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• A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples

A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples

Published on 28 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) is a referencing style used by students and academics in law.

OSCOLA referencing places citations in footnotes, which are marked in the text with footnote numbers:

The judge referred to the precedent established by Caulfield v Baldwin . 1

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Table of contents

Citing sources with oscola footnotes, oscola referencing examples, oscola tables and bibliography.

A citation footnote appears whenever you quote from, paraphrase or otherwise refer to the content of a source in your text.

A footnote is marked in the text with a footnote number, which appears at the end of the relevant sentence or clause. The number is displayed in superscript (i.e. 1) and appears after any punctuation like a comma or full stop:

These footnotes contain full information on the source cited. The format in which you present this information varies according to the type of source; examples are presented in the following section. A footnote always ends with a full stop:

Standard abbreviations

To save space in OSCOLA citations, abbreviations are used for the names of various publications and legal bodies.

For example, ‘UKSC’ is the United Kingdom Supreme Court, and ‘Cr App R’ refers to the Criminal Appeal Reports.

A full, searchable index of these abbreviations can be found here .

Pinpointing

In OSCOLA referencing, referring to a specific page number within a source is called pinpointing. To pinpoint, simply include a page number at the end of your reference, in addition to any page numbers already included.

For example, in the following citation, the first number refers to the page on which the report begins , while the second number pinpoints the passage you’re referring to :

Where available, paragraph numbers should be used instead of page numbers. Only do this if paragraph numbers are explicitly used in the text. Paragraph numbers appear in square brackets and can be used for pinpointing in the same way as page numbers:

Note that if you’re pinpointing a judge’s comments within a case report, you include the name of the judge, and some special terms and abbreviations are used in the citation and in the text.

If the judge is a peer, refer to them as ‘Lord’, e.g. Lord Williams. If they are a Lord/Lady Justice, use ‘LJ’, e.g. Williams LJ. If neither of these is the case, use ‘J’ for judge, e.g. Williams J:

Cross-referencing repeated citations of the same source

OSCOLA uses a system of cross-referencing to save space when you repeatedly cite the same source. This means that for subsequent references of a source, you don’t have to repeat the full citation.

When you refer to the same source you have just referred to (i.e. when the previous footnote was also about that source), you can simply use ‘ibid’ (Latin for ‘in the same place’):

In this example, the second footnote also refers to Davis v Dignam, but to page 522 instead of page 519.

When the previous reference to the source was in an earlier footnote (i.e. when other citations appear in between), use the author’s last name or the title (shortened if it’s a longer title), followed by the number of the previous citation (in brackets and preceded by ‘n’), then the page number you’re pinpointing (if different than the first citation):

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OSCOLA provides formats for a variety of source types. The most common ones are covered below.

Case reports

When citing a case, you’ll usually begin with a neutral citation – a way of referring to the case that does not relate to a particular report – and then give the details of the report afterwards. If no neutral citation exists, as with cases before 2002, you can just begin with the report.

Additionally, note that the year (for the report) is displayed differently depending on whether it is essential to the citation. For reports where each year is also identified with a volume number, the year appears in normal brackets. For those where multiple volumes appear in one year, the year appears in square brackets.

• Case report with neutral citation
• Case report with no neutral citation

Acts of Parliament

Use a short version of the title if the full title is longer than three words. If necessary, refer to specific parts of an Act of Parliament using section, subsection and paragraph numbers.

Statutory instruments

Statutory instruments (SIs) are numbered consecutively throughout the year; it’s this number that appears at the end of the citation – the example below is the 149th SI of 2020.

House of Commons bills are cited slightly differently from House of Lords bills. You write ‘HC Bill’ or ‘HL Bill’ depending upon which house it is, and bill numbers for Commons bills appear in square brackets.

• House of Commons bill
• House of Lords bill

Hansard is the official transcript of parliamentary debates in the UK. As with bills, write ‘HC’ for the House of Commons and ‘HL’ for the House of Lords. ‘Deb’ is short for ‘debate’, ‘vol’ for volume, and ‘col’ for column.

Use the full name of the author(s) as written in the source. List the edition (abbreviated to ‘edn’) when it is stated on the title page. Note that OSCOLA recommends abbreviating ‘Oxford University Press’ to ‘OUP’; this is not the case with other publishers.

Certain older books are listed by OSCOLA as ‘works of authority’ and given special abbreviated citations. For example, the following is a citation of volume 3, page 75 of Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England :

OSCOLA provides a list of these abbreviations in their full guide , section 4.2.3.

Journal articles

As with case reports, square brackets are used for years in a journal citation if the year also identifies the volume; normal brackets are used when there are multiple volumes in a year.

Note that standard abbreviations are also used for journal names; here ‘MLR’ refers to Modern Law Review.

In a longer work, such as a thesis or dissertation , OSCOLA requires you to include tables listing any cases and legislation you cited, as well as a bibliography listing any secondary sources . For shorter essays, this is usually not necessary, but do check your institution’s guidelines.

The tables and bibliography appear at the end of your text. The table of cases comes first, followed by the table of legislation, and then the bibliography.

Sources are listed in alphabetical order within each table and in the bibliography.

Table of cases

Cases are written in a similar format here and in the main text; the only difference is the names of the parties involved are not italicised in the table of cases:

Table of legislation

The table of legislation includes all legal sources used other than cases – for example, bills, Acts of Parliament and SIs. Items in the table of legislation are listed in identical form to how they are cited in the text.

Bibliography

A bibliography lists all your secondary sources – that is, everything other than cases and legislation. For example, here you would list Hansard , any books and journal articles cited, and other sources such as blogs, social media and newspapers.

Bibliography entries differ from citations in terms of their presentation of the author’s name. Author names in the bibliography are inverted, and initials are used in place of the first name:

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Caulfield, J. (2022, May 05). A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 12 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/oscola/

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• Subject Guides

Referencing styles - a Practical Guide

Oscola referencing style.

Used by: the York Law School

Introduction to OSCOLA referencing style

The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) was developed at Oxford University, and is widely used by law schools and publishers to acknowledge source information.

In-text citations & footnotes

OSCOLA uses a footnote citation system.

In the text, a number in superscript 1  is added at the end of a sentence and after the punctuation. 

The reference is then given in the footnote at the bottom of the page.

Where you cite an author of a secondary source their name should appear as it does on the publication with first name/ initials before surname.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 1.1 and 1.2

Bibliography

The bibliography at the end of the document includes the full details of each source so the reader can find them themselves. The list is organised by type of source, and then alphabetically. See below for more details on organising the bibliography.

The information to include depends on the types of source - see the examples.

Useful resources

• OSCOLA Referencing style A downloadable version of this OSCOLA style guide, with some extra details
• OSCOLA Quick Reference Guide A handy 1 page summary of OSCOLA style
• OSCOLA 4th Edition The full OSCOLA Standard
• OSCOLA for international law Details for citing international law sources

Guidance for all source types

Citing a source multiple times in the same document.

For a case, cite in full the first time. For further references to the case, use a short form of the case name and a cross-citation in brackets to the original footnote. If the case name is included in the text, omit it in the footnote.

If the subsequent citation is directly after the full citation, simply use the term ‘ibid’. If pinpointing specific paragraphs, place these in square brackets.

When referring to a previous citation a number of footnotes back, use the short version of the case and add n as an abbreviation signposting the number of the footnote

For subsequent citation of legislation, abbreviations are acceptable. For subsequent citation of secondary sources, you only need the author’s surname.

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 1.2

Citing multiple sources in the same footnote

For  multiple references  within one footnote use semi-colons to distinguish between them and put them in chronological order with the oldest first. For example, this footnote refers to two cases:

If one or more references are more relevant than the others put these first and then ‘see also’. For example:

Also, order the sources with legislation before cases, and primary sources before secondary.

Using pinpoints and page numbers

A pinpoint is a precise reference to the part of a judgment or report through numbered paragraphs or page numbers. There are a number of ways you can pinpoint specific details within publications, depending on what the publication is. When citing more than one paragraph, place the numbers in square brackets. In this first example the pinpoints are at the end to paragraphs 42 and 45 of the case:

In this example for a secondary source the page number 131 is given at the end:

 For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 2.1.6 and OSCOLA 4.2.5

Cross-citation

Cross citation is when you are referring to discussion in another part of your writing, for example on an earlier page or in a previous chapter. It is good practice to use cross citation as little as possible.

Try to be specific and use a specific footnote number (For example  See n 52  for the footnote. OR:  See text to n 22 .)

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 1.2.2 

Direct quotes

You need to be very precise when using quotations.

Short quotations (less than three lines)

Use  single quotation marks  and include within the text. For example:

Longer quotations (longer than three lines)

Use an indented paragraph, no quotation marks and a line space above and below.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 1.5

Citing a source you've read about in a different source (secondary referencing)

This means referring to a source you have not read that you have found within another source that you are using.  Try to avoid secondary referencing as it is always preferable to use the original source and you should always try to locate this.

If you find you have to use secondary referencing, in the footnote cite the source you have read, followed by ‘citing’… For example:

In the bibliography insert only the source you have read. There is no specific guidance on this within OSCOLA. 

Naming judges

When referring to a judge within a case, use the judge’s surname followed by the correct abbreviation.  (Mr or Mrs Justice Smith should be called Smith J in your text).

The exception to this rule is when the judge holds a title. A Court of Appeal Judge who is Lord or Lady Smith should be referred to as  Smith LJ .

• A House of Lords judge should be referred to as  Lord or Lady Smith  and should not be abbreviated.
• A Supreme Court judge should be referred to as  Lord Smith SCJ.
• The Lord Chief Justice can be abbreviated to  Lord Woolf CJ.

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 2.1.7

Using Westlaw or Lexis Library

You do not need to include any information about Westlaw or Lexis Library in your citations, as this is just the portal through which you accessed the report, legislation or article. Simply reference the relevant source as you would a paper copy. 

Using Latin terms within footnotes

The only Latin term that is acceptable to use within the OSCOLA style is ‘ibid’, for the instances when you are referring to the same source in consecutive footnotes. Do not use other terms such as supra, op cit, loc cit.

For more information see OSCOLA 1.2.3 u 

Using abbreviations

OSCOLA abbreviates a wide range of legal sources and institutions.

Do not use punctuation when using an abbreviation. Eg, the Director of Public Prosecutions should appear as DPP not D.P.P.

For a comprehensive list of legal abbreviations, use the Cardiff index . You can search by abbreviation to find the title, or by title to find the abbreviation.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA Appendix 4.2 

Questions about referencing?

Contact your Faculty Librarians if you have any questions about referencing.

Commonly used sources

Examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for key source types.

Use these examples alongside the information given in the 'Guidance for all source types' box.

Act of Parliament

You should refer to the year the Act was passed rather than the year it came into force. 

Use the short title and refer to specific sections of the Act eg

 OR use s for Section in the middle of a sentence. For example:

Footnote: 

You do not need to footnote an Act if you make it identifiable in the text. 

Bibliography:   List Legislation and Cases separately in alphabetical order in the bibliography. 

See the  OSCOLA guides  and our Referencing with Confidence OSCOLA Guide for more details. 

Case citations including neutral citations: List cases in the bibliography in alphabetic order of case names. Use the following format to cite cases.

Case name in italics [year] court number, [year] OR (year) volume report abbreviation first page

If you have included the case name in the text, you do not have to include the case names in the footnote: In text:  refer to the text giving case names in italics eg: In  Phipps v Boardman 31  …..

Bibliography:

For most sources in OSCOLA, the bibliographic format is the same as the footnote. List legislation, cases and secondary sources in separate sections of your bibliography in alphabetical order. 

Treat case notes with titles as if they are journal articles. Where there is no title, use the name of the case in italics instead, and add (note) at the end of the citation:

See 3.3.2 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Book 1 author

Capitalise the first letter of each major word of the title. Page numbers stand-alone without p or pp. use the following format for the footnote:

Information to include: Author,  Title in Italics  (edition, publisher date) page.

Book 2 or 3 authors

If the book has up to three authors, include ‘and’ in between each author. Use Initials or forename unpunctuated and with no spaces followed by surname. 

Information to include: Author, Title in Italics Capitalising Major Words  (Edition, Publisher Year) page. 

Bibliography: 

See 3.2 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Book (4 or more authors)

If a book has  more than three authors,  include ‘ and others’  after the name of the first author.

Edited book (& chapters)

Chapter in an edited book.

Information to include: author, ‘Title of chapter' in editor (ed), title in italics  (additional information, publisher year)

See 3.2.3 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Edited book

See 3.2.2 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Journal article / paper

Journal article / paper (print copy).

Footnotes: author, | ‘title’ | [year] | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article / paper,| specific page referred to

author, | ‘title’ | (year) | volume | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article / paper

Put a comma after the first page of the article / paper if you want to refer to a particular page or set of pages:

If the year serves as the volume identifier, put the year in square brackets [ ]. If there is a separate volume number, put the year in round brackets  ().

In the Young example, 72 is the volume number. Bibliography:

Omit reference to specific page numbers (other than the first page of the article / paper) in your bibliographic entry.

Journal article / paper (electronic copy)

If you source a publication online which is also available in hard copy, cite the hard copy version. There is no need to cite an electronic source for such a publication.

author, | ‘title’ | [year] OR (year) | volume/issue | journal name or abbreviation | <web address> | date accessed

If the information is only available online, give the URL before the accessed date information.

See 3.3.4 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Further sources

Examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for other source types.

Cite a Bill by its title, the House in which it originated, the Parliamentary session in brackets, and the running number assigned to it. Running numbers for House of Commons Bills are put in square brackets; those for House of Lords Bills are not. When a Bill is reprinted at any stage it is given a new running number.

Title | HC Bill | (session) | [number] OR title | HL Bill | (session) | number

Footnote and bibliography: 

In the bibliography, list bills in alphabetical order under the heading Secondary Sources.

Copied from 2.4.5 OSCOLA 4th edn. 

Where there is no relevant advice elsewhere in OSCOLA, follow the general principles for secondary sources when citing websites and blogs. If there is no author identified, and it is appropriate to cite an anonymous source, begin the citation with the title in the usual way. If there is no date of publication on the website, give only the date of access.

Author, 'Web page title' ( Website in Italics , Full Date) <URL> accessed Date

See OSCOLA 4th edn 3.4.8 for more details. 

Book (translated to English)

If you read a book that was translated from another language (eg, you read an English translation of a book orginally written in German), cite the translation:

If there is an author and translator, reference as follows:

See 3.2.2  OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Book (read in another language)

If you read a book in a language other than English (eg, you read a book written in German), cite the primary source in the original language:

Footnote:  

Bibliography:  

See 1.4 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Book review

Cite a book review in the same way as a journal article, but without the quote marks. For example,

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs

Command paper

The abbreviation preceding a command paper number depends on the year of publication:

1833–69 (C (1stseries)) 1870–99 (C (2nd series)) 1900–18 (Cd) 1919–56 (Cmd) 1957–86 (Cmnd) 1986– (Cm)

Footnotes and bibliography:

In the bibliography, list Command Papers alphabetically by author in Secondary Sources. 

For more details see 3.4.3 OSCOLA 4th ed. 

Conference papers

See 3.4.6 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Dictionary (hard copy)

Dictionary (online).

Also consider elements of the style advice for websites and blogs (section 3.4.8).

For the OED online, open the full entry for the word, and click on the Cite button (top right above the definition). Follow that example, tidying it up to make it consistent with OSCOLA styles (eg, change double quotes to single and full stops to commas, removing those that are unnecessary; change OED Online to italics; change Oxford University Press to OUP and put it before the date; and remove http:// from the web address and delete any text after the Entry number, then put angle brackets around the url):

For other online dictionaries, follow the general advice above. You need a date of publication or at least a date of access (ie when you looked at it), as they are generally updated regularly.

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs. 

When citing personal communications, such as emails and letters, give the author and recipient of the communication, and the date. If you are yourself the author or recipient of the communication, say ‘from author’ or ‘to author’ as appropriate.

See 3.4.11 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details

Encyclopedia

Cite as a book but exclude author or editor and publisher. Include the edition and year. Pinpoints such as volumes and page numbers come after the publication information.

If citing an online encyclopedia, give the URL and date of access:

See OSCOLA 4th edn 3.2.6 for more details. 

Entry in a reference book

List in the bibliography in alphabetical order under Secondary Sources. 

European Court of Justice case

European union regulation, hansard & parliamentary reports.

There are three series of Hansard, one reporting debates on the floor of the House of Commons, one debates in the House of Lords, and one debates in the Public Bill committees of the House of Commons, which replaced standing committees in 2007. When referring to the first two series, cite the House abbreviation (HL or HC), followed by ‘Deb’, then the full date, the volume and the column. Use ‘col’ or ‘cols’ for column(s). In the House of Commons, written answers are indicated by the suffix ‘W’ after the column number; in the House of Lords, they are indicated by the prefix ‘WA’ before the column number.

HL Deb OR HC Deb | date, | volume, | column

See 3.4.2 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

When citing an interview you conducted yourself, give the name, position and institution (as relevant) of the interviewee, and the location and full date of the interview. If the interview was conducted by someone else, the interviewer’s name should appear at the beginning of the citation.

See 3.4.10 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Footnote and bibliography:

Newspaper article

When citing newspaper articles, give the author, the title, the name of the newspaper in italics and then in brackets the city of publication and the date. Some newspapers have ‘The’ in the title and some do not. If known, give the number of the page on which the article was published, after the brackets. If the newspaper is divided into sections, and the page numbering begins afresh in each section, put the section name in roman before the page number, with a space but no comma between the two. If the reference is to an editorial, cite the author as ‘Editorial’. If the article is sourced from the web and there is no page number available, provide the web address and date of access.

List under Secondary Sources

Copied from OSCOLA 4th edn 3.4.9 

The general principles for ‘other secondary sources’ (OSCOLA 4th ed. 3.4.1) suggest the following form for citing podcasts, YouTube videos and similar sources:

Author, ‘Title’ (publication date) <url> accessed xx month 2014

If there is no clear author, give the organisation providing the source as the author. The examples below include a suggestion for citing the comments of a particular person.

If referring to comments by someone in particular, add that information as you would a pinpoint, before the url. Include the person's position if relevant. For example:

Another alternative, particularly if the podcast is quite long, would be to provide the minutes and seconds of the excerpt:

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs 

Public communication

Author, 'Title' (additional information, publisher year)

Examples taken from  OSCOLA FAQs

List by author in Secondary Sources 

Radio programme

Footnote: Speaker (if a direct quote)/Presenter, 'Title of the programme' (Radio station, date of the programme)

Enter in alphabetical order in the Secondary Sources. If there is a direct quote/speaker, reverse the author's name as usual.

Use this format:

Author, 'Title' (Additonal information, edition if later than first, Publisher day Month year if available) page number if required.

Footnotes: 

Bibliography : 

List alphabetically in author order in secondary sources, giving the authors surname first.

Republished source

Author,  Title of book  (First published publication year, Edition if late than first, publisher, publication year) page if required.

Television programme

Footnote:  Use the following format: Main contributor [Role of main contributor],'Title of programme' [Television series episode] in Title of series (Additional information if required, Publisher, Year )

If you wish to refer to someone speaking during the programme, follow this format: Cite the name of the speaker (if a direct quote), the title of the programme, the radio station and the date of the programme. If there is no obvious author/speaker, begin the citation with the title of the programme. If available online, include the URL and date of access. For example:

List under Secondary Sources in alphabetical order

When citing an unpublished thesis, give the author, the title and then in brackets the type of thesis, university and year of completion.

Copied from 3.4.7 OSCOLA 4th edn.

United Nations Court of Human Rights

If the information is available in print, reference the print version. If only available on the web, reference as follows: 

Footnote and Bibliography:

In the bibliography, list in Secondary Sources.

YouTube video

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OSCOLA referencing

• Introduction to referencing
• Printing USW OSCOLA Guide and Full OSCOLA guide

Punctuation

Pinpointing, repeated citations, legal abbreviations.

• In-text citation
• UK case law
• UK legislation
• European case law
• EU Legislation
• Official publications
• Books and eBooks
• Journals and newspapers
• Websites and Blogs
• Other jurisdictions
• International
• Tables of Cases and Legislation and Bibliography
• Common mistakes
• Example assignment

There are three basic requirements for incorporating references into your work when using OSCOLA: 

• Citation: when you acknowledge a source, place a footnote marker after the full stop at the end of the sentence, or after any other punctuation mark, or after the word or phrase to which it relates.
• Footnote: when referring to a publication for the first time, provide a full reference to the source at the foot of the page. Any ‘Subsequent mention of a source’ can then be provided in note form.
• Bibliography: compile a Table of primary sources at the beginning and a Bibliography of secondary sources at the end of your work.

There is always a full stop at the end of each footnote.

Do not use put full stops after abbreviations or the v between two parties.

Within a footnote, if there is more than one source cited, separate each with a semi-colon.

Footnote markers are a continuous run of numbers placed in the main body of the text and refer the reader to a numerical sequence of references positioned at the bottom of the same page (footnotes). When you acknowledge a source, place a footnote marker after the full stop at the end of the sentence, or after any other punctuation mark, or after the word or phrase to which it relates (Inserting both footnote marker and footnotes beginning with a 1 can be done automatically in Word)

Use pinpoint numbers to direct the reader to particular pages and paragraphs within a source.

Use ‘pt’ for part, ‘ch’ for chapter, and ‘para’ for paragraph

Page numbers stand alone; i.e. you do not need to use ‘p' for page or ‘pp’ for pages.

• Legislation
• Secondary sources (books, articles, websites)

Full citation:

Subsequent citation immediately after the full citation:

Subsequent citation using shortened form of case name and a cross-citation to footnote 1 where the full citation can be found:

Full citation with name of statute and shortened version:

Subsequent citation using shortened version of the statute:

When referring to the same source in the next footnote, you may use ibid, meaning ‘in the same place’, accompanied by the relevant page number.

________ Subsequent citation with pinpoint:

A comprehensive guide to accepted case law report and journal title abbreviations can be found online in the Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations .

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OSCOLA Referencing: Theses

• England and Wales
• Northern Ireland
• UK Statutes
• Primary Legislation: Wales
• Primary Legislation: Scotland
• Primary Legislation: Northern Ireland
• UK Statutory Instruments
• Secondary Legislation: Wales
• Secondary Legislation: Scotland
• Secondary Legislation: Northern Ireland
• EU Legislation
• Judgments of the European Court of Justice and General Court
• European Commission Decisions
• European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Judgments
• Decisions and Reports of the European Commission on Human Rights
• European Commission Documents (proposals, action plans etc.)
• Cases from other jurisdictions
• Legislation from other jurisdictions
• Books (Authored)
• Books (Edited or Translated)
• Chapters/Essays in edited Books
• Other Books
• Journal Articles
• Command Papers
• Law Commission Reports
• Conference Papers
• Websites and Blogs
• Newspaper Articles
• Personal Communications
• Generative AI
• Citing Primary Sources
• Citing Secondary Sources
• Subsequent Citations

OSCOLA Referencing

The following are examples of how to reference theses.

Template (Footnote):

Author name, | 'Thesis title' | (Award | thesis, | Awarding Institution | date).

Javan Herberg, ‘Injunctive Relief for Wrongful Termination of Employment’ (DPhil thesis, University of Oxford 1989).

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• Plagiarism and grammar
• Citation guides

Cite a Thesis in OSCOLA

Don't let plagiarism errors spoil your paper

Consider your source's credibility. ask these questions:, contributor/author.

• Has the author written several articles on the topic, and do they have the credentials to be an expert in their field?
• Can you contact them? Do they have social media profiles?
• Have other credible individuals referenced this source or author?
• Book: What have reviews said about it?
• What do you know about the publisher/sponsor? Are they well-respected?
• Do they take responsibility for the content? Are they selective about what they publish?
• Take a look at their other content. Do these other articles generally appear credible?
• Does the author or the organization have a bias? Does bias make sense in relation to your argument?
• Is the purpose of the content to inform, entertain, or to spread an agenda? Is there commercial intent?
• Are there ads?
• When was the source published or updated? Is there a date shown?
• Does the publication date make sense in relation to the information presented to your argument?
• Does the source even have a date?
• Was it reproduced? If so, from where?
• If it was reproduced, was it done so with permission? Copyright/disclaimer included?
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What is OSCOLA referencing?

OSCOLA is the abbreviated name for Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities. It’s the style many students use for referencing authorities, legislation and other legal materials. It is widely used in law schools and by journal and book publishers both in the UK and abroad.

The fourth edition of OSCOLA is available to purchase in book stores and online, with a downloadable reference guide available from the University of Oxford, Faculty of Law website.

How to OSCOLA reference

OSCOLA invites you to follow two “golden rules” when citing legal authorities. The first is consistency and the second is consideration for the reader. Legal writing is considered more persuasive when you refer to legal matters in a clear, consistent and familiar way. An integral part of this is having an easy way of identifying your sources.

OSCOLA does not use endnotes or in-text citations. Instead, all citations appear as footnotes. Longer works such as books and theses also include citations in tables of cases and legislation, as well as bibliographies.

Cite This For Me’s OSCOLA citation generator takes the hassle out of law referencing by providing you with the Oxford standard for the citation of legal authorities within seconds. Simply use the Cite This For Me mobile app or online tool and have the whole thing done for you quickly, accurately and consistently.

Popular OSCOLA style Citation Examples

How to cite a book in oscola style.

Use the following template to cite a book using the OSCOLA citation style.

Reference List

Place this part in your bibliography or reference list at the end of your assignment.

In-text citation

Place this part right after the quote or reference to the source in your assignment.

How to cite a Journal in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a journal using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite Film or Movie in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a film or movie using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an Online image or video in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an online image or video using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Website in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a website using the OSCOLA citation style.

Additional OSCOLA style Citation Examples

How to cite a blog in oscola style.

Use the following template to cite a blog using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Court case in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a court case using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Dictionary entry in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a dictionary entry using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an E-book or PDF in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an e-book or pdf using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an Edited book in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an edited book using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an Email in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an email using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an Encyclopedia article in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an encyclopedia article using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite an Interview in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite an interview using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Magazine in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a magazine using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Newspaper in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a newspaper using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Podcast in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a podcast using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a Song in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a song using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite The Bible in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite The Bible using the OSCOLA citation style.

How to cite a TV Show in OSCOLA style

Use the following template to cite a TV Show using the OSCOLA citation style.

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Referencing Styles: OSCOLA

OSCOLA stands for the Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities. It is the Law referencing system created by Oxford University. If you are a post-graduate law student, you are required to use this referencing system. In this system, citations are put in footnotes at the bottom of the page.

To create a footnote in Microsoft Word, click your mouse on the place you want it to refer to. Click on ‘References’ at the top and then on ‘Insert Footnote’. A number will appear in the text, and also at the bottom of the page, where you write your citation. This means that your readers can easily look down at the footnote to see the details of the source you are referring to.

In this guide, each type of source has an outline of the elements of the citation. Each of the elements is separated by a vertical line ‘|’. Pay attention to

• whether words are in italics ( like this )
• whether brackets are round like this ( ), square like this [ ] or angled like this < >
• where there is punctuation, such as commas (,)

You can generate OSCOLA citations using RefWorks . To do this, log into RefWorks , then find the item(s) in Summon and click the 'Save this item' icon next to the search result. This will save the item(s) in your RefWorks folder. In RefWorks, select the item(s) and click 'Create Bibliography'. You can then select 'OSCOLA 4th edition' as the reference style and it will generate the citation.

In HeinOnline , there is a Cite button to the left of an article's text which gives you the OSCOLA citation. You can find OSCOLA reference generators online, but none of them are perfect, so please check what they give you.

If you cannot find what you need, read the latest edition of OSCOLA or email the Online Library at [email protected]

You can find more information about OSCOLA including frequently asked questions on Oxford's OSCOLA page .

For International Law, see the OSCOLA guide to citing international law

General principles

UK primary legislation (Acts and Bills)

Uk secondary legislation (statutory instruments).

EU legal sources

                Judgments of the ECJ and GC

                Decisions of the European Commission

                Judgments of the ECHR

International Law

Cases from other jurisdictions, legislation from other jurisdictions, encyclopedias, online articles, websites and blogs, newspaper articles.

Personal communications (letters and emails)

General Principles

• Quotations that are three lines or shorter should be incorporated in the text. Use 'single quotation marks', but if you need to sumbit your work to Turnitin, use "double quotation marks".
• Quotations longer than three lines should be an indented paragraph. Do not include quotation marks.
• Put the footnote marker at the end of a sentence, unless for the sake of clarity it is necessary to put it directly after the word or phrase to which it relates
• The superscript number should be after the full stop or comma, if relevant
• Where more than one citation is given in a single footnote reference, separate them with semi-colons

Authors' names

• Give the author’s name exactly as it appears in the publication, but omit postnominals such as QC
• If there are more than three authors, give the name of the first author followed by ‘and others’
• If no individual author is identified, but an organisation or institution claims editorial responsibility for the work, then cite it as the author
• If no person, organisation or institution claims responsibility for the work, begin the citation with the title
• In footnotes, the author’s first name or initial(s) precede their surname
• In bibliographies, the surname comes first, then the initial(s), followed by a comma
• Italicise titles of books and similar publications, including all publications with ISBNs
• All other titles should be within single quotation marks and not in italics
• Capitalize the first letter in all major words in a title
• Minor words, such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘the’, do not take a capital unless they begin the title or subtitle
• Pinpoints to parts, chapters, pages and paragraphs come at the end of the citation
• For cases, pinpoint paragraphs using square brackets, e.g. [23]. If pinpointing to more than one paragraph, separate the paragraph numbers in square brackets with a comma, e.g. [42], [45]. If citing spans of paragraphs, insert a dash between the first and last paragraph being cited, e.g. [1]-[37].
• For everything other than cases, use ‘pt’ for part, ‘ch’ for chapter, and ‘para’ for paragraph
• Page numbers stand alone, without ‘p’ or ‘pp’
• If citing a chapter or part and page number, insert a comma before the page number
• Where possible, give a specific range of pages but if you must refer to an initial page and several unspecified following pages, give the initial page number followed immediately by ‘ff ’ (eg ‘167ff ’)

Electronic sources (this does not apply to cases and legislation)

• If you source a publication online which is also available in hard copy, cite the hard copy version. There is no need to cite an electronic source for such a publication
• Citations of publications that are available only electronically should end with the web address (or ‘url’) in angled brackets (< >), followed by the date of most recent access, expressed in the form ‘accessed 1 January 2010’
• Include ‘http://’ only if the web address does not begin with ‘www’
• When a full date is required, the format should be ‘1 January 2016’
• There is no need for ‘st’ or ‘th’ after the day
• If something spans more than one year in the same century, the format is ‘1972-84’

Subsequent citations

• If a citation is the same as the one immediately before it, you can put 'ibid' (followed by any differing pinpoints) in the footnote
• If the citation is the same as another, you can use a shortened form, followed by a reference to the footnote and any differing pinpoints, e.g. Stevens (n 1) 110.

Case citations including neutral citations

case name | [year] | court | number, | [year] OR (year) | volume | report abbreviation | first page

Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884

Case citations without neutral citations

case name | [year] OR (year) | volume | report abbreviation | first page | (court)

Barrett v Enfield LBC [2001] 2 AC 550 (HL)

• If only one volume was issued during that particular year, do not give a number
• Use square brackets for the year a volume was issued
• Use round brackets for the year a judgment was issued
• If you included the case name in the text, you do not need to include the case name in the footnote
• Where there are multiple parties, name only the first claimant and first defendant. Where the parties are individuals, omit forenames and initials.

What are neutral citations?

Many courts now issue judgments with a neutral citation which identify the judgment independently of any law report. Neutral citations give the year of judgment, the court and the judgment number. The court is not included in brackets at the end of a neutral citation because the neutral citation itself identifies the court.

Where a judgment with a neutral citation has not been reported, give only the neutral citation.

Re Guardian News and Media Ltd [2010] UKSC 1

Where such a judgment has been reported, give the neutral citation followed by a citation of the most authoritative report, separated by a comma.

Cite an Act by its short title and year, using capitals at the beginning of major words, and without a comma before the year. Do not use popular titles of Acts, such as ‘Lord Campbell’s Act’

Shipping and Trading Interests (Protection) Act 1995

If several jurisdictions are discussed in a work, it may be necessary to add the

jurisdiction of the legislation in brackets at the end of the citation

Water Resources Act 1991 (UK)

Statutes are divided into parts, sections, subsections, paragraphs and subparagraphs. The relevant abbreviations are:

section/sections

subsection/subsections

sub-s/sub-ss

paragraph/paragraphs

subparagraph/subparagraphs

subpara/subparas

schedule/schedules

Clause/clauses

Consumer Protection Act 1987, s 2

If specifying a paragraph or subsection as part of a section, use only the abbreviation

for the section. For example, paragraph (b) of subsection (1) of section 15 of the

Human Rights Act 1998 is expressed as follows:

Human Rights Act 1998, s 15(1)(b)

title | HC Bill | (session) | [number]

title | HL Bill | (session) | number

Consolidated Fund HC Bill (2008–09) [5]

Academies HL Bill (2010-11) 1, cl 8(2)

Statutory instruments (orders, regulations or rules) are numbered consecutively throughout the year. The year combines with the serial number to provide an SI number that follows the abbreviation ‘SI’ and which is used to identify the legislation. When citing a statutory instrument, give the name, year and (after a comma) the SI number:

Penalties for Disorderly Behaviour (Amendment of Minimum Age) Order 2004, SI 2004/3166

Statutory instruments used to be called statutory rules and orders, and these are cited by their title and SR & O number.

The Civil Procedure Rules (CPR) and their predecessors, the Rules of the Supreme Court (RSC) and the County Court Rules (CCR), may be cited without reference to their SI number or year. Cite all other court rules in full as statutory instruments.

RSC Ord 24, r 14A

CPR Practice Directions (PD) are referred to simply by number, according to the part or rule they supplement.

Parts of statutory instruments

regulation/regulations

r/rr (not necessary for CPR)

article/articles

European Union legal sources

Official notices of the EU are carried in the Official Journal of the European

Communities (abbreviated to OJ). The letter ‘L’ denotes the legislation series, the ‘C’ series contains EU information and notices, and the ‘S’ series invitations to tender.

Legislation

legislation title | [year] | OJ series | issue/first page

Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2008] OJ C115/13

Regulations and Directives

legislation type | number | title | [year] | OJ L issue/first page

Council Regulation (EC) 1984/2003 of 8 April 2003 introducing a system

for the statistical monitoring of trade in bluefin tuna, swordfish and big

eye tuna within the Community [2003] OJ L295/1

Council Directive 2002/60/EC of 27 June 2002 laying down specific

provisions for the control of African swine fever and amending Directive

92/119/EEC as regards Teschen disease and African swine fever [2002]

Note that the year precedes the running number in citations to Directives, but follows it in citations to Regulations.

Judgments of the European Court of Justice and General Court

• EU cases registered at the European Court of Justice are given the prefix ‘C-‘
• EU cases registered at the General Court (known as the Court of First Instance until 2009) are given the prefix ‘T-‘
• Judgments from the Civil Service Tribunal (established in 2005) are given the prefix ‘F-‘
• For an unreported case, cite the relevant notice in the OJ. If the case is not yet reported in the OJ, then cite the case number and case name, followed by the court and date of judgment in brackets.
• When citing an opinion of an Advocate General, add the words ‘Opinion of AG [name]’

case number | case name | [year] | report abbreviation | first page

Case 240/83 Procureur de la République v ADBHU [1985] ECR 531

Case T–277/08 Bayer Healthcare v OHMI—Uriach Aquilea OTC (CFI, 11 November 2009)

Case C–176/03 Commission v Council [2005] ECR I–7879, paras 47–48

Case C–411/05 Palacios de la Villa v Cortefiel Servicios SA [2007] ECR I–8531, Opinion of AG Mazák, paras 79–100

Decisions of the European Commission

case name | (case number) | Commission Decision number | [year] | OJ L issue/first page

Alcatel/Telettra (Case IV/M.042) Commission Decision 91/251/EEC [1991] OJ L122/48

Judgments of the European Court of Human Rights

Cite either the official reports, the Reports of Judgments and Decisions (cited as ECHR) or the European Human Rights Reports (EHRR), but be consistent in your practice. Before 1996, the official reports were known as Series A. References to unreported judgments should give the application number, and then the court and the date of the judgment in brackets.

Johnston v Ireland (1986) Series A no 122

Osman v UK ECHR 1998–VIII 3124

Balogh v Hungary App no 47940/99 (ECtHR, 20 July 2004)

Omojudi v UK (2009) 51 EHRR 10

For International Law, see the OSCOLA guide to citing international law .

Cite cases from other jurisdictions as they are cited in their own jurisdiction, but with minimal punctuation. If the name of the law report series cited does not itself indicate the court, and the identity of the court is not obvious from the context, you should also give this in either full or short form in brackets at the end of the citation.

Henningsen v Bloomfield Motors Inc 161 A 2d 69 (NJ 1960)

Roe v Wade 410 US 113, 163–64 (1973)

Waltons Stores (Interstate) Ltd v Maher(1988) 164 CLR 387

BGH NJW 1992, 1659

Cass civ (1) 21 January 2003, D 2003, 693

CA Colmar 25 January 1963, Gaz Pal 1963.I.277

Cite legislation from other jurisdictions as it is cited in its own jurisdiction, but without any full stops in abbreviations. Give the jurisdiction if necessary.

Accident Compensation Act 1972 (NZ)

1976 Standard Terms Act ( Gesetz über Allgemeine Geschäftsbedingungen ) (FRG)

loi n° 75-1349 du 31 décembre 1975 relative à l’emploi de la langue française

author, | title | (additional information, | edition, | publisher | year)

Timothy Endicott, Administrative Law (OUP 2009)

Gareth Jones, Goff and Jones: The Law of Restitution (1st supp, 7th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2009)

If there is more than one author insert an 'and' before the last author's name. The edition should be included where the book is in its second edition or beyond. If citing information from a specific page, add the page number directly after the reference. Example:

Gary Slapper and David Kelly,  The English Legal System  (Routledge 2016) 17

If a book consists of more than one volume, the volume number follows the publication details:

Andrew Burrows, Remedies for Torts and Breach of Contract (3rd edn, OUP 2004) 317

If the publication details of the volumes vary, the volume number precedes them, and is separated from the title by a comma:

Christian von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts , vol 2 (CH Beck 2000) para 76

Editors and translators

If there is no author, cite the editor or translator as you would an author, adding in brackets after their name ‘(ed)’ or ‘(tr)’, or ‘(eds)’ or ‘(trs)’ if there is more than one.

If the work has an author, but an editor or translator is also acknowledged on the front cover, cite the author in the usual way and attribute the editor or translator at the beginning of the publication information, within the brackets:

HLA Hart, Punishment and Responsibility: Essays in the Philosophy of Law (John Gardner ed, 2nd edn, OUP 2008)

Contributions to edited books

author, | ‘title’ | in editor (ed), | book title | (additional information,| publisher | year)

John Cartwright, ‘The Fiction of the “Reasonable Man”’ in AG Castermans and others (eds), Ex Libris Hans Nieuwenhuis (Kluwer 2009)

Cite an encyclopedia much as you would a book, but excluding the author or editor

and publisher and including the edition and year of issue or reissue. If citing an online encyclopedia, give the web address and date of access.

Halsbury’s Laws (5th edn, 2010) vol 57, para 53

Leslie Green, ‘Legal Positivism’, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall edn, 2009) <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2009/entries/legal-positivism> accessed 20 November 2009

author, | ‘title’ | (year) | volume | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article

If only one volume was published that year, use square brackets:

author, | ‘title’ | [year] | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article

Put a comma after the first page of the article if there is a pinpoint (the specific page you are referencing).

JAG Griffith, ‘The Common Law and the Political Constitution’ (2001) 117 LQR 42, 64

When citing journal articles which have been published only electronically, give publication details as for articles in hard copy journals.

• Note that online journals may lack some of the publication elements (for example, many do not include page numbers).
• If citation advice is provided by the online journal, follow it, removing full stops as necessary to comply with OSCOLA.
• Follow the citation with the web address (in angled brackets) and the date you most recently accessed the article.

author, | ‘title’ | [year] OR (year) | volume/issue | journal name or abbreviation | <web address> | date accessed

Graham Greenleaf, ‘The Global Development of Free Access to Legal Information’ (2010) 1(1) EJLT <http://ejlt.org/article/view/17> accessed 27 July 2010

Treat case notes with titles as if they were journal articles. Where there is no title, use the name of the case in italics instead, and add (note) at the end of the citation.

Andrew Ashworth, ‘ R (Singh) v Chief Constable of the West Midlands Police ’ [2006] Crim LR 441 (note)

HL Deb OR HC Deb | date, | volume, | column

In the House of Commons, written answers are indicated by the suffix ‘W’ after the column number; in the House of Lords, they are indicated by the prefix ‘WA’ before the column number.

HC Deb 3 February 1977, vol 389, cols 973–76

HL Deb 21 July 2005, vol 673, col WA261

Command papers

Command papers include White and Green Papers, relevant treaties, government responses to select committee reports, and reports of committees of inquiry. When citing a command paper, begin the citation with the name of the department or other body that produced the paper, and then give the title of the paper in italics, followed by the command paper number and the year in brackets.

Home Office, Report of the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (Cmd 8932, 1953) para 53

The abbreviation preceding a command paper number depends on the year of publication:

1833–69 (C (1st series))

1870–99 (C (2nd series))

1900–18 (Cd)

1919–56 (Cmd)

1957–86 (Cmnd)

Sarah Cole, ‘Virtual Friend Fires Employee’ (Naked Law, 1 May 2009) <www.nakedlaw.com/2009/05/index.html> accessed 19 November 2009

• If there is no author identified, and it is appropriate to cite an anonymous source, begin the citation with the title in the usual way.
• If there is no date of publication on the website, give only the date of access

author, | ‘title’ | name of the newspaper | (city of publication, | date) | page if known

Jane Croft, ‘Supreme Court Warns on Quality’ Financial Times (London, 1 July 2010) 3

Ian Loader, ‘The Great Victim of this Get Tough Hyperactivity is Labour’ The Guardian (London, 19 June 2008) <www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/19/justice.ukcrime> accessed 19 November 2009

interviewer(s) if not yourself, | Interview with name, position, institution of interviewee | (location, date of interview)

Interview with Irene Kull, Assistant Dean, Faculty of Law, Tartu University (Tartu, Estonia, 4 August 2003)

Timothy Endicott and John Gardner, Interview with Tony Honoré, Emeritus Regius Professor of Civil Law, University of Oxford (Oxford, 17 July 2007)

If the reference is to an editorial, cite the author as ‘Editorial’.

If you conducted an interview for the purposes of your dissertation, you do not need to cite it in your dissertation. If the transcripts of your interviews are in your appendix, you can refer to your appendix in brackets or a footnote, e.g.:

According to interviewee X (Appendix 1), the …

Or, you could cite it as a personal communication in a footnote.

Personal communications

When citing personal communications, such as emails and letters, give the author and recipient of the communication, and the date. If you are yourself the author or recipient of the communication, say ‘from author’ or ‘to author’ as appropriate.

Letter from Gordon Brown to Lady Ashton (20 November 2009)

Email from Amazon.co.uk to author (16 December 2008)

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Referencing and citations - OSCOLA: Cross referencing

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Cross-referencing Contents

In a nutshell.

You will only have to give the full/long citation of a source once in your work.

Providing you have given all the details in a footnote the first time you reference, you can, in subsequent footnotes, briefly refer to the source, and then provide a cross-citation in brackets to the footnote in which the full citation can be found.

If the subsequent citation is in the footnote immediately following the full citation, you can generally use ‘ibid’ instead.

Aside from 'ibid', avoid the use of ‘Latin gadgets’ such as supra , infra , ante, id, op cit , loc cit, and contra , which are not widely understood.

Avoid sending the reader off to another part of the text when a short point could as easily be restated. Never make a cross-reference that will be difficult for the reader to find, such as ‘See above’.

Cross-referencing the immediately preceding footnote

Regardless of material type, if a footnote refers to the same source as the IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING footnote, you can indicate this with 'ibid', including a new pinpoint if necessary. You can continue doing this for several footnotes as long as the source doesn't change, eg

22 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

23 ibid 217-78.

24 ibid 290.

Cross-referencing a case

Give the full citation as per advice for cases the first time you reference it. If you mention the full name of the case in the body of your work you do not need to repeat it in the footnote. If the next citation is to the same case, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, use the short name of the case (usually the first party, or the respondent in criminal cases, or the ship name in some maritime cases) then give the cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Austin v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2009] UKHL5, [2009] AC 564.

7 Austin (n 1).

Cross-referencing legislation

Give the full citation as per advice for legislation the first time you reference it, and indicate the 'short form' in brackets at the end - eg FSMA, e-commerce directive. The title and short form do not need to be repeated if specified in the body of your essay. If the next citation is to the same piece of legislation, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, you can now just use the short form of the legislation without cross referencing, eg

32 Council Directive (EC) 93/104 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time [1993] OJ L307/18 (Working Time Directive).

40 Working Time Directive, art 2.

Cross-referencing secondary sources

Give the full citation the first time you reference it. If the next citation is to the same source, simply put ibid, with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, put the author's surname followed by a cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

26 Stevens (n 1) 110.

27 ibid 271–78.

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Cite a Dissertation in OSCOLA

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Check your paper before your teacher does!

Avoid plagiarism — quickly check for missing citations and check for writing mistakes., is your source credible don’t forget to consider these factors., purpose : reason the source exists.

• Is the point of the information to inform, persuade, teach, or sell?
• Do the authors/publishers make their intentions clear?
• Does the information appear to be fact or opinion?
• Does the point of view seem impartial? Do they identify counter-arguments?

Authority - Author: Source of the information

• Who is the author? What are their credentials or qualifications?
• What makes the author qualified to write on this topic?
• Is there clearly defined contact information for the author?

Authority - Publisher: Source of the information

• Who is the publisher? Is it a non-profit, government agency, or organization? How might this affect their point of view?
• What makes the publisher qualified to generate works on this subject?
• What can the URL tell you about the publisher? For instance, .gov may signify that it is a government agency.

Relevance : Importance of the information to your topic

Currency : timeliness of the information.

• When was the information published? When was it last updated? Does it reflect the most current information available?
• How does your topic fit in with this source’s publication date? Do you need current information to make your point or do older sources work better?

Comprehensiveness

• Does the source present one or multiple viewpoints on your topic?
• Does the source present a large amount of information on the topic? Or is it short and focused?
• Are there any points you feel may have been left out, on purpose or accidentally, that affect its comprehensiveness?
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OSCOLA Referencing Style

If you have questions about reference formats, please contact us with your query using the  Query form  on the guide, or email  us at  [email protected] . You should also consult your lecturer and refer to your departmental handbook   OSCOLA Referencing Guide .

Author,  Title of book  (Edition, Publisher Year)

Conference Paper

Author, 'Title of paper' (Name of Conference, Location, Date)

Online Image

Author/Creator, 'Title of image' ( Name of website,  Date published) <URL> Access date

Film/Documentary

Director,  Title of film/documentary  (Location, Studio Year)

EU Legislation

Legislation Title [Year] OJ Issue/first page

Example:  Protocol to the Agreement on the Member States that do not fully apply the Schengen acquis—Joint Declarations [2007] OJ L129/35

Journal Article

Author, 'Title of article' (Year) Volume(Issue) Name of journal First page number of article

Example:  Edwin S. Mills, 'An aggregative model of resource allocation in a metropolitan area'. (1967) 57(2) American Economic Review 197

Thesis/Dissertation

Author, 'Title of thesis' (Thesis type, Name of institution Year)

Online Video

Author/Creator, 'Title of video' ( Name of Website,  Date published) <URL> Access date

Title of bill (and subtitle if applicable) House of origin (Year) Assigned number

Author, 'Title of article'  Name of Newspaper  (Location, Date)

Author/Creator, 'Title of page' ( Name of website , Publication day month year) <URL> Access date

Social Media Post

Author/Creator [@username if applicable], 'Title or first line of post' ( Name of platform,  Date published) <URL> Access date

Case name  [Year] Court Number, [Year] Volume Report abbreviation First page of report

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Law: Referencing

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OSCOLA Referencing Style

The Law Department uses the OSCOLA referencing style, developed at the University of Oxford for the accurate citation of legal materials. You should be able to find all the information and guidance you need on this page, but if you still can't find the answer to your query, contact the law librarian.

• Cite Them Right Online: OSCOLA guidance
• OSCOLA (Oxford University Law)
• OSCOLA FAQs

Why do we reference?

When you produce a piece of academic writing (course work assignment, dissertation, thesis, journal article or monograph), you draw information from a wide range of sources. It is really important to acknowledge your sources by citing them in the text and listing them in a list of references at the end of your work. 

References should include all the necessary details to allow your reader to find the source you have used, such as:

• originator - author, producer organisation
• publication details
• Cite Them Right Online This link opens in a new window This handy tool contains guidance on how to reference a wide variety of sources in OSCOLA. If you have consulted this and still have questions, please get in touch with the librarian.

Reference Management Software

• About Reference Management Software

Reference Management Software refers to programs that have been developed to help you keep your references organised, and to generate citations and bibliographies for you. This is especially helpful when you are undertaking a larger piece of work and have many sources to reference. 

There are a lot of different options with referencing software packages. In the Library, we are able to offer support and guidance for two of these: Endnote (Online and Desktop), and Refworks. Please see the individual tabs for more information and guidance on these (and remember you can also send your referencing queries to us , or book a 1:1 to discuss how to manage your sources)

• Guide to Endnote Online
• Guide to Endnote Desktop

Citation Tool in Onesearch

Did you know? There's a handy 'Citation' button on Onesearch when you open a resource record. Just click this to automatically generate a reference in various styles (commonly used ones listed), and then click 'Copy the citation to clipboard'.

It's always advisable to check the accuracy of the reference that's been generated - which you can do in Cite Them Right.

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Bibcitation is a free citation generator that creates bibliographies, references and works cited. Automatically generate MLA, APA, Chicago and other citations and create an accurate bibliography in one click.

No citations yet

Our Complete Guide to Citing in OSCOLA Format

Welcome aboard our easy-to-understand guide, designed to walk you through the winding roads of the OSCOLA citation style. We'll be your co-pilots, helping you chart the terrain of footnotes and develop a comprehensive bibliography with simplicity.

Let's dive into how an OSCOLA citation generator can be your secret weapon in streamlining your referencing process and unravel the mysteries of perfect footnote and reference formatting.

We promise that creating an OSCOLA bibliography will be a breeze!

Discover More Bibcitation Guides

Oscola referencing style overview.

The OSCOLA referencing format is widely accepted within legal academia and legal publications. It provides a standardized approach to referencing legal documents and cases, ensuring that the citations are clear, consistent, and easily traceable. By following OSCOLA guidelines, your legal arguments will be underpinned by properly attributed sources, thereby adding credibility and professionalism to your work.

In the OSCOLA system, there are two primary aspects of citation: footnotes and the bibliography.

Footnotes: Footnotes in OSCOLA are used for citing the sources of information or the legal authorities being referred to within the main text. These are detailed references that include the specific parts of the source being cited, such as page numbers or paragraph numbers in a judgment.

Bibliography: The bibliography in OSCOLA gathers all the sources cited in footnotes and lists them at the end of the document. The bibliography is separated into tables, cases, legislation, and secondary sources.

By adhering to the OSCOLA referencing style, you create a bridge between your arguments and the legal authorities that support them. This enhances the coherence and reliability of your work and facilitates the readers' ability to engage with and assess your legal reasoning. Whether you are a law student, an academic, or a legal professional, understanding and applying the OSCOLA style is a crucial skill in crafting persuasive and credible legal writing.

Format OSCOLA Footnotes

In the OSCOLA Referencing Style, footnotes serve as brief references at the bottom of the page, leading readers to the full citation in the bibliography. These references typically include the title of the case or statute, the year of publication, and specific details such as page numbers.

The following examples illustrate how to cite various legal documents using the OSCOLA style:

Legal cases: The primary method for citing cases includes the parties' names, year, and report citation. For example: R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2017] UKSC 5.

Legislation: For statutes, use the short title and the year in italics. For example: Equality Act 2010.

Secondary sources - Books: For books, include the author's initials, last name, title in italics, edition if relevant, (publisher, year), and specific pages. For example: J M Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (2nd edn, OUP 2011) 275.

Secondary sources - Articles: For journal articles, use the author's initials, last name, title in single quotes, [year], volume (issue number), journal name or abbreviation, and first page of the article. For example: P Craig, 'Theory and Values in Public Law' [2004] PL 598.

Multiple citations in one footnote: If referencing multiple sources in one footnote, separate each citation with a semicolon. For example: Equality Act 2010, s 15(1)(a); R (Miller) [2017] UKSC 5, para 57.

Electronic sources: Include the author's name, title in italics, web address, and accessed date for online materials. For example: T Bingham, 'The Rule of Law' (The Rule of Law, 2007) <www.cps.org.uk accessed 10 March 2022>.

Extended quotations: In OSCOLA, it is common to place a lengthy quotation within the footnotes rather than the main body text.

Example: M Lord Neuberger emphasizes the importance of the rule of law, stating: 'Adherence to the rule of law informs every aspect of the judicial duty, including, of course, the determination, interpretation, and application of the law.'^1

^1 R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU [2017] UKSC 5, para 40.

The OSCOLA referencing style ensures a standardized method of citation within the field of law. By carefully following these rules, you can construct a precise and professional legal document that appropriately credits the works and authorities that have informed your arguments.

Generate Bibliography in OSCOLA

The OSCOLA citation style, used predominantly in legal studies, follows a distinct approach that often involves footnotes for citations and may also include a bibliography. Here's how to format a bibliography in the OSCOLA style:

Title and placement: The bibliography should begin on a new page at the end of your work. Center the heading "Bibliography" (without quotation marks) at the top of the page. Do not bold, italicize, or underline the heading.

Spacing and margins: Employ single-spacing within entries and double-spacing between them in the bibliography. Keep 1-inch margins on all sides of the page. Unlike the Harvard style, OSCOLA does not use hanging indents; instead, the first line of each citation should align with the left margin.

Organize your citations: OSCOLA recommends separating primary sources such as cases and legislation from secondary sources like books and articles. Within these categories, you should alphabetize the list by the first significant word of the citation.

Pay attention to punctuation and italics: Use italics for the titles of books, reports, and legislation. Quotation marks are used for article titles. Ensure that punctuation marks are consistently applied following the OSCOLA guidelines.

Check for accuracy: Ensure that each reference is accurate, including the correct use of italics, capitalization, and other formatting as per OSCOLA standards.

By adhering to these rules, you can create a bibliography that aligns with the specific requirements of the OSCOLA citation style, helping your readers easily navigate and verify the legal authorities cited in your work.

Cite Books in OSCOLA

Law is built upon centuries of tradition, so it's only fitting that the citation of legal documents should have its own unique set of rules. Enter OSCOLA, a standardized citation system that brings order to the potentially chaotic world of legal citation. Let's take a closer look at how to reference books in OSCOLA, with examples and some surprising exceptions.

For Example:

Multiple authors. If the book has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the book, using "and" between authors:

Chapter in an edited book. For a chapter in an edited book, use the author's name of the chapter, the chapter title, the editor's initials and last name, the book title, and publication details:

No author. In cases where the author of the book is not known, the title of the book is used instead, followed by the publisher's name and year of publication:

Citing multiple volumes: When citing a multi-volume work, include the volume number after the year of publication.

Pro Tip: Reference List Order

In OSCOLA, your reference list must be sorted by author's surname and then chronologically by publication date.

OSCOLA citation brings consistency and professionalism to legal writing. The guidance provided above for citing books, from single authors to multiple volumes, ensures you have the tools to cite correctly.

As you engage in the practice of law, remember that proper citation not only follows rules but acknowledges the intellectual heritage of your work, connecting you to the broader legal conversation.

Cite Journal Articles in OSCOLA

Journal articles, as valuable sources of up-to-date research and commentary, form an integral part of legal scholarship. Referencing them correctly is crucial in legal writing. The OSCOLA style, devised by Oxford University, gives us a structured, professional, and widely-accepted method to do this.

For example:

Journal articles available online. If the journal is only available electronically or is paginated separately to a print version, the citation should include [online], the volume number and the web address where the article can be found:

No volume number. If a journal doesn't have volume numbers, you should use the issue number instead, after the year:

No page numbers. Some online journals do not have page numbers. In such cases, you can omit the page numbers:

Article from an online database. If you accessed an article from a web database, you should cite the database name, the document number, and the URL:

Pro Tip: Using Footnotes

In OSCOLA, in-text citations are replaced by footnotes. Each time you reference a source, you should provide a footnote with the full citation details. This applies to all references, including those to journal articles.

Referencing journal articles accurately in OSCOLA style adds credibility and professionalism to your writing. Whether your sources are single-author, multi-author, anonymous, or electronic, the guidance provided above ensures you have the tools to cite correctly.

Cite Websites in OSCOLA

Websites offer a plethora of information, both official and unofficial, that can be pertinent to legal studies. Correctly referencing this online material, in compliance with OSCOLA guidelines, ensures your work maintains its integrity. While it might feel like traversing a new frontier, citing web sources doesn't have to be daunting.

Website with corporate author. If the website has a corporate author, the citation should begin with the corporate entity's name, followed by the title of the webpage, the full date the page was last updated, and the web address:

No Known Author. In instances where the author of a webpage is not known, start with the title of the webpage, followed by the full date the page was last updated, and the web address:

Blogs or online articles. Blogs or online articles follow the same general structure, with the addition of the name of the blog or the publication in italics after the author's name:

Pro Tip: Access Dates

Remember to always include the access date when citing web sources, as online content can change over time. The access date serves to let readers know when you last verified the information on the webpage.

While it may seem intimidating at first, referencing websites in OSCOLA style can be a straightforward process when following these guidelines. Whether your sources are webpages, corporate websites, or blogs, you are now equipped with the tools necessary for accurate citation.

Cite Book Chapters in OSCOLA

In legal scholarship, book chapters often provide in-depth coverage of a specific topic, making them an indispensable resource. When it comes to citing these chapters using the OSCOLA referencing style, precision is key. Let's walk you through the citation process.

Book chapter with multiple authors. When citing a book chapter written by multiple authors, list the authors as they appear in the chapter, using 'and' between the authors:

No author: In cases where the author of the chapter is not mentioned, start with the title of the chapter, followed by the title of the book, editors of the book, and the first page of the chapter.

Book with single author, citing specific chapter: When citing a specific chapter of a book written by a single author, mention chapter details after the book's details.

Pro Tip: The Pinpoint Citation

In OSCOLA, 'pinpoint citations' allow you to direct the reader to a specific page or pages where the cited information can be found. The first page of the chapter, followed by the specific page number, should be provided at the end of the citation (e.g., 121-122).

Remember, citing book chapters accurately in OSCOLA style is crucial for acknowledging the work of authors and editors, and for guiding your readers to your sources. Whether your sources are single-author, multi-author, or anonymous, this guide has provided you with the know-how to tackle your citations with confidence.

Cite Newspapers & Magazines in OSCOLA

Conference papers are vital sources of latest research findings and theories before they make it to formal publications. When referencing these sources in legal studies and scholarly works, the OSCOLA referencing style provides a professional, structured and well-accepted format to do so.

Online articles. For online articles, include the web address (URL) at the end of the citation, and the access date if no publication date is available:

Pro Tip: Secondary Referencing

In OSCOLA, secondary referencing (citing a source you haven't read yourself, but which is cited in a source you have read) is generally discouraged. It's always better to read the original source for yourself. However, if the original is not available, make it clear you have not read the original source by acknowledging the secondary source in your footnote.

Citing newspaper and magazine articles accurately in OSCOLA style enhances the diversity of your legal arguments, demonstrates the breadth of your research, and respects the journalistic craft.

Cite Conference Papers in OSCOLA

Multiple authors: If the paper has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the paper, using 'and' between authors.

Online conference papers: If the conference paper is accessed online, the citation should include the web address or DOI (if available) at the end.

Pro Tip: Always in Footnotes

OSCOLA uses footnotes for citations. Each time you reference a source, you should provide a footnote with the full citation details. This applies to all references, including those to conference papers.

Citing conference papers correctly in OSCOLA style not only provides your work with accurate references, but also adds an element of professionalism to your writing. So, whether you're citing single-author, multi-author, anonymous, or electronic papers, our citation generator equips you to do so effectively.

Cite Theses & Dissertations in OSCOLA

Theses and dissertations serve as rich sources of specialised research and novel insights. In law and other scholarly works, the OSCOLA referencing style offers a well-structured and professionally accepted means of citing these sources. Let's dive in and explore how to do this effectively.

Online theses or dissertations. If the thesis or dissertation is accessed online, the citation should include the URL or DOI (if available) at the end:

Pro Tip: Unique Identifiers for Easy Access

Consider including unique identifiers such as DOIs (Digital Object Identifier) or a URL in your citation whenever they are available, especially for online theses or dissertations. They help readers to directly access the source and make your work more credible and reproducible. Remember, a well-cited paper reflects your thorough research and respect for original authors' work.

Cite Social Media Posts in OSCOLA

As the digital age evolves, so does our approach to sourcing information. Social media posts are increasingly being used as sources of information in academic and legal writing. OSCOLA referencing style provides us with a clear and professional way of citing these unconventional sources.

Citing Twitter posts: When citing a tweet, you should start with the author's Twitter handle, followed by the text of the tweet in single quotation marks, then 'Twitter' and the date of the tweet.

Citing Facebook posts: For Facebook posts, begin with the individual or group authoring the post, followed by (Facebook) and the precise date of the post.

Citing blog posts: To cite a blog post, include the author's name, the title of the blog post in single quotes, the name of the blog, and the date of the blog post.

Citing Instagram posts: For Instagram posts, cite as you would a blog post, but include 'Instagram post' at the end of the citation.

Pro Tip: Capture the Moment

Due to the transient nature of social media posts, it's important to capture a screenshot or download a copy of the posts you cite. This will ensure you have a record in case the post is deleted or edited in future. This evidence may be necessary for submitting your work, depending on your institution's guidelines.

Cite Legal Cases in OSCOLA

Legal cases form the backbone of law and legal studies. They set precedents, create laws, and provide explanations for complicated legal concepts. When writing legal essays, assignments, or dissertations, citing these cases accurately using the OSCOLA referencing style adds authenticity to your work.

UK cases: When citing a UK case, you should start with the case name (in italics), followed by the neutral citation (if there is one), and then the volume number, the abbreviated name of the report, and the first page of the report.

EU Cases: For EU cases, cite the case name (in italics), then the case number and the report citation.

No neutral citation: If there's no neutral citation for a UK case, start with the case name, followed by the volume number, the abbreviated name of the report, and the first page of the report.

Pro Tip: Law Report Hierarchy

When citing UK cases, OSCOLA has a hierarchy of law reports. The 'Law Reports' (Appeal Cases (AC), Queen's Bench Division (QB), Chancery Division (Ch), and Family Division (Fam)) take precedence. If a case isn't reported in the Law Reports, use the Weekly Law Reports (WLR) or the All England Reports (All ER). Always check your university or institution's guidelines as preferences can vary.

Cite Primary Legislation in OSCOLA

Primary legislation refers to laws or statutes that have been enacted by a legislative body such as Parliament in the UK. This includes Acts of Parliament and Bills, which are often integral to legal arguments and discussions. When citing these sources in your work, you should use the OSCOLA referencing style, which provides clear guidelines for accurate citation.

Acts of Parliament: When citing an Act of Parliament, you should give the short title (in italics), followed by the chapter number.

Bills: For a Bill, cite the short title (in italics), followed by the type of Bill and the parliamentary session in brackets.

Pre-1963 Acts: If you are citing an Act that was passed before 1963, the year it was enacted should be included in roman numerals in the title.

Amended or repealed Acts: If an Act has been significantly amended or repealed, you should indicate this in your citation.

Pro Tip: Referenceing Secondary Legislation

Secondary legislation, such as Statutory Instruments or Orders in Council, are typically cited similarly to Acts but include the SI number. For example, The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Amendment Regulations 2012 SI 2012/3039. Always refer to OSCOLA guidelines to ensure accurate citation of different types of legislation.

Cite EU Legal Sources in OSCOLA

The European Union's legal system is one of the most intricate in the world, generating a vast array of legislation, case law, and official documents. The OSCOLA referencing style provides a standardised method for citing these diverse sources in academic work, maintaining clarity and precision in legal citation.

Treaties: For EU treaties, begin with the name of the treaty in italics, followed by the year of signing and the OJ reference in brackets.

Regulations and Directives: EU regulations and directives are cited with the type of instrument and number, title, and OJ reference.

Communications and reports: Communications from the European Commission and other EU bodies, as well as reports, are cited similarly to EU legislation, but may not always have an OJ reference.

Pro Tip: Getting the Details Right

OSCOLA provides detailed instructions for referencing EU legal materials, including guidelines for citing materials in languages other than English. Always refer to the most recent version of the OSCOLA guide to ensure you're following the correct format.

Cite Cases from Other Jurisdictions in OSCOLA

Globalization has made it increasingly common for legal scholars and practitioners to refer to case law from jurisdictions outside their own. The OSCOLA referencing style offers a framework for citing these cases, enabling a clear and uniform approach to international legal citation.

USA cases: When citing cases from the United States, provide the name of the case, the reporter volume number, the abbreviated name of the reporter, the first page of the report, and the year in brackets.

Australia and Canada Cases: Australian and Canadian cases should be cited by the case name, the year of the report in square brackets, the volume number (if available), the report abbreviation, and the first page.

European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) cases: For ECHR cases, start with the case name, followed by the application number, the court name, and the date of the decision.

Pro Tip: Adding Context

When citing cases from jurisdictions with which your reader might be unfamiliar, it can be helpful to provide a bit of context, either in the text of your paper or in a footnote. This might include the legal issue at stake, the jurisdiction's legal tradition, or the significance of the case in that jurisdiction's law.

Cite Hansard in OSCOLA

Hansard is the traditional name for the transcripts of Parliamentary debates and is an invaluable resource for anyone researching the legislative history of a particular act, or understanding the policy debates of a certain era. As such, it is a source that often needs to be cited in legal documents.

Citing a debate: If you're citing a debate, start with the house (either HL Deb or HC Deb for the House of Lords or House of Commons respectively), followed by the date (in square brackets), the volume, 'col' and the column number.

Citing a written answer: If you're citing a written answer, the citation structure remains the same, but the house will be either HL WA or HC WA.

Pro Tip: Using Online Resources

Since 2005, Hansard has been available online and the website offers an easy way to access both recent debates and historic ones. It's a good idea to hyperlink to the online version of Hansard if you are working on an electronic document, allowing your readers to access the full text of the debate you are citing. Be sure to check the URL for permanency if you intend to do this.

Cite Encyclopedias in OSCOLA

Legal encyclopedias are a cornerstone of comprehensive legal research, providing a digest of law that is written in a narrative form. These resources come in handy when you need a concise, accurate and up-to-date overview of a legal topic. Referencing these properly, thus, is a critical skill in crafting sound legal arguments.

Citing general legal encyclopedias: When citing from a the title of the encyclopedia should be in italics, followed by the edition, the volume number, the title of the entry in single quotes, and the paragraph or page number.

Citing a specific entry: When citing a specific entry within an encyclopedia, you'll still need to include the title of the encyclopedia, the edition, volume, title of the entry, but you also include a pinpoint reference to the relevant paragraph or page number.

Pro Tip: Making Use of Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias, like Halsbury's Laws of England, are a great starting point for any legal research. These resources provide a high-level overview of legal topics and can help guide your further research by pointing you to relevant cases, legislation, and secondary sources. As always, ensure to reference these resources accurately when used.

Cite Interviews in OSCOLA

Interviews can provide a treasure trove of insights, especially when researching a contentious legal issue or trying to glean a practitioner's viewpoint. In legal scholarship, whether these interviews are conducted by you or you are citing an interview conducted by another, they should be accurately referenced in OSCOLA.

Citing published interviews: For published interviews, start with the name of the interviewee, followed by the title of the interview in single quotes, the name of the publication in italics, and the date.

Citing unpublished interviews: For unpublished interviews that you conducted, include the name of the interviewee, the format (eg, interview), the location of the interview, and the date.

Pro Tip: Using First-Person

OSCOLA referencing style does not shy away from the first person. So when you're citing an interview that you've conducted, you can use 'I' in your footnote. For instance, 'In an interview, I conducted with Justice Smith on 3 March 2023 in Oxford…'.

Cite Case Notes in OSCOLA

Case notes, or case comments, can be a goldmine of legal analysis, elucidating the nuances of a court's decision and its implications on existing law. When you're writing a legal essay, thesis or article, citing these valuable sources accurately in OSCOLA style is crucial to creating a robust piece of legal scholarship.

Case notes: When citing a case note, begin with the author's name, the title of the note in single quotes, the year of the case note, the volume number, the abbreviated name of the law report, and the page number.

Pro Tip: Citing Multiple Authors

In the event that the case note has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the article, using 'and' between authors. For example, Smith A and Brown B, 'Title of Case Note' [Year] Abbreviated Report Name Page.

Cite Personal Communications in OSCOLA

Personal communications can offer unique insights and perspectives that enrich your legal argument. They may come in the form of emails, interviews, conversations, letters, or similar. Given their value, it's important to know how to reference them appropriately in your legal writing using OSCOLA style.

Personal communication: When citing a personal communication, begin with the name of the person from whom the communication originated, followed by (in brackets) the description of the communication and the date.

Email: For emails, the structure remains the same, except the description of the communication would be 'Email to the author'.

Pro Tip: Unpublished Works

Remember that personal communications are considered 'unpublished works', which means they cannot be accessed by the reader. Therefore, it is important to obtain the sender's permission before citing their communication in your work. Also, the reader cannot verify personal communications, so use them sparingly and only when necessary.

OSCOLA Style: Final Notes

Embarking on your journey of understanding the OSCOLA referencing style might initially seem daunting, but with the comprehensive guide provided by Bibcitation, you're now well-equipped to handle the citation challenges that lie ahead. From citing books, journals, and legal cases to personal communications, you now have the knowledge to create citations that adhere to the stringent standards of academic integrity and reflect your commitment to scholarly professionalism.

In the landscape of legal writing, the ability to format citations accurately and swiftly is invaluable. While Bibcitation can aid you in this process, having a deep understanding of the principles underpinning the OSCOLA referencing style enhances your academic prowess significantly. While our citation generator Bibcitation.com can prove to be undeniably handy, your newfound expertise in OSCOLA formatting can make you self-reliant and confident in your scholarly endeavors.

As we navigate through this digital age, the nature and format of academic references continue to evolve. However, your knowledge of the OSCOLA referencing style, combined with Bibcitation features, ensures that you're equipped to tackle any referencing task that comes your way. By learning and applying OSCOLA, you're not just preparing yourself to create accurate citations; you're readying yourself to contribute meaningfully to the rich tapestry of legal scholarship. And remember, every perfectly formatted OSCOLA citation is a silent, respectful nod to the intellectual contributions of others in your field.

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The power of effective communication in leadership.

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Chief Growth Officer of Tynker , a leading K-12 edtech platform that has helped more than 100 million kids learn to code.

Whether running a small startup or an entire nation, great leaders must leverage effective communication skills. Consider some of the leaders who reshaped history—Churchill, Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. and even Napoleon. All of them were masters of relatable language.

Good communication skills are also crucial for leaders in the corporate world for inspiring both stakeholders outside the company and uniting the internal team into one cohesive group. Strong relationships can boost company resilience and success while increasing talent retention rates.

Effective Communication: Two-Way Vs. One-Way

Influential leaders practice two-way communication, motivating and building solid relationships with team members.​​

As a leader, it is crucial to understand the importance of both one-way and two-way communication. Sometimes, you will have to communicate to your team decisions that have already been made and directives that must be followed.​​ Regardless of the situation, allowing your team members to voice their disagreements about decisions is key—because understanding their concerns is important. However, framing your communication clearly and addressing any concerns before they are presented can lead to faster acceptance.

Here are six characteristics of effective communication in leadership.

Active Listening

Good leaders are active listeners. They don't just listen to the comments and feedback from their team; they process, retain, discuss and, if possible, incorporate it into the decision-making process. When team members feel like they are heard, it builds morale.

​​Leaders should also encourage and facilitate this trait within the team to build better relationships among team members. Open-door policies, communication with individual team members, positive reactions to feedback and constructive debates can help you lead by example.

Team building activities like having discussions on common issues using a chess clock (where each member gets the same time to talk) can drive home the importance of listening.

Individual Communication Styles

​​It would be best if you introduced multiple modes of communication to accommodate your team members. Some people ​​prefer face-to-face interactions, while others might find it more comfortable chatting on Slack. Not everyone will be comfortable presenting to the whole team, but they might communicate their ideas well with an infographic or a shared presentation where people can comment in real time.

​​As a leader, you ​must​​​ understand that each team member's perspective of effective communication differs and might need the right channel to express themselves adequately.

Introducing and encouraging multiple ​communication channels​​​ can inspire the team to share ideas and exchange information more frequently.

Conciseness And Clarity

​​Don't let your communication drown in a sea of words. More information can just as easily confuse the listener as ​insufficient​​​ information. This is valid for all forms of communication. That's why TEDx Talks are designed to be 18 minutes long at most —to keep the audience's attention. ​ ​​

​​Short emails, memos and concise instructions can communicate your point better than large blocks of text. Clarity and conciseness can help team members absorb the necessary information and remain on the same page. This creates cohesion and motivates the team to pursue goals together. ​​​

For example, if a CFO writes a memo to the entire team ​​with finance-specific lingo, it likely won't be as effective in conveying its point to designers, IT, or anyone else on the team not familiar with the finance language. Leadership communication should be clear to all team members. Amazon's six-page memos that serve as a replacement for traditional PowerPoint presentations were introduced to achieve more clarification in communication.

Relatability

​​The key to building strong relationships and inspiring teams through communication is to humanize the information you wish to convey and make it more relatable. This is a common practice in education, where complex ideas are broken down and communicated through simple, relatable examples.

You don't have to break down everything in layperson's terms, and you can make your communication relatable by using references from your industry that all team members would understand. They will appreciate your effort and desire to help them understand what is being communicated.

Transparency

​​Transparency is a crucial characteristic of leadership communication, especially if your goal is to establish trust with your team members. If your employees don't know the organization's purpose or do not understand its values, you will have a hard time inspiring them.

​​ Buffer is a good example of a company employing transparent communication; the leadership team publicly shares information like salaries, time off and specific financial metrics. ​​

An organization's leaders being transparent with its employees about their intentions, company goals, financials and other aspects can foster trust and ​​lead to better relationships and team unity.

Consistency

​​Finally, leaders must be consistent in their communication. If the values, ideas and missions they communicate differ ​occasionally​​​ and among team members, it will lead to distrust against the leader. Inconsistent communication also damages team cohesion. ​ ​​

If some team members receive constant feedback from the leader and other members merely receive any communication when there is an issue, they may feel left out.

Achieving Collaboration Through Clear Communication

In the realm of leadership, effective communication is essential for building healthy relationships, both personal and professional. Leaders who communicate well can inspire team members and achieve shared goals.

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OSCOLA referencing guide (Online)

• Paraphrasing
• Repeating Citations

Subsequent citations

Subsequent citation of a case, subsequent citation of legislation, subsequent citation of a book.

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• The first time a source is mentioned, you must give the citation in full.
• In subsequent citations, briefly identify the source, and give the footnote number where the full citation can be found. See the example in the Subsequent citation of a case  box below.
• If a subsequent citation IMMEDIATELY follows the full citation, you can use ibid.

See the boxes below for examples of subsequent citations for a case, a piece of legislation and a book.

Full citation

1 Phelps v Hillington LBC [2001] 2 AC 619 (HL).

Subsequent citation immediately after the full citation:

Subsequent citation using shortened form of case name and a cross-citation to f ootnote 1 where the full citation can be found

10 Phelps (n 1).  

Full citation with name of statute and shortened version:

32 Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (NIA 1965) s 7(1). 

Subsequent citation using shortened version of the statute 

40 NIA 1965, s 12. 

Full citation:

3 Jonathan Herring, Medical Law (OUP 2011) 52. 

Authors' surname and cross-citation to footnote number 3:

26 Herring (n 3) 125. 

Original source cited again but with different page numbers:

27 ibid 271-78. 

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