historical ethnographic case study phenomenological and grounded theory

5 Types of Qualitative Methods

But just as with quantitative methods, there are actually many varieties of qualitative methods.

Similar to the way you can group usability testing methods , there are also a number of ways to segment qualitative methods.

A popular and helpful categorization separate qualitative methods into five groups: ethnography, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study. John Creswell outlines these five methods in Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design .

While the five methods generally use similar data collection techniques (observation, interviews, and reviewing text), the purpose of the study differentiates them—something similar with different types of usability tests . And like classifying different usability studies, the differences between the methods can be a bit blurry. Here are the five qualitative methods in more detail.

1. Ethnography

Ethnographic research is probably the most familiar and applicable type of qualitative method to UX professionals. In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the target participants’ environment to understand the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and themes that emerge. Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology where researchers immerse themselves within a culture, often for years! Rather than relying on interviews or surveys, you experience the environment first hand, and sometimes as a “participant observer.”

For example, one way of uncovering the unmet needs of customers is to “ follow them home ” and observe them as they interact with the product. You don’t come armed with any hypotheses to necessarily test; rather, you’re looking to find out how a product is used.

2. Narrative

The narrative approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals to form a cohesive story. You conduct in-depth interviews, read documents, and look for themes; in other words, how does an individual story illustrate the larger life influences that created it. Often interviews are conducted over weeks, months, or even years, but the final narrative doesn’t need to be in chronological order. Rather it can be presented as a story (or narrative) with themes, and can reconcile conflicting stories and highlight tensions and challenges which can be opportunities for innovation.

For example, a narrative approach can be an appropriate method for building a persona . While a persona should be built using a mix of methods—including segmentation analysis from surveys—in-depth interviews with individuals in an identified persona can provide the details that help describe the culture, whether it’s a person living with Multiple Sclerosis, a prospective student applying for college, or a working mom.

3. Phenomenological

When you want to describe an event, activity, or phenomenon, the aptly named phenomenological study is an appropriate qualitative method. In a phenomenological study, you use a combination of methods, such as conducting interviews, reading documents, watching videos, or visiting places and events, to understand the meaning participants place on whatever’s being examined. You rely on the participants’ own perspectives to provide insight into their motivations.

Like other qualitative methods, you don’t start with a well-formed hypothesis. In a phenomenological study, you often conduct a lot of interviews, usually between 5 and 25 for common themes , to build a sufficient dataset to look for emerging themes and to use other participants to validate your findings.

For example, there’s been an explosion in the last 5 years in online courses and training. But how do students engage with these courses? While you can examine time spent and content accessed using log data and even assess student achievement vis-a-vis in-person courses, a phenomenological study would aim to better understand the students experience and how that may impact comprehension of the material.

4. Grounded Theory

Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence of an activity or event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events. You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory based on the data. You go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to identify themes and build the theory. Sample sizes are often also larger—between 20 to 60—with these studies to better establish a theory. Grounded theory can help inform design decisions by better understanding how a community of users currently use a product or perform tasks.

For example, a grounded theory study could involve understanding how software developers use portals to communicate and write code or how small retail merchants approve or decline customers for credit.

5. Case Study

Made famous by the Harvard Business School, even mainly quantitative researchers can relate to the value of the case study in explaining an organization, entity, company, or event. A case study involves a deep understanding through multiple types of data sources. Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event. The annual CHI conference has a peer-reviewed track dedicated to case studies.

For example, a case study of how a large multi-national company introduced UX methods into an agile development environment would be informative to many organizations.

The table below summarizes the differences between the five qualitative methods.

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10 Additional Qualitative Approaches: Ethnography, Grounded Theory, Narrative, and Phenomenology

• Published: February 2023
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This chapter introduces four approaches to inquiry—grounded theory, narrative, phenomenology, and ethnography—that, together with case study, comprise five primary qualitative research designs. The purpose of grounded theory is to develop a unified theoretical explanation for a process, action, or interaction. The theory is “grounded” in data generated with participants who have experienced that process, as opposed to being adopted from existing literature. “Stories lived and told” are the focal point of narrative inquiry. Inquirers elicit, interpret, and report detailed stories of individuals’ life experiences in order to illuminate phenomena or raise questions for readers’ consideration. In phenomenological research, the study’s central phenomenon will be some kind of human experience, such as grief or enjoyment. Analysis focuses on identifying the essence of that phenomenon for individuals who have experienced it. In ethnography, the researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of a culture-sharing group. The product of inquiry is a rich, complex description of the culture-sharing group at the heart of the study. Exemplar studies drawn from music education illustrate the common types and key features of each design.

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Narrative Inquiry, Phenomenology, and Grounded Theory in Qualitative Research

• First Online: 27 October 2022

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• Rabiul Islam 4 &
• Md. Sayeed Akhter 5  

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Narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory are the basic types of qualitative research. This chapter discusses the three major types of qualitative research—narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Firstly, this chapter briefly discusses the issue of qualitative research and types. Secondly, it offers a conceptual understanding of narrative inquiry, phenomenology, and grounded theory including their basic characteristics. Finally, the chapter provides an outline of how these three types of qualitative research are applied in the field.

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Grounded Theory

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Islam, R., Sayeed Akhter, M. (2022). Narrative Inquiry, Phenomenology, and Grounded Theory in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_8

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European Journal of Marketing

ISSN : 0309-0566

Article publication date: 1 March 2005

The paper aims to look at some of the problems commonly associated with qualitative methodologies, suggesting that there is a need for a more rigorous application in order to develop theory and aid effective decision making.

Design/methodology/approach

The paper examines three qualitative methodologies: grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. It compares and contrasts their approaches to data collection and interpretation and highlights some of the strengths and weaknesses associated with each one.

The paper suggests that, while qualitative methodologies, as opposed to qualitative methods, are now an accepted feature of consumer research, their application in the truest sense is still in its infancy within the broader field of marketing. It proposes a number of possible contexts that may benefit from in‐depth qualitative enquiry.

Originality/value

The paper should be of interest to marketers considering adopting a qualitative perspective, possibly for the first time, as it offers a snap‐shot of three widely‐used methodologies, their associated procedures and potential pitfalls.

• Marketing theory
• Ethnography
• Qualitative research

Goulding, C. (2005), "Grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology: A comparative analysis of three qualitative strategies for marketing research", European Journal of Marketing , Vol. 39 No. 3/4, pp. 294-308. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560510581782

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• DOI: 10.1108/03090560510581782
• Corpus ID: 262722972

Grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology: A comparative analysis of three qualitative strategies for marketing research

• Christina Goulding
• Published 1 March 2005
• Business, Sociology
• European Journal of Marketing

248 Citations

Grounded theory: help or hindrance for consumer behaviour, saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization, practices and experiences: challenges and opportunities for value research, misused and missed use — grounded theory and objective hermeneutics as methods for research in industrial marketing, to leeds beckett repository record:, the ethno/graphic novel: alternative shapes of knowledge and hyper-intensity in consumer research, a case of mistaken identity: theory, practice and the marketing textbook, a grounded theory study of decision-making within informal work environments, limiting misleading ideas about the history of grounded theory methodology, understanding drivers and barriers affecting tourists’ engagement in digitally mediated pro-sustainability boycotts, 93 references, grounded theory: the missing methodology on the interpretivist agenda, ethnographic evidence, some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: one way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory, ethnography and grounded theory: a happy marriage, consumer research, interpretive paradigms and methodological ambiguities, market-oriented ethnography: interpretation building and marketing strategy formulation, handbook of qualitative research, method slurring: the grounded theory/phenomenology example., irony and ethnography: on cultural analysis of one's own culture, lifestyle as a generic concept in ethnographic research, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Qualitative study design: Grounded theory

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology

Grounded theory

• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

Theory development.

Grounded theory proposes that careful observation of the social world can lead to the construction of theory (Rice & Ezzy, 1999). It is iterative and evolving, aiming to construct new theory from collected data that accounts for those data. It is also known as the “grounded theory method”, although the terms have become interchangeable (Bryant & Charmaz, 2007).

Grounded theory characteristics include:

• Data collection and analysis occurring simultaneously, with one informing the other.
• Data grouped into concepts, categories and themes.
• A data collection process influenced by the simultaneous development of those concepts, categories and themes.

Notably, data collection is cyclical and reflective. This is different from the more linear processes occurring in other methodologies.

Theoretical sampling is a key aspect of the sampling stage of grounded theory. Recruitment continues until the sample finally represents all aspects that make up the theory the data represent (Starks & Brown Trinidad, 2007). Participants are recruited based on their different experiences of a phenomenon.

Researchers collect participant data using these methods:

• Examination of documents
• Focus groups and interviews

Focus groups and interviews are typically being more practical in health research than observation (Starks & Brown Trinidad, 2007).

After the initial phase of data collection, researchers repeat the following cycle of steps:

Researchers’ developing understanding of the concepts, categories and relationships informs their actions at each step. These elements result in a theoretical framework explaining the data. 

This cycle reflects two crucial components of grounded theory:

• The process of coding, sorting and organising data. This aims to increasingly move towards more abstract terms in order to develop a related theory for the data
• The principle of constant comparison. This refers to the process of noting issues of interest in data and comparing them to other examples to identify similarities and differences.
• Widely used across a wide range of disciplines (Bryant & Charmaz, 2007).  
• Facilitates theory construction and the construction of fresh concepts. It also avoids assuming structures are stable (Charmaz, 2017). 
• Useful for when researchers wish to explain a process, not to test an existing theory. 

Limitations

• Inherently not useful for the application of received theory. 
• Not useful for testing hypotheses. 
• Analysis of data involves elements of researcher’s own subjective judgement.

Example questions

• How do perioperative nurses foster a culture of safety and risk aversion? 
• What is the impact of hand nerve disorders on a person’s function, activity and participation? 
• What are the barriers to health care access for a refugee population? 

Example studies

Attree, M. (2001). Patients' and relatives' experiences and perspectives of 'Good' and 'Not so Good' quality care . J Adv Nurs , 33(4), 456-466. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01689.x 

Lingard, L., Reznick, R., Espin, S., Regehr, G., & DeVito, I. (2002). Team communications in the operating room: talk patterns, sites of tension, and implications for novices . Acad Med , 77(3), 232-237. doi: 10.1097/00001888-200203000-00013 

Pettersson, S., Ekstrom, M. P., & Berg, C. M. (2013). Practices of weight regulation among elite athletes in combat sports: a matter of mental advantage? J Athl Train , 48(1), 99-108. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-48.1.04 

Bryant, A., & Charmaz, K. (2007). The SAGE handbook of grounded theory : SAGE Publications Ltd.

Charmaz, K. (2017). An introduction to grounded theory : SAGE Publications Ltd. 

Lingard, L., Albert, M., & Levinson, W. (2008). Grounded theory, mixed methods, and action research . BMJ , 337, a567. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39602.690162.47 

Rice, P. L., & Ezzy, D. (1999). Qualitative research methods: a health focus . South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. 

Starks, H., & Brown Trinidad, S. (2007). Choose Your Method: A Comparison of Phenomenology, Discourse Analysis, and Grounded Theory . Qualitative Health Research , 17(10), 1372-1380. doi: 10.1177/1049732307307031   

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Observation in Grounded Theory and Ethnography: What are the Differences?

Tahereh fathi najafi.

1 PhD Student in Reproductive Health, Student Research Committee, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran

Robab Latifnejad Roudsari

2 Associated Professor, Evidence-Based Care Research Centre, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran

Hossein Ebrahimipour

3 Associate Professor in Health Services Management, Management and Social Determinant of Health Research Center, School of Health, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Department of Health Care Management

Narjes Bahri

Dear Editor,

Concurrently with the development of qualitative research methods, the tools of data collection have also greatly developed. Observation along with an interview helps researchers to understand the participants’ experiences in more depth. The observation means applying eyes more than ears and tongue through the data collection process. It is also a practice for better understanding of the facts and their relationship to each other, which is achieved by the use of all five senses ( 1 ).

The observation in qualitative research differs from observation in daily routines ( 2 ). Daily observation is just limited to people’s visual sense, but observation in qualitative research is the use of all senses to better understand the phenomenon ( 2 ). A qualitative researcher is looking for an answer to these two questions: "What do people do" and "why do they do it?". Also careful observation is a very useful method used to understand the hidden meanings of a phenomenon ( 2 ).

Grounded theory and ethnography are two research methodologies which use observation as data collection tool. However, there are differences in the focus of observation in these two methodologies. The objective of this paper is to discuss the differences between the focus of observation in grounded theory and ethnography. Grounded theory allows the researcher to explore the process of the occurrence of a social process in a particular context and is used in order to study the social processes in human interactions, the structure, and the process that led to it. The widespread use of grounded theory in explaining the social processes is related to its underlying philosophical perspective, which is a symbolic interaction ( 3 ). Apparently, observation in ethnography is like as grounded theory and the other qualitative studies but ethnography observers have more holistic views. In a way, Charmaz believes that the observer in the grounded theory, according to the objectives of the research, discusses the details of only one aspect of the research, whereas the observer in the ethnographies examines the details of all the aspects available, therefore, she believes that the observation in grounded theory has a narrower lens than in ethnographies ( 4 ).

While sociology scholars emphasize on the role of culture in shaping human behavior, researchers who adopt symbolic interactionism prefer to observe human behavior in present and changeable circumstances and consider it as an active issue ( 5 ). Therefore, the dynamic approach in dealing with symbolic interactionism and the static approach in ethnographies separate the path of these two ( 2 ).

Furthermore, due to the research method being convergent, by focusing on actions-interactions in the grounded theory studies and interactions in ethnographic approaches, it can be acknowledged that these two methods are different ( 6 ). In the grounded theory, the researcher relies more on the phenomenon and the process and revolves all field notes around these two issues, which results to the researchers concepts becoming senses of actions and interactions. He also moves from setting the process details, but in ethnography the focus is more on the social setting ( 7 ). On the other hand, the approach of ethnography is often in a way that focuses on issues such as religious beliefs and networks of kinship or culture in specific communities and pays more attention to structure than process; therefore, it deals with observation with respect to the purpose and the title of the research ( 8 ). However, field notes in ethnography describe the research subject as an object, without considering the available process which is incorporated in it ( 9 , 10 ).

Moving from data to the analysis and back enables the researcher to get a full mastery over the data and prevents the researcher from dodging in the data analysis. Moreover, this helps the theoretical purity of the output of the study to be increased, however the lack of a two-way path for observation in the ethnographic studies only increases the amount of data, which sometimes may lead to confusion of the novice researchers because it has not been as focused on as an observation in the grounded theory studies ( 11 ).

Sometimes the mass of data with no relationship to each other is a common problem in ethnographic observations ( 4 ). However, the observation of grounded theory, due to explaining the process incorporated in the phenomenon, creates a comprehensive picture and leads the observer to shift from the state of being completely inactive, which exists in ethnographical observation, towards the desired scene and the scenes surrounding it, and with a very careful observation through scrutinizing the evolution of social processes, actively ( 4 ). Charmaz states that researchers have faced a dilemma trying to identify the knowledge and enhance the understanding of the phenomenon, one way is around the subject and the other is the entrance way ( 4 ). She believes that the ethnographers choose the second option, and the grounded theorists, initially conduct their study around the subject to get a complete picture of the phenomenon from outside. Then in order to proceed they may enter the second option. However, they eventually will be able to provide a comprehensive picture of the phenomenon from different perspectives and views ( 4 ). Table 1 showed some differences.

Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest exists.

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Grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology: A comparative analysis of three qualitative strategies for marketing research

2005, European Journal of Marketing

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There has been considerable discussion in recent years over the application of interpretive methodologies such as phenomenology, hermeneutics, and semiotics within the field of marketing research, particularly consumer behaviour. However, while these approaches have inspired a wealth of publications, scant attention has been paid to the potential of grounded theory. This is attributed largely to misconceptions regarding both the principles of the method and the two distinct approaches associated with the original authors, Glaser and Strauss (1967). The paper outlines the development of the method and explicates the philosophy underpinning its procedures. Finally, it suggests that grounded theory if applied in its true sense has scope and potential for the study of consumer behaviour and consumption experiences given its emphasis on context, theoretical emergence, and the social construction of realities.

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The purpose of this article is to compare two qualitative approaches that can be used in different researches: phenomenology and grounded theory. This overview is done to (1) summarize similarities and differences between these two approaches, with attention to their historical development, goals, methods, audience, and products (2) familiarize the researchers with the origins and details of these approaches in the way that they can make better matches between their research question(s) and the goals and products of the study (3) discuss a brief outline of each methodology along with their origin, essence and procedural steps undertaken (4) illustrate how the procedures of data analysis (coding), theoretical memoing and sampling are applied to systematically generate a grounded theory (5) briefly examine the major challenges for utilizing two approaches in grounded theory, the Glaserian and Straussian. As a conclusion, this overview reveals that it is essential to ensure that the me...

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Interviews are the most pervasive means of collecting data in qualitative research projects. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how the practice of conducting interviews has evolved within consumer and marketing research and to offer insights for those who would like to gather qualitative data via interviews. To do so, we first identify and differentiate two broad perspectives on qualitative marketing and consumer research: the phenomenological approach and the post-structuralist approach. We then develop a step by step guideline on how to conceive, conduct, and analyze interviews under both approaches. As much as the paper provides a useful toolkit to researchers with initial and intermediate degrees of intimacy with qualitative methods, it also contributes to the mapping of important ongoing paradigmatic discussions in the field of qualitative marketing and consumer research. A entrevista é a forma mais prevalente de coleta de dados em projetos de pesquisa qualitativa. Este artigo tem o objetivo de discutir como a prática da realização de entrevistas vem evoluindo na pesquisa de marketing e do consumidor, além de oferecer um guia para pesquisadores que pretendem coletar dados qualitativos via entrevistas. Para tanto, nós inicialmente identificamos e discutimos duas perspectivas qualitativas na pesquisa de marketing e do consumidor: a abordagem fenomenológica e a abordagem pós-estruturalista. Em seguida, desenvolvemos um guia com diferentes etapas para a concepção, condução e análise de entrevistas qualitativas nas duas abordagens. Além de oferecer uma ferramenta de utilidade para os pesquisadores com níveis iniciais e intermediários de intimidade com a pesquisa qualitativa, o artigo também contribui com o mapeamento das importantes discussões correntes no campo da pesquisa qualitativa de marketing e do consumidor.

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