In June, it instituted an “emergency” border regime that considerably raises the bar for people seeking protection until crossings fall substantially—or the federal courts intervene. But a decade of evidence shows that even the most dramatic crackdown works for only a few months, as people wait to learn how to get in under the new regime. The president can declare that the border is closed, but that doesn’t create a force field in the Arizona desert. Turning those statements into reality runs into the limits of resources (agents, space, and money) and the legal prohibition on deporting people to face persecution. Meanwhile, smugglers respond to every shift in policy, changing locations, timing, and methods. If they cannot drop people off at the border, they can lock them in US-bound tractor trailers.

At the moment they cross into the United States, Nakamura’s subjects are not under the control of either government or smuggler. They are in the no man’s land in which no one is taking responsibility or authority over them. They are waiting for the United States to decide what, exactly, it wants to happen next—a question the country has hardly even asked itself.

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By Kase Wickman

By Bess Levin

Opinion How could a city built on a lake run out of water? Look at Mexico City.

If nature insists on flooding, we flush the water away. Then we get thirsty.

It’s not been two months since I settled in Mexico City, and the water service to my apartment has been cut off at least three times. My mother is thinking about installing a contraption named for the Mexica rain god Tlaloc to capture, filter and store rainwater in a tank in her front yard.

Tanker trucks navigate the streets, carrying water from the slopes to the west to parched buildings all around me. We’re all supposedly bracing for “Day Zero,” when, according to local lore, sometime later this month the city will run entirely out of the stuff.

This is not the city I grew up in.

I wasn’t yet a teen when President Luis Echeverría pushed the button to start the Deep Drainage system, a 40-mile network of humongous tunnels running as far as 200 meters under the surface, built to put an end to the flooding that would regularly lay waste to the city’s poorest neighborhoods in the rainy season.

Mexico City was engineering solutions to fight water at least as far back as the 16th century, when Mexico’s colonial rulers decided to build the seat of their empire atop the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, famously centered on an island upon a system of lakes. These lakes were the end point of a network of rivers draining from the surrounding mountains into the Valley of Mexico.

In pre-Columbian Mexico, the Mexica relied on causeways and levees to keep the main island dry by regulating the water level among the lakes. They developed a system to grow produce on large floating islands called “ chinampas ” to the south. In the rainy season, excess water would drain toward wetlands in the north.

Several hundred years of urban development and population growth messed up the equilibrium. The lakes were drained to recover land for urban use. Land was paved over, reducing the earth’s capacity to absorb water. Pre-Columbian canals and levees were dismantled on the grounds that they retained water within the city limits. The rivers had to go, too — largely intubated in the 1940s under the argument that they carried human waste and disease, but probably also because city planners wanted the riverbeds to carry cars instead.

The growing population of city dwellers needed water, of course. Having engineered an array of defenses to keep water out of the city, urban planners had to get it somewhere else. Largely, they sought it underground. But as more water was pumped out than could be replenished, the earth started to give. The city has been sinking at a rate that has reached some 20 inches per year.

Today, most of the rainwater that falls on Mexico City and its surroundings is expelled through the drainage system. The lake system that once covered almost 600 square miles now covers six . The city draws over twice as much water from its aquifers as is replenished every year. And that’s not enough.

The immediate problem is the “Cutzamala” network of reservoirs, pipelines and water treatment plants that was built in the 1980s and provides about a quarter of the city’s water from dams as far as 100 miles away . Its dams are now at barely above 27 percent of capacity , stressed by a three-year drought.

“Day Zero” is not likely to happen anytime soon since most of the water to the city still comes from underground sources. Still, as climate change brings about longer droughts and the valley’s aquifers are gradually exhausted by over-exploitation, the city could get there in the not-distant future.

There are estimates that every additional hectare of new urbanization reduces the replenishment of underground aquifers by some 660,000 gallons per year . And the city footprint has been expanding at over 3 percent per year. Moreover, land subsidence is cracking pipes to the point that some 40 percent of water is lost to leaks on its way to consumers.

The city water authority estimates demand will grow 28 percent by 2030. By then, over half of users will lack continuous supply, served instead via either daily or weekly deliveries.

I’ve heard proposals about reforestation and the recovery of wetlands — restoring old canals and pulling old rivers out of their pipes to make them rivers again. Rainwater recovery is all the rage. I met a guy who developed a porous pavement to build sidewalks that would allow rainwater to seep through rather than run down the street in a furious river.

There is a stripe of conservationist that wants the city to shrink — “degrow” in the parlance. There are too many of us, the thinking goes, putting too much of a strain on Mother Earth’s resources.

I don’t think we must be fewer, but we must be smarter. Mexico City owes its water shortage to a myopia all too characteristic of the Anthropocene. An unflinching belief in our supremacy over the natural environment precludes honest inquiry into how to relate to the ecosystems in which we settle. We conquer them. If they insist on flooding, we flush the water away.

Then we get thirsty.

How independent will Mexico’s next president be? This controversy gives a hint

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When Claudia Sheinbaum won election in a landslide this month to become Mexico’s next leader, many wondered how independent she would be from her mentor and predecessor, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador.

So far, the answer seems to be not very.

This week Sheinbaum threw her weight behind one of López Obrador’s most controversial proposals, a sweeping overhaul of the judicial system under which all federal judges, including members of the Supreme Court, would be elected by popular vote.

The plan, which critics say would politicize the judiciary and give even more power to the ruling Morena party, has spooked markets, with the peso registering its steepest weekly decline against the dollar since 2020.

López Obrador first proposed the reform in February, after several of his most sought-after initiatives, including major changes to the country’s elections institute, were hamstrung by Supreme Court rulings. He derided the judges on the nation’s highest court as being part of a “power mafia” and said they and other members of the judiciary should be elected just like the president or senators.

For months, the plan appeared dead in the water because his party didn’t have the votes needed in Congress to make the necessary changes in the constitution.

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That changed this month with Morena’s resounding victory in nationwide elections that were widely viewed as a referendum on López Obrador’s six-year term in office.

Sheinbaum, the former mayor of Mexico City and López Obrador’s political protege, beat her nearest competitor by a margin of 32 points. By the time she is sworn in as president on Oct. 1, Morena’s coalition will have a supermajority in the Chamber of Deputies and a simple majority in the Senate. It will control 24 of 32 governorships and boast supermajorities in at least 21 of the 32 state legislatures. The new Congress takes office Sept. 1.

Despite his lame-duck status, López Obrador announced shortly after the election that he would take advantage of Morena’s domination of the new legislature to try to push through the judicial reform before he leaves office. That resulted in the peso losing at least 8% of its value against the dollar.

Sheinbaum, in an effort to calm fears, said early in the week that she supported a series of public forums to debate the reform. “Let there be a very broad discussion throughout the country,” she said.

But on Thursday, she declared that the core of the proposal — that judges be chosen by popular vote — would not change. “My opinion is that judges should be elected,” she said.

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Carlos Bravo Regidor, a professor at the Center for Economic Research and Teaching in Mexico City, said the fact that López Obrador was still dictating the national conversation even though he’s on his way out is an indicator of how he’ll continue to be involved.

López Obrador has repeatedly vowed to retire from political life. “But he is signaling that he’s not really going to go away,” Bravo said.

López Obrador registered Morena as a political party only a decade ago, and it has been largely shaped by his whims and leftist political philosophy. Sheinbaum is aware that she partly owes her career to López Obrador, who plucked the trained climate scientist from academic obscurity to serve as environmental minister of Mexico City years ago.

“She’s really fenced in,” Bravo said.

Critics say the reforms would fundamentally alter the balance of power in Mexico by removing vital checks and balances.

An analysis of the reform carried out by the Inter-American Dialogue, the Stanford Law School Rule of Law Impact Lab and the Mexican Bar Assn. found that the proposals, if approved, “would undermine the foundation of the rule of law in Mexico.”

“These proposals constitute a direct threat to judicial independence,” it said. “They violate international legal standards on the independence, impartiality, and competence of the judiciary.”

Along with changing how judges are chosen, the reform would also reduce their terms, peg their salaries to those of the executive branch and create a judicial disciplinary tribunal whose members are elected by popular vote for terms that coincide with the six-year presidential term.

Most sitting judges, including those on the Supreme Court, would have to conclude their term when newly elected judges were sworn in.

Javier Martin Reyes, a law professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, described the reform as López Obrador’s effort to purge the judiciary of potential roadblocks to Morena initiatives.

“ The only power that they do not control in Mexico is the judiciary,” he said. “This is a weapon to capture this last institutional counterweight.”

Cecilia Sánchez Vidal in The Times’ Mexico City bureau contributed to this report.

More to Read

Opinion: Mexico’s election of Claudia Sheinbaum is historic. But should we be celebrating it?

June 4, 2024

Column: What Mexico’s historic presidential election can teach the U.S.

Analysis: How did Mexico elect a female president before the United States? Not by accident

June 3, 2024

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Kate Linthicum is a foreign correspondent for the Los Angeles Times based in Mexico City.

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Home — Essay Samples — War — Mexican War — Why the U.S. Was Not Justified in Going to War with Mexico

Why The U.s. Was not Justified in Going to War with Mexico

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Published: Sep 12, 2023

Words: 866 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

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Territorial disputes: questionable claims to mexican land, the controversial outbreak of war: polk's role, ethical concerns: the impact on mexico and indigenous peoples.

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Mexico’s election puts Lopez Obrador’s stance on Israel under microscope

As President Lopez Obrador’s tenure ends, advocates reflect on his reticence to speak out against Israel’s war in Gaza.

Mexico City, Mexico – It was a case where the president’s words — and his administration’s actions — did not seem to match.

On Tuesday, the International Court of Justice announced that Mexico had requested to join South Africa’s case accusing the Israeli government of committing genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza.

Keep reading

What does new coalition gov’t mean for south africa’s support of palestine, will india’s modi break the ice with pakistan in his third term, hundreds of thousands in france protest far right ahead of snap elections, what will gov’t of national unity mean for south africa.

But the very next day, Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador, known as AMLO, refused to define Israel’s actions as genocide.

“We don’t want to put ourselves into a definition of this type that, instead of resolving a conflict, aggravates it,” he said in his morning news conference.

It was the latest evidence of Lopez Obrador’s ambiguous, somewhat contradictory stance towards Israel and its war in Gaza, which is nearing its eighth month.

Lopez Obrador and his legacy in office have been under the microscope in recent months, as his political party — the National Regeneration Movement or Morena — prepares for a pivotal nationwide vote .

This Sunday, Mexico holds its largest election in history, with every seat in Congress and the presidency at stake. The vote is considered a referendum on Lopez Obrador’s outgoing administration, which enjoyed high popularity during its six years in office.

But critics have questioned what the legacy of his foreign policy will be — and whether his likely successor, Morena party candidate Claudia Sheinbaum , will carry on his ambivalent relationship towards Israel.

Bucking the ‘pink tide’

The left-leaning Lopez Obrador was elected in 2018 amid a tide of discontent.

Voters rejected the governing Institutional Revolutionary Party in a landslide, leading to a historic margin of victory for Lopez Obrador and his Morena party.

His election heralded a period of equally historic wins for left-leaning leaders across Latin America.

In the years that followed, Chile elected the progressive Gabriel Boric, its youngest president ever. In Colombia, meanwhile, Gustavo Petro became the first left-wing leader to win the modern presidency.

And in Brazil, the prominent left-wing leader Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva nabbed his third term in office, after a gap of more than a decade.

Critics have dubbed the election streak as a new “pink tide”, ushering in a generation of like-minded leaders. But when it comes to Israel, Mexico’s Lopez Obrador has broken the mould.

After the war erupted on October 7, much of the so-called “pink tide” spoke out against the spiralling death toll in Gaza.

Boric condemned Israel’s military offensive as “disproportionate”. Others went further: Lula recalled Brazil’s ambassador to Israel on Wednesday, and Petro cut diplomatic ties altogether in May.

However, their ally in Mexico has not followed suit with his own full-throated criticism.

Observers have said Lopez Obrador has instead sought to strike a middle ground, a stance that has failed to please both Israeli officials and Palestinian rights supporters.

On October 9, for instance, the Mexican president offered his support to Israel, but refused to condone the violence unfolding against Palestinians in Gaza.

“We respect the Israeli government and even more the Israeli people,” he said. “Mexico does not want war. We are pacifists, and we do not want anyone to lose their lives, whether they be Israeli or Palestinian.”

That equivocation earned a furious response from Israel’s ambassador to Mexico, Einat Kranz Neiger, who retorted in a media interview, “Not taking sides is supporting terror.”

Lopez Obrador also faced pressure from pro-Palestinian advocates. Still, a few weeks later, he doubled down, ruling out any possibility of taking a firm stance.

“We – and I want to be very clear when I say this – are not going to break relations with Israel or take a position beyond calling for peace,” López Obrador said at a news conference on November 7.

Response rooted in contradiction

Témoris Grecko, a journalist covering the war in Gaza, has spent two decades reporting on the Middle East for the Mexican newspaper Milenio and other publications.

He too has noticed a more muted reaction from the normally outspoken Lopez Obrador. “The pace has been really slow,” he said of the administration’s response.

Grecko was on the ground in the West Bank to report on the conflict in the weeks after Hamas attacked southern Israel, killing an estimated 1,139 people and taking nearly 250 captive.

Israel’s months-long counter-offensive, however, has killed more than 36,000 Palestinians in Gaza, nearly half of them children. Human rights experts have raised concerns about the “risk of genocide” and “full-blown famine”.

In Grecko’s opinion, Mexico’s reticence to join other left-leaning governments in condemning Israel hints at the weight of the military and commercial contracts between the two countries.

“Always, the public position of Mexico has been in favour of Palestine, but there’s a contradiction,” Grecko said, pointing to Mexico’s economic and military interests.

“Mexico buys products from Israel, like arms and spyware, and there are contracts for Israeli organisations to train police and private security as well,” Grecko explained. “And there is a Mexican company, Cemex, that provided raw materials for a wall in Israel.”

Israel is the second-largest supplier of technology and training for the Mexican military. Grecko said that while the pro-Israel lobby in the United States may be internationally renowned, similar interests exist in Mexico, too.

“There are lobbying forces, which may not be as loud or visible as in the United States, but you can feel them,” Grecko said.

Outside the presidential palace

Nevertheless, Lopez Obrador has also faced protests from pro-Palestinian voices who seek to push him to take action.

Cutting off diplomatic relations with Israel is the primary demand of university students at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico in Mexico City, who launched a solidarity encampment on their campus in May.

After the university’s administration agreed to consider methods to divest from Israel, the encampment relocated to the city’s central plaza, the Zocalo, in front of the national palace.

Carla Torres, one of the organisers of the encampment, said Lopez Obrador’s refusal to cut ties with Israel is an example of Mexico’s long history of lukewarm, neutral or outright isolationist responses to international conflicts.

But in her opinion, Mexico’s love-hate relationship with its northern neighbour, the US, is the primary reason the president has not denounced Israel more forcefully.

“Mexico is a subordinate nation,” she said, citing its dependence on the US, its largest trading partner and a key ally to Israel. The US provides $3.8bn in unconditional military aid to Israel every year.

The encampment has not been the only act of protest. On May 29, four days before Mexico’s nationwide election, several hundred rioters threw Molotov cocktails at the Israeli embassy in Mexico City.

Minor damage to the building was reported, as protesters sought to show their outrage over Israel’s attacks in the southern Gaza city of Rafah, where many civilians have been displaced.

For Torres, these acts of protest are a potent tool for educating the public about the conflict – and encouraging the government to end its “all talk, no action” posture.

She and the team from the UNAM have passed out pamphlets in the Zocalo plaza, trying to engage passersby in conversations about the war. Torres told Al Jazeera that, in her experience, many of the Mexicans she met in the square knew little about the conflict.

Passing the baton

For Edith Olivares Ferreto, the director of Amnesty International’s Mexico section, Lopez Obrador’s tiptoed posture on Gaza mirrors the way he responds to human rights abuses on his home turf.

“An estimated 20 people disappear in Mexico every day, and nine women are murdered,” she said, listing problems like increased violence and military abuses that have unfolded under the Lopez Obrador presidency.

Lopez Obrador is expected to soon pass the baton to his Morena party colleague Claudia Sheinbaum , the frontrunner in Sunday’s race for the presidency. Mexican election law bars previous presidents from running for a second term.

Still, Olivares Ferreto expects that, under Sheinbaum, little will change — whether in human rights or international relations.

Torres and Grecko offered similar observations in interviews with Al Jazeera, predicting a Sheinbaum presidency will likely see her prioritise relationships with the military, Israel and the US over any pro-Palestinian stance.

“She has different origins, a background with more participation in protest movements, but she could be even more authoritarian than AMLO,” Torres said.

Nevertheless, Sheinbaum has spoken out about the Palestinian plight. In 2009, Sheinbaum wrote a newspaper op-ed calling for Palestinian liberation and reflecting on her own family’s history of escaping persecution.

If elected on Sunday, she stands to be the first Mexican president of Jewish heritage.

“Because of my Jewish origin, because of my love for Mexico and because I feel like a citizen of the world, I share with millions the desire for justice, equality, fraternity and peace,” Sheinbaum explained in the op-ed. “No reason justifies the murder of Palestinian civilians.”

A bitter legacy

For human rights advocate Eduardo Ibanez, however, the prospect of cutting ties with Israel is particularly complex.

Ibanez works as an organiser assisting the families of 43 students from the Ayotzinapa Rural Teachers’ College who disappeared in 2014, prompting nationwide outrage.

Both the Mexican military and criminal groups have been implicated in the mass kidnapping, which has yet to be solved. Decades later, forensic specialists have only managed to identify the partial remains of three students.

Lopez Obrador had campaigned for office on the promise of providing answers to the families of the missing students — but Ibanez points out that any rupture in Mexico-Israel bonds could potentially endanger the pursuit of justice.

A Mexican military official named Tomas Zeron fled to Israel in 2020, after being accused of covering up the military’s complicity in the Ayotzinapa case. Zeron also faces charges after being caught on tape torturing suspects during the initial Ayotzinapa investigation.

In the years since, Mexico and Israel have participated in unsuccessful talks to extradite Zeron. Ibanez fears that negotiations would surely end if Mexico were to cut off diplomatic ties.

Just last April, Mexico warned Israel about its refusal to arrest Zeron.

“The lack of progress in resolving this case is interpreted as de facto protection of Tomas Zeron by the Israeli government and threatens to become an irritating and disruptive factor,” the Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs wrote in a statement.

Still, Ibanez suspects progress will ultimately be made in neither case – not for Ayotzinapa, not for Gaza.

“Poor Palestine, poor Ayotzinapa. I really don’t think anything is going to get better,” he said.