what is comparative research in sociology

How to Do Comparative Analysis in Research ( Examples )

Comparative analysis is a method that is widely used in social science . It is a method of comparing two or more items with an idea of uncovering and discovering new ideas about them. It often compares and contrasts social structures and processes around the world to grasp general patterns. Comparative analysis tries to understand the study and explain every element of data that comparing. 

Most social scientists are involved in comparative analysis. Macfarlane has thought that “On account of history, the examinations are typically on schedule, in that of other sociologies, transcendently in space. The historian always takes their society and compares it with the past society, and analyzes how far they differ from each other.

The comparative method of social research is a product of 19 th -century sociology and social anthropology. Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer Max Weber used comparative analysis in their works. For example, Max Weber compares the protestant of Europe with Catholics and also compared it with other religions like Islam, Hinduism, and Confucianism.

To do a systematic comparison we need to follow different elements of the method.

In social science, we can do comparisons in different ways. It is merely different based on the topic, the field of study. Like Emile Durkheim compare societies as organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity. The famous sociologist Emile Durkheim provides us with three different approaches to the comparative method. Which are;

2 . The unit of comparison

3. The motive of comparison

As another method of study, a comparative analysis is one among them for the social scientist. The researcher or the person who does the comparative method must know for what grounds they taking the comparative method. They have to consider the strength, limitations, weaknesses, etc. He must have to know how to do the analysis.

Steps of the comparative method

1. Setting up of a unit of comparison

As mentioned earlier, the first step is to consider and determine the unit of comparison for your study. You must consider all the dimensions of your unit. This is where you put the two things you need to compare and to properly analyze and compare it. It is not an easy step, we have to systematically and scientifically do this with proper methods and techniques. You have to build your objectives, variables and make some assumptions or ask yourself about what you need to study or make a hypothesis for your analysis.

The grounds of comparison should be understandable for the reader. You must acknowledge why you selected these units for your comparison. For example, it is quite natural that a person who asks why you choose this what about another one? What is the reason behind choosing this particular society? If a social scientist chooses primitive Asian society and primitive Australian society for comparison, he must acknowledge the grounds of comparison to the readers. The comparison of your work must be self-explanatory without any complications.

The main element of the comparative analysis is the thesis or the report. The report is the most important one that it must contain all your frame of reference. It must include all your research questions, objectives of your topic, the characteristics of your two units of comparison, variables in your study, and last but not least the finding and conclusion must be written down. The findings must be self-explanatory because the reader must understand to what extent did they connect and what are their differences. For example, in Emile Durkheim’s Theory of Division of Labour, he classified organic solidarity and Mechanical solidarity . In which he means primitive society as Mechanical solidarity and modern society as Organic Solidarity. Like that you have to mention what are your findings in the thesis.

Your paper must link each point in the argument. Without that the reader does not understand the logical and rational advance in your analysis. In a comparative analysis, you need to compare the ‘x’ and ‘y’ in your paper. (x and y mean the two-unit or things in your comparison). To do that you can use likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. For example, if we do a comparison between primitive society and modern society we can say that; ‘in the primitive society the division of labour is based on gender and age on the contrary (or the other hand), in modern society, the division of labour is based on skill and knowledge of a person.

Demerits of comparison

Comparative analysis is not always successful. It has some limitations. The broad utilization of comparative analysis can undoubtedly cause the feeling that this technique is a solidly settled, smooth, and unproblematic method of investigation, which because of its undeniable intelligent status can produce dependable information once some specialized preconditions are met acceptably.

One more basic issue with broad ramifications concerns the decision of the units being analyzed. The primary concern is that a long way from being a guiltless as well as basic assignment, the decision of comparison units is a basic and precarious issue. The issue with this sort of comparison is that in such investigations the depictions of the cases picked for examination with the principle one will in general turn out to be unreasonably streamlined, shallow, and stylised with contorted contentions and ends as entailment.

However, a comparative analysis is as yet a strategy with exceptional benefits, essentially due to its capacity to cause us to perceive the restriction of our psyche and check against the weaknesses and hurtful results of localism and provincialism. We may anyway have something to gain from history specialists’ faltering in utilizing comparison and from their regard for the uniqueness of settings and accounts of people groups. All of the above, by doing the comparison we discover the truths the underlying and undiscovered connection, differences that exist in society.

Key Elements of the Comparative Approach in Sociological Research

Table of Contents

Have you ever wondered how social scientists uncover the patterns that shape our collective lives? One of the most fascinating tools in their research arsenal is the comparative method . This method is more than just placing two things side by side to spot the differences; it’s a complex and powerful approach that helps us understand the deep-seated mechanisms of social phenomena. In this blog, we’ll delve into the key elements of the comparative approach in sociological research and discover how it helps us to grasp the nuances of our social world.

Philosophical underpinnings of the comparative approach

At the heart of the comparative method lies a philosophy that acknowledges the diversity and complexity of social experiences. This philosophical stance is rooted in the understanding that societies are unique, yet they share certain patterns and processes that can be systematically studied. The comparative method doesn’t just look for superficial similarities or differences; it seeks to understand the ‘why’ and ‘how’ behind these observations.

The quest for causality

The comparative approach is often driven by a quest to identify causal relationships . Researchers using this method are not satisfied with knowing that two phenomena occur together; they want to understand if one causes the other and the conditions under which this causation happens. This search for causality is what elevates the comparative method beyond mere description to a tool for developing theory.

Methodological practices in comparative research

How exactly do researchers undertake comparative studies? The answer lies in methodological rigor and a set of best practices that ensure the findings are robust and meaningful.

Systematic comparison

Systematic comparison is the backbone of the comparative method. It involves selecting cases that are either similar or different in strategic ways to isolate the factors that may lead to a particular outcome. This systematic approach helps to control for variables that are not of interest, allowing the researcher to focus on the key factors that are being studied.

Units of comparison

The units of comparison are the entities that are being compared. These can be societies, organizations, subcultures, or even historical time periods. The choice of units is crucial, as it must align with the research question and the theoretical framework guiding the study. Poorly chosen units can lead to misleading conclusions, which is why much thought goes into this aspect of the comparative method.

Goals of employing a comparative perspective

Why go through all the trouble of comparing? The comparative method serves several important goals in sociological research.

Understanding diversity

One major goal is to understand diversity among societies. By comparing different social units, researchers can uncover the variety of ways in which societies organize themselves, solve common problems, and interact with their environment.

Identifying universals

On the flip side, the comparative method is also used to identify universals – patterns or processes that are common across different societies. Finding such universals can be groundbreaking, as it points to fundamental aspects of the human experience.

Testing theories

Another goal of the comparative method is to test sociological theories. By applying these theories to different cases and observing the outcomes, researchers can assess the validity and generalizability of theoretical propositions.

Generating new hypotheses

Finally, comparison can lead to the generation of new hypotheses. Unexpected findings can prompt researchers to ask new questions and propose innovative theories, thereby advancing our understanding of social life.

The comparative method is not just a tool for description; it’s a lens through which we can view, understand, and explain the complexities of the social world. Its philosophical foundations, methodological practices, and diverse goals make it an indispensable approach in sociological research. By systematically comparing units of interest and seeking to understand the causal mechanisms at play, researchers can illuminate the rich tapestry of human society.

What do you think? Can the comparative method help us address some of the pressing social issues of our time? What are some societal phenomena you think would benefit from a comparative analysis? Share your thoughts and let’s delve deeper into the potential of this powerful research tool.

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Research Methodologies & Methods

1 Logic of Inquiry in Social Research

• A Science of Society
• Comte’s Ideas on the Nature of Sociology
• Observation in Social Sciences
• Logical Understanding of Social Reality

2 Empirical Approach

• Empirical Approach
• Rules of Data Collection
• Cultural Relativism
• Problems Encountered in Data Collection
• Difference between Common Sense and Science
• What is Ethical?
• What is Normal?
• Understanding the Data Collected
• Managing Diversities in Social Research
• Problematising the Object of Study
• Conclusion: Return to Good Old Empirical Approach

3 Diverse Logic of Theory Building

• Concern with Theory in Sociology
• Concepts: Basic Elements of Theories
• Why Do We Need Theory?
• Hypothesis Description and Experimentation
• Controlled Experiment
• Designing an Experiment
• How to Test a Hypothesis
• Sensitivity to Alternative Explanations
• Rival Hypothesis Construction
• The Use and Scope of Social Science Theory
• Theory Building and Researcher’s Values

4 Theoretical Analysis

• Premises of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Critique of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Turning away from Functionalism
• What after Functionalism
• Post-modernism
• Trends other than Post-modernism

5 Issues of Epistemology

• Some Major Concerns of Epistemology
• Rationalism
• Phenomenology: Bracketing Experience

6 Philosophy of Social Science

• Foundations of Science
• Science, Modernity, and Sociology
• Rethinking Science
• Crisis in Foundation

7 Positivism and its Critique

• Heroic Science and Origin of Positivism
• Early Positivism
• Consolidation of Positivism
• Critiques of Positivism

8 Hermeneutics

• Methodological Disputes in the Social Sciences
• Tracing the History of Hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics and Sociology
• Philosophical Hermeneutics
• The Hermeneutics of Suspicion
• Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

9 Comparative Method

• Relationship with Common Sense; Interrogating Ideological Location
• The Historical Context
• Elements of the Comparative Approach

10 Feminist Approach

• Features of the Feminist Method
• Feminist Methods adopt the Reflexive Stance
• Feminist Discourse in India

11 Participatory Method

• Delineation of Key Features

12 Types of Research

• Basic and Applied Research
• Descriptive and Analytical Research
• Empirical and Exploratory Research
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Explanatory (Causal) and Longitudinal Research
• Experimental and Evaluative Research
• Participatory Action Research

13 Methods of Research

• Evolutionary Method
• Comparative Method
• Historical Method
• Personal Documents

14 Elements of Research Design

• Structuring the Research Process

15 Sampling Methods and Estimation of Sample Size

• Classification of Sampling Methods
• Sample Size

16 Measures of Central Tendency

• Relationship between Mean, Mode, and Median
• Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

17 Measures of Dispersion and Variability

• The Variance
• The Standard Deviation
• Coefficient of Variation

18 Statistical Inference- Tests of Hypothesis

• Statistical Inference
• Tests of Significance

19 Correlation and Regression

• Correlation
• Method of Calculating Correlation of Ungrouped Data
• Method Of Calculating Correlation Of Grouped Data

20 Survey Method

• Rationale of Survey Research Method
• History of Survey Research
• Defining Survey Research
• Sampling and Survey Techniques
• Operationalising Survey Research Tools
• Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey Research

21 Survey Design

• Preliminary Considerations
• Stages / Phases in Survey Research
• Formulation of Research Question
• Survey Research Designs
• Sampling Design

22 Survey Instrumentation

• Techniques/Instruments for Data Collection
• Questionnaire Construction
• Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument

23 Survey Execution and Data Analysis

• Problems and Issues in Executing Survey Research
• Data Analysis
• Ethical Issues in Survey Research

24 Field Research – I

• History of Field Research
• Ethnography
• Theme Selection
• Gaining Entry in the Field
• Key Informants
• Participant Observation

25 Field Research – II

• Interview its Types and Process
• Feminist and Postmodernist Perspectives on Interviewing
• Narrative Analysis
• Interpretation
• Case Study and its Types
• Life Histories
• Oral History
• PRA and RRA Techniques

26 Reliability, Validity and Triangulation

• Concepts of Reliability and Validity
• Three Types of “Reliability”
• Working Towards Reliability
• Procedural Validity
• Field Research as a Validity Check
• Method Appropriate Criteria
• Triangulation
• Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

27 Qualitative Data Formatting and Processing

• Qualitative Data Processing and Analysis
• Description
• Classification
• Making Connections
• Theoretical Coding
• Qualitative Content Analysis

28 Writing up Qualitative Data

• Problems of Writing Up
• Grasp and Then Render
• “Writing Down” and “Writing Up”
• Write Early
• Writing Styles
• First Draft

29 Using Internet and Word Processor

• What is Internet and How Does it Work?
• Internet Services
• Searching on the Web: Search Engines
• Accessing and Using Online Information
• Online Journals and Texts
• Statistical Reference Sites
• Data Sources
• Uses of E-mail Services in Research

30 Using SPSS for Data Analysis Contents

• Introduction
• Starting and Exiting SPSS
• Creating a Data File
• Univariate Analysis
• Bivariate Analysis

31 Using SPSS in Report Writing

• Why to Use SPSS
• Working with SPSS Output
• Copying SPSS Output to MS Word Document

32 Tabulation and Graphic Presentation- Case Studies

• Structure for Presentation of Research Findings
• Data Presentation: Editing, Coding, and Transcribing
• Case Studies
• Qualitative Data Analysis and Presentation through Software
• Types of ICT used for Research

33 Guidelines to Research Project Assignment

• Overview of Research Methodologies and Methods (MSO 002)
• Research Project Objectives
• Preparation for Research Project
• Stages of the Research Project
• Supervision During the Research Project
• Submission of Research Project
• Methodology for Evaluating Research Project

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All sociology is implicitly comparative, since social phenomena are invariably held in some way to be typical, representative, or unique, all of which imply appropriate comparison. Émile Durkheim was therefore correct to insist that ‘comparative sociology is not a particular branch of sociology; it is sociology itself, in so far as it ceases to be purely descriptive and aspires to account for facts’ (The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895). Consequently, there is no one comparative method, since all research techniques can be used to facilitate comparison.

Where a sociological analysis is explicitly held to be comparative, this usually involves the study of particular social processes across nation-states, or across different types of society (such as capitalist and state socialist). Much of what is normally referred to as comparative sociology is perhaps more accurately described as cross-national research. In his Presidential Address of 1987 to the American Sociological Association, Melvin L. Kohn delivered a manifesto for this form of research (‘Cross-National Research as an Analytical Strategy’, American Sociological Review, 1987).

Two general orientations to this type of comparative analysis are evident in the literature. First, there are those studies which seek similarity, usually starting from some well-defined a priori general theory which is then tested in different social (and possibly historical) contexts. Much functionalist inspired research, for example almost the whole corpus of modernization theory, takes this form. Similarly, structuralists in both sociology and anthropology have attempted to identify the models and general processes that underlie the apparently different orderings of experience in different societies, as for example in the work of structural Marxists. The danger of this approach is that context is ignored in the search for illustrations of allegedly universal propositions.

At the other extreme are studies which search for variance. These emphasize the specific historicity of societies, reject the search for general theories or laws, and use comparative research to shed light on the differences between cultures in order to understand better the specific arrangements that are found within each. Max Weber's comparative sociology offers a good example. Correspondingly, the problem here is that sociological explanation may be sacrificed on the altar of context, so that one arrives at the conclusion that cross-cultural or cross-national differences in particular social phenomena are entirely the result of historical contingency. The division of labour, crime-rates, organization of religion (or whatever) are different in Britain and Germany because Britain is Britain and not Germany. The units of analysis (in this case nation-states) are simply so many case studies to be interpreted.

In a stimulating analysis of this dilemma, A. Przeworski and H. Teune (The Logic of comparative Social Inquiry, 1970) have argued that the objective of comparative sociological research should be one of replacing the names of nations with the names of variables. That is, the explanans of particular dependent variables which differ cross-nationally should be rooted not simply in the different histories of the societies involved, but in specific national characteristics (such as degree of income inequality or type of political regime) that can be subsumed under variable names about which the sociologist can meaning-fully generalize.

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Social Research: Definitions, Types, Nature, and Characteristics

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Social research is often defined as a study of mankind that helps to identify the relations between social life and social systems. This kind of research usually creates new knowledge and theories or tests and verifies existing theories. However, social research is a broad spectrum that requires a discursive understanding of its varied nature and definitions. This chapter aims to explain the multifarious definitions of social research given by different scholars. The information used in this chapter is solely based on existing literature regarding social research. There are various stages discussed regarding how social research can be effectively conducted. The types and characteristics of social research are further analysed in this chapter. Social research plays a substantial role in investigating knowledge and theories relevant to social problems. Additionally, social research is important for its contribution to national and international policymaking, which explains the importance of social research.

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Khan, K.K., Mohsin Reza, M. (2022). Social Research: Definitions, Types, Nature, and Characteristics. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_3

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Comparative Research Methods

Linda Hantrais is Director of the European Research Centre, Loughborough University. She is convenor of the Cross-National Research Group and series editor of Cross-National Research Papers . The main focus of her research is cross-national theory, method and practice, particularly with reference to social policy. She has conducted a number of comparative studies, including ESRC/CNAF/European Commission-funded collaborative projects on women in professional occupations in Britain and France and on families and family policies in Europe. Her recent publications include a co-edited book, with Steen Mangen, on Cross-National Research Methods in the Social Sciences (Pinter, 1996).

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• DOI: 10.1002/9781118901731.IECRM0035
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Comparative research methods

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Positivism and Interpretivism in Social Research

Table of Contents

Last Updated on June 6, 2024 by Karl Thompson

Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic approaches to research methods in Sociology. Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, while Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods. This post provides a very brief overview of the two.

Interpretivism

Positivism and Interpretivism Summary Grid 

Positivism and interpretivism faq.

Positivism is a top down macro approach in sociology which uses quantitative methods to find the general laws of society, Interpretivism is a micro approach which uses qualitative methods to gain an empathetic understanding of why people act from their own understanding/ interpretation.

Interpretivism is an approach to social research first developed by Max Weber in early 19th century. He believed we needed to understand the motives for people’s actions to fully understand why they acted, aiming for what he called Verstehen, or empathetic understanding. Intepretivists use qualitative research methods as they are best for getting more in-depth information about the way people interpret their own actions.

Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle – specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of  A level sociology papers 1 and 3.

Signposting and Related Posts 

Links to more detailed posts on Positivism and Social Action Theory are embedded in the text above. Other posts you might like include:

Positivism in Social Research 

Max Weber’s Social Action Theory

The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life, A Summary

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Interested in studying what is behind human behavior? Want to analyze relevant social issues? Looking for a better understanding about the hidden inequalities in our society? There are four different emphases in the major for students to choose from: general; law and society; social services; or comparative studies and world development.

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As a sociology major, you can choose an emphasis in law and society, social services, comparative studies and world development, or general sociology. A sociology degree provides a broad background in sociological theory and valuable methodological training. Depending on your area of interest, you may study such topics as (to name just a few) race and gender discrimination, the interactional and institutional mechanisms enabling them to persist, and how to change them; patterns of immigration in contemporary society and how they intersect with labor markets, schools, and the health care system; the organization of the criminal justice system; the politics of health care; or why precarious employment has become so widespread.

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Arts & Sciences welcomes new departmental and program leadership for 2024-2025

The onset of the 2024-25 academic year brings new courses, new students, and new leadership appointments in Arts & Sciences. Chairs and directors provide essential leadership and service to their respective units, and we are grateful to all current and past faculty members who have taken on these roles. This year, 10 departments and programs have named new leadership. 

Comparative Literature and Thought

Incoming chair: Matt Erlin , professor of German Outgoing chair: Lynne Tatlock , the Hortense and Tobias Lewin Distinguished Professor in the Humanities

Incoming chair: Rowhea Elmesky , associate professor of education Outgoing chair: Andrew C. Butler , professor of education

Film & Media Studies

Incoming director: Colin Burnett , associate professor of film and media studies Outgoing director: Ian Bogost , the Barbara and David Thomas Distinguished Professor

Global Studies Program

Interim director: Steven B. Miles , professor of history Tabea Linhard , director and professor of global studies, is on leave this year.

Jewish, Islamic & Middle Eastern Studies

Incoming chair: Jonathan Judaken , the Gloria M. Goldstein Professor of Jewish History & Thought Outgoing chair: Kit Wellman , professor of philosophy    

Incoming chair: Lori Watson , professor of philosophy Outgoing chair: Ron Mallon , professor of philosophy and philosophy-neuroscience-psychology

Philosophy, Neuroscience & Psychology

Incoming director: Casey O’Callaghan , professor of philosophy and philosophy-neuroscience-psychology Outgoing director: Ron Mallon , professor of philosophy and philosophy-neuroscience-psychology

Public Health & Society

Inaugural directors: T.R. Kidder , the Edward S. and Tedi Macias Professor, and Lindsay Stark , professor of public health at the Brown School Read more about the new Program in Public Health & Society

Romance Languages and Literatures

Incoming chair: Ignacio Infante , professor of comparative literature and thought, and romance languages and literatures - Spanish Outgoing chair: Julie Singer , professor of French

Incoming chair: Jake Rosenfeld , professor of sociology Outgoing chair: David Cunningham , professor of sociology  

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