The scientific method is a process for creating models of the natural world that can be verified experimentally. The scientific method requires making observations, recording data, and analyzing data in a form that can be duplicated by other scientists. In addition, the scientific method uses inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning to try to produce useful and reliable models of nature and natural phenomena.
Inductive reasoning is the examination of specific instances to develop a general hypothesis or theory, whereas deductive reasoning is the use of a theory to explain specific results. In 1637 René Descartes published his Discours de la Méthode in which he described systematic rules for determining what is true, thereby establishing the principles of the scientific method.
The subject of a scientific experiment has to be observable and reproducible. Observations may be made with the unaided eye, a microscope, a telescope, a voltmeter, or any other apparatus suitable for detecting the desired phenomenon. The invention of the telescope in 1608 made it possible for Galileo to discover the moons of Jupiter two years later. Other scientists confirmed Galileo's observations and the course of astronomy was changed. However, some observations that were not able to withstand tests of objectivity were the canals of Mars reported by astronomer Percival Lowell. Lowell claimed to be able to see a network of canals in Mars that he attributed to intelligent life in that planet. Bigger telescopes and satellite missions to Mars failed to confirm the existence of canals. This was a case where the observations could not be independently verified or reproduced, and the hypothesis about intelligent life was unjustified by the observations. To Lowell's credit, he predicted the existence of the planet Pluto in 1905 based on perturbations in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. This was a good example of deductive logic. The application of the theory of gravitation to the known planets predicted that they should be in a different position from where they were. If the law of gravitation was not wrong, then something else had to account for the variation. Pluto was discovered 25 years later.
Real science hops from failure to failure, from several falsifiable hypotheses in confused competition to the next set, until a consensus evolves around a surviving paradigm that often uses aspects of its predecessors, adding unexpected novel ideas that lead to productive questions and more definitive tests, as disparate data starts to fit an overall unifying view. — R. Murray
The apparatus for making a scientific observation has to be based on well-known scientific principles. The telescope, for instance, is based on magnification of an image using light refraction through lenses. It can be proved that the image perceived through the telescope corresponds to that of the object being observed. In other words, you can trust observations made through telescopes. This is in contrast to magic wands, divining rods, or other devices for which no basis in science can be found. A divining or dowsing rod is a "Y" shaped branch of a tree, which is supposed to be able to help to identify places where there is underground water. The operator holds the divining rod by the top of the "Y", and the single end is supposed to dip when the operator passes over a section of land where there is water. What is the force that makes the divining rod dip? How does the divining rod "sense" the water? A scientist would try to answer these questions by experiments. Place the divining rod on a scale, for example, and then put a bowl of water under the divining rod. Is there a change of weight that indicates force? In another experiment the scale with the divining rod may be placed over a place known to have underground water, and over another place known to be dry. If these experiments show no force being exerted on the divining rod, we have to conclude that divining rods cannot be used as instruments for detecting water. We also have to conclude that any movement of the rod is accomplished by the hands of the person holding it, no matter how much the person denies it.
The scientific method requires that theories be testable. If a theory cannot be tested, it cannot be a scientific theory. Testing of scientific ideas can include the classical experimental method, replication, attempted refutation, prediction, modeling, inference, deduction, induction and logical analysis. Step 2 involves inductive reasoning, as described above. This approach can be used to study gravitation, electricity, magnetism, optics, chemistry, etc. Sometimes more than one theory can be proposed to explain observable events. In such cases, different predictions made with each theory can be used to set up experiments that select one theory over another. In the 17th century there were competing theories about whether electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, consisted of particles or waves. At the beginning of the 20th century Max Planck postulated that energy can only be emitted or absorbed in small, discrete packets called quanta. This seemed to favor the particle theory, particularly after Einstein demonstrated that light behaves like a stream of particles in photoelectric cells. However, diffraction experiments with electrons, which were considered particles because they had a measurable weight, showed all the characteristics of waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger developed an equation that described the wave properties of matter, and this became the foundation for the branch of physics called quantum mechanics.
How can waves behave like particles and particles behave like waves? Some scientific facts are very hard to comprehend. Yet, these are observable phenomena verified over and over again by many people all over the world. The behavior of the speed of light is another physical fact that is hard to understand. The speed of light in a vacuum is approximately 299,792 kilometers per second. The speed is reduced by about 3% in air and by 25% in water. A famous experiment conducted by Michelson and Morely at the end of the 19th century showed that the speed of light was the same perpendicular to the orbit of the earth and parallel to the orbit of the earth. The orbital speed of the earth of 29 kilometers per second could not be detected in the measurement of the speed of light. Einstein's theory of relativity is based on the constancy of measurement of the speed of light for all observers. A train has its headlight on. The speed of the light emanating from the train is the same whether the train is moving toward you or not! It is hard to accept, but many experiments for over one hundred years have come to the same conclusion.
Science has some well-known limitations. Science works by studying problems in isolation. This is very effective at getting good, approximate solutions. Problems outside these artificial boundaries are generally not addressed. The consistent, formal systems of symbols and mathematics used in science cannot prove all statements, and furthermore, they cannot prove all TRUE statements. Kurt Gödel showed this in 1931. The limitations of formal logical systems make it necessary for scientists to discard their old systems of thought and introduce new ones occasionally. Newton's gravitational model works fairly well for everyday physical descriptions, but it is not able to account for many important observations. For this reason, it has been replaced by Einstein's general theory of relativity for most celestial phenomena. Instead of talking about gravity, we now are supposed to talk about the curvature of the four-dimensional time-space continuum. Scientific observations are also subject to physical limits that may prevent us from finding the ultimate truth. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of an elementary particle. So, if we know the location of a particle we cannot determine its velocity, and if we know its velocity we cannot determine its location. Jacob Bronowski wrote that nature is not a gigantic formalizable system because to formalize it we would have to make some assumptions that cut some of its parts from consideration, and having done that, we cannot have a system that embraces the whole of nature.
The application of the scientific method is limited to independently observable, measurable events that can be reproduced. The scientific method is also applicable to random events that have statistical distributions. In atomic chemistry, for example, it is impossible to predict when one specific atom will decay and emit radiation, but it is possible to devise theories and formulas to predict when half of the atoms of a large sample will decay. Irreproducible results cannot be studied by the scientific method. There was one day when many car owners reported that the alarm systems of their cars were set off at about the same time without any apparent cause. Automotive engineers were not able to discover the reason because the problem could not be reproduced. They hypothesized that it could have been radio interference from a passing airplane, but they could not prove it one way or another. Mental conceptual experiences cannot be studied by the scientific method either. At this time there is no instrumentation that enables someone to monitor what anybody else conceives in their mind, although it is possible to determine which part of the brain is active during any given task. It is not possible to define experiments to determine objectively which works of art are "great", or whether Picasso was better than Matisse. So-called miracles are also beyond the scientific method. A person has tumors and faces certain death, and then, the tumors start shrinking and the person becomes healthy. What brought about the remission? A change in diet? A change in mental attitude? It is impossible to go back in time to monitor all variables that could have caused the cure, and it would be unethical to plant new tumors into the person to try to reproduce the results for a more careful study.
The scientific method relies on critical thinking, which is the process of questioning common beliefs and explanations to distinguish those beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those which lack adequate evidence or rational foundation.
Arguments consists of one or more premises and one conclusion. A premise is a statement that is offered in support of a claim being made. Premises and claims can be either true or false. In deductive arguments the premises provide complete support for the conclusion. If the premises provide the required degree of support for the conclusion then the argument is valid, and if all its premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. In inductive arguments the premises provide some degree of support for the conclusion. When the premises of inductive arguments are true, their conclusion is likely to be true. Arguments that have one or more false premises are unsound.
Arguments are subject to a variety of fallacies. A fallacy is an error in reasoning in which the premises given for the conclusion do not provide the needed degree of support. A deductive fallacy is a deductive argument where the premises are all true but reach a false conclusion. An inductive fallacy consist of arguments where the premises do not provide enough support for the conclusion. In such cases, even if the premises are true, the conclusion is not likely to be true.
Common fallacies are categorized by their type, such as Ad Hominem (personal attack), and appeals to authority, belief, fear, ridicule, tradition, etc. An example of an Ad Hominem fallacy would be to say "You do not understand this because you are American (or Chinese, etc.)". The national origin of a person (the premise) has nothing to do with the conclusion that a person can understand something or not, therefore the argument is flawed. Appeals to ridicule are of the form: "You would be stupid to believe that the earth goes around the sun". Sometimes, a naive or false justification may be added in appeals to ridicule, such as "we can plainly see the sun go around the earth every day". Appeals to authority are of the form "The president of the United States said this, therefore it must be true". The fact that a famous person, great person, or authority figure said something is not a valid basis for something being true. Truth is independent of who said it.
Direct or Experimental evidence. The scientific methods relies on direct evidence, i.e., evidence that can be directly observed and tested. Scientific experiments are designed to be repeated by other scientists and to demonstrate unequivocably the point that they are trying to prove by controlling all the factors that could influence the results. A scientist conducts an experiment by varying a single factor and observing the results.
When appropriate, "double blind" experiments are conducted to avoid the possibility of bias. If it is necessary to determine the effectiveness of a drug, an independent scientist will prepare the drug and an inert substance (a placebo), identifying them as A and B. A second scientist selects two groups of patients with similar characteristics (age, sex, etc.), and not knowing which is the real drug, administers substance A to one group of patients and substance B to the second group of patients. By not knowing whether A or B is the real drug, the second scientist focuses on the results of the experiment and can make objective evaluations. At the end of the experiment, the second scientist should be able to tell whether the group receiving substance A showed improvements over those receiving substance B. If no effect can be shown, the drug being tested is ineffective. Neither the second scientist nor the patients can cheat by favoring one substance over another, because they do not know which is the real drug.
Anecdotal, Correlational, or Circumstantial Evidence. "Where there is smoke, there is fire" is a popular saying. When two things occur together frequently, it is possible to assume that there is a direct or causative relationship between them, but it is also possible that there are other factors. For example, if you get sick every time that you eat fish and drink milk, you could assume that you are allergic to fish. However, you may be allergic to milk, or only to the combination of fish with milk. Correlational evidence is good for developing hypotheses that can then be tested with the proper experiments, e.g., drink milk only, eat fish only, eat fish and milk together.
There is nothing wrong with using representative cases to illustrate an inductive conclusion drawn from a fair sample. The problem arises when a single case or a few selected cases are used to draw a conclusion which would not be supported by a properly conducted study.
Argumentative Evidence consists of evaluating facts that are known and formulating a hypothesis about what the facts imply. Argumentative evidence is notoriously unreliable because anybody can postulate a hypothesis about anything. This was illustrated above with the example about the "channels" of Mars implying intelligent life. The statement "I heard a noise in the attic, it must be a ghost" also falls in this category.
Testimonial Evidence. A famous football player appears on television and says that Drug-XYZ provides relief from pain and works better than anything else. You know that the football player gets paid for making the commercial. How much can you trust this evidence? Not very much. Testimonials are often biased in favor of a particular point of view. In court proceedings, something actually experienced by a witness (eyewitness information) has greater weight than what someone told a witness (hearsay information). Nevertheless, experiments have repeatedly demonstrated that eyewitness accounts are highly unreliable when compared with films of the events. The statement "I saw a ghost last night." is an example of testimonial evidence that probably cannot be verified and should not be trusted. On the other hand, the statement "I saw a car crash yesterday." can be objectively verified to determine whether it is true or false by checking for debris from the accident, hospital records, and other physical evidence.
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November 12, 2014 by Teresa Torres
Update: I’ve since revised this hypothesis format. You can find the most current version in this article:
“My hypothesis is …”
These words are becoming more common everyday. Product teams are starting to talk like scientists. Are you?
The internet industry is going through a mindset shift. Instead of assuming we have all the right answers, we are starting to acknowledge that building products is hard. We are accepting the reality that our ideas are going to fail more often than they are going to succeed.
Rather than waiting to find out which ideas are which after engineers build them, smart product teams are starting to integrate experimentation into their product discovery process. They are asking themselves, how can we test this idea before we invest in it?
This process starts with formulating a good hypothesis.
When we are new to hypothesis testing, we tend to start with hypotheses like these:
There’s only one problem. These aren’t testable hypotheses. They aren’t specific enough.
A good hypothesis can be clearly refuted or supported by an experiment. – Tweet This
To make sure that your hypotheses can be supported or refuted by an experiment, you will want to include each of these elements:
The Change: This is the change that you are introducing to your product. You are testing a new design, you are adding new copy to a landing page, or you are rolling out a new feature.
Be sure to get specific. Fixing a hard-to-use comment form is not specific enough. How will you fix it? Some solutions might work. Others might not. Each is a hypothesis in its own right.
Design changes can be particularly challenging. Your hypothesis should cover a specific design not the idea of a redesign.
In other words, use this:
The former can be supported or refuted by an experiment. The latter can encompass dozens of design solutions, where some might work and others might not.
The Expected Impact: The expected impact should clearly define what you expect to see as a result of making the change.
How will you know if your change is successful? Will it reduce response times, increase conversions, or grow your audience?
The expected impact needs to be specific and measurable. – Tweet This
You might hypothesize that your new design will increase usability. This isn’t specific enough.
You need to define how you will measure an increase in usability. Will it reduce the time to complete some action? Will it increase customer satisfaction? Will it reduce bounce rates?
There are dozens of ways that you might measure an increase in usability. In order for this to be a testable hypothesis, you need to define which metric you expect to be affected by this change.
Who Will Be Impacted: The third component of a good hypothesis is who will be impacted by this change. Too often, we assume everyone. But this is rarely the case.
I was recently working with a product manager who was testing a sign up form popup upon exiting a page.
I’m sure you’ve seen these before. You are reading a blog post and just as you are about to navigate away, you get a popup that asks, “Would you like to subscribe to our newsletter?”
She A/B tested this change by showing it to half of her population, leaving the rest as her control group. But there was a problem.
Some of her visitors were already subscribers. They don’t need to subscribe again. For this population, the answer to this popup will always be no.
Rather than testing with her whole population, she should be testing with just the people who are not currently subscribers.
This isn’t easy to do. And it might not sound like it’s worth the effort, but it’s the only way to get good results.
Suppose she has 100 visitors. Fifty see the popup and fifty don’t. If 45 of the people who see the popup are already subscribers and as a result they all say no, and of the five remaining visitors only 1 says yes, it’s going to look like her conversion rate is 1 out of 50, or 2%. However, if she limits her test to just the people who haven’t subscribed, her conversion rate is 1 out of 5, or 20%. This is a huge difference.
Who you test with is often the most important factor for getting clean results. – Tweet This
By how much: The fourth component builds on the expected impact. You need to define how much of an impact you expect your change to have.
For example, if you are hypothesizing that your change will increase conversion rates, then you need to estimate by how much, as in the change will increase conversion rate from x% to y%, where x is your current conversion rate and y is your expected conversion rate after making the change.
This can be hard to do and is often a guess. However, you still want to do it. It serves two purposes.
First, it helps you draw a line in the sand. This number should determine in black and white terms whether or not your hypothesis passes or fails and should dictate how you act on the results.
Suppose you hypothesize that the change will improve conversion rates by 10%, then if your change results in a 9% increase, your hypothesis fails.
This might seem extreme, but it’s a critical step in making sure that you don’t succumb to your own biases down the road.
It’s very easy after the fact to determine that 9% is good enough. Or that 2% is good enough. Or that -2% is okay, because you like the change. Without a line in the sand, you are setting yourself up to ignore your data.
The second reason why you need to define by how much is so that you can calculate for how long to run your test.
After how long: Too many teams run their tests for an arbitrary amount of time or stop the results when one version is winning.
This is a problem. It opens you up to false positives and releasing changes that don’t actually have an impact.
If you hypothesize the expected impact ahead of time than you can use a duration calculator to determine for how long to run the test.
Finally, you want to add the duration of the test to your hypothesis. This will help to ensure that everyone knows that your results aren’t valid until the duration has passed.
If your traffic is sporadic, “how long” doesn’t have to be defined in time. It can also be defined in page views or sign ups or after a specific number of any event.
Use the following examples as templates for your own hypotheses:
After you write a hypothesis, break it down into its five components to make sure that you haven’t forgotten anything.
And then ask yourself:
It’s easy to give lip service to experimentation and hypothesis testing. But if you want to get the most out of your efforts, make sure you are starting with a good hypothesis.
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May 21, 2017 at 2:11 am
Interesting article, I am thinking about making forming a hypothesis around my product, if certain customers will find a proposed value useful. Can you kindly let me know if I’m on the right track.
“Certain customer segment (AAA) will find value in feature (XXX), to tackle their pain point ”
Change: using a feature (XXX)/ product Impact: will reduce monetary costs/ help solve a problem Who: for certain customers segment (AAA) By how much: by 5% After how long: 10 days
April 4, 2020 at 12:33 pm
Hi! Could you throw a little light on this: “Suppose you hypothesize that the change will improve conversion rates by 10%, then if your change results in a 9% increase, your hypothesis fails.”
I understood the rationale behind having a number x (10% in this case) associated with “by how much”, but could you explain with an example of how to ballpark a figure like this?
A hypothesis should: (1) be written in a declarative sentence; (2) be written in present tense; (3) contain the population; (4) contain the variables; (5) reflect the problem or purpose statement; and (6) be empirically testable.
The parts of scientific investigation are identifying a research question or problem, forming a hypothesis, gathering evidence, analyzing evidence.
you first start off with a hypothesis and after you end up with a conclusion
1. Have a question. 2. Make a Hypothesis. 3. Test the Hypothesis. 4. Collect and analyze data. 5. Come to a conclusion where you state whether or not your hypothesis was correct.
observation,hypothesis, experiment, and thesis/conclusion
problem,observation,inference,hypothesis,experiment,conclusion,result
Junebug6589 is waiting for your help., expert-verified answer.
The hypothesis is generally for the test of several plots and summarises or for the assertion and reasonable questions as if in an experiment also hyp o t hesis are used frequently.
The not unusualplace steps in all 3 techniques of speculation trying out is the primary step, that is to kingdom the null and opportunity speculation. The 2d step of the check statistic technique is to decide the check length and to gain the crucial value .
The 1/3 step is to compute the check statistic. The Null and Alternative Hypotheses. The Test Statistic. Probability Values and Statistical Significance. The Conclusions of Hypothesis Testing.
Read more about hypothesis :
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Get more answers for free, you might be interested in, new questions in biology.
Anti-racism protesters turned out in their thousands across the country last night as 100 anticipated far right protests largely failed to materialise. More rioters who took part in violent disorder across UK towns and cities over the past week will be sentenced today.
Thursday 8 August 2024 07:48, UK
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Police forces have released CCTV images in an appeal to identify people in connection with the far-right violence over the past week.
Merseyside Police issued pictures of 14 people, while South Yorkshire police have published 21 pictures in connection with violent disorder outside the Holiday Inn Express in Rotherham on Sunday. The hotel has been housing asylum seekers.
Detective Superintendent Paul Speight of Merseyside Police said: "It is vital that these people make themselves known as soon as possible, as we think they can assist our ongoing investigations.
"We are still working our way through information, images and footage as it comes in, and we'll continue to take action to arrest, charge and put before the courts anyone identified."
You can see all 35 images in the story below:
While Met police chief Sir Mark Rowley praised last night as a success, policing minister Dame Diana Johnson says she is feeling "cautious".
"It's good that we didn't see the level of disorder and criminality on our streets that we have in previous days," she told Sky News, "but obviously this is just the start."
"There is now further intelligence of events during the next few days, and we need to see what happens there."
A show of force and a show of unity won out last night, the head of the Met Police has said.
Fears of extreme riots were abated by police and communities, as counter-protests took place "very peacefully", Sir Mark Rowley said.
"Dawn raids" were carried out this morning to arrest suspected violent offenders from recent days, he added.
On yesterday's operation, Sir Mark said: "I'm really pleased with how it went. We put thousands of officers on the street and I think the show of force from the police and, frankly, the show of unity from communities together defeated the challenges that we've seen."
Police continue to work through footage and evidence gathered over the last week of riots and will be sweeping up offenders over the next 24 hours, he said.
"These are criminal thugs, any suggestion that they are patriots or have got a cause that they are protesting about is nonsense.
"They are criminals and frankly most of them will be charged with violent disorder and most are going to go to prison for a few years."
About 70% of the most violent offenders have criminal backgrounds, he said.
Rioters who have admitted violent disorder in the past week are due to be sentenced today.
Home affairs reporter Henry Vaughan will be reporting from Liverpool Crown Court, with more cases concluding at Plymouth Crown Court.
Other suspects are appearing in court to face charges, including at Hull Magistrates' Court.
Police have made more than 400 arrests over riots fuelled by the killing of three girls in a stabbing attack in Southport last Monday, and are considering using counter-terrorism laws to prosecute some rioters.
The government has pledged to prosecute those responsible for the disorder, including those who use social media to incite the violence.
Police had prepared for the biggest night of violence since the Southport attacks last night, with far-right protests planned at 100 locations after a week of rioting and disorder.
Many businesses had boarded up windows and closed down in fear of what lay ahead.
Stand Up To Racism and other groups had planned counter-protests in response - and in most places they reclaimed their streets with nothing to oppose.
A crowd of immigrant supporters that quickly grew to several hundred in the London neighbourhood of North Finchley found themselves largely alone with several dozen police officers.
The crowd chanted "refugees welcome" and "London against racism".
Some held signs saying "Stop the far right," "Migration is not a crime" and "Finchley against Fascism".
At one point, a man who had been shouting at the group and pulling his shirt up to show off an eagle tattoo was punched by a protester.
Outside an immigration centre in the Walthamstow area in east London, an anti-racism protest leader shouted "fascist scum" to which a crowd of hundreds responded: "Off our streets."
In Liverpool , hundreds showed up to defend the Asylum Link immigration centre.
A grandmother held a placard reading "Nans Against Nazis" and someone else held a sign saying: "When the poor blame the poor only the rich win."
In Birmingham , several hundred anti-racism protesters - some carrying signs such as "no place for hate" and "bigots out of Brum" - gathered outside a migrant centre in the Jewellery Quarter.
A large group then marched into the centre of the city, with no signs of any far-right groups in the area.
Several thousand also turned out in Bristol , said our correspondent Dan Whitehead - it was a calm and relaxed atmosphere with some people playing music.
Crime correspondent Martin Brunt said there were reports of "small pockets" of far-right protesters in places such as Portsmouth, Brighton and Blackpool.
But worries it could be the biggest night of trouble so far faded away.
Earlier intelligence suggesting 100 far-right protests had been "credible", he said, adding that police would now be analysing how they managed to avoid that "nightmare" scenario.
Welcome back to our live coverage of unrest in the UK, after far-right rallies largely failed to materialise last night.
Instead, police were met with thousands of peaceful anti-racist counter-protesters.
In London, Bristol, Oxford, Liverpool and Birmingham, large crowds gathered outside agencies and law firms specialising in immigration that had been listed by internet chat groups as possible targets of far-right activity.
In resounding choruses they chanted: "Whose streets? Our streets!" subverting a typically far-right refrain.
In addition to thousands of officers already deployed, about 1,300 specialist forces were on standby in case of serious trouble in London.
But with the exception of scattered disturbances and some arrests, riots did not erupt.
Before we resume our live coverage, here is a quick recap of some of the other key moments that occurred over the last day.
That's all our coverage on this story for now - we'll be back tomorrow with all the latest updates.
Before we go, here's a reminder of the key events from the past 24 hours:
Tonight's counter demonstrations have made the front page of several of the newspapers' Thursday editions, after several days of coverage of the far-right riots.
Here is a selection.
The i reported that rioters involved in the unrest in recent days may face being banned from attending football matches.
Meanwhile, Metro reports that supporters of Vladimir Putin have infiltrated the online chat groups being used to organise the far-right gatherings.
More from the Met Police this evening.
The force said they made 15 arrests around the capital - 10 in Croydon, four in Waltham Forest and one in Hounslow.
The anti-racist protests in Walthamstow and Finchley "passed without major incident", the Met said, but they faced "anti-social behaviour from a small group in Croydon who were not related to any protest, but were intent on causing trouble".
In Croydon, four people were arrested on suspicion of breaching the dispersal order, four more on suspicion of violent disorder, one on suspicion of an assault on an emergency worker, and one on suspicion for going equipped for arson.
In Waltham Forest, two were arrested on suspicion of having an offensive weapon - which police said was a lock knife and golf club - one on suspicion of being drunk and disorderly, and one on suspicion of obstructing a stop and search.
The arrest in Hounslow was in relation to possession of an offensive weapon.
Deputy Assistant Commissioner Andy Valentine said: "This evening more than 1,000 officers were deployed in London ready to respond to events planned across the city. They were ready to protect our communities from hateful, divisive and violent behaviour.
"Our top priority has been to keep our communities safe, prevent significant disorder and swiftly deal with any offenders. A number of arrests were made across the city this evening.
"I want to thank our communities for coming together across the capital and for showing community spirit this evening," he added.
"I would also like to thank the committed officers who have been working hard to police London today, serving their communities and keeping people safe."
By Henry Vaughan , home affairs reporter
Liverpool Crown Court earlier heard details of the impact rioting has had on police and the community.
The chief constable of Merseyside Police wrote a witness statement for the sentencing hearing of three men involved in the disorder.
Serena Kennedy said more than 150 officers from her force, and between 75 and 150 from others, had been deployed every day since 31 July to respond to disorder.
A team of 55 staff is investigating the disorder along with specialist investigators looking into online incidents, which means "taking staff away from investigating other crimes", she said, while the cost to policing "is immense" given the existing £21m budget shortfall.
As we reported earlier, 93 officers were injured in incidents in Merseyside on the nights of 30 July and 2 and 3 August, with injuries including leg fractures, a broken jaw and teeth knocked out. Police dogs have also been injured.
"The level of aggression I witnessed which was directly aimed at my officers… is unprecedented," she said.
"It was horrifying to see."
'Panic attacks'
The chief constable said many of those who have been attacked talked of "psychological symptoms" along with their physical injuries.
"Some have been waking up in the night with panic attacks while others have described the fear they felt whilst deployed to the disorder that they may not return home safely to their families.
"A number of victims have expressed their disbelief that officers have not been killed as a result of the appalling scenes of violence they have faced."
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COMMENTS
5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways. To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method, serving as a description of the expected outcome of a research study. It must meet a few requirements to be considered valid: Clear and Testable : A hypothesis should be formulated in a way that allows it to be empirically tested or proved wrong.
Definition: Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation. Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments ...
Even if a hypothesis is supported by multiple studies, new evidence could arise that contradicts it. Scientific knowledge is always subject to revision and refinement. Therefore, the goal is to gather enough evidence to either support or reject a hypothesis, rather than proving it absolutely true. What Are the Six Parts of a Hypothesis
3. Simple hypothesis. A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, "Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking. 4.
Table of contents. Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis. Step 2: Collect data. Step 3: Perform a statistical test. Step 4: Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis. Step 5: Present your findings. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.
A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction of what will happen. In science, a hypothesis proposes a relationship between factors called variables. A good hypothesis relates an independent variable and a dependent variable. The effect on the dependent variable depends on or is determined by what happens when you change the independent variable.
A hypothesis is a prediction that you believe will be the outcome of your study. It explains what you think the relationship will be between the independent and dependent variable (Al-Riyami, 2008). It is ok if the hypothesis in your proposal turns out to be incorrect, because it is only a prediction!
Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure in which a choice is made between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis based on information in a sample. The end result of a hypotheses testing procedure is a choice of one of the following two possible conclusions: Reject H0. H 0. (and therefore accept Ha.
A hypothesis is an educated guess, based on the probability of an outcome. Scientists formulate hypotheses after they understand all the current research on their subject. ... The four parts of the scientific method are observation and description, formulation of a hypothesis, use of the hypothesis for prediction and performance of testing of ...
Hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of a study. Hypotheses are drawn from theories and research questions or from direct observations. In fact, a research problem can be formulated as a hypothesis. To test the hypothesis we need to formulate it in terms that can actually be analysed with statistical tools.
Hypothesis testing is an important part of Inferential statistics: make conclusions about populations of individuals from sample data - making an INFERENCE. To make reliable decisions about research hypotheses, researchers consider 2 opposing points of view: 1. Null hypothesis: in testing a statistical hypothesis, what is expected when the ...
The documentary hypothesis ( DH) is one of the models used by biblical scholars to explain the origins and composition of the Torah (or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy ). [4] A version of the documentary hypothesis, frequently identified with the German scholar Julius ...
The scientific method has four steps. Observation and description of a phenomenon. The observations are made visually or with the aid of scientific equipment. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon in the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation. Test the hypothesis by analyzing the results of observations or by ...
Hypothesis Testing: The 5 Components of a Good Hypothesis. To make sure that your hypotheses can be supported or refuted by an experiment, you will want to include each of these elements: the change that you are testing. what impact we expect the change to have. who you expect it to impact.
charts and graphs are created to represent the data. the raw data is summarized. the data's significance is examined to determine how much variation is attributed to chance. there is discussion of the results. options 1, 3, 4. Unit 1: Metric Measurement Lab Quiz; Scientific Method Lab Quiz Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free.
Once they understand and remember these, it'll be much easier to teach them the next steps. Here are the five main steps of the Scientific Method: Observation - Observe something happening in the world. Question - Ask a question based on the observation. Hypothesis - Formulate a theory of why this observed event happens.
A hypothesis should: (1) be written in a declarative sentence; (2) be written in present tense; (3) contain the population; (4) contain the variables; (5) reflect the problem or purpose statement ...
The correct order of the four parts of the scientific method is Observation, Hypothesis, Experimentation, and Conclusion, which corresponds to answer b). These steps provide a structured framework for scientists to make observations, formulate hypotheses, conduct experiments, and draw conclusions.
The four parts of the scientific method are observation, hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion, in that order. These steps form a continuous cycle used to explore scientific questions and hypotheses. Explanation: The correct parts of the scientific method according to the options provided are: a) Observation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion.
The 2d step of the check statistic technique is to decide the check length and to gain the crucial value. The 1/3 step is to compute the check statistic. The Null and Alternative Hypotheses. The Test Statistic. Probability Values and Statistical Significance. The Conclusions of Hypothesis Testing. Read more about hypothesis:
Ten people have been arrested and four police officers taken to hospital following rioting in Sunderland city centre. It comes as Section 34 orders are issued in parts of the country today amid ...