research papers in history

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The Historical Journal

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We’re delighted to announce that all articles accepted for publication in The Historical Journal from 19 August 2024 will be ‘open access’; published with a Creative Commons licence and freely available to read online (see the journal’s Open Access Options page for available licence options). We have an OA option for every author: the costs of open access publication will be covered through agreements between the publisher and the author’s institution , payment of APCs from grant or other funds, or else waived entirely, ensuring every author can publish and enjoy the benefits of OA.  

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• Contains open access

• ISSN: 0018-246X (Print) , 1469-5103 (Online)
• Editors: John Gallagher University of Leeds, UK , and Rachel Leow University of Cambridge, UK
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The Historical Journal is now seeking proposals for Special Issues. Please click here for more information.

Recent articles

The construction of ‘tribe’ as a socio-political unit in global history.

• Elisabeth Leake
• The Historical Journal , First View

Trust, Guilds, and Kinship in London, 1330–1680

• Ammaarah Adam , Raphael Adès , William Banks , Canberk Benning , Gwyneth Grant , Harry Forster-Brass , Owen McGiveron , Joseph Miller , Daniel Phelan , Sebastian Randazzo , Matthew Reilly , Michael Scott , Sebastian Serban , Carys Stockton , Patrick Wallis

Entrepreneurial Philanthropy at Cromford, Quarry Bank, and Saltaire Mills during the Industrial Revolution

• David Yates
• The Historical Journal , Volume 67 , Issue 3

Unlawful Carnal Knowledge in the Irish Free State, 1924–1935

• David M. Doyle

The Rushdie Affair and the Politics of Multicultural Britain

• Kieran Connell

Melancholy, Spiritual Experience, and Dissent in England, c. 1650–1700

• Finola Finn

Social Discipline and the Refusal of Poor Relief under the English Old Poor Law, c. 1650–1730

• Jonathan Healey

Phantoms in and of the Archive: Mary Cudmore’s Encounters with a Ghost in Cork in 1688 and 1689

• Clodagh Tait

Historical Journal Blogs

Interpretive battlegrounds: Melancholy, spiritual experience, and dissent in early modern England

• 10 May 2024, Finola Finn
• In a spiritual narrative published in 1672, Charles Langford lamented that some would deem his descriptions of visions and temptations “as meer Fictions, and...

Natalie Zemon Davis under investigation: writing history under political persecution

• 10 May 2024, Stefan Hanß
• “The full Historical Journal article on which this blog is based is currently not yet published but will be out soon!…

Mills, Money, and Morality: Entrepreneurial Philanthropy under a Spatial Microscope

• 26 March 2024, David Yates
• Walking through the mill yard at Quarry Bank mill, on a dull December day, I noticed the bell tower high above.

Historiographical Reviews

From field walking to phenomenology: a review of recent british landscape historiography.

• Jeremy Burchardt

Reassessing the Marginalization of Astrology in the Early Modern World

• Michelle Pfeffer
• The Historical Journal , Volume 66 , Issue 5

Historicizing Economic Growth: An Overview of Recent Works

• Venus Bivar
• The Historical Journal , Volume 65 , Issue 5

Royal Counsel in Tudor England, 1485–1603

• Jonathan McGovern

Globalizing the History of the First World War: Economic Approaches

• Jamie Martin
• The Historical Journal , Volume 65 , Issue 3

Parliamentary Representation in Modern Britain: Past, Present, and Future

• Miles Taylor
• The Historical Journal , Volume 65 , Issue 4

Scandal and Secrecy in the History of the Nineteenth-Century British Empire

• Callie Wilkinson
• The Historical Journal , Volume 65 , Issue 2

THE DEEP PAST OF PRE-COLONIAL AUSTRALIA

• STEPHANIE MAWSON
• The Historical Journal , Volume 64 , Issue 5

History Twitter feed

Tweets by @HistoricalJnl

Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history *

• Amanda Vickery
• The Historical Journal , Volume 36 , Issue 2

Handbook for Historians

• Choosing a Paper Topic
• Thesis Statement
• Find Primary Sources
• Finding Secondary Sources
• Paraphrasing and Quoting Sources
• How to create an Annotated Bibliography
• Formatting Endnotes/Footnotes
• Formatting Bibliographies

Sample History Papers

Sample title pages, outlines, & citations.

• Research Paper Checklist

These are examples of well written, properly cited history papers.

• Sample Paper with Outline
• Judge and Langdon Book Review/Research Paper - Example 1
• Judge and Langdon Book Review/Research Paper - Example 2
• citation presentation
• HST 302 Paper Example example of a paper for upper division History courses
• HST 302 Title Page
• Outline Example Example of an outline for a first year level history paper.
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• Last Updated: Jul 1, 2024 2:01 PM
• URL: https://resources.library.lemoyne.edu/guides/history/handbook

Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

How to Write a History Research Paper

In my last post, I shared some tips on how to conduct research in history and emphasized that researchers should keep in mind a source’s category (transcript, court document, speech, etc.). This post is something of a sequel to that, as I will share some thoughts on what often follows primary-source research: a history research paper. 

1. Background Reading   The first step to a history research paper is of course, background reading and research. In the context of a class assignment, “background reading” might simply be course readings or lectures, but for independent work, this step will likely involve some quality time on your own in the library. During the background reading phase of your project, keep an eye out for intriguing angles to approach your topic from and any trends that you see across sources (both primary and secondary).

2. T hemes and Context Recounting the simple facts about your topic alone will not make for a successful research paper. One must grasp both the details of events as well as the larger, thematic context of the time period in which they occurred. What’s the scholarly consensus about these themes? Does that consensus seem right to you, after having done primary and secondary research of your own?

3. Develop an Argument  Grappling with answers to the above questions will get you thinking about your emerging argument. For shorter papers, you might identify a gap in the scholarship or come up with an argumentative response to a class prompt rather quickly. Remember: as an undergraduate, you don’t have to come up with (to borrow Philosophy Professor Gideon Rosen’s phrase) ‘a blindingly original theory of everything.’ In other words, finding a nuanced thesis does not mean you have to disprove some famous scholar’s work in its entirety. But, if you’re having trouble defining your thesis, I encourage you not to worry; talk to your professor, preceptor, or, if appropriate, a friend. These people can listen to your ideas, and the simple act of talking about your paper can often go a long way in helping you realize what you want to write about.

4. Outline Your Argument  With a history paper specifically, one is often writing about a sequence of events and trying to tell a story about what happened. Roughly speaking, your thesis is your interpretation of these events, or your take on some aspect of them (i.e. the role of women in New Deal programs). Before opening up Word, I suggest writing down the stages of your argument. Then, outline or organize your notes to know what evidence you’ll use in each of these various stages. If you think your evidence is solid, then you’re probably ready to start writing—and you now have a solid roadmap to work from! But, if this step is proving difficult, you might want to gather more evidence or go back to the thesis drawing board and look for a better angle. I often find myself somewhere between these two extremes (being 100% ready to write or staring at a sparse outline), but that’s also helpful, because it gives me a better idea of where my argument needs strengthening.

5. Prepare Yourself   Once you have some sort of direction for the paper (i.e. a working thesis), you’re getting close to the fun part—the writing itself. Gather your laptop, your research materials/notes, and some snacks, and get ready to settle in to write your paper, following your argument outline. As mentioned in the photo caption, I suggest utilizing large library tables to spread out your notes. This way, you don’t have to constantly flip through binders, notebooks, and printed drafts.

In addition to this step by step approach, I’ll leave you with a few last general tips for approaching a history research paper. Overall, set reasonable goals for your project, and remember that a seemingly daunting task can be broken down into the above constituent phases. And, if nothing else, know that you’ll end up with a nice Word document full of aesthetically pleasing footnotes!

— Shanon FitzGerald, Social Sciences Correspondent

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How to Write a History Research Paper

• How do I pick a topic?
• But I can’t find any material…

Research Guide

Writing guide.

See also: How to Write a Good History Essay

1. How do I pick a topic?

Picking a topic is perhaps the most important step in writing a research paper. To do it well requires several steps of refinement. First you have to determine a general area in which you have an interest (if you aren’t interested, your readers won’t be either). You do not write a paper “about the Civil War,” however, for that is such a large and vague concept that the paper will be too shallow or you will be swamped with information. The next step is to narrow your topic. Are you interested in comparison? battles? social change? politics? causes? biography? Once you reach this stage try to formulate your research topic as a question. For example, suppose that you decide to write a paper on the use of the films of the 1930’s and what they can tell historians about the Great Depression. You might turn that into the following question: “What are the primary values expressed in films of the 1930’s?” Or you might ask a quite different question, “What is the standard of living portrayed in films of the 1930’s?” There are other questions, of course, which you could have asked, but these two clearly illustrate how different two papers on the same general subject might be. By asking yourself a question as a means of starting research on a topic you will help yourself find the answers. You also open the door to loading the evidence one way or another. It will help you decide what kinds of evidence might be pertinent to your question, and it can also twist perceptions of a topic. For example, if you ask a question about economics as motivation, you are not likely to learn much about ideals, and vice versa.

2. But I can’t find any material…

No one should pick a topic without trying to figure out how one could discover pertinent information, nor should anyone settle on a topic before getting some background information about the general area. These two checks should make sure your paper is in the realm of the possible. The trick of good research is detective work and imaginative thinking on how one can find information. First try to figure out what kinds of things you should know about a topic to answer your research question. Are there statistics? Do you need personal letters? What background information should be included? Then if you do not know how to find that particular kind of information, ASK . A reference librarian or professor is much more likely to be able to steer you to the right sources if you can ask a specific question such as “Where can I find statistics on the number of interracial marriages?” than if you say “What can you find on racial attitudes?”

Use the footnotes and bibliographies of general background books as well as reference aids to lead you to special studies. If Carleton does not have the books or sources you need, try ordering through the library minitex. Many sources are also available on-line.

As your research paper takes shape you will find that you need background on people, places, events, etc. Do not just rely on some general survey for all of your background. Check the several good dictionaries of biography for background on people, or see if there is a standard book-length biography. If you are dealing with a legal matter check into the background of the judges who make the court decision and the circumstances surrounding the original incident or law. Try looking for public opinions in newspapers of the time. In other words, each bit of information you find should open the possibility of other research paths.

Learn to use several research techniques. You cannot count on a good research paper coming from browsing on one shelf at the library. A really pertinent book may be hidden in another section of the library due to classification quirks. The Readers’ Guide (Ref. A13 .R4) is not the only source for magazine articles, nor the card catalog for books. There are whole books which are listings of other books on particular topics. There are specialized indexes of magazine articles. Modern History Journals are indexed in the Social Studies and Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .R282) before 1976 After 1976 use the Social Sciences Index (REF A13 .S62) and the Humanities Index (Ref. A13 .H85). See also Historical Abstracts (Ref. D1 .H5). Reference Librarians would love to help you learn to use these research tools. It pays to browse in the reference room at the library and poke into the guides which are on the shelves. It also pays to browse the Internet.

3. Help! How do I put this together?

A. preliminary research:.

If you do not already have a general background on your topic, get the most recent good general source on the topic and read it for general orientation. On the basis of that reading formulate as clearly focused question as you can. You should generally discuss with your professor at that point whether your question is a feasible one.

B. Building a Basic Bibliography:

Use the bibliography/notes in your first general source, MUSE, and especially Historical Abstracts on cd-rom in the Library Reading Room (the computer farthest to the left in the front row as you walk past the Reference Desk — or ask there). If there is a specialized bibliography on your topic, you will certainly want to consult that as well, but these are often a bit dated.

C. Building a Full Bibliography:

Read the recent articles or chapters that seem to focus on your topic best. This will allow you to focus your research question quite a bit. Use the sources cited and/or discussed in this reading to build a full bibliography. Use such tools as Historical Abstracts (or, depending on your topic, the abstracts from a different field) and a large, convenient computer-based national library catalog (e.g. the University of California system from the “Libs” command in your VAX account or the smaller University of Minnesota library through MUSE) to check out your sources fully. For specific article searches “Uncover” (press returns for the “open access”) or possibly (less likely for history) “First Search” through “Connect to Other Resources” in MUSE can also be useful.

D. Major Research:

Now do the bulk of your research. But do not overdo it. Do not fall into the trap of reading and reading to avoid getting started on the writing. After you have the bulk of information you might need, start writing. You can fill in the smaller gaps of your research more effectively later.

A. Outline:

Write a preliminary thesis statement, expressing what you believe your major argument(s) will be. Sketch out a broad outline that indicates the structure — main points and subpoints or your argument as it seems at this time. Do not get too detailed at this point.

B. The First Draft:

On the basis of this thesis statement and outline, start writing, even pieces, as soon as you have enough information to start. Do not wait until you have filled all the research gaps. Keep on writing. If you run into smaller research questions just mark the text with a searchable symbol. It is important that you try to get to the end point of this writing as soon as possible, even if you leave pieces still in outline form at first and then fill the gaps after you get to the end.

Critical advice for larger papers: It is often more effective not to start at the point where the beginning of your paper will be. Especially the introductory paragraph is often best left until later, when you feel ready and inspired.

C. The Second Draft:

The “second draft” is a fully re-thought and rewritten version of your paper. It is at the heart of the writing process.

First, lay your first draft aside for a day or so to gain distance from it. After that break, read it over with a critical eye as you would somebody else’s paper (well, almost!). You will probably find that your first draft is still quite descriptive, rather than argumentative. It is likely to wander; your perspective and usually even the thesis seemed to change/develop as you wrote. Don’t despair. That is perfectly normal even for experienced writers (even after 40 years and a good deal of published work!). You will be frustrated. But keep questioning your paper along the following lines: What precisely are my key questions? What parts of my evidence here are really pertinent to those questions (that is, does it help me answer them)? How or in what order can I structure my paper most effectively to answer those questions most clearly and efficiently for my reader?

At this point you must outline your paper freshly. Mark up your first draft, ask tough questions whether your argument is clear and whether the order in which you present your points is effective! You must write conceptually a new paper at this point, even if you can use paragraphs and especially quotes, factual data in the new draft.

It is critical that in your new draft your paragraphs start with topic sentences that identify the argument you will be making in the particular paragraph (sometimes this can be strings of two or three paragraphs). The individual steps in your argument must be clearly reflected in the topic sentences of your paragraphs (or a couple of them linked).

D. The Third or Final Draft:

You are now ready to check for basic rules of good writing. This is when you need to check the diction, that is, the accuracy and suitability of words. Eliminate unnecessary passive or awkward noun constructions (active-voice, verbal constructions are usually more effective); improve the flow of your transitions; avoid repetitions or split infinitives; correct apostrophes in possessives and such. Make the style clear and smooth. Check that the start of your paper is interesting for the reader. Last but not least, cut out unnecessary verbiage and wordiness. Spell-check and proof-read.

– Diethelm Prowe, 1998

• University of Wisconsin–Madison
• University of Wisconsin-Madison
• Research Guides
• Introduction to Historical Research
• Primary Sources

Introduction to Historical Research : Primary Sources

• Archival sources
• Multimedia sources
• Newspapers and other periodicals
• Biographical Information
• Government documents

Ask a Librarian

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What are Primary Sources?

Primary sources were either created during the time period being researched or were created at a later date by a participant in the events being examined (as in the case of memoirs).  They often reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer.  Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period and can serve as evidence in making an historical argument.

Examples include:

    Artifacts

•  Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
•  Diaries
•  Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail)
•  Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications
•  Letters
•  Newspaper articles written at the time
•  Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript)
•  Patents
•  Photographs
•  Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia
•  Records of organizations, government agencies
•  Speeches
•  Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls)
•  Video recordings (e.g. television programs)
•  Works of art, architecture, literature, and music
•  Web sites
• How to read a primary source
• Why Study History Through Primary Sources?
• Using Historical Sources
• Primary Sources Research guide

Primary Source Databases

Below are sample library subscription databases with digitized primary sources. More can be found on the Historical/Primary Sources page.

• American West Contains manuscript materials, broadsides, maps, and printed items documenting the history of the American West from the 18th century to the early 20th century.
• Black Abolitionist Papers, 1830–1863 15,000 articles and documents written by Black abolitionists during the antebellum period in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The contents include correspondence, speeches, sermons, lectures by African-American leaders; articles and essays published in African-American, abolitionist, and reform newspapers; and related documents.
• British and Irish Women's Letters and Diaries 1500 - 1950 A vast collection of British and Irish women's diaries and correspondence, spanning more than 300 years, it brings the personal experiences of nearly 500 women.
• Caribbean Views Caribbean Views draws from the British Library's collection of maps, manuscripts, printed books and newspapers relating to the British West Indies to conjure up a vivid picture of life in the English-speaking Caribbean during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The Library's holdings of material relating to the English slave trade and slavery are particularly strong.
• Defining Gender 50,000 images of original documents from five centuries of advice literature and related material, from diaries, advice and conduct books, as well as articles from medical and other journals, ballads, cartoons, and pamphlets, all from Europe. Much of the material is British in origin.
• Early American Imprints, Series I. Evans (1639-1800) The Evans collection is a definitive resource for all aspects of American life in the 17th and 18th centuries. Based on the renowned American Bibliography by Charles Evans and Roger Bristol's Supplement to Evans' American Bibliography. With these bibliographies, Evans and Bristol attempted to identify all works published in America through 1800.
• Early Encounters in North America--Peoples, Cultures and the Environment Contains 1,482 authors and over 100,000 pages of letters, diaries, memoirs and accounts of early encounters.
• Early English Books Online Early English Books Online (EEBO) provides full-text images of almost all the books printed in England and her colonies from the beginning of printing to 1700 (about 125,000 titles). more... less... You can search for books on your topic by author, title,and keyword, or search just for illustrations from these books if you wish. EEBO includes the items listed in Pollard & Redgrave's Short-Title Catalogue (1475-1640), Wing's Short-Title Catalogue (1641-1700), the Thomason Tracts (1640-1661), and additional supplementary materials. Gradually, searchable electronic text versions of a selection of these books are being added to the project. These searchable texts are called: EEBO-TCP, the Early English Books Online Text Creation Project. Eventually both EEBO and EEBO-TCP will be combined into one database. For now, in addition to using using Early English Books Online (EEBO), check EEBO-TCP if you want to do want to do keyword searching within an individual work.
• Eighteenth Century Collections Online An online library of over 180,000 titles published between 1701 and 1800, and printed in English-speaking countries, or countries under British colonial rule. Includes books, pamphlets, essays, broadsides and more. more... less... The majority of works in ECCO are in the English language but there are also works printed in Dutch, French, German, Italian, Latin, Spanish and Welsh. Based on the English Short Title Catalogue Works published in the UK during the 18th century plus thousands from elsewhere
• Electronic Enlightenment Contains correspondence between the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century and their families and friends, bankers and booksellers, patrons and publishers. It is an aggregation of 53,000 primary source letters from more than 6,000 writers and numerous presses. more... less... An ongoing scholarly research project of the University of Oxford and other universities and organizations, Electronic Enlightenment offers access to the web of correspondence between the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century and their families and friends, bankers and booksellers, patrons and publishers. EE is an aggregation of 53,000 primary source letters from more than 6,000 writers and numerous presses. Readers can explore writer's views on history, literature, language, arts, philosophy, science, medicine, and personal, social and political relations.
• Everyday Life and Women in America c.1800–1920 Hundreds of monographs illuminating all aspects of family life. Also includes periodicals and pamphlets. more... less... Fully-searchable access to 75 rare periodicals ranging from Echoes of the South (Florida) and the Household Magazine (North Carolina) to Lucifer the Lightbearer (Chicago), The Heathen Woman's Friend (Boston) and Women's Work (Georgia). * A rich collection of rare pamphlets. * Hundreds of monographs illuminating all aspects of family life all of which have been screened against Gerritsen, Shaw-Shoemaker, and other relevant projects to avoid needless duplication. * Insightful contextual essays by leading scholars that will help to point students at valuable resources. * Strong coverage of prescriptive literature and manuals for domestic management telling us much about the organisation of the home.
• Gerritsen Collection: Women's History Online The Gerritsen Collection includes books and periodicals from around the world which document the condition of women, the evolution of feminist consciousness, and women's rights. more... less... The Gerritsen Collection includes books and periodicals from around the world which document the condition of women, the evolution of feminist consciousness, and women's rights. More than 4,000 books and 265 periodicals in the collection are primarily in English with German, French, and Dutch-language materials strongly represented. Other languages included are Italian, Spanish, Latin, Greek, Slavic, and Scandinavian.
• Library of Latin Texts Contains 3,200 works that are attributed to approximately 950 authors. more... less... The texts which are incorporated are selected by virtue of their having been edited according to best contemporary scholarly practice. Independent research is undertaken to verify facts relating to the text, such as the veracity of the authorial attribution or the dating.
• Nineteenth Century Collections Online Nineteenth Century Collections Online unites multiple, distinct archives into a single resource, including a wide variety of previously unavailable primary sources ranging from books and monographs, newspapers and periodicals, diaries and personal letters, manuscripts, photographs, pamphlets, and maps. more... less... Initial archival modules include: British Politics and Society; European Literature, 1790-1840: The Corvey Collection; Asia and the West: Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange; and British Theatre, Music, and Literature: High and Popular Culture.
• North American Immigrant Letters, Diaries and Oral Histories Provides a unique and personal view of what it meant to immigrate to America and Canada between 1800 and 1950. Composed of contemporaneous letters and diaries, oral histories, interviews, and other personal narratives. more... less... In selected cases, users will be able to hear the actual audio voices of the immigrants. The collection will be particularly useful to researchers, because much of the original material is difficult to find, poorly indexed, and unpublished; most bibliographies of the immigrant focus on secondary research; and few oral histories have been published.
• North American Women's Letters and Diaries (Colonial to 1950) Provides a collection of published and unpublished women's diaries and correspondence, drawn from more than 1,000 sources, including journal articles, pamphlets, newsletters, monographs, and conference proceedings.
• Oxford African American Studies Center Over 1,000 images, primary sources with specially written commentaries, and over 100 maps have been collected to enhance this reference content related to the African American experience.
• Past Masters Provides access to searchable full text databases of primary works, letters, journals, and notebooks from important philosophers and women writers. All titles are in the English language, either original as written or in translation.
• Sixties The Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives, 1960 to 1974 documents the key events, trends, and movements in 1960s America. more... less... The Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives, 1960 to 1974 documents the key events, trends, and movements in 1960s America vividly conveying the zeitgeist of the decade and its effects into the middle of the next. Alongside 70,000 pages of letters, diaries, and oral histories, there are more than 30,000 pages of posters, broadsides, pamphlets, advertisements, and rare audio and video materials. The collection is further enhanced by dozens of scholarly document projects, featuring richly annotated primary-source content that is analyzed and contextualized through interpretive essays by leading historians.
• Twentieth Century Advice Literature This collection includes how-to books and guides; employee manuals, sorority and fraternity pledge manuals; scouting manuals; textbooks; commercial literature; and government manuals. more... less... Twentieth Century Advice Literature focuses on gender roles and relations, American consumerism, views of democratic citizenship, character development for children, changes in reaction to each major war (including World Wars I and II, Korea, and Vietnam), class relations, and adjustments to new technology (such as proper manners when using the telephone, point-and-shoot camera, or e-mail). Included are how-to books and guides; employee manuals, sorority and fraternity pledge manuals; scouting manuals; textbooks that deal with home economics, health and hygiene, and sex education; teacher-training and course manuals; commercial literature that promotes specific behaviors; and government instruction manuals for a variety of workplaces and industries.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States Document projects that interpret and present materials, many of which are not otherwise available online, in U.S. history and U.S. women's history.

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Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Open access
• Published: 03 July 2024

Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago

• Adhi Agus Oktaviana   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9140-497X 1 , 2 , 3 , 4   na1 ,
• Renaud Joannes-Boyau   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0452-486X 5   na1 ,
• Budianto Hakim 6 , 7 ,
• Basran Burhan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9172-5888 8 ,
• Ratno Sardi 6 , 7 ,
• Shinatria Adhityatama 1 , 3 ,
• Hamrullah 9 ,
• Iwan Sumantri 7 , 10 ,
• M. Tang 11 ,
• Rustan Lebe 7 , 12 ,
• Imran Ilyas 11 ,
• Abdullah Abbas 11 ,
• Andi Jusdi 7 , 11 ,
• Dewangga Eka Mahardian   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0007-1595-8683 2 , 4 ,
• Sofwan Noerwidi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2098-8496 2 , 4 , 7 ,
• Marlon N. R. Ririmasse 7 , 13 ,
• Irfan Mahmud 6 , 7 ,
• Akin Duli 7 , 10 ,
• Laode M. Aksa 11 ,
• David McGahan 8 ,
• Pindi Setiawan 14   na2 ,
• Adam Brumm   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2276-3258 8 , 15   na1 &
• Maxime Aubert   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4189-531X 1 , 3 , 5 , 8   na1  

Nature ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Archaeology
• Cultural evolution

Previous dating research indicated that the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is host to some of the oldest known rock art 1 , 2 , 3 . That work was based on solution uranium-series (U-series) analysis of calcite deposits overlying rock art in the limestone caves of Maros-Pangkep, South Sulawesi 1 , 2 , 3 . Here we use a novel application of this approach—laser-ablation U-series imaging—to re-date some of the earliest cave art in this karst area and to determine the age of stylistically similar motifs at other Maros-Pangkep sites. This method provides enhanced spatial accuracy, resulting in older minimum ages for previously dated art. We show that a hunting scene from Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, which was originally dated using the previous approach to a minimum of 43,900 thousand years ago (ka) 3 , has a minimum age of 50.2 ± 2.2 ka, and so is at least 4,040 years older than thought. Using the imaging approach, we also assign a minimum age of 53.5 ± 2.3 ka to a newly described cave art scene at Leang Karampuang. Painted at least 51,200 years ago, this narrative composition, which depicts human-like figures interacting with a pig, is now the earliest known surviving example of representational art, and visual storytelling, in the world 3 . Our findings show that figurative portrayals of anthropomorphic figures and animals have a deeper origin in the history of modern human ( Homo sapiens ) image-making than recognized to date, as does their representation in composed scenes.

Prehistoric rock art provides important insights into past human cultures, but is typically challenging to date in an accurate and reliable manner 4 , 5 . Over the past few decades, solution-based U-series methods have been used to produce early dates for rock art in several regions, including western Europe 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , Island Southeast Asia 1 , 2 , 3 , 10 , 11 and Russia 12 . In Spain, a hand stencil has been dated using solution U-series analysis of overlying calcite to at least 64.8 ka, and is therefore attributed to Neanderthals 9 ; however, dating evidence presented for this image has been questioned 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . Up until now, the earliest evidence for figurative art had comprised a naturalistic painting of a Sulawesi warty pig ( Sus celebensis ) at Leang Tedongnge in Maros-Pangkep (Fig. 1 ), which was dated using solution U-series to a minimum of 45.5 ka (ref. 3 ).

a , The Indonesian island of Sulawesi, showing the location of the southwestern peninsula (area inside rectangle). b , South Sulawesi, with the limestone karst area of Maros-Pangkep indicated by blue shading. The locations of cave sites with dated Late Pleistocene rock art were as follows: 1, Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4; 2, Leang Karampuang; 3, Leang Tedongnge; 4, Leang Timpuseng. Map sources: GEBCO 2023 Grid; South Sulawesi karst database (Badan Lingkungan Hidup Daerah Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan; I. A. Ahmad, A. S. Hamzah). MSL, mean sea level.

Thus far, only solution-based U-series methods have been used to date calcium carbonate deposits that formed in direct association with rock art. This approach involves the physical microexcavation of arbitrary layers of calcium carbonate and their chemical preparation before analysis using multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). The technique allows for small analytical error, but has some disadvantages for dating thin calcium carbonate layers associated with rock art, especially those with complex growth history; the latter includes the coralloid speleothems (also known as ‘cave popcorn’), which are most often found in association with rock art in limestone karst caves and shelters in Indonesia 1 , 2 , 3 , 11 . Here we used a laser-ablation U-series (LA-U-series) approach to date these thin calcite accretions in association with rock art. Instead of physically microexcavating arbitrary ‘spits’ using a rotary tool, as was done in the previous approach, the laser is focussed on a polished cross-section and requires no chemical preparation. The small spot size of the laser-ablation system (typically spot diameters of 44 μm) offers several advantages over solution-based methods: (1) it is fast and cost effective; (2) it requires a much smaller sample, and is therefore less destructive; (3) the spatial resolution obtained using this method allows the detailed growth history of the speleothem to be revealed and the age of the oldest deposit closest to the pigment layer to be precisely defined, improving accuracy; (4) it can be easily and rapidly demonstrated that the calcite has not undergone remobilization of uranium (and areas exhibiting these issues can be identified and avoided), which could be problematic for U-series dating ( Methods , Supplementary Information and Extended Data Table 1 ).

Coralloid speleothems found in association with rock art often have complex internal morphologies that reflect their origin as aggregates of a cluster of cylindrical, mound-like calcite structures 17 , leaving overhanging features with gaps between older material that are infilled by carbonate materials of younger age. As the physical microexcavation procedure involves laterally collecting material from an arbitrary depth above the pigment layer—as opposed to sampling individual laminae—the resultant U-series age could, in some instances, be an average of the older mound material and the younger infill. Similarly, the lateral averaging of onion-like undulating layers can mix calcium carbonate material of different ages, sometimes resulting in a series of arbitrary subsamples with ages appearing not to be in chronological order. Such a complicated growth history may account for the small age reversals that are sometimes observed in previously dated samples using mechanical abrasion of arbitrary layers 2 , 3 . Here we used our LA-U-series approach to map the U-series isotopes across the surface areas of sample cross-sections. This approach enables us to understand the complex ways in which coralloid speleothems have formed, therefore enabling the analyst to identify, and avoid, small zones affected by diagenesis 18 .

The LA-U-series method generally provides age estimates with larger errors than the solution-based method, but it can result in genuinely older minimum ages for art as calcium carbonate material closer to the pigment layer can be analysed. This error can be improved by integrating a larger area of data; however, it can result in younger minimum ages as calcium carbonate material from later growth stages would need to be integrated. A more efficient way of minimizing this error involves slowing down the speed of the laser stage and increasing the integration time on the MC-ICP-MS, resulting in more datapoints for similar integrated areas. The trade-off is a substantial increase in the time needed to complete the analysis ( Methods and Supplementary Information ). We found that a spot size of 44 µm with a laser rastering speed of 21 µm s −1 (with a 2.097 s integration time) was optimal for most circumstances.

New ages for previously dated art

To demonstrate the efficiency and reliability of this technique, we re-dated what was previously the oldest known surviving pictorial narrative, a rock art scene at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, which we had already dated to a minimum of 43.9 ka (ref. 2 ). At this cave site, a 4.5-m-wide panel on the rear wall comprises several figurative paintings of human-like figures interacting with Sulawesi warty pigs and dwarf bovids (anoas, Bubalus sp.) (Fig. 2 ). The former are depicted with material culture objects (spears and/or ropes) and some display what can be construed as attributes of non-human animals. These figures are interpreted as representations of therianthropes (composite human–animal beings) 2 . This enigmatic scene may represent a hunting narrative, while the prominent portrayal of therianthropic figures implies that the artwork reflects imaginative storytelling (for example, a myth) 2 .

a , Photostitched panorama of the rock art panel (using photographs enhanced using DStretch_Ire). Ther, therianthrope. b , Tracing of the dated rock art panel showing the results of LA-U-series dating. c , Transect view of the rock art sample BSP4.5 after removal from the artwork, highlighting the paint layer and the three integration zones (ROIs) and associated age calculations. d , LA-MC-ICP-MS imaging of the BSP4.5 232 Th/ 238 U isotopic activity ratio.

We originally dated a total of four coralloid speleothems overlying animal figures on this panel to a minimum of 35.1 ka (35.7 ± 0.6 ka; sample BSP4.2), 43.9 ka (44.4 ± 0.5 ka; BSP4.3), 40.9 ka (41.1 ± 0.2 ka; BSP4.4) and 41 ka (41.3 ± 0.4 ka; BSP4.5). Using our LA-U-series method, those same speleothems and the associated artwork are now dated to a minimum of 27.6 ka (28.3 ± 0.6 ka; sample BSP4.2), 39.6 ka (43.2 ± 3.6 ka; sample BSP4.3), 39.5 ka (40.4 ± 0.9 ka; sample BSP4.4) and 48 ka (51.2 ± 2.2 ka; sample BSP4.5) (Fig. 2 ). Our LA-U-series approach provides either similar ages within error or older ages when compared with previous dates for the same samples (Fig. 2 ). The only exception is for sample BSP4.2, for which the LA-U-series data for the calcium carbonate deposits closer to the pigment layer are younger. We attribute this discrepancy to our selective avoidance of areas within the sample showing clear alteration ( Methods , Extended Data Fig. 4 and Extended Data Table 1 ).

The rock art scene at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 can now be demonstrated to be at least 4,040 years older at 48 ka. On the basis of previous results, it appears that our mechanical microsampling approach 2 either fortuitously avoided areas of diagenesis or that the averaging of microexcavated arbitrary layers rendered any localized digenesis inconsequential to the overall age calculation for these layers. Again the exception is for sample BSP4.2, for which the older minimum age for solution data near the pigment layer could be attributed to localized diagenesis. Our mapping data also show clear evidence of diagenesis occurring at the surface of samples and sometimes near tiny cavities within them. The latter areas would be impossible to avoid when microexcavating arbitrary spits for solution-based U-series methods and could result in erroneous age determinations. Using the LA-U-series mapping approach, these areas of localized digenesis can easily be avoided (that is, not integrated) when calculating U-series ages from map data. Notably, for example, the 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratios for the laser-ablation regions of integration (ROIs) (Extended Data Table 1 ) are substantially higher than solution data for the same samples owing to the selective avoidance of areas with higher detrital content.

Dating results for Leang Karampuang rock art

Using the LA-U-series method, we also dated another rock art scene in Maros-Pangkep—one that again portrays human-like figures interacting with an animal (Figs. 1 and 3 , Extended Data Figs. 1 and 2 and Supplementary Information ). This ceiling panel was discovered in 2017 at the limestone cave of Leang Karampuang (Fig. 1 ). It is in a poor state of preservation owing to extensive exfoliation of the limestone rock surface, a process that has erased much of the art. The presence of abundant overlying coralloid growths (and other types of speleothems) further obscures the imagery (Fig. 3 ). The visible elements of the scene are dominated by a large (92 × 38 cm) naturalistic red painting of a suid (most probably S. celebensis ). This animal figure is represented as a pictorial outline shown in side (profile) view with an infill pattern consisting of painted strokes or lines. It is therefore consistent in style with the visual convention used to represent pigs and other animals in the dated Late Pleistocene rock art of South Sulawesi, including at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 (ref. 2 ). Other pig motifs ( n  = 5) are present at Leang Karampuang, but do not seem to be associated with the dated panel (Extended Data Fig. 2 and Supplementary Information ). In the latter, the pig is standing in a static position with its mouth partly open. At least three human-like figures (denoted H1 to H3) were depicted in close association with the pig as part of a single composition (Fig. 3 ). The former were portrayed using the same red-hued pigment and broadly the same stylistic convention as the pig, although they are smaller in size. At least two are arrayed in dynamic action poses near the head and face of the animal and seem to be engaged in some kind of close interaction with it. The largest human-like figure (H1, 42 × 27 cm) is represented with both arms extended; it has no legs, and it appears to be holding an item of material culture in its left hand, a rod-like object with a protuberance at both ends. The second human-like figure (H2, 28 × 25 cm) is positioned immediately in front of the pig with its head next to the snout. It also seems to have both arms extended and is holding a stick-like object of indeterminate form in its left hand, one end of which may be in contact with the pig’s throat area. The last human-like figure (H3, 35 × 5 cm) is depicted in an upside-down position with its legs facing up and splayed outwards. It also has its arms extended, with one hand reaching towards and seemingly touching the pig’s head. Pigment traces between H1 and H3 suggest that another figure may have originally been part of the scene. At least two hand stencils visible on the panel seem to be contemporary with the scene; another hand stencil, made using a darker pigment, is overlaid by the pig and was therefore produced earlier in time (Fig. 3 ). The actions taking place among the figures in this scene are difficult to interpret. In contrast to the dated artwork at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, this composition involving human-like figures and an animal does not seem to explicitly depict hunting activity, nor are therianthropes obviously represented, although we cannot rule out either.

a , Photostitched panorama of the rock art panel (with photographs enhanced using DStretch_ac_lds_cb). b , Tracing of the rock art panel showing the results of LA-U-series dating. c , Tracing of the painted scene showing the human-like figures (H1, H2 and H3) interacting with the pig. d , Transect view of the coralloid speleothem, sample LK1, removed from the rock art panel, showing the paint layer and the three integration zones (ROIs), as well as the associated age calculations. e , LA-MC-ICP-MS imaging of the LK1 232 Th/ 238 U isotopic activity ratio.

We collected four coralloid speleothems, one over each of the human-like figures and one over the closely associated pig motif (Fig. 3 and Extended Data Fig. 3 ). Samples LK1, LK2 and LK4 directly overlay H2, H3 and H1, respectively, while LK3 directly overlays the pig image. The results of LA-U-series dating of LK1 provided a minimum age of 51.2 ka (53.5 ± 2.3 ka), whereas the same method applied to LK2, LK3 and LK4 yielded minimum ages of 18.7 ka (19.2 ± 0.5 ka), 31.9 ka (34.1 ± 2.2 ka) and 44 ka (45.9 ± 1.9 ka), respectively (Fig. 3 ). Thus, we can demonstrate that this rock art scene was present at Leang Karampuang at least 51.2 ka, when the oldest dated coralloid (LK1) began to form on top of figure H2.

Implications for the early history of art

At Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, our LA-U-series dating work shows that the panel with the figurative art and composed scene is at least several thousand years older than previously established 2 , with a new minimum age of 48 ka. Furthermore, our use of the same method at Leang Karampuang shows that both forms of artistic expression (naturalism and narrative) date to at least 51.2 ka in the Maros-Pangkep karsts. It is evident from these findings that the use of figurative depiction has a particularly deep antiquity in the history of early human visual culture. Presently, the earliest widely accepted evidence for image-making by our species is from Middle Stone Age southern Africa (around 100–75 ka) and comprises geometric motifs (grid-like patterns) incised on small ochre nodules 19 . It is therefore an open question whether the origin of figurative depiction can be traced to an artistic culture that arose in Africa after the emergence of this early tradition of producing non-representational marks, or somewhere outside it after the dispersal of H. sapiens , including in Southeast Asia.

The new Sulawesi dates also challenge two key premises in the study of Pleistocene art, both of which are based on the rich record of artistic production in Upper Palaeolithic Europe (~40–10 ka): first, that the depiction of anthropomorphs or human-like figures did not become relatively common until towards the end of the Late Pleistocene 20 , 21 ; and second, that the creation of obvious narrative compositions was rare or absent in early cave art generally 22 , 23 , 24 .

Concerning the latter, of the three oldest dated cave art panels now known from Sulawesi, Leang Karampuang (minimum age, 51.2 ka), Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 (minimum age, 48 ka) and Leang Tedongnge (minimum age, 45.5 ka) 3 all involve figures that are grouped together in such a way as to allow an observer to infer actions taking place among them. It is possible that the Leang Tedongnge art is older; however, we were unable to redate it using the new approach, as there was no calcium carbonate material remaining (the previous method involved the use of the entire sample) 3 . Two panels seem to comprise pictorial representations of human–animal relationships (Leang Karampuang and Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4), while the third depicts animals ( S. celebensis ) that are apparently interacting with each other 3 . Moreover, the panel at Leang Timpuseng (minimum age, 35.3 ka) portrays a pig standing on a painted line representing the land surface 1 , another convention used in scenic depiction 22 , 23 , 24 . The use of composed scenes in cave art may have enhanced the communicative potential of this visual medium 22 , 23 , 24 . In contrast to single-figure depictions, the agency of the juxtaposed figures constituting a narrative scene allows a story to be told through images in a manner that does not require the producer of the art to be present to convey the narrative to an audience 22 , 23 , 24 . Scene-making has therefore been linked to an increase in the potential for images that persisted on rock surfaces to transmit particular narratives (such as myths) over long periods of time, especially when combined with oral traditions 22 , 23 , 24 . On the basis of our dating work, it now seems that depictions of anthropomorphic figures (including therianthropes) interacting with animals appear in the Late Pleistocene cave art of Sulawesi at a frequency not seen elsewhere until tens of millennia later in Europe. This implies that a rich culture of storytelling developed at an early period in the long history of H. sapiens in this region — in particular, the use of scenic representation to tell visual stories about human–animal relationships.

Rationale for development and application of LA-U-series imaging

The use of the U-series disequilibrium method for rock art dating is relatively new and has drawn criticism from some authorities, especially in relation to the extremely old ages obtained for some European rock art and its attribution to Neanderthals 9 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . In essence, the U-series disequilibrium method relies on the dating of calcium carbonate material present on the surface of rock art, providing a minimum age for the parietal imagery on which it formed. Four main principles need to be met for the valid use of this approach. (1) The associated motif needs to have an anthropomorphic origin; that is, there must be no doubt that the imagery associated with the calcium carbonate is an artwork produced by humans rather than some kind of natural marking. (2) The relationship between the rock art and the associated calcium carbonate must be unambiguous. (3) The dated samples must be relatively ‘pure’ (that is, the calcium carbonate must not be too contaminated by detrital material, which renders it ‘dirty’). (4) It needs to be empirically demonstrated that the dated calcium carbonate samples have remained a closed-system for uranium and thorium, and, especially, that there has been no ‘leaching’ of uranium over time, which could make the dated sample seem erroneously old.

The first principle is relatively straightforward to demonstrate in principle, especially when dealing with complex figurative artworks (for example, naturalistic paintings of animals), which are obviously cultural in origin. With regards to the second, it is not always a simple matter to demonstrate that a calcium carbonate sample of minuscule size collected for U-series dating completely overlies a rock art pigment layer or portion of, for example, an engraving. This is particularly the case when calcium carbonate powder samples are collected in situ using either a scalpel or a hand drill, and where researchers are prohibited from making direct physical contact with, and/or fully exposing, the pigment layer for closer inspection. This method usually results in a cone-shaped sample wherein only the apex or ‘pointy’ portion could be related to the underlying art 9 . As a result, some incorporated calcium carbonate powder could predate the motif 13 . It is sometimes also not clear whether the underlying surface assumed by the analyst to be the rock art has in fact been identified correctly as such—in some instances, it may be a portion of the underlying rock surface, rather than the adjacent artwork itself, that has been dated 9 , 13 . Concerning the third principle, the purity of the calcium carbonate sample can be easily and routinely assessed by measuring the 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratios (see below). Finally, the presence or absence of closed-system conditions can be determined by measuring at least three subsamples; to demonstrate a closed system, these should either be of the same age within error or should get progressively younger towards the surface of the sample (see below). In this study, all of the measured ROIs fall within these categories.

Here we report an LA-U-series approach to dating rock art. This method enables us to more readily demonstrate the unambiguous relationship between the calcium carbonate material used for dating and the rock art pigment layer(s) to which it corresponds. Furthermore, the mapping of 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratios across a sample cross-section enables the more accurate identification and selection of calcium carbonate material of the purest quality (that is, the part of the sample with the least evidence for contamination from detrital material), resulting in minor or insignificant age corrections. The latter outcome is impossible to achieve with solution-based methods, as these are based on a much less precise sampling approach that will typically incorporate both pure and dirty portions of a given mass of calcium carbonate. Uniquely, the mapping of U-series isotopes also enables the visualization of key areas or ‘zones’ within the sample in which calcium carbonate material has undergone mobilization of uranium or thorium. Once identified, these problem areas can then be deliberately avoided when selecting ROIs for dating. This is the main advantage of LA-U-series imaging compared with other U-series methods. It also enables the measurement of ROIs that are in clear chronological order, demonstrating closed-system conditions (see below). As has been previously indicated, the other main advantage of this approach to U-series dating is the ability to date calcium carbonate material that formed much closer to the rock art pigment layer. This is desirable, as dating the basal growth layers that accumulated directly on top of the surface of the artwork will potentially increase the minimum age of the associated anthropogenic imagery.

In cross-section, it is possible to visualize zones with discolouration at the surface of samples and sometimes within samples. These zones almost systematically correspond to a pronounced increase in the distribution of 232 Th/ 238 U. This 232 Th/ 238 U distribution is the easiest to visualize, but there is also usually a corresponding effect on other isotopes. For example, sample BSP4.2 displays a distinct brownish/blackish colour within an area of the sample (Extended Data Fig. 4 ). This zone corresponds to a marked increase in 232 Th/ 238 U and 232 Th and a small increase in 230 Th/ 238 U (Extended Data Fig. 4 and Supplementary Fig. 5 ). This is attributed to the incorporation of detrital material. This incorporation of detrital material possibly occurred inside a porous area that could have been the subject of preferential uranium leaching. To illustrate this, an ROI (ROI-d) corresponding to this area was selected and an age of 38.4 ± 3.6 ka was obtained, thereby showing the effect of identified diagenesis on calculated ages (Extended Data Fig. 4 and Extended Data Table 1 ). This diagenetic zone is at least 7.2 ka older than ROI 1, corresponding to the layers immediately above the pigment layer and is identical to the solution age obtained for the same sample. The effect of diagenesis can also be seen clearly on LK2 sample sections. Visually, it is possible to identify a porous area in the middle of the sample (Extended Data Fig. 5 ). This area does not show a brownish-black colour as in sample BSP4.2, but corresponds to a significant increase in 232 Th/ 238 U, 230 Th/ 238 U and 232 Th, as well as a significant decrease in 238 U (Extended Data Fig. 5 and Supplementary Fig. 3 ). This porous area clearly underwent significant uranium loss and the incorporation of detrital material. To illustrate this, a new ROI (ROI-d) corresponding to this area was selected and an age of 28.5 ± 3.6 ka was obtained. This is at least 5.3 ka older in minimum age than the other ROIs for this sample. Again, this shows the effect of identified diagenesis on calculated ages (Extended Data Fig. 5 and Extended Data Table 1 ) and the efficacy of the LA-U-series imaging approach.

Data measurement

A small segment (about 25–150 mm 2 ) of each coralloid speleothem ( n  = 8) was removed from the rock art panels at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 ( n  = 4) and Leang Karampuang ( n  = 4) using a battery-operated rotary tool equipped with a diamond saw blade. Each speleothem sample was sawn in situ so as to produce a continuous microstratigraphic profile that extends from the outer surface of the speleothem through the pigment layer and into the underlying rock face. All of the sampled speleothems comprised multiple layers of visibly dense and non-porous calcite in clear association with painted motifs. In the laboratory, the remaining part of the samples from Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 that were not microexcavated, and the new samples from Leang Karampuang, were sectioned along the growth axis with a diamond saw blade. The samples were then mounted in epoxy resin and polished at a 5 μm smoothness, exposing the pigment layers sandwiched between speleothem layers and/or bedrock.

The coralloid speleothem samples collected in this study formed by accumulation of thin films of water on cave surfaces over a long period of time. When precipitated from saturated solutions, and under ideal conditions, calcium carbonate usually contains small amounts of soluble uranium ( 238 U and 234 U), which eventually decay to 230 Th. The latter is essentially insoluble in cave waters and will not precipitate with the calcium carbonate. This produces disequilibrium in the decay chain, a process in which not all isotopes in the series are decaying at the same rate. Subsequently, 238 U and 234 U decay to 230 Th until secular equilibrium is reached. As the decay rates are known, the precise measurement of these isotopes enables the calculation of the age of the carbonate formation 25 .

All dating work was undertaken at the BIOMICS laboratory in the Geoarchaeology and Archaeometry Research Group (GARG) of Southern Cross University. U-series measurements were obtained using the ESI NW193 ArF excimer laser-ablation unit coupled to a MC-ICP-MS Thermo Fisher Scientific Neptune XT. Each sample was measured by a succession of parallel rasters across the exposed polished cross-section, enabling us to reconstruct an isotopic map of the precipitated calcite. Rasters had a different length to adapt to the irregular shape of the sample using the following parameters for mapping: a square spot size of 44 μm × 44 μm using the infinite aperture of the laser system matched by a translation speed of 21 μm s −1 and integration time of 2.097 s on the MC-ICP-MS Neptune XT. This combination of parameters enabled us to obtain a pixel within <0.1% deformation equivalent to a 44 μm × 44 μm datapoint (the exact translation speed to obtain an exact data-pixel of 44 μm × 44 μm would be 20.982 μm s −1 ). Other parameters for the data acquisition were as follows: 900 ml min −1 UHP He and 6 ml min −1 UHP nitrogen for the gas flow from the chamber to the ICP-MSs, frequency of 100 Hz for the laser frequency and an average of 1.74 J cm −2 sample fluence. 234 U and 230 Th were measured simultaneously, with uranium in the centre Faraday cup coupled with a secondary electron multiplier (SEM) and thorium on the L3 Faraday cup coupled to an ion counter (IC). All other Faraday cups were associated with a high-gain 10 11  Ω amplifiers (the cup configuration was as follows: L3/IC(230); L2(232); L1(233); C/SEM(234); H1(235); H2(236); H3(238)). Baseline and drifts were corrected using NIST 610 and NIST 612 glass standards, while two corals (the MIS7 Faviid and MIS5 Porites corals from the Southern Cook Islands) 26 were used to correct 234 U/ 238 U and 230 Th/ 238 U ratios and assess the accuracy of measurements ( Supplementary Information ). More information on data measurement is provided in the  Supplementary Information .

Image and data processing

Isotopic maps generated using LA-MC-ICP-MS data were produced using the Iolite software package 27 . Data were accumulated in a single file on the MC-ICP-MS Neptune XT system as follows: 5 min background, NIST610 (3×), NIST612 (3×), STD1 (3×), STD2 (3×), STD3 (3×), sample rasters ( n ×), STD3 (3×), STD2 (3×), STD1 (3×), NIST612 (3×), NIST610 (3×), 5 min background. For sample imaging sequences longer than 2 h, a set of standards (for example, STD1 (3×), STD2 (3×), STD3 (3×)) was incorporated in the middle of the measurement. Data reduction was performed using NISTs to assess drift and the 5 min background on each side of the measurements for baseline. One standard was used for correction of the isotopic ratios, while the other two were used as known values to check data accuracy (including for the matrix effect). Images were produced using a spectrum gradient colour distribution, with either a linear or logarithmic scale (specified for each sample on the isotopic maps). ROIs were carefully selected on the 232 Th/ 238 U, 230 Th/ 238 U isotopic ratio maps and U ppm maps to be as close to the pigment layer as possible, while avoiding diagenetic zones. Data errors were extracted and reported at 2 s.e. ROIs located immediately above the pigment layers were selected to calculate minimum ages relating to the underlying artworks. U-series data were integrated for individual ROIs, resulting in U-series ages and associated errors. Sufficient datapoints were also selected to minimize errors. The integration area of each ROI is reported in μm 2 (Extended Data Table 1 ).

It is not uncommon for secondary calcium carbonate to be contaminated by detrital materials, such as wind-blown or waterborne sediments—a process that can lead to U-series ages that are erroneously older than the true age of the sample. This is due to pre-existing 230 Th present in the detrital components. As the detrital/initial 230 Th cannot be physically separated from the radiogenic 230 Th for measurement, its contribution to the calculated 230 Th age of the sample is often corrected for using an assumed 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio in the detrital component. Given that the detrital component within a cave is often composed of wind-blown or waterborne sediments that chemically approach the average continental crust, the mean bulk-Earth or upper continental crustal value of 232 Th/ 238 U = 3.8, corresponding to an 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio of 0.8—with an arbitrarily assigned uncertainty of 50%—has commonly been assumed for detrital/initial 230 Th corrections 28 . In this regard, the degree of detrital contamination may be reflected by the measured 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio in a sample, with a higher value (such as >20) indicating a relatively small or insignificant effect on the calculated age and a lower value (<20) indicating that the correction on the age will be considerable 25 . As 232 Th in the sample is largely present in the detrital fraction and plays no part in the decay chain of uranium, the detrital 230 Th in a sample with a measured 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio of >20 would make up <0.8/20 (about 4.0% of the total 230 Th in the sample), assuming that the mass fraction of 232 Th from the detrital component is much larger than that from the authigenic component.

Sometimes, the assumed 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio of 0.8 (±50%) for the detrital component may not cover all situations. If the actual 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio in the detrital component substantially deviates from this assumed range, the detrital correction scheme may introduce considerable bias, especially to samples with a 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio of <20. In such situations, the 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratio in the detrital component can be obtained through direct measurement of sediments associated with speleothems 9 , or computed using isochron methods or stratigraphic constraints 29 . In our case, our samples were relatively pure: the 230 Th/ 232 Th activity ratios of individual aliquots were extremely high. Corrections for detrital components were therefore calculated assuming the bulk-Earth values.

A conceivable problem with the U-series dating method is that calcium carbonate accretions can behave as an open system for uranium, in which the element can be leached out of the accretions or remobilized 30 . In such instances, the calculated ages will be too old because the dating method relies on the accurate measurement of uranium versus its decay product 230 Th. In this study, this problem was tackled by avoiding porous samples and by measuring three aliquots (ROIs) from every sample. The ages of these subsamples were in chronological order or of similar ages within error, confirming the integrity of the dated coralloids. If uranium had leached out of the samples, a reverse age profile would have been evident (the ages would have gotten older towards the surface). Age calculations were performed using the UThwigl R package 31 and compared to the IsoplotR (v.6.1) values 32 . Ages are reported with standard errors at the 2 σ level.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are provided in the  Supplementary Information . Raw and additional Source data are available from publicly available Zenodo data repositories ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10960856 ) 33 .

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by Australian Research Council (ARC) fellowships awarded to M.A. (FT170100025), A.B. (FT160100119) and R.J.-B. (LE200100022), and ARC Discovery Project DP220100462, with further financial support from Griffith University, Southern Cross University, Google Arts & Culture and the National Geographic Society (NGS-72460R-20). We thank the staff at Indonesia’s State Ministry of Research and Technology (RISTEK) and the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN); and K. Westaway who provided feedback and comments on the paper. O. Amrullah, M. T. Pusiaka, Amrullah, W. O. N. Ilmi, E. S. Putri and M. Alif provided assistance in the field.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Adhi Agus Oktaviana, Renaud Joannes-Boyau, Adam Brumm, Maxime Aubert

Deceased: Pindi Setiawan

Authors and Affiliations

School of Humanities, Languages and Social Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia

Adhi Agus Oktaviana, Shinatria Adhityatama & Maxime Aubert

Pusat Riset Arkeometri, Organisasi Riset Arkeologi, Bahasa, dan Sastra, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia

Adhi Agus Oktaviana, Dewangga Eka Mahardian & Sofwan Noerwidi

The Griffith Centre for Social and Cultural Research (GCSCR), Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia

Center for Prehistory and Austronesian Studies (CPAS), Jakarta, Indonesia

Geoarchaeology and Archaeometry Research Group, Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales, Australia

Renaud Joannes-Boyau & Maxime Aubert

Pusat Riset Arkeologi Prasejarah dan Sejarah, Organisasi Riset Arkeologi, Bahasa, dan Sastra, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia

Budianto Hakim, Ratno Sardi & Irfan Mahmud

Pusat Kolaborasi Riset Arkeologi Sulawesi, Makassar, Indonesia

Budianto Hakim, Ratno Sardi, Iwan Sumantri, Rustan Lebe, Andi Jusdi, Sofwan Noerwidi, Marlon N. R. Ririmasse, Irfan Mahmud & Akin Duli

Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Basran Burhan, David McGahan, Adam Brumm & Maxime Aubert

Korps Pecinta Alam, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia

Departemen Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia

Iwan Sumantri & Akin Duli

Balai Pelestarian Kebudayaan Wilayah XIX, Makassar, Indonesia

M. Tang, Imran Ilyas, Abdullah Abbas, Andi Jusdi & Laode M. Aksa

Badan Layanan Umum Museum dan Cagar Budaya, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Jakarta, Indonesia

Rustan Lebe

Pusat Riset Arkeologi Lingkungan, Maritim, dan Budaya Berkelanjutan, Organisasi Riset Arkeologi, Bahasa, dan Sastra, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia

Marlon N. R. Ririmasse

KK Desain Komunikasi Visual, Fakultas Seni Rupa dan Desain, Institute Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia

Pindi Setiawan

School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia

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A.A.O., M.A., R.J.-B. and A.B. conceived and led the research with senior collaborators B.H., M.N.R.R., S.N., I.M., A.D., L.M.A., I.S., P.S. and R.L. Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 was discovered by H. as part of a BPK Makassar field survey led by M.T., and involving specialist input from A.J. and A. Leang Karampuang was discovered by M.T., A.J. and I.I. Rock art was recorded and analysed in the field by A.A.O., H., B.B., D.M. and R.S., and A.A.O. produced the digital tracings of parietal motifs. D.E.M. and I.I. produced the 3D model of Leang Karampuang. A.A.O. and M.A. identified and collected the coralloid speleothem samples at the rock art sites and prepared the samples for LA-U-series analysis. All in-field sampling involving rock art was done under the direct supervision of R.L.; A.A.O., R.J.-B. and M.A. conducted the U-series dating, interpreted the data and discussed and approved correction factors and other methodological details pertinent to the dating results. A.A.O., M.A., R.J.-B. and A.B. wrote the paper, with key contributions from the other authors. The figures were produced and/or designed by A.B., R.J.-B. and M.A. All of the authors reviewed and edited the paper.

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Correspondence to Maxime Aubert .

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 the leang karampuang rock art site in maros, south sulawesi..

a , Aerial view of the limestone karst inselberg with Leang Karampuang at its base (the image was taken using a drone with a roughly southeast to northwest orientation); b , the upper level cave passage (indicated by orange arrow) containing the rock art at Leang Karampuang; pictured in this image is the large opening in the east wall of the passage that divides the cave into two chambers; c , northern chamber, looking from north to south; d , main rock art gallery in the southern chamber, containing the dated cave art panel – not clearly visible in the image are multiple paintings of pigs and other figures, and numerous hand stencils, on the overhead ceiling and adjoining upper walls; e , the dated rock art panel; f , plan view and cross-section of Leang Karampuang, showing the location of the dated rock art panel and other parietal artworks in the cave.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Key rock art panels at Leang Karampuang.

Images of rock art panels are shown in a – c and e – h ; a , c , e , g , h comprise digital tracings of rock art pigment overlying photographic representations of the underlying limestone rock face; b and f are photographs of rock art panels that have been enhanced using the DStretch_ac_lds_cb software. A 3D model of the cave passage containing the rock art gallery is presented in d (model produced using a Leica BLK360 Imaging Laser Scanner). a , Panel with three animal figures, probably pigs (the two figures on the right are in superimposition); b , the dated panel, a single composed scene depicting three human-like figures interacting with a Sulawesi warty pig ( S. celebensis ); c , a complex panel with six hand stencils and five representations of S. celebensis pigs (labelled 1–5), along with an unidentified animal figure (labelled 6); e , f , clusters of hand stencils, including some that are juxtaposed in such a way as to form what seem to be deliberate arrangements or compositions (a minimum of 10 and 11 individual hand stencils are identifiable in the panels shown in e and f , respectively); g , hand stencils and an image associated with an unidentified, animal-like figure; h , a possible representation of a dwarf bovid (anoa, Bubalus sp.), showing the head and neck area of the animal only.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Coralloid speleothem samples from Leang Karampuang.

a , Photograph of the dated rock art panel on the ceiling, a narrative composition or scene depicting at least four interacting figures: three are human-like in form (denoted H1-H3), and a fourth much larger figure is a naturalistic representation of a pig (denoted Pig figure) facing left. A coralloid speleothem was collected from each of the four figures (coralloid samples are denoted LK1 to LK4) and dated. Coralloid sample LK1 was collected from figure H2, which is positioned immediately in front of the snout of the pig figure and is holding a material culture object in its left hand, one end of which is positioned close to the throat area of the pig; LK2 was collected from H3, which seems to be depicted in an upside down position just above the head of the pig; LK3 was collected from the pig figure; and LK4 was collected from H1, a large anthropomorphic figure with extended arms and no legs depicted; as with H2, this figure is represented with a stick-like object in its left hand; b – e , photographs of each of the coralloid speleothems still in situ on the rock art panel prior to sampling: LK1 ( b ), LK2 ( c ), LK3 ( d ) and LK4 ( e ).

Extended Data Fig. 4 Transect views of three dated rock art samples from Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4.

a , BSP4.2, c , BSP4.3, and e , BSP4.4. The pigment layer and the three integration zones (regions of integration, ROIs) are indicated, along with the associated age calculation for each sample. LA-MC-ICPMS imaging of b , BSP4.2, d , BSP4.3, and f , BSP4.4 232 Th/ 238 U isotopic activity ratio. A zone of diagenesis is shown in b (ROI-d).

Extended Data Fig. 5 Transect views of three rock art samples from Leang Karampuang.

a , LK2; c , LK3; and e , LK4. The pigment layer and the three integration zones (regions of integration, ROIs) are indicated, along with the associated age calculation for each sample. LA-MC-ICPMS imaging of b , LK2, d , LK3 and f , LK4 232 Th/ 238 U isotopic activity ratio. A zone of diagenesis is also shown in a (ROI-d).

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Supplementary Methods, Supplementary Figs. 1–6, Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 and Supplementary References.

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Oktaviana, A.A., Joannes-Boyau, R., Hakim, B. et al. Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7

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Likewise, many electronic resources, including CD-ROM and online databases, available at most libraries provide access to full-text articles on all areas of history, including retrospective collections of major newspapers from the 1800s and earlier, published in newspapers, magazines, and academic journals. Other primary sources included in your research paper can be original documents and artifacts from university and museum archival collections, with many documents and images accessible on the Web, including the Library of Congress’s American Memory Project. Selected sources in this category as recommended by librarians and researchers follow.

Selected Subject Headings

Listed below is a sample of a few broad Library of Congress subject headings—made up of one word or more representing concepts under which all library holdings are divided and subdivided by subject—which you can search under and use as subject terms when searching online library catalogs for preliminary and/or additional research, such as books, audio and video recordings, and other references, related to your topic. When researching materials on your topic, subject heading searching may be more productive than searching using simple keywords. However, keyword searching when using the right search method (Boolean, etc.) and combination of words can be equally effective in finding materials more closely relevant to your research paper topic.

Suggested Research Topics in History

• African-Americans
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• Progressives (United States politics)
• Reconstruction
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• Southern States
• Stock Market Crash, 1929
• United States—Foreign relations
• United States History—1873–1865
• United States—History—1919–1933
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World History

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Selected Keyword Search Strategies and Guides

Most online library indexes and abstracts and full-text article databases offer basic and advanced “keyword” searching of virtually every subject. In this case, combine keyword terms that best define your thesis question or topic using the Boolean search method (employing “and” or “or”) to find research most suitable to your research paper topic.

If your topic is “blacks and civil rights,” for example, enter “blacks” and “civil rights” with “and” on the same line to locate sources directly compatible with the primary focus of your paper. To find research on more specific aspects of your topic, alternate with one new keyword at a time with “and” in between (for example, “blacks and civil rights leaders,” “blacks and equal rights,” “blacks and racism,” “blacks and segregation,” etc.).

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Selected Source and Subject Guides

Reference Sources in History: An Introductory Guide , 2nd ed., by Ronald H. Fritze, Brian E. Counts, and Louis A. Vyhnanek (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABCCLIO, 2004)

The U.S. History Highway: A Guide to Internet Resources , edited by Dennis A. Trinkle and Scott A. Merriman, 356 pages (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2002)

United States History: A Selective Guide to Information Sources , by Ron Blazek and Anna H. Perrault, 411 pages (Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1994)

In addition to these sources of research, most college and university libraries offer online subject guides arranged by subject on the library’s Web page; others also list searchable course-related “LibGuides” by subject. Each guide lists more recommended published and Web sources—including books and references, journal, newspaper and magazines indexes, full-text article databases, Web sites, and even research tutorials—that you can access to expand your research on more specific issues and relevant to your subject.

Selected Books and References

General source.

Handbook for Research in American History: A Guide to Bibliographies and Other Reference Works , 2nd ed., by Francis Paul Prucha, 214 pages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994)

Although slightly outdated, this handbook, first published in 1987 and revised in 1994, remains a useful tool for locating many print and electronic sources for historical research. The book is divided into two sections. The first section highlights bibliographies, indexes to periodical literature, maps and atlases, and government publications. The second section incorporates chapters discussing various other reference sources for broad subject areas, such as military history, and more specialized topics, such as diplomatic history. An author-title-subject index offers easy cross-referencing of subjects.

U.S. History

Dictionary of American History , 3rd ed., edited by Stanley I. Kutler, 10 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003)

Originally published in 1940, this fully revised edition of the 10-volume library reference offers quick access to more than 4,000 definitive articles, ranging from 100 to 800 words in length, on a broad spectrum of topics in American history. The new edition includes more than 800 new entries. Incorporated in text for the first time are more than 1,500 illustrations and 300 maps.

Encyclopedia of American History , edited by Gary B. Nash, 11 vols., 4,864 pages (New York: Facts On File, 2003)

This 11-volume reference offers in-depth coverage of the most important individuals, events, and topics in U.S. history. Unlike most encyclopedias, this reference is arranged chronologically and organized by era. The encyclopedia was developed and supervised by Gary B. Nash, a professor of American history at the University of California, Los Angeles, and author of the National Standards for United States History. Each volume was edited by leading scholars and specialists in the field.

Encyclopedia of American Military History , 3rd ed., by Spencer C. Tucker, 1,200 pages (New York: Facts On File, 2003)

Written by military historian Spencer C. Tucker, this well-organized and easy-to-use encyclopedia presents more than 1,200 entries on the subject of American military history from the colonial era to the “war on terror” beginning with the events of September 11, 2001. Illustrated by more than 200 black-and-white photographs and 50 maps, this three-volume set documents seemingly every aspect of military history—military leaders, wars, campaigns, battles, events, famous soldiers, military branches, key technological developments, overviews of weapons systems, and more. Includes a glossary, bibliography, and index.

Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History , edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, 5 vols., 2,733 pages (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2000)

With a foreword written by Pulitzer Prize–winning author James M. McPherson, this five-volume reference set chronicles the Civil War in an easy-to-read A-to-Z format. Combining the efforts of editors and more than 300 contributors, this remarkable reference offers more than 1,600 concise articles—ranging from a few paragraphs to several pages—on seemingly every aspect of this period in American history. Supplementing the entries are more than 500 black-and-white illustrations, 75 maps, and more than 250 primary source documents that bring to life every battle, military life, and the war’s impact on society.

Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social and Military History , edited by Spencer C. Tucker, 3 vols., 1,196 pages (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001)

This three-volume encyclopedia, written by the author of the Encyclopedia of American History, comprehensively covers the military, social, and political aspects of the Vietnam War. Content includes detailed articles on military tactics and weapon systems, biographies of communist leaders, and critical overviews of the antiwar movement, military strategy, and various nations. Following each entry is a bibliography of references. Volume 3 documents the history of the Vietnam War, highlighted by government memos, military telegrams, speeches, policy statements, and more.

The Oxford Companion to American Military History , edited by Richard Holmes, 1,408 pages (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)

Featuring more than 1,000 entries, this book examines the American military history with factual and extensive essays, written by more than 500 leading scholars, on the major wars and battles, weapons, and leaders.

Reference Sources in History: An Introductory Guide , 2nd ed., by Ronald H. Fritze, Brian E. Coutts, and Louis A. Vyhnamek, 334 pages (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2004)

This annotated and updated volume exhaustively catalogs and summarizes more than 1,000 atlases, bibliographies, chronologies, encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, and sourcebooks on practically every conceivable subject in history. More than 900 references are included, with bibliographic information cited for an additional 400 sources. This master reference work also includes guides to many history Web sites of interest to undergraduates, graduate students, academic researchers, and the general public.

The Timetables of American History , edited by Laurence Urdang, 544 pages (New York: Touchstone Books, 2001)

One of the best sources of its kind, this fascinating, updated single-volume reference provides a comprehensive account of American happenings—the people and events—in the arts, history, politics, science, technology, and more while simultaneously relating them to world events.

Chronicle of the 20th Century , edited by Daniel Clifton, 1,486 pages (Liberty, Mo.: JL International Publishing, 1994)

This lavishly illustrated, entertaining reference, written in a newspaper-style format, chronicles everything about the 20th century—the people, places, events, fads and fashions, politics, personalities, wars, sports, science, and cinema.

Dictionary of Historic Documents , Revised Edition, by George C. Kohn, 656 pages (New York: Facts On File, 2003)

The only reference of its kind, the Dictionary of Historic Documents, Revised Edition describes and explains more than 2,400 major historic documents in world history, including their historical and social importance. Covered are key acts, agreements, bills, constitutions, court decisions, historic treaties, laws, letters, proclamations, speeches, and other writings, from the Code of Hammurabi to President George W. Bush’s “Freedom and Fear Are at War” speech. Includes a list of entries by category, a timetable of documents, an extensive bibliography, and index.

Dictionary of Wars , 3rd ed., by George C. Kohn, 704 pages (New York: Facts On File, 2006)

Spanning some 4,000 years, this revised book offers detailed summaries of all wars from the earliest in history to the present day. It contains more than 1,800 extensively cross-referenced entries, dealing with civil wars, global confl icts, mutinies, punitive expeditions, rebellions, revolutions, and undeclared wars throughout the world.

The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged , 6th ed., 1,243 pages (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001)

Perhaps the best single-volume reference available on the subject, this fully revised and updated edition, written by renowned historian Peter N. Stearns and 30 prominent historians, features a year-by-year and region-by-region chronicle of the history of the world. More than 20,000 authoritatively written entries span the millennia from prehistoric times to the year 2000. Entries cover civilizations, rulers, and historical figures, people, places, and trends, and much more.

Hammond Concise Atlas of World History , 6th ed., edited by Geoffrey Barraclough, 192 pages (Union, N.J.: Hammond, 2002)

Uniquely combines the visual details of a standard atlas with well-written, lively narrative of world history from ancient history through 2001.

A History of the Twentieth Century: The Concise Edition of the Acclaimed World History , by Martin Gilbert, 832 pages (New York: Perennial, 2002)

An extraordinary volume that chronicles in year-by-year fashion world events that shaped the 20th century. Documenting the cultural developments, disasters, religious and social movements, scientific advances, technological innovations, wars, and personalities of the century.

The Random House Timetables of History , 3rd ed., 320 pages (New York: Random House, 2008)

This revised pocket-sized reference provides a chronology of 7,000 years of world history, from the first civilization (4000–2000 BC) to the present. More than 5,000 significant moments in history are highlighted—in the arts, history, religion, and science—for easy reference.

20th Century Day by Day , edited by Daniel Clifton, 1,560 pages (New York: DK Publishing, 1999)

Ideal for students, researchers, and history buffs, this fully updated edition covers the important people, places, and events of the 20th century. Features thousands of color and black-and-white illustrations.

Selected Full-Text Article Databases

Academic Search Elite  (Ipswich, Mass.: EBSCO Publishing, EBSCOHost, indexing/abstracting: 1984– , full text: 1990– )

Offers citations and some full text in wide range of academic areas, including business, social sciences, humanities, general academic, general science, education, and multicultural issues.

America Periodicals Series Online  (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI ProQuest, 1740–1900)

Full-text and digitized images of more than 1,000 American magazines and journals published between 1740 and 1900. Periodicals include special interest and general magazines, literary and professional journals, children’s and women’s magazines, and many other historically significant periodicals. Many historical topics of interest are covered, including the American Revolution, Reconstruction, and independence; slavery and emancipation; the changing role of women; advances in medicine and technology, and changes in politics, science, and religion.

HarpWeek  (Greenwich, Conn.: Harper’s Weekly, 1857– )

A primary source for examining 19th-century American history on a week-by-week basis, HarpWeek contains scanned images, with interactively linked indexes, of Harper’s Weekly from the antebellum and Civil War eras (1857–1865) and Reconstruction period (1866–1871). Covering everything from front-line Civil War reports to the election of President Lincoln, full-text contents include editorials, news stories, illustrations, cartoons, and even advertisements.

History of the World  (Parsippany, N.J.: Bureau of Development, Inc., 1994– )

This CD-ROM database contains six highly recognized reference sources on one disk—The Hutchinson Compact Chronology of World History, The Hutchinson Dictionary of World History, The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, The Helicon Book of Days, J. M. Roberts’ Shorter History of the World, and Bing History of the World. The people, ideas, trends, and events that influenced the world since 10,000 BC are featured. There are more than 10,000 entries, quotations, tables, and feature articles, 600 illustrations, a chronology of 11,000 events, and more than 1,200 thematic chronologies. Books can be searched separately or collectively, and can be searched directly from your word processor or through Windows applications. “On This Day” anniversaries and history quizzes are among the added features.

History Resource Center: U.S.  (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, precolonial– )

Online resource providing comprehensive full-text coverage of all aspects of American history and more than 50 key topics in U.S. history, among them, the Civil War, the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, World War I, World War II, and more, as well as information from Macmillan Reference USA, Charles Scribner’s Sons, and other Gale printed sources, including biographies, encyclopedic articles, and others.

History Resource Center: World  (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 1900s– )

This electronic resource provides hundreds of full-text documents, along with thousands of images and maps and statistical data, from some 1,500 sources, including 110 academic and scholarly journals and 27 popular references on every major event in 20th-century world history.

JSTOR  (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Journal Storage Project, 1996– )

This comprehensive online archive includes important scholarly journal literature covering many academic fields, including history.

MilitaryLibrary FullTEXT  (Ipswich, Mass.: EBSCO Publishing, EBSCOHost, indexing: 1975, full text: 1990– )

Includes citations and some full-text access to more than 350 military and general-interest publications, 245 pamphlets, and indexing and abstracts for more than 380 magazines. Military publications indexed include Army Times, Defense, Military Review, and Parameters.

Palmer’s Full Text Online 1785–1870  (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, 1785– )

Palmer’s Full Text Online provides access for students, researchers, and the general public to 1 million articles from The Times covering almost a century of British and world history.

ProjectMUSE  (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990– )

Provides worldwide, networked subscription access to full-text articles from more 100 scholarly journals in the arts and humanities, social sciences, and mathematics.

Selected Periodicals

American Heritage  (New York: American Heritage, 1947– , bimonthly)

This popular bimonthly magazine focuses on a wide range of issues related to American history and the American experience, discussing the arts, business, current and international affairs, changing lifestyles, and politics.

American Historical Review  (Bloomington, Ind.: American Historical Association, 1895– , five times a year)

The official publication of the American Historical Association, this major historical journal is published five times yearly (February, April, June, October, and December). It includes scholarly articles and critical reviews of current publications in all fields of history. Each issue contains articles by leading scholars, and reviews of books and films.

Chronicon: An Electronic History Journal   (Cork, Ireland: University College Cork, 1997– , annually) ( http://www.ucc.ie/research/chronicon/ )

Published annually by the History Department of the University College Cork since 1997, this free e-journal features articles on all aspects of history with a particular focus on Irish history.

The English Historical Review  (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1886– , quarterly)

First published in 1886, The English Historical Review, the oldest English-language scholarly historical journal in the world today, deals with all aspects of British, European, and world history since the classical era. Published quarterly, each issue includes articles and lively debates on medieval and modern themes, book reviews, and summaries of international literature. The English Historical Review is abstracted and indexed by such leading library databases as America: History and Life, Historical Abstracts, British Humanities Index, CSA Worldwide Political Science Abstracts, Periodicals Contents Index, and Sociological Abstracts. The full text and tables of contents of current and past journals are available online by subscription through JSTOR and Oxford Journals Online.

Essays in History  (Charlottesville, Va.: Corcoran Department of History, University of Virginia, 1954– , annually)

Founded as a print journal in 1954, this annual peer-reviewed journal is sponsored by the Corcoran Department of History at the University of Virginia and has been published solely in electronic format since 1994. It features articles on all areas of history, including book reviews. Essays in History is indexed in the Historical Abstracts and America: History and Life databases. Current and past electronic editions and full-text articles are accessible at the journal’s main Web site ( http://search.lib.virginia.edu/catalog/u314929 ).

The Historian  (Kensington, R.I.: Phi Alpha Theta, 1938– , quarterly)

Found in libraries and institutions around the world, this distinguished journal features articles, interviews, and books by historians and graduate students in all fields of history. Continuously in print since the winter 1938 issue, the journal is sponsored by Phi Alpha Theta, an international society of history at the University of South Florida that promotes the study of history and encourages its student members to publish their scholarly works.

Journal of American History  (Bloomington, Ind.: Organization of American Historians, 1914– , three times a year)

Published for more than 80 years by the Organization of American Historians, this leading print journal includes scholarly articles, reviews of current books, films, exhibitions, and Web sites of interest to historians, and historical essays on a wide range of topics. Full text of current issues of the Journal of American History is available online through History Cooperative.

Selected Web Sites

Electronic Texts Collections  ( http://history.hanover.edu/link-lists/etexts.html )

This large collection of links, developed by the History Department at Hanover College, features indexes and other resources on European, American, and world history.

Historical Text Archive  ( http://historicaltextarchive.com/ )

Originally founded in 1990 in Mississippi as an anonymous FTP site, Historical Text Archive offers easy access to a collection of high-quality articles, books, essays, historical photos, and links to information on a wide range of historical subjects.

History Cooperative  (Champaign, Ill.: The Cooperative, 2000– ) ( http://www.historycooperative.org/home.html )

This site, created for history scholars and students alike, offers full-text access to current issues of many leading historical journals, including the American Historical Review, The History Teacher, Journal of American History, Law and History Review, Western Historical Quarterly, and many others.

HyperHistory Online  ( http://www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/History_n2/a.html )

Features more than 2,000 files on 3,000 years of world history; beneficial to students and historians; listed by people, history, events, and maps.

Internet Library of Early Journals  ( http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ilej/ )

A joint project completed in 1999 by the Universities of Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, and Oxford under the auspices of the eLib (Electronic Libraries) Programme, this Web site provides direct access to digital versions of 18th- and 19th-century journals together with bibliographic data. Among the 18th-century journals represented are Annual Register, Gentleman’s Magazine, and Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society; from the 19th century, The Builder, Blackwood’s Edinburg Magazine, and Notes and Queries.

Medieval Review  (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University, 1993– ) ( http://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tmr/ )

Formerly known as Bryn Mawr Medieval Review, this all-electronic journal publishes reviews of current work in all areas of Medieval Studies since 1993. Published by the Medieval Institute at Western Michigan University, the publication offers searchable archives of past issues of interest to students and scholars around the world.

World History Archive  ( http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/index.html )

For quick access to documents about specifi c topics or periods in history, this archive, arranged by geographical area and covering all regions of the world, features a collection of documents focusing on contemporary history, complete with search engine.

WWW Virtual Library: Military History  ( http://vlib.iue.it/history/mil/ )

Contains a vast collection of research tools with Web links to general and chronological resources, military history, journals, bibliographies, biographies, military museums, and more.

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