different methods of research paper

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more: What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

pose a question
collect relevant data from other researchers
analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

Community Blog

Keep up-to-date on postgraduate related issues with our quick reads written by students, postdocs, professors and industry leaders.

Types of Research – Explained with Examples

By DiscoverPhDs
October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

An academic transcript gives a breakdown of each module you studied for your degree and the mark that you were awarded.

Tips for New Graduate Teaching Assistants at University

Being a new graduate teaching assistant can be a scary but rewarding undertaking – our 7 tips will help make your teaching journey as smooth as possible.

There’s no doubt about it – writing can be difficult. Whether you’re writing the first sentence of a paper or a grant proposal, it’s easy

Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.

Browse PhDs Now

Starting your PhD can feel like a daunting, exciting and special time. They’ll be so much to think about – here are a few tips to help you get started.

A Guide to Your First Week as a PhD Student

How should you spend your first week as a PhD student? Here’s are 7 steps to help you get started on your journey.

Dr Norman gained his PhD in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology from the University of East Anglia in 2018. He is now the Public Engagement Officer at the Babraham Institute.

Dr Karki gained his PhD in the field of Nuclear and Particle Physics from Ohio University in March 2020. He is currently working as a postdoctoral associate in Prof. Haiyan Gao’s research group in Duke University.

Join Thousands of Students

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

6. The Methodology
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II. Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE: If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

<< Previous: Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Next: Qualitative Methods >>
Last Updated: May 30, 2024 9:38 AM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

Knowledge Base
Methodology

Research Methods | Definition, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analysing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that have already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyse the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analysing data, examples of data analysis methods, frequently asked questions about methodology.

Data are the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs secondary data

Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesise existing knowledge, analyse historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary
Secondary

Descriptive vs experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive
Experimental

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare them for analysis.

Data can often be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analysed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that were collected:

From open-ended survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies, and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that were collected either:

During an experiment.
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data are collected and analysed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardised and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analysing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyse data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyse the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyse data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyse large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

Is this article helpful?

Types of Research Papers: Overview

Types of Research Questions

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing. While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary.

Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose, types of appropriate research questions , and expectations of sources for your assignment.

		)
Academic argument essay	To an audience of a single claim or thesis	Typically answers descriptive or explanatory questions, but could address normative or prescriptive questions. Question is focused, answerable through research, debatable, and important.	illustrate or exemplify points of argument. Includes primary sources such as empirical data, documents, or literature, or references to events and facts. provide others' perspectives or interpretations that you discuss and synthesize Includes secondary sources such as journal articles, books, and opinion pieces.
Analytical essay	To break down an issue or idea into component parts and present an of related perspectives.	Typically answers descriptive or explanatory questions. Question is focused, answerable through research, debatable, and important.	illustrate or exemplify aspects of the topic. Includes primary sources such as empirical data, documents, or literature, or references to events and facts. provide others' perspectives or interpretations that you discuss and synthesize Includes secondary sources such as journal articles, books, and opinion pieces.
Opinion essay	To an audience of a viewpoint through	Could answer most kinds of questions.	illustrate or exemplify points of argument. Includes primary sources such as empirical data, documents, or literature, or references to events and facts. provide others' perspectives or interpretations that you discuss and synthesize Could also include and reflections.
Literature review	To research related to your original study in order to provide context and demonstrate its originality.	Answers how a specific topic has been researched and what is known.	and possibly relevant grey literature.
Annotated bibliography	To , typically as a precursor to an argument or analytical essay.	Depends on the assignment.	Depends on the assignment, but generally each annotation summarizes and evaluates the source and connects it to the research question and possibly to other sources.
Expository essay	To a topic.	Depends on the assignment.	Depends on the assignment, but could rely on background information and reference sources. Typically does not require extensive research.

Need More Help?

Related guides.

Literature Reviews
Annotated Bibliographies
Starting Your Research
Next: Types of Research Questions >>
Last Updated: May 9, 2024 3:58 PM
URL: https://guides.smu.edu/researchpapertypes

Research Process

Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

3 minute read
41.1K views

Table of Contents

Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.

Understanding different research methods:

There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.

Qualitative vs quantitative research:

When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories.

Qualitative research methodology:

Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis.

Quantitative research methodology:

The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.

Analysing qualitative vs quantitative data:

The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.

When to use qualitative vs quantitative research:

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.

Why is data validation important in research?

When Data Speak, Listen: Importance of Data Collection and Analysis Methods

Descriptive Research Design and Its Myriad Uses

Doctor doing a Biomedical Research Paper

Five Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Biomedical Research Paper

Making Technical Writing in Environmental Engineering Accessible

To Err is Not Human: The Dangers of AI-assisted Academic Writing

Writing a good review article

Scholarly Sources: What are They and Where can You Find Them?

Input your search keywords and press Enter.

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Glossary of Research Terms
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Executive Summary
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Annotated Bibliography
Dealing with Nervousness
Using Visual Aids
Grading Someone Else's Paper
How to Manage Group Projects
Multiple Book Review Essay
Reviewing Collected Essays
About Informed Consent
Writing Field Notes
Writing a Policy Memo
Writing a Research Proposal
Acknowledgements

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) How was the data collected or generated? 2) How was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you choose affects the results and, by extension, how you likely interpreted those results.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and it misappropriates interpretations of findings .
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. Your methodology section of your paper should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure .
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The research method must be appropriate to the objectives of the study . For example, be sure you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring . For any problems that did arise, you must describe the ways in which their impact was minimized or why these problems do not affect the findings in any way that impacts your interpretation of the data.
Often in social science research, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate your methodology. Therefore, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow others to use or replicate the study . This information is particularly important when a new method had been developed or an innovative use of an existing method has been utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation .
The interpretative group is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . This research method allows you to recognize your connection to the subject under study. Because the interpretative group focuses more on subjective knowledge, it requires careful interpretation of variables.

II. Content

An effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods should have a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is unsuited to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors?
Provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of statisics being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate.
Address potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE : Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Don’t provide any background information that doesn’t directly help the reader to understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how it was analyzed. Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. NOTE: An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional approach to doing the method; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall research process. Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose. Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics. Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship . S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

<< Previous: What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Next: Qualitative Methods >>
Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
QuickSearch
Library Catalog
Databases A-Z
Publication Finder
Course Reserves
Citation Linker
Digital Commons
Our Website

Research Support

Ask a Librarian
Appointments
Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
Research Guides
Databases by Subject
Citation Help

Using the Library

Reserve a Group Study Room
Renew Books
Honors Study Rooms
Off-Campus Access
Library Policies
Library Technology

User Information

Grad Students
Online Students
COVID-19 Updates
Staff Directory
News & Announcements
Library Newsletter

My Accounts

Interlibrary Loan
Staff Site Login

FIND US ON

15 Types of Research Methods

types of research methods, explained below

Research methods refer to the strategies, tools, and techniques used to gather and analyze data in a structured way in order to answer a research question or investigate a hypothesis (Hammond & Wellington, 2020).

Generally, we place research methods into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, which we can summarize as:

Quantitative research can achieve generalizability through scrupulous statistical analysis applied to large sample sizes.
Qualitative research achieves deep, detailed, and nuance accounts of specific case studies, which are not generalizable.

Some researchers, with the aim of making the most of both quantitative and qualitative research, employ mixed methods, whereby they will apply both types of research methods in the one study, such as by conducting a statistical survey alongside in-depth interviews to add context to the quantitative findings.

Below, I’ll outline 15 common research methods, and include pros, cons, and examples of each .

Types of Research Methods

Research methods can be broadly categorized into two types: quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative methods involve systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques, providing an in-depth understanding of a specific concept or phenomenon (Schweigert, 2021). The strengths of this approach include its ability to produce reliable results that can be generalized to a larger population, although it can lack depth and detail.
Qualitative methods encompass techniques that are designed to provide a deep understanding of a complex issue, often in a specific context, through collection of non-numerical data (Tracy, 2019). This approach often provides rich, detailed insights but can be time-consuming and its findings may not be generalizable.

These can be further broken down into a range of specific research methods and designs:

Primarily Quantitative Methods	Primarily Qualitative methods
Experimental Research	Case Study
Surveys and Questionnaires	Ethnography
Longitudinal Studies	Phenomenology
Cross-Sectional Studies	Historical research
Correlational Research	Content analysis
Causal-Comparative Research	Grounded theory
Meta-Analysis	Action research
Quasi-Experimental Design	Observational research

Combining the two methods above, mixed methods research mixes elements of both qualitative and quantitative research methods, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem . We can further break these down into:

Sequential Explanatory Design (QUAN→QUAL): This methodology involves conducting quantitative analysis first, then supplementing it with a qualitative study.
Sequential Exploratory Design (QUAL→QUAN): This methodology goes in the other direction, starting with qualitative analysis and ending with quantitative analysis.

Let’s explore some methods and designs from both quantitative and qualitative traditions, starting with qualitative research methods.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods allow for the exploration of phenomena in their natural settings, providing detailed, descriptive responses and insights into individuals’ experiences and perceptions (Howitt, 2019).

These methods are useful when a detailed understanding of a phenomenon is sought.

1. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research emerged out of anthropological research, where anthropologists would enter into a setting for a sustained period of time, getting to know a cultural group and taking detailed observations.

Ethnographers would sometimes even act as participants in the group or culture, which many scholars argue is a weakness because it is a step away from achieving objectivity (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

In fact, at its most extreme version, ethnographers even conduct research on themselves, in a fascinating methodology call autoethnography .

The purpose is to understand the culture, social structure, and the behaviors of the group under study. It is often useful when researchers seek to understand shared cultural meanings and practices in their natural settings.

However, it can be time-consuming and may reflect researcher biases due to the immersion approach.

Pros of Ethnographic Research	Cons of Ethnographic Research
1. Provides deep cultural insights	1. Time-consuming
2. Contextually relevant findings	2. Potential researcher bias
3. Explores dynamic social processes	3. May

Example of Ethnography

Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street by Karen Ho involves an anthropologist who embeds herself with Wall Street firms to study the culture of Wall Street bankers and how this culture affects the broader economy and world.

2. Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research is a qualitative method focused on the study of individual experiences from the participant’s perspective (Tracy, 2019).

It focuses specifically on people’s experiences in relation to a specific social phenomenon ( see here for examples of social phenomena ).

This method is valuable when the goal is to understand how individuals perceive, experience, and make meaning of particular phenomena. However, because it is subjective and dependent on participants’ self-reports, findings may not be generalizable, and are highly reliant on self-reported ‘thoughts and feelings’.

Pros of Phenomenological Research	Cons of Phenomenological Research
1. Provides rich, detailed data	1. Limited generalizability
2. Highlights personal experience and perceptions	2. Data collection can be time-consuming
3. Allows exploration of complex phenomena	3. Requires highly skilled researchers

Example of Phenomenological Research

A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting-point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

3. Historical Research

Historical research is a qualitative method involving the examination of past events to draw conclusions about the present or make predictions about the future (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

As you might expect, it’s common in the research branches of history departments in universities.

This approach is useful in studies that seek to understand the past to interpret present events or trends. However, it relies heavily on the availability and reliability of source materials, which may be limited.

Common data sources include cultural artifacts from both material and non-material culture , which are then examined, compared, contrasted, and contextualized to test hypotheses and generate theories.

Pros of Historical Research	Cons of Historical Research
1.	1. Dependent on available sources
2. Can help understand current events or trends	2. Potential bias in source materials
3. Allows the study of change over time	3. Difficult to replicate

Example of Historical Research

A historical research example might be a study examining the evolution of gender roles over the last century. This research might involve the analysis of historical newspapers, advertisements, letters, and company documents, as well as sociocultural contexts.

4. Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research method that involves systematic and objective coding and interpreting of text or media to identify patterns, themes, ideologies, or biases (Schweigert, 2021).

A content analysis is useful in analyzing communication patterns, helping to reveal how texts such as newspapers, movies, films, political speeches, and other types of ‘content’ contain narratives and biases.

However, interpretations can be very subjective, which often requires scholars to engage in practices such as cross-comparing their coding with peers or external researchers.

Content analysis can be further broken down in to other specific methodologies such as semiotic analysis, multimodal analysis , and discourse analysis .

Pros of Content Analysis	Cons of Content Analysis
1. Unobtrusive data collection	1. Lacks contextual information
2. Allows for large sample analysis	2. Potential coder bias
3. Replicable and reliable if done properly	3. May overlook nuances

Example of Content Analysis

How is Islam Portrayed in Western Media? by Poorebrahim and Zarei (2013) employs a type of content analysis called critical discourse analysis (common in poststructuralist and critical theory research ). This study by Poorebrahum and Zarei combs through a corpus of western media texts to explore the language forms that are used in relation to Islam and Muslims, finding that they are overly stereotyped, which may represent anti-Islam bias or failure to understand the Islamic world.

5. Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory involves developing a theory during and after data collection rather than beforehand.

This is in contrast to most academic research studies, which start with a hypothesis or theory and then testing of it through a study, where we might have a null hypothesis (disproving the theory) and an alternative hypothesis (supporting the theory).

Grounded Theory is useful because it keeps an open mind to what the data might reveal out of the research. It can be time-consuming and requires rigorous data analysis (Tracy, 2019).

Pros of Grounded Theory Research	Cons of Grounded Theory Research
1. Helps with theory development	1. Time-consuming
2. Rigorous data analysis	2. Requires iterative data collection and analysis
3. Can fill gaps in existing theories	3. Requires skilled researchers

Grounded Theory Example

Developing a Leadership Identity by Komives et al (2005) employs a grounded theory approach to develop a thesis based on the data rather than testing a hypothesis. The researchers studied the leadership identity of 13 college students taking on leadership roles. Based on their interviews, the researchers theorized that the students’ leadership identities shifted from a hierarchical view of leadership to one that embraced leadership as a collaborative concept.

6. Action Research

Action research is an approach which aims to solve real-world problems and bring about change within a setting. The study is designed to solve a specific problem – or in other words, to take action (Patten, 2017).

This approach can involve mixed methods, but is generally qualitative because it usually involves the study of a specific case study wherein the researcher works, e.g. a teacher studying their own classroom practice to seek ways they can improve.

Action research is very common in fields like education and nursing where practitioners identify areas for improvement then implement a study in order to find paths forward.

Pros of Action Research	Cons of Action Research
1. Addresses real-world problems and seeks to find solutions.	1. It is time-consuming and often hard to implement into a practitioner’s already busy schedule
2. Integrates research and action in an action-research cycle.	2. Requires collaboration between researcher, practitioner, and research participants.
3. Can bring about positive change in isolated instances, such as in a school or nursery setting.	3. Complexity of managing dual roles (where the researcher is also often the practitioner)

Action Research Example

Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing by Ellison and Drew was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

7. Natural Observational Research

Observational research can also be quantitative (see: experimental research), but in naturalistic settings for the social sciences, researchers tend to employ qualitative data collection methods like interviews and field notes to observe people in their day-to-day environments.

This approach involves the observation and detailed recording of behaviors in their natural settings (Howitt, 2019). It can provide rich, in-depth information, but the researcher’s presence might influence behavior.

While observational research has some overlaps with ethnography (especially in regard to data collection techniques), it tends not to be as sustained as ethnography, e.g. a researcher might do 5 observations, every second Monday, as opposed to being embedded in an environment.

Pros of Qualitative Observational Research	Cons of Qualitative Observational Research
1. Captures behavior in natural settings, allowing for interesting insights into authentic behaviors.	1. Researcher’s presence may influence behavior
2. Can provide rich, detailed data through the researcher’s vignettes.	2. Can be time-consuming
3. Non-invasive because researchers want to observe natural activities rather than interfering with research participants.	3. Requires skilled and trained observers

Observational Research Example

A researcher might use qualitative observational research to study the behaviors and interactions of children at a playground. The researcher would document the behaviors observed, such as the types of games played, levels of cooperation , and instances of conflict.

8. Case Study Research

Case study research is a qualitative method that involves a deep and thorough investigation of a single individual, group, or event in order to explore facets of that phenomenon that cannot be captured using other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

Case study research is especially valuable in providing contextualized insights into specific issues, facilitating the application of abstract theories to real-world situations (Patten, 2017).

However, findings from a case study may not be generalizable due to the specific context and the limited number of cases studied (Walliman, 2021).

Pros of Case Study Research	Cons of Case Study Research
1. Provides detailed insights	1. Limited generalizability
2. Facilitates the study of complex phenomena	2. Can be time-consuming
3. Can test or generate theories	3. Subject to observer bias

See More: Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

Example of a Case Study

Scholars conduct a detailed exploration of the implementation of a new teaching method within a classroom setting. The study focuses on how the teacher and students adapt to the new method, the challenges encountered, and the outcomes on student performance and engagement. While the study provides specific and detailed insights of the teaching method in that classroom, it cannot be generalized to other classrooms, as statistical significance has not been established through this qualitative approach.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods involve the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques (Pajo, 2022). The focus is on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

9. Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative method where researchers manipulate one variable to determine its effect on another (Walliman, 2021).

This is common, for example, in high-school science labs, where students are asked to introduce a variable into a setting in order to examine its effect.

This type of research is useful in situations where researchers want to determine causal relationships between variables. However, experimental conditions may not reflect real-world conditions.

Pros of Experimental Research	Cons of Experimental Research
1. Allows for determination of causality	1. Might not reflect real-world conditions
2. Allows for the study of phenomena in highly controlled environments to minimize research contamination.	2. Can be costly and time-consuming to create a controlled environment.
3. Can be replicated so other researchers can test and verify the results.	3. Ethical concerns need to be addressed as the research is directly manipulating variables.

Example of Experimental Research

A researcher may conduct an experiment to determine the effects of a new educational approach on student learning outcomes. Students would be randomly assigned to either the control group (traditional teaching method) or the experimental group (new educational approach).

10. Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are quantitative methods that involve asking research participants structured and predefined questions to collect data about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics (Patten, 2017).

Surveys are beneficial for collecting data from large samples, but they depend heavily on the honesty and accuracy of respondents.

They tend to be seen as more authoritative than their qualitative counterparts, semi-structured interviews, because the data is quantifiable (e.g. a questionnaire where information is presented on a scale from 1 to 10 can allow researchers to determine and compare statistical means, averages, and variations across sub-populations in the study).

Pros of Surveys and Questionnaires	Cons of Surveys and Questionnaires
1. Data can be gathered from larger samples than is possible in qualitative research.	1. There is heavy dependence on respondent honesty
2. The data is quantifiable, allowing for comparison across subpopulations	2. There is limited depth of response as opposed to qualitative approaches.
3. Can be cost-effective and time-efficient	3. Static with no flexibility to explore responses (unlike semi- or unstrcutured interviewing)

Example of a Survey Study

A company might use a survey to gather data about employee job satisfaction across its offices worldwide. Employees would be asked to rate various aspects of their job satisfaction on a Likert scale. While this method provides a broad overview, it may lack the depth of understanding possible with other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

11. Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies involve repeated observations of the same variables over extended periods (Howitt, 2019). These studies are valuable for tracking development and change but can be costly and time-consuming.

With multiple data points collected over extended periods, it’s possible to examine continuous changes within things like population dynamics or consumer behavior. This makes a detailed analysis of change possible.

a visual representation of a longitudinal study demonstrating that data is collected over time on one sample so researchers can examine how variables change over time

Perhaps the most relatable example of a longitudinal study is a national census, which is taken on the same day every few years, to gather comparative demographic data that can show how a nation is changing over time.

While longitudinal studies are commonly quantitative, there are also instances of qualitative ones as well, such as the famous 7 Up study from the UK, which studies 14 individuals every 7 years to explore their development over their lives.

Pros of Longitudinal Studies	Cons of Longitudinal Studies
1. Tracks changes over time allowing for comparison of past to present events.	1. Is almost by definition time-consuming because time needs to pass between each data collection session.
2. Can identify sequences of events, but causality is often harder to determine.	2. There is high risk of participant dropout over time as participants move on with their lives.

Example of a Longitudinal Study

A national census, taken every few years, uses surveys to develop longitudinal data, which is then compared and analyzed to present accurate trends over time. Trends a census can reveal include changes in religiosity, values and attitudes on social issues, and much more.

12. Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies are a quantitative research method that involves analyzing data from a population at a specific point in time (Patten, 2017). They provide a snapshot of a situation but cannot determine causality.

This design is used to measure and compare the prevalence of certain characteristics or outcomes in different groups within the sampled population.

A visual representation of a cross-sectional group of people, demonstrating that the data is collected at a single point in time and you can compare groups within the sample

The major advantage of cross-sectional design is its ability to measure a wide range of variables simultaneously without needing to follow up with participants over time.

However, cross-sectional studies do have limitations . This design can only show if there are associations or correlations between different variables, but cannot prove cause and effect relationships, temporal sequence, changes, and trends over time.

Pros of Cross-Sectional Studies	Cons of Cross-Sectional Studies
1. Quick and inexpensive, with no long-term commitment required.	1. Cannot determine causality because it is a simple snapshot, with no time delay between data collection points.
2. Good for descriptive analyses.	2. Does not allow researchers to follow up with research participants.

Example of a Cross-Sectional Study

Our longitudinal study example of a national census also happens to contain cross-sectional design. One census is cross-sectional, displaying only data from one point in time. But when a census is taken once every few years, it becomes longitudinal, and so long as the data collection technique remains unchanged, identification of changes will be achievable, adding another time dimension on top of a basic cross-sectional study.

13. Correlational Research

Correlational research is a quantitative method that seeks to determine if and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables (Schweigert, 2021).

This approach provides a fast and easy way to make initial hypotheses based on either positive or negative correlation trends that can be observed within dataset.

While correlational research can reveal relationships between variables, it cannot establish causality.

Methods used for data analysis may include statistical correlations such as Pearson’s or Spearman’s.

Pros of Correlational Research	Cons of Correlational Research
1. Reveals relationships between variables	1. Cannot determine causality
2. Can use existing data	2. May be
3. Can guide further experimental research	3. Correlation may be coincidental

Example of Correlational Research

A team of researchers is interested in studying the relationship between the amount of time students spend studying and their academic performance. They gather data from a high school, measuring the number of hours each student studies per week and their grade point averages (GPAs) at the end of the semester. Upon analyzing the data, they find a positive correlation, suggesting that students who spend more time studying tend to have higher GPAs.

14. Quasi-Experimental Design Research

Quasi-experimental design research is a quantitative research method that is similar to experimental design but lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or control.

Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically rely on certain other methods to control for extraneous variables.

The term ‘quasi-experimental’ implies that the experiment resembles a true experiment, but it is not exactly the same because it doesn’t meet all the criteria for a ‘true’ experiment, specifically in terms of control and random assignment.

Quasi-experimental design is useful when researchers want to study a causal hypothesis or relationship, but practical or ethical considerations prevent them from manipulating variables and randomly assigning participants to conditions.

Pros	Cons
1. It’s more feasible to implement than true experiments.	1. Without random assignment, it’s harder to rule out confounding variables.
2. It can be conducted in real-world settings, making the findings more applicable to the real world.	2. The lack of random assignment may of the study.
3. Useful when it’s unethical or impossible to manipulate the independent variable or randomly assign participants.	3. It’s more difficult to establish a cause-effect relationship due to the potential for confounding variables.

Example of Quasi-Experimental Design

A researcher wants to study the impact of a new math tutoring program on student performance. However, ethical and practical constraints prevent random assignment to the “tutoring” and “no tutoring” groups. Instead, the researcher compares students who chose to receive tutoring (experimental group) to similar students who did not choose to receive tutoring (control group), controlling for other variables like grade level and previous math performance.

Related: Examples and Types of Random Assignment in Research

15. Meta-Analysis Research

Meta-analysis statistically combines the results of multiple studies on a specific topic to yield a more precise estimate of the effect size. It’s the gold standard of secondary research .

Meta-analysis is particularly useful when there are numerous studies on a topic, and there is a need to integrate the findings to draw more reliable conclusions.

Some meta-analyses can identify flaws or gaps in a corpus of research, when can be highly influential in academic research, despite lack of primary data collection.

However, they tend only to be feasible when there is a sizable corpus of high-quality and reliable studies into a phenomenon.

Pros	Cons
Increased Statistical Power: By combining data from multiple studies, meta-analysis increases the statistical power to detect effects.	Publication Bias: Studies with null or negative findings are less likely to be published, leading to an overestimation of effect sizes.
Greater Precision: It provides more precise estimates of effect sizes by reducing the influence of random error.	Quality of Studies: of a meta-analysis depends on the quality of the studies included.
Resolving Discrepancies: Meta-analysis can help resolve disagreements between different studies on a topic.	Heterogeneity: Differences in study design, sample, or procedures can introduce heterogeneity, complicating interpretation of results.

Example of a Meta-Analysis

The power of feedback revisited (Wisniewski, Zierer & Hattie, 2020) is a meta-analysis that examines 435 empirical studies research on the effects of feedback on student learning. They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether there is a clear effect size across the literature. The authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on motivational and behavioral outcomes.

Choosing a research method requires a lot of consideration regarding what you want to achieve, your research paradigm, and the methodology that is most valuable for what you are studying. There are multiple types of research methods, many of which I haven’t been able to present here. Generally, it’s recommended that you work with an experienced researcher or research supervisor to identify a suitable research method for your study at hand.

Hammond, M., & Wellington, J. (2020). Research methods: The key concepts . New York: Routledge.

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology . London: Pearson UK.

Pajo, B. (2022). Introduction to research methods: A hands-on approach . New York: Sage Publications.

Patten, M. L. (2017). Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials . New York: Sage

Schweigert, W. A. (2021). Research methods in psychology: A handbook . Los Angeles: Waveland Press.

Stokes, P., & Wall, T. (2017). Research methods . New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Tracy, S. J. (2019). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact . London: John Wiley & Sons.

Walliman, N. (2021). Research methods: The basics. London: Routledge.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Self-Actualization Examples (Maslow's Hierarchy)
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Forest Schools Philosophy & Curriculum, Explained!
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Montessori's 4 Planes of Development, Explained!
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Montessori vs Reggio Emilia vs Steiner-Waldorf vs Froebel

What are the Different Types of Research Papers?

There is a diverse array of research papers that one can find in academic writing. Research papers are a rigorous combination of knowledge, thinking, analysis, research, and writing. Early career researchers and students need to know that research papers can be of fundamentally different types. Generally, they combine aspects and elements of multiple strands or frameworks of research. This depends primarily on the aim of the study, the discipline, the critical requirements of research publications and journals and the research topic or area. Specifically, research papers can be differentiated by their primary rationale, structure, and emphasis. The different types of research papers contribute to the universe of knowledge while providing invaluable insights for policy and scope for further advanced research and development. In this article, we will look at various kinds of research papers and understand their underlying principles, objectives, and purposes.

Different types of research papers

Argumentative Research Paper: In an argumentative paper, the researcher is expected to present facts and findings on both sides of a given topic but make an extended and persuasive argument supporting one side over the other. The purpose of such research papers is to provide evidence-based arguments to support the claim or thesis statement taken up by the researcher. Emotions mustn’t inform the building up of the case. Conversely, facts and findings must be objective and logical while presenting both sides of the issue. The position taken up by the researcher must be stated clearly and in a well-defined manner. The evidence supporting the claim must be well-researched and up-to-date, and the paper presents differing views on the topic, even if these do not agree or align with the researcher’s thesis statement.
Analytical Research Paper: In an analytical research paper, the researcher starts by asking a research question, followed by a collection of appropriate data from a wide range of sources. These include primary and secondary data, which the researcher needs to analyze and interpret closely. Critical and analytical thinking skills are therefore crucial to this process. Rather than presenting a summary of the data, the researcher is expected to analyze the findings and perspectives of each source material before putting forward their critical insights and concluding. Personal biases or positions mustn’t influence or creep into the process of writing an analytical research paper.
Experimental Research Paper: Experimental research papers provide a detailed report on a particular research experiment undertaken by a researcher and its outcomes or findings. Based on the research experiment, the researcher explains the experimental design and procedure, shows sufficient data, presents analysis, and draws a conclusion. Such research papers are more common in fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Experimental research involves conducting experiments in controlled conditions to test specific hypotheses. This not only allows researchers to arrive at particular conclusions but also helps them understand causal relationships. As it lends itself to replicating the findings of the research, it enhances the validity of the research conducted.

Some more types of research papers

In addition to the above-detailed types of research papers, there are many more types, including review papers, case study papers, comparative research papers and so on.

Review papers provide a detailed overview and analysis of existing research on a particular topic. The key objective of a review paper is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the latest research findings on a specific subject.
Case study papers usually focus on a single or small number of cases. This is used in research when the aim is to obtain an in-depth investigation of an issue.
Comparative research papers involve comparing and contrasting two or more entities or cases that help to identify and arrive at trends or relationships. The objective of relative research papers is to increase knowledge and understand issues in different contexts.
Survey research papers require that a survey be conducted on a given topic by posing questions to potential respondents. Once the survey has been completed, the researcher analyzes the information and presents it as a research paper.
Interpretative paper s employ the knowledge or information gained from pursuing a specific issue or research topic in a particular field. It is written around theoretical frameworks and uses data to support the thesis statement and findings.

Research papers are an essential part of academic writing and contribute significantly to advancing our knowledge and understanding of different subjects. The researcher’s ability to conduct research, analyze data, and present their findings is crucial to producing high-quality research papers. By understanding the different types of research papers and their underlying principles, researchers can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields and provide invaluable insights for policy and further research.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!

Plagiarism Checkers vs. AI Content Detection: Navigating the Academic Landscape

You may also like, what is the importance of a concept paper..., how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples, how to write a high-quality conference paper, how paperpal’s research feature helps you develop and..., how to write a successful book chapter for..., academic editing: how to self-edit academic text with..., what are scholarly sources and where can you..., how to write a hypothesis types and examples , measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence.

Apr 20, 2024

Different types of Research Papers: An in-depth guide

Research papers can induce headaches worse than any all-nighter. It's not just the topic, it's figuring out what kind of paper to write. Analytical? Argumentative? Experimental?

Let’s simplify these terms and give you the tools to confidently pick the right research paper format every time.

The Essence of Academic Research Papers

Before we get into the diverse landscape of research papers , let's unpack what makes them unique in the broader world of writing. Here are the defining characteristics that set them apart:

Investigative Focus: Research papers aim to answer specific questions or address problems through methodical investigation and analysis.

Evidence-Based: Opinions aren't enough! These papers rely heavily on credible evidence – from peer-reviewed studies to primary sources – to build convincing arguments.

Structured Format: Logic is king! Research papers generally follow specific structural conventions with clear introductions, bodies, and conclusions.

Contribution to Knowledge: The goal is not simply to summarize existing information but to offer new insights, interpretations, or advancements within a field.

Is Every Research Paper Suited for Academic Journals?

While all academic journal submissions are research papers, not all research papers are destined for publication in these prestigious outlets. Here's why:

Rigor: Academic journals uphold the highest standards. Research must be incredibly thorough, demonstrate originality, and follow impeccable methodology.

Scope and Focus: Journals have specific areas of interest. Your groundbreaking research on cat memes may not be a good fit for a medical journal!

Student Work: Many research papers, like coursework assignments, aren't intended for publication. They still demonstrate research skills but might not reach the level of innovation expected in academic journals.

Important point: Even a research paper not suitable for a journal can be incredibly valuable as a learning tool or as a springboard for future, more in-depth research.

Types of Research Papers: A Comprehensive Guide

Now that we've grasped the essence of research papers, let's explore the diverse range of formats available. Think of each like a specialized tool in your scholar's toolkit:

Analytical Research Paper : Dissects existing information to arrive at new insights or interpretations.

Example: Analyzing literary themes in a classic novel.

Argumentative Research Paper : Advocates for a particular stance or viewpoint.

Example: Debating the effectiveness of a specific economic policy.

Empirical Research Paper: Focuses on original data collection and analysis through experiments, surveys, or observations.

Example: Investigating the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

Exploratory Research Paper: Discusses a topic where limited prior research exists, laying the groundwork for future investigation.

Example: Examining the social implications of emerging technologies.

Review Paper: Synthesizes and critically analyzes a body of literature on a specific topic, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps in knowledge.

Example: Examining the current understanding of climate change mitigation strategies.

Can One Research Paper Fit Multiple Types?

Absolutely! The boundaries between research paper types can sometimes be fluid, especially in interdisciplinary fields. Here's how this can happen:

Combined Methodologies: A paper may employ both an analysis of existing literature (analytical) and collect original dataset (empirical) for a more comprehensive understanding.

Addressing Complex Questions: Big, multi-faceted issues often demand a blend of approaches. A paper examining the environmental impact of a new policy might utilize both data analysis and argumentation strategies.

This overlap demonstrates the richness of academic discourse – when done skillfully, blending methods can strengthen a paper's arguments and reveal new insights.

Argumentative Papers: Crafting a Persuasive Argument

Imagine a courtroom – your argumentative paper is your closing argument. Here's how to structure a persuasive masterpiece:

Thesis Statement: This is your central claim, the foundation of your argument.

Example: "Despite its economic benefits, social media has a negative impact on mental health."

Supporting Arguments: Each body paragraph should present a strong point that reinforces your thesis.

Example: One supporting argument could explore the link between social media use and increased anxiety.

Evidence and Examples: Back your arguments with credible sources – studies, statistics, and expert opinions.

Example: Cite relevant research on the correlation between social media use and anxiety levels.

Counterarguments: Anticipate opposing viewpoints and address them head-on. This demonstrates a well-rounded understanding of the issue.

Example: Acknowledge the potential economic benefits of social media but explain why they don't outweigh the mental health concerns.

Conclusion: Restate your thesis in a new way and emphasize the significance of your argument.

Example: Reiterate the negative impact of social media on mental health and call for further research or awareness campaigns.

Analytical Papers: Analyzing Data and Texts

Analytical papers are like detectives investigating a scene – the "scene" being data or text. Here's how to crack the case:

Data Interpretation: Make sense of your data – whether it's from surveys, experiments, or historical records. Identify trends, patterns, and relationships.

Thesis Development: Based on your analysis, formulate a clear thesis statement that reveals a new insight or interpretation.

Example: "An analysis of historical climate data reveals a cyclical pattern of drought and flood events in this region."

Evidence Presentation: Don't just dump data on your reader! Use tables, charts, and graphs to visually represent your findings and support your interpretations.

Connecting the Dots: Analyze how your findings connect to existing scholarship on the topic. Does your analysis confirm or challenge existing theories?

Definition Papers: Explaining Complex Concepts

Sometimes, the toughest challenge is explaining something complex clearly. Here are some tips for crafting effective definition papers :

Start with Context: Briefly introduce the concept and its significance within a broader field.

Break it Down: Define the term using clear, concise language.

Examples are Key: Illustrate the concept with real-world scenarios or historical references.

Example: Defining "photosynthesis" could include an example of how plants use sunlight to create energy.

Distinguishing Features: Identify characteristics that differentiate the concept from similar terms. This avoids confusion for your reader.

Example: Explain the difference between "correlation" and "causation" when discussing scientific research.

Compare and Contrast: Highlighting Differences and Similarities

Comparing and contrasting ideas, theories, or historical events is a versatile skill applicable across many disciplines. Here's how to structure a successful compare and contrast paper :

Topic Selection: Choose topics that have enough similarities for meaningful comparison and enough differences to highlight. Example: Comparing two different economic policies.

Organization Matters: You can organize your paper in two ways:

Point-by-Point: Each body paragraph focuses on one aspect (e.g., economic impact), comparing both items on that aspect before moving on to the next point.

Block Structure: Dedicate body paragraphs to describing each item fully (one item per paragraph), and then offering a final paragraph for comparison/contrast.

Beyond the Obvious: Don't just list similarities and differences. Analyze how those variations lead to different outcomes or implications.

Concise Conclusions: Summarize key findings and emphasize the significance of the differences or similarities you’ve identified. Why does this comparison matter?

Cause and Effect: Unraveling the Causal Links

Understanding cause-and-effect relationships is crucial for making informed decisions and identifying solutions to problems. Here's how to tackle a cause-and-effect paper:

Identify the Relationship: State the supposed cause-effect relationship clearly.

Example: "Does social media use cause an increase in anxiety?"

Research is Your Weapon: Thorough research is vital! Find credible studies, statistics, and expert opinions that either support or refute the cause-effect relationship.

Avoid the Trap of Correlation: Just because two things are correlated doesn't mean one causes the other. Explore confounding factors and alternative explanations.

Evidence-Based Arguments: Build your case using strong evidence. Explain how the research findings demonstrate (or fail to demonstrate) a causal link.

Acknowledge Limitations: Discuss the potential for other causes or influencing factors. Address any limitations in the existing research.

Research and Sources: The Bedrock of Your Paper

The strength of your research paper hinges on the quality of the information you use. Rigorous research and credible sources are the building blocks of successful academic work. Let's explore strategies for finding the best sources and integrating them seamlessly into your paper.

Identifying and Evaluating Sources: Finding the Gems

The internet offers a vast ocean of information, but not all sources are equally valuable. Here's how to navigate the research waters:

Scholarly Databases: University libraries subscribe to databases with peer-reviewed academic journals, ebooks, and other credible publications – your best bet for most research papers.

Books by Established Authors: Seek books published by reputable academic presses and written by recognized scholars in your field.

Credible Websites: Government websites (.gov), educational institutions (.edu), and established professional organizations can provide valuable information. Scrutinize the "About Us" section to assess their legitimacy.

Sharpen Your Critical Thinking Skills

Just finding sources isn't enough. Learn to evaluate them critically:

Author Credentials: Who wrote the source? Are they an expert in the field?

Publication Date: Is the information current and relevant to your research question?

Purpose and Bias: What is the source's agenda? Is it objective or trying to persuade the reader in a particular direction?

Evidence and Citations: Does the source rely on credible evidence and cite its sources properly?

Is Peer Review Essential for All Types of Research Papers?

Peer review is a cornerstone of academic integrity. Here's why it matters:

Quality Control: Peer-reviewed articles undergo rigorous review by experts who scrutinize the research methods, analysis, and conclusions.

Credibility and Trust: Peer-reviewed publications demonstrate a higher level of credibility and are typically the gold standard for academic research papers.

Nuances of Peer Review:

The peer-review process can vary by field and publication type. Some journals might have a more rigorous blind review process, while others might utilize open review with editorial oversight.

Not all research papers are intended for peer-reviewed journals. Coursework assignments may involve using a variety of credible sources, including non-peer-reviewed sources when appropriate (e.g., government reports, industry publications).

Mastering Research Paper Writing: Your Journey to Publication

Writing a compelling research paper is a journey with multiple stages. Let's chart the course, from the initial spark of an idea to the final submission for potential publication.

Stage 1: Ideation and Planning: Choose a topic that sparks your interest and aligns with your field of study. Ensure it has enough depth for meaningful research.

Stage 2: In-Depth Research: Search for scholarly databases relevant to your topic. Consider peer-reviewed articles, books, government reports, and credible websites that can provide valuable information.

Stage 3: Writing and Drafting: Hook the reader with a captivating introduction – set the stage with background information, clearly outline your thesis statement, and highlight the significance of your research.

Stage 4: Revision and Editing: Re-evaluate the flow of arguments, ensure transitions are smooth, and that each paragraph supports your thesis. Fix grammar errors, typos, and ensure your citation formatting is immaculate.

Stage 5: Pre-Submission Preparation: Condense your research, findings, and significance for the abstract. Share your paper with a peer, mentor, or writing center for valuable insights and suggestions.

Do All Research Papers Require an Abstract?

Yes, research papers, especially those intended for formal dissemination (academic journals, conferences), require abstracts. Consider the abstract as the doorway to your paper. It provides:

Summary Overview: A snapshot of what the reader can expect, including the topic, methodology, key findings, and the significance of your research.

Search Optimization: Abstracts often contain keywords that help researchers find your paper during online searches.

Reader Engagement: A well-written abstract can pique a reader's interest and encourage them to delve into your full paper.

Note: Some research papers in a course setting may not require an abstract. Always verify with your professor.

Outlining Your Research Paper

The journey from a research topic to a polished paper involves several crucial stages. Let's break down the process, equipping you with the tools to write a compelling and well-structured research paper:

Before diving headfirst into writing, an effective outline acts as your roadmap. Here's why it matters:

Improved Organization: An outline helps structure your thoughts and research findings, ensuring a cohesive flow of arguments.

Identifying Gaps: The outlining process can reveal missing information or areas that need further research.

Enhanced Writing Efficiency: Having a clear roadmap saves time later, as you won't be scrambling to figure out the order of your arguments.

How to Craft an Effective Outline:

Start Broad: Begin with your thesis statement and then list the main points you'll address in each body paragraph.

Layer the Details: Under each main point, list supporting arguments, evidence sources, and potential counterarguments to address.

Refine and Adapt: Outlines are dynamic – don't be afraid to revise and adapt them as your research progresses.

Writing Your First Draft

Now you're ready to transform your outline into a full draft. Here are some tips to navigate this stage:

Conquering Writer's Block: Stare at a blank page no more! Start with any section that feels manageable – an introduction, a strong body paragraph, or even the conclusion.

Momentum Matters: Set realistic writing goals, aiming for consistent progress. Even small chunks of writing add up!

Focus on Content, Not Perfection: This is your first draft. Don't worry about perfect grammar or sentence structure – the goal is to get your ideas on paper.

Incorporating Feedback and Revisions

Fresh eyes can make a world of difference. Seeking feedback is crucial for refining your paper:

Peer Review: Swap papers with a classmate for constructive criticism on flow, clarity, and argument strength.

Professor's Guidance: Schedule meetings with your professor to discuss your progress and address any concerns.

Writing Center Support: Many universities offer writing center resources for additional feedback and editing assistance.

Revision is an iterative process:

Address Feedback: Carefully consider suggestions from peers and professors. Are there areas where your arguments need strengthening, or transitions feel clunky?

Multiple Rounds of Revision: Don't expect perfection in the first pass. Be prepared to revise multiple times, focusing on different aspects each time (structure, clarity, grammar).

Ensuring Proper Citation and Avoiding Plagiarism

Proper citation practices are essential for two key reasons:

Credibility: Citations demonstrate that your research is based on credible sources and strengthens your arguments.

Academic Integrity: It prevents plagiarism, which is the unethical practice of presenting someone else's work as your own.

Choosing a Citation Style:

There are several common citation styles, such as APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language Association). Choose the style required by your professor or the intended publication.

Citation Management Tools:

Many online tools (e.g., Mendeley, Zotero) can help streamline the citation process by automatically generating citations and bibliographies in the correct format.

Avoiding Plagiarism:

Paraphrase Strategically: Don't just copy and paste! Express information in your own words, but always cite the source.

Direct Quotes with Proper Attribution: For verbatim quotes, use quotation marks and include a proper in-text citation.

Originality is Key: Focus on developing your own unique arguments and analysis based on the sources you've consulted.

Preparing for Publication

Once you've crafted a polished research paper, it's time to consider sharing your work with the broader academic community. Let's explore the process of finding the right publication outlet and understanding the steps involved in the submission process.

Stage 1: Preparing for Publication

Targeting the Right Journal: Research potential publication outlets. Consider the scope of the journal, its readership, and the type of research it typically publishes. Your professor or librarian can be an excellent resource for identifying suitable publications.

Meet Submission Requirements: Meticulously follow the formatting guidelines and instructions for authors provided by the journal. This includes aspects like word count, citation style, and required sections.

Proofread with a Critical Eye: Ensure your manuscript is free of errors and professionally formatted. This demonstrates your attention to detail. Consider asking a colleague to proofread with a fresh perspective.

Stage 2: Navigating the Peer Review Process

Understanding Peer Review: Most reputable academic journals utilize a peer review process. Your paper will be anonymously evaluated by experts in your field, and you will receive feedback on your work.

Prepare for Revision: Be ready to address any concerns or requested revisions from the reviewers. This is a chance to improve your paper!

Embrace the Process: Even a rejection provides valuable insights. Use the feedback to strengthen your future research and writing endeavors.

The Role of Digital Tools in Research Paper Writing

In today's digital age, utilizing digital tools can transform the research and writing process:

Research Management: Platforms like Zotero and Mendeley streamline gathering and organizing sources, facilitating smoother integration into your paper.

Drafting and Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs enable real-time collaboration with peers or advisors, enhancing the feedback and revision process.

Citation Power: Reference management software assists in creating correct citations, reducing the potential for errors.

Submission and Post-Publication Promotion: Many journals use online submission portals, and platforms like ResearchGate help disseminate your work to a wider audience.

Are Digital Tools Necessary for Research Paper Success?

While digital tools are not strictly essential for writing successful research papers, they offer significant advantages:

Efficiency and Speed: They streamline tedious tasks like citation and information organization, freeing up time for the deeper analytical work.

Greater Accuracy: Automated reference formatting and grammar checkers help minimize errors and elevate the professionalism of your paper.

Enhanced Collaboration: Online tools make peer review and advisor assistance more fluid and convenient.

Concluding Your Research Journey

The world of research papers may have seemed daunting at first, but now you're equipped with the knowledge to navigate it confidently. Don't stop here! The world of knowledge is constantly evolving, and with it, research methods and approaches.

Keep exploring different research paper types, adapting your skills to new challenges, and honing your ability to find and synthesize information. Each paper you write is a step towards becoming a better researcher, a better thinker, and a better communicator.

Try Jenni for free today

Create your first piece of content with Jenni today and never look back

Canvas | University | Ask a Librarian

Library Homepage
Arrendale Library

Writing a Research Paper

Types of research papers.

About This Guide
Choosing a Topic
Writing a Thesis Statement
Gathering Research
Journals and Magazines This link opens in a new window
Creating an Outline
Writing Your Paper
Citing Resources
Academic Integrity This link opens in a new window
Contact Us!

Call us at 706-776-0111

Chat with a Librarian

Send Us Email

Library Hours

Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical .

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement . This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

Example : a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be an argumentative essay.

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking.

Example : a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be an example of an analytical essay.

*Please note that this LibGuide will primarily be concerning itself with argumentative or rhetorical research papers.

<< Previous: About This Guide
Next: Choosing a Topic >>
Last Updated: May 16, 2024 10:46 AM
URL: https://library.piedmont.edu/research_paper
Ebooks & Online Video
New Materials
Renew Checkouts
Faculty Resources
Library Friends
Library Services
Our Mission
Library History
Ask a Librarian!
Making Citations
Working Online

Arrendale Library Piedmont University 706-776-0111

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

A Research Guide
Research Paper Guide

Different Types of Research Papers

According to the purpose
According to the depth of scope
According to the data type
According to variables manipulation
According to the type of inference
According to the time in which it is carried out
According to the sources of information
According to how the data is obtained
According to design
Other research paper types

Types of research papers

As a way to make your journey through the research-type paper options a bit easier, let’s divide them by types of work.

According to the purpose:

Theoretical. Theoretical research type is one of the most popular types of research paper as it has a clear focus. If you have to work with this type, your main objective is to generate all currently available. Even if it has no practical appliance (like in Engineering or design), you must use it anyway. You must collect data and make sure that your target audience understands what your research is about and what theory it follows. Most of such research papers will relate to theories and basic analytical work.
Applied. This research type stands for something that can be approached scientifically based on practice. The aim here is to generate practical skills. It’s essential in Engineering, Healthcare, and Biology. For such types of papers, one can alternate between technological or scientific types of research, depending on your aims. A technological approach will be fitting if you wish to improve some processes. Now, the scientific research type would include prediction as you work with variables and design things.

According to the depth of scope:

Exploratory. It is most suitable for research type papers where you have to explore a not-well-known subject. Start with making a hypothesis and developing research. It can be an investigation talking about the role of video games in the development of teenagers.
Descriptive. This type of research is where you must describe certain characteristics or discuss specifics of some belief or an event. You may not have to research why something has caused these characteristic traits. You must describe and talk about how some things may change IF this or that takes place.
Explanatory. It’s one of the popular research methods since one has to analyze specific methodologies and help the target audience trace the cause-and-effect relations. It is close to descriptive writing by nature. Still, you must create a research environment since your findings may have to be re-created by others.
Correlational. This is where you identify the link between two or more variables. You must focus on determining whether certain research variables will be affected and see whether something is systematic regarding these changes (correlational research methodology).

According to the data type:

Qualitative . It’s used to collect, evaluate, and explain information based on obtained information. It means you have to approach a linguistic-semiotic method to things as you research. You can turn to analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and personal surveys. This is where statistical data helps! You must ask yourself “why” instead of “how.”
Quantitative. Such types of papers to write belong to one of the most challenging cases because quantitative stands for mathematical (think MATLAB) and computer-based software to check things. It also makes it possible to create a prognosis, which is why this type of research is usually met in engineering.
Mixed. It’s also possible to use both methodologies if you can support your research type assignment with source information and personal examples. If you are dealing with Psychology or Experimental study, use surveys and aid yourself with AI-based evaluation tools.

According to variables manipulation:

Experimental. Contrary to its title, you do not have to experiment per se. It’s about the design or replication of things you research. It means you have to re-create specific research conditions to discover what effects are caused by given variables. It’s where you primarily use case studies and sample groups.
Non-experimental. They often call this research type an observational study. It means that you have to provide analysis in its natural environment. You do not have to intervene in the process but consider turning to descriptive writing. This research may include observation of animals in their natural habitat or the use of the noise effect in the urban environment.
Quasi-experimental. These types of academic papers are not purely experimental, as you only work with two or three variables. Another aspect of this research is based on randomly chosen variables. It helps to decrease the bias in your study. It also helps to focus on relevant data and allows us to narrow things down.

According to the type of inference:

Deductive. It means the research is basically fixed since one has to focus on laws and things that can or cannot be. It helps to come to certain conclusions. As you look at the research problem, you use deduction to create your considerations. If you make assumptions and develop reliable evidence, this work method suits you.
Inductive. It’s one of the flexible methods to think about. The reason why it’s flexible is the way inductive research is generated. You conclude by observing and generalizing while different kinds of research occur. You have to collect data over a period, which makes the process less fixed.
Hypothetical-deductive approach. You have to make a hypothesis for your research work and use deduction methods to come up with a conclusion. The major difference is that a researcher also takes time to evaluate whether things are correct.

According to the time in which it is carried out:

Longitudinal. You might know this type of work as diachronic research. Despite the complex name, it focuses on the same issue or an event where a fixed period is taken. It has to track certain changes based on variables. It’s one of the most popular research papers in Healthcare, Nursing, Sociology, Psychology, and Education.
Cross-sectional. Also known as synchronous research, it is the type of work that approaches cross-sectional design. Here, you have to look at some event or a process at a certain point by taking notes. Thus, research can be used both for sample groups or when working with a case study.

According to the sources of information:

Primary. Most students are asked to use primary sources. It is exactly why we have a primary research paper method. The data must be collected directly (personal interviews, surveys, questionnaires, a field observation study, etc.) and represent first-hand information. It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital.
Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc. If another expert or a student reviews a study, it is related to secondary research; so will your project.

According to how the data is obtained:

Documentary. As the name suggests, documentary research is based on the secondary references you used. It is a systematic review where you turn to secondary sources related to your subject of study. The most prominent types of research projects in this area are writing a literature review or working with a case study. It is one of the most accessible and clear types of research work.
Field. It is quite popular research these days as students tend to collect information in the field or at the location where something takes place. Think about researching Fashion Studies where you attend the shows or exploring Environmental Science, where you must observe a phenomenon and take notes.
Laboratory. The major difference in laboratory research type is working in a strictly-controlled environment where study notes are taken immediately. You must isolate unnecessary variables and use one or two scientific methods. Therefore, such type of research writing is called laboratory research. If your college professor asks for this assignment, consider keeping up with standards and rules.
Survey. This is where you have to work with the primary information or the use of first-hand data you obtain yourself. It is especially helpful when you work with a group to obtain variables. With this research type, you can also come up with certain conclusions to support your hypothesis and thesis statement.

According to design:

Fixed. When conducting a fixed research type, narrow things down and focus on temporal aspects. It means you have to discuss how often you will evaluate something, where your research will occur, a sample group, and other fixed variables. Working on fixed types of research reports, creating precise conditions, and follow strict protocols. Such research is related chiefly to lab reports or laboratory works mostly used in Healthcare and/or Law.
Flexible. Now, the flexible research type will provide you with a process where certain things will change as you take step after step in your research. The examples may include case studies where you have to observe the changes that may take over time. Another example would relate to Anthropology or Geography, where you have to observe a group of people or deal with a cross-cultural analysis. It can also relate to grounded-theory studies, where you should develop theoretical knowledge based on analysis and your thinking.

Other research paper types:

Argumentative. Also known as a persuasive research type paper, you have to persuade your target audience on your side and a point of view. You have to use at least one piece of evidence (references) to prove your point and support your argument. You must talk about different research opinions and show why your side is correct.
Analytical. Analytical research papers should always pose a problem and collect relevant information. You can look at another researcher’s works and provide an analysis based on various points of view. The main types of research papers include analysis and must keep the tone analytical and remain neutral without showing your thoughts unless only to guide the reader.
Definition. This research type requires describing the facts or arguments without using anything based on your opinion or an emotional constituent. You only have to offer information by including facts, yet let your data remain without analysis or bias.
Action-based. This research type assignment must conduct your work based on a process or a certain action causing things. It can also lead to social processes where a person’s actions have led to something. It can be some research about social movements and/or manufacturing processes.
Causal. It may relate to cause-and-effect papers where you must focus on the causes. This research type has to address the questions and explore the causes. It can be based on case studies related to business, education, environmental, educational issues, and more.
Classification. If you have to classify, compare, and contrast things, this method will be helpful. Start with the standards and the rules by setting your classification type immediately. Once you know it, your research paper will go smoothly.
Comparative. As a rule, this research will deal with comparative work where you take a methodology and compare two sample groups, two individuals, different beliefs, or situations. If you have to compare, discuss your objectives and then create two columns to determine differences and similarities.

What research paper type is most suitable for me?

It will always depend on the research paper objectives you wish to achieve. If you need clarification on the research type you must approach, consult your academic advisor or look closely at your grading rubric. If it says that you must develop an analytical study, it will require posing a specific research question or a problem. The next step would be to collect information on a topic and provide an analysis based on various points of view.

Likewise, if your grading rubric has the word “definition” mentioned, your research type paper must focus on the facts or argumentation. In this case, you should not provide your opinion or talk about what some author thinks. Only the definition of an object or belief is necessary.

As you can see, you only have to find out what your research must achieve. Set the purpose and look at the different types of research and possible methods to approach your problem . Once you know it, look at the research type papers and choose the most fitting option!

Writing a Research Paper
Research Paper Title
Research Paper Sources
Research Paper Problem Statement
Research Paper Thesis Statement
Hypothesis for a Research Paper
Research Question
Research Paper Outline
Research Paper Summary
Research Paper Prospectus
Research Paper Proposal
Research Paper Format
Research Paper Styles
AMA Style Research Paper
MLA Style Research Paper
Chicago Style Research Paper
APA Style Research Paper
Research Paper Structure
Research Paper Cover Page
Research Paper Abstract
Research Paper Introduction
Research Paper Body Paragraph
Research Paper Literature Review
Research Paper Background
Research Paper Methods Section
Research Paper Results Section
Research Paper Discussion Section
Research Paper Conclusion
Research Paper Appendix
Research Paper Bibliography
APA Reference Page
Annotated Bibliography
Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
Research Paper Types
What is Qualitative Research

Receive paper in 3 Hours!

Choose the number of pages.
Select your deadline.
Complete your order.

Number of Pages

550 words (double spaced)

Deadline: 10 days left

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

How it works

Types of Research – Tips and Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On May 8, 2024

“Research is an investigation conducted to seek knowledge and find solutions to scientific and social problems.”

It includes the collection of information from various sources. New research can contribute to existing knowledge.

The types of research can be categorised from the following perspectives;

Application of the study
Aim of the research
Mode of Inquiry
Research approach

Categories of Research	Types of Research
Types of research according to the application perspective
Types of research according to the aims of the research
Types of research according to the mode of inquiry
Types of research according to the aims of the research approach

Types of Research According to the Application Perspective

The different types of research, according to the application perspective, include the following.

Basic Research

Primary research is conducted to increase knowledge. It is also known as theoretical research, pure research, and fundamental research. It provides in-depth knowledge about the scientific and logical explanations and their conclusions.

The results of the primary research are used as the base of applied research. It is based on experiments and observation. The results of basic research are published in peer-reviewed journals.

What is global warming?
How did the Universe begin?
What do humans get stress?

Applied Research

Applied research is conducted to find solutions for practical problems. It uses the outcomes of basic research as its base. The results of applied research are applied immediately. It includes case studies and experimental research.

Example: Finding the solution to control air pollution.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is carried out to describe current issues and programs and provides information about the issue through surveys and various fact-finding methods.

It includes co-relational and comparative methods of research. It follows the Ex post facto research, which predicts the possible reasons behind the situation that has already occurred.

A researcher cannot control its variables and can report only about the current situation and its occurring.

Example: The widespread contaminated diseases in a specific area of the town. An investigation revealed that there was no trash removal system in that area. A researcher can hypothesise that improper trash removal leads to widespread contaminated diseases.

Analytical Research

In analytical research, a researcher can use the existing data, facts, and knowledge and critically analyse and evaluate the sources and material. It attempts to describe why a specific situation exists.

Example: Impact of video games on teenagers.

Explanatory

Explanatory research is conducted to know why and how two or more variables are interrelated. Researchers usually conduct experiments to know the effect of specific changes among two or more variables.

Example: A study to identify the impact of a nutritious diet on pregnant women.

Exploratory

Exploratory research is conducted to understand the nature of the problem. It does not focus on finding evidence or a conclusion of the problem. It studies the problem to explore the research in-depth and covers topics that have not been studied before.

Example: An investigation into the growing crimes against women in India.

Hire an Expert Researcher

Orders completed by our expert writers are

Formally drafted in academic style
100% Plagiarism free & 100% Confidential
Never resold
Include unlimited free revisions
Completed to match exact client requirements

Types of Research According to the Mode of Inquiry

Qualitative research.

Qualitative research is based on quality, and it looks in-depth at non-numerical data. It enables us to understand the comprehensive details of the problem. The researcher prepares open-ended questions to gather as much information as possible.

Stress level among men and women.
The obesity rate among teenagers.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is associated with the aspects of measurement, quantity, and extent. It follows the statistical, mathematical, and computational techniques in the form of numerical data such as percentages and statistics. The type of research is conducted on a large population.

Find out the weight of students of the fifth standard
Studying in government schools.

Types of Research According to the Research Approach

Longitudinal research.

Researchers collect the information at multiple points in time. Usually, a specific group of participants is selected and examined numerous times at various periods.

Example: If a researcher experiments on a group of women to find out the impact of a low-carb diet within six months. The women’s weight and health check-ups will be done multiple times to get the evidence for the study.

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional research gathers and compares the information from various groups of the population at the same point. It may not provide the exact reason and relationship between the subjects, but it gives a broad picture of studying multiple groups at the same time.

Example: If a researcher wants to know the number of students studying in a school, he will get to know about the age groups, height, weight, and gender of the students at the same time.

Conceptual Research

It is associated with the concept and theory that describes the hypothesis being studied. It is based on the inductive approach of reasoning. It does not follow practical experiments. Philosophers, thinkers, logicians, and theorists use such research to discover new concepts and understand existing knowledge.

Example: Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein.

Empirical Research

It is also known as experimental research, which depends on observation and experience. It is based on the deductive approach of reasoning . A researcher focuses on gathering information about the facts and their sources and investigating the existing knowledge. Example: Is intermittent fasting the healthy weight loss option for women?

The researcher can come up with the result that a certain number of women lost weight, and it improved their health. On the other hand, a certain number of women suffering from low blood pressure and diabetes didn’t lose weight, and they faced the negative impacts of intermittent fasting on their health.

Why should you use a Plagiarism Detector for your Paper?

It ensures:

Original work
Structure and Clarity
Zero Spelling Errors
No Punctuation Faults

Mixed Methods of Research

When you combine quantitative and qualitative methods of research, the resulting approach becomes mixed methods of research.

Over the last few decades, much of the research in the world of academia has been conducted using mixed methods. Due to its greater legitimacy, this particular technique has gained for several reasons, including the feeling that combining the two types of research can provide holistic and more dependable results.

Here is what mixed methods of research involve:

Interpreting and investigating the information gathered through quantitative and qualitative techniques.
There could be more than one stage of research. Depending on the topic of research, occasionally, it would be more appropriate to perform qualitative research in the first stage to figure out and investigate a problem to unveil key themes and conduct quantitative research in stage two of the process for measuring relationships between the themes.

Tips for Choosing the Right Type of Research

Choosing the right type of research is essential for producing relevant and actionable insights. The choice depends on your objectives, available resources, and the nature of the problem. Here are some tips to help you make the right decision:

Define your Research Objectives Clearly

Descriptive Research: To describe the characteristics of certain phenomena.
Exploratory Research: To explore a problem that hasn’t been studied in depth.
Explanatory (or Causal) Research: To explain patterns of cause and effect.
Predictive Research: To forecast future outcomes based on patterns.

Understand the Research Methods

Quantitative Research: Employs structured data collection (e.g., surveys) to generate statistical data.
Qualitative Research: Uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection methods (e.g., interviews, observations) to understand behaviour, motivations, etc.

Consider the Time Dimension

Cross-sectional Studies: Capture data at a single point in time.
Longitudinal Studies: Collect data over extended periods to observe changes.

Evaluate Available Resources

Budget: Some research methods, like experimental research, may require more funding.
Time: Exploratory or ethnographic studies may take longer than surveys.
Expertise: Ensure you or your team possess the skills needed for your chosen research method.

Consider the Nature of the Problem

Complex problems may require mixed-methods research (a combination of qualitative and quantitative).

Review Existing Literature

Review existing literature before settling on a type to see what methodologies were previously employed for similar questions.

Think about Data Collection

Consider the best method to gather data: surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc. Your choice affects the research type.

Ethical Considerations:

Ensure your chosen method abides by ethical standards, especially when human subjects are involved.

Generalisability Vs. Depth

Quantitative methods often allow for generalisability, while qualitative methods provide depth and detail.

Pilot Testing

If unsure, run a pilot study to test your chosen method’s feasibility and utility.

Stay Open to Adaptation

Sometimes, initial research can lead to unforeseen insights or complexities. Be prepared to adjust your approach if needed.

Seek Feedback

Discuss your research approach with colleagues, mentors, or experts in the field. They might offer valuable insights or identify potential pitfalls.

Stay Updated

Research methods evolve. Stay updated with the latest techniques, tools, and best practices in your field.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research.

Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising knowledge about specific phenomena. It involves formulating hypotheses, collecting data, and analysing results to generate new insights or validate existing theories. Conducted in various fields, research can be empirical, theoretical, or experimental and is fundamental for informed decision-making.

What are the different Types of Research?

Different types of research include:

Descriptive: Describe and analyse phenomena.
Experimental: Manipulate variables to establish causation.
Correlational: Examine relationships between variables.
Qualitative: Gather insights and understanding.
Quantitative: Use numerical data for analysis.
Case study, survey, ethnography, and more.

What is research design?

Research design is a structured blueprint for conducting a study, outlining how data will be collected, analysed, and interpreted. It determines the overall strategy and approach to obtain valid, accurate, and reliable results. Research design encompasses choices about type (e.g., experimental, observational), method (qualitative, quantitative), and data collection procedures.

What is survey?

A survey is a research method used to gather data from a predefined group by asking specific questions. Surveys can be conducted using various mediums, such as face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or online questionnaires. They are valuable for collecting descriptive, quantitative, or qualitative information and gauging public opinion or behaviours.

What is research method?

A research method is a systematic approach used by researchers to gather, analyse, and interpret data relevant to their study. It dictates how information is collected and evaluated to answer specific research questions. Methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed and include techniques like surveys, experiments, case studies, and interviews.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is an initial study designed to clarify and define the nature of a problem. It’s used when researchers have a limited understanding of the topic. Instead of seeking definitive answers, it aims to identify patterns, ideas, or hypotheses. Methods often include literature reviews, qualitative interviews, and observational studies.

What is the purpose of research?

The purpose of research is to discover, interpret, or revise knowledge on specific topics or phenomena. It seeks to answer questions, validate theories, or find solutions to problems. Research enhances understanding, informs decision-making, guides policies, drives innovation, and contributes to academic, scientific, and societal advancement. It’s fundamental for evidence-based practices.

Welcome to the Purdue Online Writing Lab

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University houses writing resources and instructional material, and we provide these as a free service of the Writing Lab at Purdue. Students, members of the community, and users worldwide will find information to assist with many writing projects. Teachers and trainers may use this material for in-class and out-of-class instruction.

The Purdue On-Campus Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement. The Purdue Writing Lab serves the Purdue, West Lafayette, campus and coordinates with local literacy initiatives. The Purdue OWL offers global support through online reference materials and services.

A Message From the Assistant Director of Content Development

The Purdue OWL® is committed to supporting students, instructors, and writers by offering a wide range of resources that are developed and revised with them in mind. To do this, the OWL team is always exploring possibilties for a better design, allowing accessibility and user experience to guide our process. As the OWL undergoes some changes, we welcome your feedback and suggestions by email at any time.

Please don't hesitate to contact us via our contact page if you have any questions or comments.

All the best,

Social Media

Facebook twitter.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base

Methodology

Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on January 14, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.

Primary research is a research method that relies on direct data collection , rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research .

Primary research is often used in qualitative research , particularly in survey methodology, questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews . While quantitative primary research does exist, it’s not as common.

When to use primary research, types of primary research, examples of primary research, advantages and disadvantages of primary research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study . The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you.

Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

Academic style
Vague sentences
Style consistency

See an example

Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

Surveys and questionnaires
Observational studies
Interviews and focus groups

Surveys and questionnaires collect information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. They are a solid choice if your research topic seeks to investigate something about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with the most basic ones first.

Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , observational studies are often a good stopgap.

There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies , cohort studies, and case-control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design—just beware of confounding variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.

Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different. Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups involve two or more people—one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the questions.

There are 3 main types of interviews:

Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order.
Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the interviewee’s previous answers.
Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined questions and off-the-cuff questions.

While interviews are a rich source of information, they can also be deceptively challenging to do well. Be careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and delivery while asking questions.

Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small sample size means that external validity is low.

Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics.

Primary research is a great choice for many research projects, but it has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of primary research

Advantages include:

The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the “nitty-gritty” of your topic . You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing that.
You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it is objective, reliable , and valid .
The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with like-minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for replication or discussion purposes.

Disadvantages of primary research

Disadvantages include:

In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your own high-quality primary research.
Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring secondary research to bolster it.
Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias . Bias can manifest on the part of the researcher as observer bias , Pygmalion effect , or demand characteristics . It can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square goodness of fit test
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

The 3 main types of primary research are:

Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control and randomization.

In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.

In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .

In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .

In randomization , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g. choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods )

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

George, T. (2024, January 12). Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/primary-research/

Is this article helpful?

Tegan George

Other students also liked, data collection | definition, methods & examples, observer bias | definition, examples, prevention, what is qualitative research | methods & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

Unfortunately we don't fully support your browser. If you have the option to, please upgrade to a newer version or use Mozilla Firefox , Microsoft Edge , Google Chrome , or Safari 14 or newer. If you are unable to, and need support, please send us your feedback .

We'd appreciate your feedback. Tell us what you think! opens in new tab/window

What is peer review?

Reviewers play a pivotal role in scholarly publishing. The peer review system exists to validate academic work, helps to improve the quality of published research, and increases networking possibilities within research communities. Despite criticisms, peer review is still the only widely accepted method for research validation and has continued successfully with relatively minor changes for some 350 years.

Elsevier relies on the peer review process to uphold the quality and validity of individual articles and the journals that publish them.

Peer review has been a formal part of scientific communication since the first scientific journals appeared more than 300 years ago. The Philosophical Transactions opens in new tab/window of the Royal Society is thought to be the first journal to formalize the peer review process opens in new tab/window under the editorship of Henry Oldenburg (1618- 1677).

Despite many criticisms about the integrity of peer review, the majority of the research community still believes peer review is the best form of scientific evaluation. This opinion was endorsed by the outcome of a survey Elsevier and Sense About Science conducted in 2009 opens in new tab/window and has since been further confirmed by other publisher and scholarly organization surveys. Furthermore, a 2015 survey by the Publishing Research Consortium opens in new tab/window , saw 82% of researchers agreeing that “without peer review there is no control in scientific communication.”

To learn more about peer review, visit Elsevier’s free e-learning platform Researcher Academy opens in new tab/window and see our resources below.

The peer review process

Types of peer review.

Peer review comes in different flavours. Each model has its own advantages and disadvantages, and often one type of review will be preferred by a subject community. Before submitting or reviewing a paper, you must therefore check which type is employed by the journal so you are aware of the respective rules. In case of questions regarding the peer review model employed by the journal for which you have been invited to review, consult the journal’s homepage or contact the editorial office directly.

Single anonymized review

In this type of review, the names of the reviewers are hidden from the author. This is the traditional method of reviewing and is the most common type by far. Points to consider regarding single anonymized review include:

Reviewer anonymity allows for impartial decisions , as the reviewers will not be influenced by potential criticism from the authors.

Authors may be concerned that reviewers in their field could delay publication, giving the reviewers a chance to publish first.

Reviewers may use their anonymity as justification for being unnecessarily critical or harsh when commenting on the authors’ work.

Double anonymized review

Both the reviewer and the author are anonymous in this model. Some advantages of this model are listed below.

Author anonymity limits reviewer bias, such as on author's gender, country of origin, academic status, or previous publication history.

Articles written by prestigious or renowned authors are considered based on the content of their papers, rather than their reputation.

But bear in mind that despite the above, reviewers can often identify the author through their writing style, subject matter, or self-citation – it is exceedingly difficult to guarantee total author anonymity. More information for authors can be found in our double-anonymized peer review guidelines .

Triple anonymized review

With triple anonymized review, reviewers are anonymous to the author, and the author's identity is unknown to both the reviewers and the editor. Articles are anonymized at the submission stage and are handled in a way to minimize any potential bias towards the authors. However, it should be noted that:

The complexities involved with anonymizing articles/authors to this level are considerable.

As with double anonymized review, there is still a possibility for the editor and/or reviewers to correctly identify the author(s) from their writing style, subject matter, citation patterns, or other methodologies.

Open review

Open peer review is an umbrella term for many different models aiming at greater transparency during and after the peer review process. The most common definition of open review is when both the reviewer and author are known to each other during the peer review process. Other types of open peer review consist of:

Publication of reviewers’ names on the article page

Publication of peer review reports alongside the article, either signed or anonymous

Publication of peer review reports (signed or anonymous) with authors’ and editors’ responses alongside the article

Publication of the paper after pre-checks and opening a discussion forum to the community who can then comment (named or anonymous) on the article

Many believe this is the best way to prevent malicious comments, stop plagiarism, prevent reviewers from following their own agenda, and encourage open, honest reviewing. Others see open review as a less honest process, in which politeness or fear of retribution may cause a reviewer to withhold or tone down criticism. For three years, five Elsevier journals experimented with publication of peer review reports (signed or anonymous) as articles alongside the accepted paper on ScienceDirect ( example opens in new tab/window ).

More transparent peer review

Transparency is the key to trust in peer review and as such there is an increasing call towards more  transparency around the peer review process . In an effort to promote transparency in the peer review process, many Elsevier journals therefore publish the name of the handling editor of the published paper on ScienceDirect. Some journals also provide details about the number of reviewers who reviewed the article before acceptance. Furthermore, in order to provide updates and feedback to reviewers, most Elsevier journals inform reviewers about the editor’s decision and their peers’ recommendations.

Article transfer service: sharing reviewer comments

Elsevier authors may be invited to  transfer  their article submission from one journal to another for free if their initial submission was not successful.

As a referee, your review report (including all comments to the author and editor) will be transferred to the destination journal, along with the manuscript. The main benefit is that reviewers are not asked to review the same manuscript several times for different journals.

Tools and resources

Interesting reads.

Chapter 2 of Academic and Professional Publishing, 2012, by Irene Hames in 2012 opens in new tab/window

"Is Peer Review in Crisis?" Perspectives in Publishing No 2, August 2004, by Adrian Mulligan opens in new tab/window

“The history of the peer-review process” Trends in Biotechnology, 2002, by Ray Spier opens in new tab/window

Reviewers’ Update articles

Peer review using today’s technology

Lifting the lid on publishing peer review reports: an interview with Bahar Mehmani and Flaminio Squazzoni

How face-to-face peer review can benefit authors and journals alike

Innovation in peer review: introducing “volunpeers”

Results masked review: peer review without publication bias

Elsevier Researcher Academy modules

The certified peer reviewer course opens in new tab/window

Transparency in peer review opens in new tab/window

Reference Examples

More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual . Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual .

To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of work (e.g., journal article ) and follow the relevant example.

When selecting a category, use the webpages and websites category only when a work does not fit better within another category. For example, a report from a government website would use the reports category, whereas a page on a government website that is not a report or other work would use the webpages and websites category.

Also note that print and electronic references are largely the same. For example, to cite both print books and ebooks, use the books and reference works category and then choose the appropriate type of work (i.e., book ) and follow the relevant example (e.g., whole authored book ).

Examples on these pages illustrate the details of reference formats. We make every attempt to show examples that are in keeping with APA Style’s guiding principles of inclusivity and bias-free language. These examples are presented out of context only to demonstrate formatting issues (e.g., which elements to italicize, where punctuation is needed, placement of parentheses). References, including these examples, are not inherently endorsements for the ideas or content of the works themselves. An author may cite a work to support a statement or an idea, to critique that work, or for many other reasons. For more examples, see our sample papers .

Reference examples are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 10 and the Concise Guide Chapter 10

Related handouts

Common Reference Examples Guide (PDF, 147KB)
Reference Quick Guide (PDF, 225KB)

Textual Works

Textual works are covered in Sections 10.1–10.8 of the Publication Manual . The most common categories and examples are presented here. For the reviews of other works category, see Section 10.7.

Journal Article References
Magazine Article References
Newspaper Article References
Blog Post and Blog Comment References
UpToDate Article References
Book/Ebook References
Diagnostic Manual References
Children’s Book or Other Illustrated Book References
Classroom Course Pack Material References
Religious Work References
Chapter in an Edited Book/Ebook References
Dictionary Entry References
Wikipedia Entry References
Report by a Government Agency References
Report with Individual Authors References
Brochure References
Ethics Code References
Fact Sheet References
ISO Standard References
Press Release References
White Paper References
Conference Presentation References
Conference Proceeding References
Published Dissertation or Thesis References
Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis References
ERIC Database References
Preprint Article References

Data and Assessments

Data sets are covered in Section 10.9 of the Publication Manual . For the software and tests categories, see Sections 10.10 and 10.11.

Data Set References
Toolbox References

Audiovisual Media

Audiovisual media are covered in Sections 10.12–10.14 of the Publication Manual . The most common examples are presented together here. In the manual, these examples and more are separated into categories for audiovisual, audio, and visual media.

Artwork References
Clip Art or Stock Image References
Film and Television References
Musical Score References
Online Course or MOOC References
Podcast References
PowerPoint Slide or Lecture Note References
Radio Broadcast References
TED Talk References
Transcript of an Audiovisual Work References
YouTube Video References

Online Media

Online media are covered in Sections 10.15 and 10.16 of the Publication Manual . Please note that blog posts are part of the periodicals category.

Facebook References
Instagram References
LinkedIn References
Online Forum (e.g., Reddit) References
TikTok References
X References
Webpage on a Website References
Clinical Practice References
Open Educational Resource References
Whole Website References

The Best Toilet Paper of 2024

Because it really does matter.

three rolls of toilet paper unrolling against a light blue background

We've been independently researching and testing products for over 120 years. If you buy through our links, we may earn a commission. Learn more about our review process.

We revised this guide with current information and updated picks in May 2023.

When it comes to buying toilet paper, the last thing you want to do is throw money down the toilet (literally!) by stocking up on cheap rolls that end up feeling rough or by splurging on pricey TP that just doesn't hold up.

On top of that, you want to choose toilet paper that dissolves easily in your toilet so it doesn’t clog your pipes and cause a septic disaster. From the plushest toilet papers to quick-dissolving rolls to more sustainable picks, there are toilet papers that offer something for everyone, and with so many to choose from we put them to the test to find out which ones are worth it.

Our top picks:

Best Overall Toilet Paper

Berkley jensen ultra soft bath tissue.

Best Value Toilet Paper

Great value ultra soft toilet paper.

Softest Toilet Paper

Charmin ultra soft toilet paper.

Best Bulk Toilet Paper

Scott small core high capacity bath tissue.

Strongest Toilet Paper

Cottonelle ultra comfortcare toilet paper.

Best Three-Ply Toilet Paper

Quilted northern ultra plush toilet paper.

Best Sustainable Toilet Paper

Seventh generation 100% recycled bath tissue.

Best Bamboo Toilet Paper

Who gives a crap bamboo toilet paper.

After our picks, keep reading to learn more about how we test toilet paper and for a helpful shopping guide, but first, here is the best toilet paper to buy for your bathroom. Looking to cut back on toilet paper? Check out our list of top-tested bidets .

BJ’s toilet paper is one of the best values on the market, and it stood out across the board in our Lab tests. In fact, it earned the Good Housekeeping Seal . The toilet paper aced our absorbency tests, receiving a perfect score and soaking up more water than most other toilet papers we evaluated. Despite being thick, the two-ply toilet paper dissolved within seconds in our tests, meaning it's a safer option for your septic system. Plus, both our consumer testers and our softness-testing machine gave BJ's toilet paper high scores for feeling soft, and when we inspected the rolls, they were free of defects like pills and ply separation.

The downside is that this TP wasn't as strong as some other brands when wet, but that's to be expected of bath tissue that dissolves quickly. Even though BJ's is a club brand, you can still buy the toilet paper using a one-day online guest pass.

Ply	Two-ply
Roll count	32 rolls
Sheets per roll	244 sheets

Don't let the low price fool you; this Walmart brand toilet paper gives you good bang for your buck. The TP was a runner-up in our extensive Textiles Lab tests, earning high rankings for thickness and perfect scores for dissolving quickly. When we evaluated softness in a blind touch test, this toilet paper outperformed other more expensive rolls, and our consumer testers gave it top marks for softness during use.

The toilet paper proved strong in our dry strength and perforation strength tests (how easy it is to tear the perforated portion of the toilet paper), but it was a bit weaker when wet. If you ever find the toilet paper to be out of stock online for shipping, you may still be able to buy it ahead of time online and then pick it up from your local store. In some locations, you can even opt for delivery from the store.

Ply	Two-ply
Sheets per roll	Not listed
Roll count	12 rolls

Lots of toilet paper brands claim to be super plush, but nothing we've tested or tried comes close to the softness of Charmin. Both our consumer testers and specialized lab equipment designed to measure softness ranked it the softest in a blind comparison test. The two-ply construction was also strong overall and stood out in particular for having the highest strength when wet, so you don't have to worry about it crumbling while in use.

Unfortunately, its high strength means it didn't break down easily with water in our evaluations, so you may want to look elsewhere if you have a septic system or particularly old plumbing. But we still think it's a great pick if you don't have plumbing issues at home. Plus, when you buy this one in bulk packs, the price per sheet is similar to more affordable brands.

Ply	Two-ply
Sheets per roll	284 sheets
Roll count	18 rolls

With more than double the sheets per roll than other toilet papers we've tested , this TP from Scott is ideal for someone looking to shop in bulk. There are 36 rolls in each pack with 1,100 sheets per roll for a whopping 39,600 sheets of toilet paper in each pack. Online reviewers describe this pack of toilet paper as "long-lasting," with some sharing that it lasts their families months at a time. The toilet paper is on the thinner side, but it is still two-ply for added durability.

Unlike most other toilet papers, this one features a small core, which means the brand can fit more sheets per roll, but this may make it more difficult to slide over your current toilet paper holder. Although we haven't tested this particular toilet paper, we have evaluated others from Scott, and they received high scores for dissolving quickly, making the TP ideal for sensitive septic tanks or homes prone to plumbing woes.

Ply	Two-ply
Sheets per roll	1,100 sheets
Roll count	36 rolls

No one wants toilet paper that crumbles during use, so if you're looking for strong toilet paper that holds up, Cottonelle proved to be the best when we combined the wet and dry strength scores. It also had a perfect score in our visual analysis with no signs of pilling (so it doesn't leave pieces behind!), and the layers didn’t separate, which are two common TP issues.

It has two-ply construction with a rippled texture to help clean, and it was one of the most absorbent toilet papers in our test. It was still pretty soft despite not being super plush, and though it was slow to dissolve, it was still quicker than the plushest options we evaluated.

Ply	Two-ply
Sheets per roll	192 sheets
Roll count	36 rolls

While most toilet paper is only two-ply (and some just one), this TP actually has three layers, which makes it super thick and absorbent. When we put the toilet paper through a blind test, our testers and lab equipment gave it some of the highest scores for softness, and it received high ratings for overall softness during use.

It was also o ne of the strongest toilet papers when wet in our tests, but not surprisingly, it didn’t break down in our dissolvability evaluations, so avoid this one if you’re worried about clogs in your plumbing system. We also tested the brand’s two-ply Ultra Soft & Strong Toilet Paper , which was still thick but just not quite as soft, strong or absorbent and it still didn’t dissolve easily.

Ply	Three-ply
Sheets per roll	253 sheets
Roll count	32 rolls

When it comes to toilet paper, recycled rolls are the most sustainable option because they're both diverting waste and skipping the use of new pulp to create bath tissue. This pick from Seventh Generation was one of the top performers among the more sustainable brands we tested. T he two-ply sheets were fairly soft and absorbent, and they dissolved within seconds in our test, so they shouldn't wreak havoc in your septic system.

This toilet paper wasn't as thick or quite as strong as other TPs we tested, but it still outperformed a few of the "ultra soft" branded toilet papers in our blind softness test. It is one of the more expensive brands we evaluated when you calculate the cost per sheet, but we appreciate its lower environmental impact.

Ply	Two-ply
Sheets per roll	240 sheets
Roll count	12 rolls

Another option for sustainable toilet paper is made from bamboo, which touts itself as “tree free.” The bamboo toilet paper from Who Gives A Crap is three-ply instead of the usual two, and we were impressed by how soft it feels compared to other sustainable TPs we've tried. When we tested the toilet paper for dissolvability in our Lab, it dissolved more easily than some of the other toilet papers we've evaluated, so it shouldn't lead to clogging issues.

The brand skips plastic packaging and instead wraps each roll individually in eye-catching recycled tissue paper and ships it right to your door in a cardboard box. To ensure you never run out of rolls, there's a subscription service available. If you're skeptical of trying toilet paper made with bamboo, know that the brand does offer 30-day returns and a money-back guarantee — no questions asked.

Ply	Three-ply
Sheets per roll	370 sheets
Roll count	24 rolls

How we test toilet paper

At the Good Housekeeping Institute Textiles Lab, we test all kinds of bathroom necessities including menstrual products , wipes and toilet paper. Over the years, we've evaluated over 30 different types of toilet paper from both popular name brands and value brands to determine which rolls are worth it. When we test toilet paper, here's what we look for:

✔️ Absorbency: We individually immerse five sheets of each type of toilet paper in water to measure the amount of fluid each sheet is capable of absorbing.

✔️ Strength: There are many different ways to evaluate toilet paper strength including wet and dry tests. We use our Mullen Burst Tester to measure the force needed to burst through a stack of five sheets of toilet paper.

toilet paper is placed between the two clamps on the instron machine, which is pulling the toilet paper apart to measure perforation strength

We then layer together five sheets of toilet paper and place them in our Instron machine, which pulls the toilet paper apart to measure its tensile strength. The Instron machine is also used to evaluate perforation strength (shown here), or how easy it is to tear the perforated portion of the toilet paper. For wet strength, we use our Instron machine and a Finch Cup to wet the toilet paper while it's pulled apart.

✔️ Softness: To scientifically measure softness, we outsourced testing to NCSU. They used their EmTec Tissue Softness Analyzer to evaluate and rate each sample of toilet paper for Hand Feel Factor. We also conducted a blind comparison test of the different types of toilet paper, inviting GH staff to feel each unmarked toilet paper and provide a softness rating.

a sheet of toilet paper being immersed into a beaker of water for dissolvability testing

✔️ Dissolvability: To determine whether or not the toilet paper will dissolve once you flush, we evaluated dissolvability. To test, we dropped a sheet of each toilet paper into a set amount of water spinning at a set speed. The amount of time it took for each one to dissolve was recorded. The less time the toilet paper took to dissolve, the less likely it is to clog your pipes and lead to septic issues.

✔️ Thickness: We stacked 10 sheets of toilet paper on top of each other and then used a caliper to measure the thickness.

✔️ Visual quality analysis: We visually examined sheets of each type of toilet paper, noting any defects like ply separation or pilling on the surface.

✔️ Consumer testing: To better understand how the toilet paper truly performs, we placed samples in restroom stalls at GH and asked users to rate each sample for softness during use. We also shared TP with consumer testers who were able to try it out in their own homes and share their thoughts.

What to look for when shopping for toilet paper

✔️ Ply: The number of plies in toilet paper is the number of layers per sheet. Two-ply toilet paper (i.e. two layers) is the most common, but you’ll also find one-ply, which dissolves faster, and three-ply, which tends to feel thicker and more luxurious.

✔️ Price: You don’t have to spend a fortune to get high-quality toilet paper. In fact, some of our top performers were some of the cheapest per sheet! Keep in mind that it pays off to buy in bulk. The more sheets per roll and the more rolls per package, the less you’ll end up spending overall.

✔️ Septic safe: If you're wondering what's the best toilet paper to use in a septic system, consider this: Even though some ultra-plush toilet papers were labeled as “septic safe,” some of the TP never dissolved in our tests after spinning at a high speed for over five minutes. If you’re worried about clogging, it’s best to avoid super thick options.

✔️ Sustainability : Recycled paper is the most sustainable option for toilet paper, but you can also opt for bamboo rolls. These types of toilet paper didn’t perform as well as most premium brands in our evaluations for properties like softness, durability and absorbency, but they tend to dissolve easily and are better for the environment overall than standard toilet paper.

✔️ Brand : When it comes to toilet paper, there’s no need to shy away from private label or store brands. In fact, some of them outperformed the popular name brands in our tests.

Why trust Good Housekeeping?

This article was written by GH Institute Textiles Lab executive director Lexie Sachs , who holds a B.S. in fiber science from Cornell University and has more than 15 years of experience in the textiles industry, including merchandising and product development for home products. Lexie joined Good Housekeeping in 2013 and has tested all kinds of paper products, including toilet paper. For this article, Lexie conducted extensive evaluations of more than 20 different types of toilet paper from popular name and generic brands.

Amanda Constantine most recently updated this article. She is a home and apparel reviews analyst who joined Good Housekeeping Institute in 2022. She worked with Lexie Sachs to review former testing data, researched popular toilet paper brands and also conducted toilet paper testing on newer brands in the Lab before updating picks for the best toilet papers.

Lexie Sachs (she/her) is the executive director of strategy and operations at the Good Housekeeping Institute and a lead reviewer of products in the bedding, travel, lifestyle, home furnishings and apparel spaces. She has over 15 years of experience in the consumer products industry and a degree in fiber science from Cornell University. Lexie serves as an expert source both within Good Housekeeping and other media outlets, regularly appearing on national broadcast TV segments. Prior to joining GH in 2013, Lexie worked in merchandising and product development in the fashion and home industries.

Amanda (she/her) researches and reports on products in the Good Housekeeping Institute 's Textiles, Paper & Apparel Lab, ranging from clothing and accessories to home furnishings. She holds undergraduate degrees in apparel merchandising and product development and advertising and marketing communications, as well as a master of science degree in consumer sciences from The Ohio State University. Prior to joining Good Housekeeping in 2022, Amanda was a lecturer for the fashion and retail studies program at Ohio State, where she taught fashion and textiles courses.

preview for Featured Videos From Good Housekeeping US

@media(max-width: 64rem){.css-o9j0dn:before{margin-bottom:0.5rem;margin-right:0.625rem;color:#ffffff;width:1.25rem;bottom:-0.2rem;height:1.25rem;content:'_';display:inline-block;position:relative;line-height:1;background-repeat:no-repeat;}.loaded .css-o9j0dn:before{background-image:url(/_assets/design-tokens/goodhousekeeping/static/images/Clover.5c7a1a0.svg);}}@media(min-width: 48rem){.loaded .css-o9j0dn:before{background-image:url(/_assets/design-tokens/goodhousekeeping/static/images/Clover.5c7a1a0.svg);}} Product Reviews

The Best Shampoos for Men

The Best Down Pillows

10 best grills of 2023, according to expert testing

The Best Outdoor Grills

The Best Sheets

12 Best Korean Skincare Brands for "Glass Skin"

The Best Sex Toys for Couples

The Best Recliner Sofas

7 best portable car seats for traveling with the whole family

The Best Portable Car Seats

12 Best Underwear for Women of 2024

The Best Grill Cleaners

The Best Luggage on Amazon

Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) format
MLA (Modern Language Association) format
Chicago/Turabian style
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
AMA (American Medical Association) style
Harvard style
Vancouver style
ACS (American Chemical Society) style
ASA (American Sociological Association) style
APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
Double-space all text, including the references.
Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

Title of the paper
Author’s name
Institutional affiliation
A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

Background information on the topic of the research paper
Research question or hypothesis
Significance of the study
Overview of the research methods and design
Brief summary of the main findings
Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
Implications of the study for the field
Limitations of the study
Suggestions for future research

References:

A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

Double-spaced
12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
1-inch margins on all sides
Page numbers in the top right corner
Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
The first line of each paragraph should be indented
Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and...

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

APA Table of Contents – Format and Example

Table of Contents – Types, Formats, Examples

How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step...

Scope of the Research – Writing Guide and...

Information

Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

Active Journals
Find a Journal
Proceedings Series
For Authors
For Reviewers
For Editors
For Librarians
For Publishers
For Societies
For Conference Organizers
Open Access Policy
Institutional Open Access Program
Special Issues Guidelines
Editorial Process
Research and Publication Ethics
Article Processing Charges
Testimonials
Preprints.org
SciProfiles
Encyclopedia

Article Menu

Subscribe SciFeed
Recommended Articles
Google Scholar
on Google Scholar
Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Research on the geographical pattern, evolution model, and driving mechanism of carbon emission density from urban industrial land in the yangtze river economic belt of china.

Share and Cite

Xie, F.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, Q.; Zhao, S.; Lai, M. Research on the Geographical Pattern, Evolution Model, and Driving Mechanism of Carbon Emission Density from Urban Industrial Land in the Yangtze River Economic Belt of China. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2024 , 13 , 192. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi13060192

Xie F, Zhang S, Zhang Q, Zhao S, Lai M. Research on the Geographical Pattern, Evolution Model, and Driving Mechanism of Carbon Emission Density from Urban Industrial Land in the Yangtze River Economic Belt of China. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information . 2024; 13(6):192. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi13060192

Xie, Fei, Shuaibing Zhang, Qipeng Zhang, Sidong Zhao, and Min Lai. 2024. "Research on the Geographical Pattern, Evolution Model, and Driving Mechanism of Carbon Emission Density from Urban Industrial Land in the Yangtze River Economic Belt of China" ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 13, no. 6: 192. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi13060192

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

IMAGES

Research Paper Methodology
Types of research papers
Types of Research Methodology: Uses, Types & Benefits
15 Types of Research Methods (2024)
How to write a methods section of a research paper
Types Of Research Paper 1 NTA UGC NET

VIDEO

The scientific approach and alternative approaches to investigation
3.Three type of main Research in education
What is a research paper? How to read a research paper?
Do Research. #youtubemadeforyou #trendingshorts #research #ramadanshorts #business #insights #data
Metho 2: Types of Research
How to write a research methodology

COMMENTS

Research Methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
What are the different types of research papers?
Experimental research paper. This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like: biology. chemistry. physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.
Research Methodology
The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.
Research Methods
Quantitative research methods are used to collect and analyze numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to test a hypothesis, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and measure the prevalence of certain phenomena. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
Types of Research
Types of Research. Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it. It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions.
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper
I. Groups of Research Methods. There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences: The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences.This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured.
Research Methods
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Primary vs secondary data. Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations and experiments). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in ...
Research Paper
The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. ... Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and ...
Research Guides: Types of Research Papers: Overview
Types of Research Papers: Overview. A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing. While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary. Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose ...
Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide
Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an ...
Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology
The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study's validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) How was the data collected or generated? ... there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. ... The research method must be appropriate to the ...
What Is a Research Design
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.
15 Types of Research Methods (2024)
These methods are useful when a detailed understanding of a phenomenon is sought. 1. Ethnographic Research. Ethnographic research emerged out of anthropological research, where anthropologists would enter into a setting for a sustained period of time, getting to know a cultural group and taking detailed observations.
What are the Different Types of Research Papers?
The different types of research papers contribute to the universe of knowledge while providing invaluable insights for policy and scope for further advanced research and development. In this article, we will look at various kinds of research papers and understand their underlying principles, objectives, and purposes. ...
Different types of Research Papers: An in-depth guide
Argumentative Research Paper: Advocates for a particular stance or viewpoint. Example: Debating the effectiveness of a specific economic policy. Empirical Research Paper: Focuses on original data collection and analysis through experiments, surveys, or observations. Example: Investigating the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.
Types of Research Papers
Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical.. Argumentative. In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement.
Different Types of Research Papers Guide with Examples
It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital. Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc.
Types of Research
Explanatory. Analytical research. Types of research according to the mode of inquiry. Quantitative research. Quantitative research. Types of research according to the aims of the research approach. Longitudinal research. Cross-sectional research. Conceptual research.
Research Design
This will guide your research design and help you select appropriate methods. Select a research design: There are many different research designs to choose from, including experimental, survey, case study, and qualitative designs. Choose a design that best fits your research question and objectives.
Methods
Methods publishes original review and research articles that cover emerging methodology in many areas of life and health sciences. The research areas covered by Methods include, but are not limited to, • Biochemistry and biophysics. • Cell, molecular, and developmental biology and genetics. • Computational biology and bioinformatics ...
Welcome to the Purdue Online Writing Lab
Mission. The Purdue On-Campus Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement. The Purdue Writing Lab serves the Purdue, West Lafayette, campus and coordinates with local literacy initiatives.
Primary Research
Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics. Example: Survey questionnaire You are interested in the perceptions of your fellow students on universal healthcare. You decide to conduct a survey of students, asking them their thoughts.
Reviewers
Reviewers play a pivotal role in scholarly publishing. The peer review system exists to validate academic work, helps to improve the quality of published research, and increases networking possibilities within research communities. Despite criticisms, peer review is still the only widely accepted method for research validation and has continued ...
The Writing Center
Typically, an abstract for an IMRaD paper or presentation is one or two paragraphs long (120 - 500 words). Abstracts usually spend. 25% of their space on the purpose and importance of the research (Introduction) 25% of their space on what you did (Methods) 35% of their space on what you found (Results)
Research Approach
Below are some examples of methods that are commonly used in each research approach: Deductive approach methods: Surveys and questionnaires: to collect data from a large sample of participants. Experiments: to manipulate variables and test hypotheses under controlled conditions. Statistical analysis: to test the significance of relationships ...
Reference examples
More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual.Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual.. To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of ...
The Best Toilet Paper of 2024, Tested by Experts
For this article, Lexie conducted extensive evaluations of more than 20 different types of toilet paper from popular name and generic brands. Amanda Constantine most recently updated this article.
Research Paper Format
The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites. ... Methods: The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis. Results: ...
IJGI
To achieve the goals of "carbon peaking and carbon neutrality", this paper puts forward the connotation and measurement method for the carbon emission intensity of urban industrial land and conducts an empirical study with the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) as an example. We defined the carbon intensity of urban industrial land as the industrial carbon emissions per unit area of land ...

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Community Blog

Types of Research – Explained with Examples

Types of Research

Classification of Types of Research

According to its Purpose

Applied Research

According to your Depth of Scope

Descriptive Research

Explanatory Research

Correlational Research

According to the Type of Data Used

Quantitative Research

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Non-Experimental Research

Quasi-Experimental Research

According to the Type of Inference

Inductive Research

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

According to The Sources of Information

Secondary research

According to How the Data is Obtained

From Laboratory

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Browse PhDs Now

Join Thousands of Students

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

Structure and Writing Style

Writing Tip

Another Writing Tip

Yet Another Writing Tip

Have a language expert improve your writing

Research Methods | Definition, Types, Examples

Table of contents

Qualitative vs quantitative data

Primary vs secondary data

Descriptive vs experimental data

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Qualitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis methods

Is this article helpful?

Types of Research Papers: Overview

Need More Help?

Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

Understanding different research methods:

Qualitative vs quantitative research:

Qualitative research methodology:

Quantitative research methodology:

Analysing qualitative vs quantitative data:

When to use qualitative vs quantitative research:

Conclusion:

Why is data validation important in research?

When Data Speak, Listen: Importance of Data Collection and Analysis Methods

Descriptive Research Design and Its Myriad Uses

Five Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Biomedical Research Paper

Making Technical Writing in Environmental Engineering Accessible

To Err is Not Human: The Dangers of AI-assisted Academic Writing

Writing a good review article

Scholarly Sources: What are They and Where can You Find Them?

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

Structure and Writing Style

Writing Tip

Another Writing Tip

Research Support

Using the Library

User Information

My Accounts

15 Types of Research Methods

Types of Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods

1. Ethnographic Research

2. Phenomenological Research

3. Historical Research

4. Content Analysis

5. Grounded Theory Research