qualitative research interpretivist paradigm

Interpretivism Paradigm & Research Philosophy

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

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The interpretivist paradigm is a research approach in sociology that focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of individuals within their social context.

Key Takeaways

• Interpretivism is an approach to social science that asserts that understanding the beliefs, motivations, and reasoning of individuals in a social situation is essential to decoding the meaning of the data that can be collected around a phenomenon.
• There are numerous interpretivist approaches to sociology, three of the most influential of which are hermeneutics, phenomenology and ethnomethodology, and symbolic interactionism.
• Sociologists who have adopted an interpretivists approach include Weber, Garfinkle, Bulmer, Goffman, Cooley, Mead, and Husser.
• Interpretivists use both qualitative and quantitative research methods. However, they believe that there is no one “right path” to knowledge, thus rejecting the idea that there is one methodology that will consistently get at the “truth” of a phenomenon.
• Interpretivist approaches to research differ from positivist ones in their emphasis on qualitative data and focus on context.

The Interpretivist Paradigm

Interpretivism uses qualitative research methods that focus on individuals” beliefs, motivations, and reasoning over quantitative data to gain understanding of social interactions.

Interpretivists assume that access to reality happens through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments (Myers, 2008).

What is a Paradigm?

A paradigm is a set of ideas and beliefs which provide a framework or model which research can follow. A paradigm defines existing knowledge, the nature of the problem(s) to be investigated, appropriate methods of investigation, and the way data should be analyzed and interpreted.

The interpretivist paradigm developed as a critique of positivism in the social sciences

Interpretivism has its roots in idealistic philosophy. The umbrella term has also been used to group together schools of thought ranging from social constructivism to phenomenology and hermeneutics: approaches that reject the view that meaning exists in the world independently of people”s consciousness and interpretation.

Because meaning exists through the lens of people, interpretivist approaches to social science consider it important for researchers to appreciate the differences between people, and seek to understand how these differences inform how people find meaning.

The Interpretivist Assumptions

The interpretive approach is based on the following assumptions:

Human life can only be understood from within

According to interpretivism, individuals have consciousness. This means that they are not merely coerced puppets that react to social forces in the way that positivists mean. This has the result that people in a society are intricate and complex.

Different people in a society experience and understand the same “objective” reality in different ways, and have individual reasons for their actions (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020; Bhattacherjee, 2012).

This more sense-based approach of interpretivism to research has roots in anthropology, sociology, psychology, linguistics, and semiotics, and has been used since the early 19th century, long before the development of positivist sociology.

The social world does not “exist” independently of human knowledge

Interpretivists do not deny that there is an external reality. However, they do not accept that there is an independently knowable reality.

Contrary to positivist approaches to sociology, interpretivists assert that all research is influenced and shaped by the pre-existing theories and worldviews of the researchers.

Terms, procedures, and data used in research have meaning because a group of academics have agreed that these things have meaning. This makes research a socially constructed activity, which means phenomena is created by society and not naturally occurring. It will vary from culture to culture.

Consequently, the reality that research tells us is also socially constructed (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020).

Research should be based on qualitative methods

Interpretivists also use a broad range of qualitative methods . They also accept reflective discussions of how researchers do research, considering these to be prized sources of knowledge and understanding.

This is in contrast to post positivists, who generally consider their reflections and personal stories of researchers to be unacceptable as research because they are neither scientific nor objective (Smith, 1993).

The term interpretive research is often used synonymously with qualitative research , but the two concepts are different. Interpretive research is a research paradigm, or set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood and addressed (Kuhn, 1970).

Because interpretivists see social reality as embedded within and impossible to abstract from their social settings, they attempt to make “sense” of reality rather than testing hypotheses.

Research should be based on a grounded theory

There can be causal explanation in sociology but there is no need for a hypothesis before starting research. By stating an hypothesis at the start of the study Glaser and Strauss argue that researchers run the risk of imposing their own views on the data rather than those of the actors being researched.

Instead, there should be a grounded theory which means allowing ideas to emerge as the data is collected which can later be used to produce a testable hypothesis.

Research Design

Interpretivists believe that there is no particular right or correct path to knowledge, and no special method that automatically leads to intellectual progress (Smith, 1993). This means that interpretivists are antifoundationalists.

Interpretivists, however, accept that there are standards that guide research. However, they believe that these standards cannot be universal. Instead, interpretivists believe that research standards are the products of a particular group or culture

Interpretivists do not always abandon standards such as the rules of the scientific method; they simply accept that whatever standards are used are subjective, and potentially able to fail, rather than objective and universal (Smith, 1993).

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded, not numerical, and can be in the form of written or verbal communication.

Interpretivists can collect qualitative data using a variety of techniques. The most frequent of these is interviews. These can manifest in many forms, such as face-to-face, over the telephone, or f ocus groups . Another technique for interpretivist data collection is observation.

Observation can include direct observation, a technique common to case research where the researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomena that they are studying.

Interpretivists can also use documentation as a data collecting technique, collecting external and internal documents , such as memos, emails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles, websites, and so on, to cast further insight into a phenomenon of interest or to corroborate other forms of evidence (Smith, 1993).

Case Research

Case research is an intensive, longitudinal study of a phenomenon at least one research site that intends to derive detailed, contextualized inferences and understand the dynamics that underlie the phenomenon that is being studied.

In this research design, the case researcher is a neutral observer, rather than an active participant. In the end, drawing meaningful inferences from case research largely depends on the observational skills and integrative abilities of the research (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013).

Action Research

Action research, meanwhile, is a qualitative albeit positivist research design aimed at testing, rather than building theories.

Action research designs interaction, assuming that complex social phenomena are best understood by introducing changes, interventions, or “Actions” into the phenomena being studied and observing the outcomes of such actions on that phenomena.

Usually, the researcher in this method is a consultant or organizational member embedded into a social context who initiates an action in response to a social problem, and examines how their action influences the phenomenon while also learning and generating insights about the relationship between the action and the phenomenon.

Some examples of actions may include organizational changes, such as through introducing people or technology, initiated with the goal of improving an organization”s performance or profitability as a business.

The researcher”s choice of actions may be based on theory which explains why and how certain actions could bring forth desired social changes (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013).

Interpretivist Sociological Perspectives

There are three major interpretivist approaches to sociology (Williams, 2000):

Hermeneutics , which refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Often, Hermeneutics focuses on influential, ancient texts, such as scripture.

Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology , which is a philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world through directly experiencing the phenomena within it. Ethnomethodology , which has a phenomenological foundation, is the study of how people make sense of and navigate their everyday world through norms and rituals.

Symbolic interaction , which accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects that have shared meanings. These symbols provide a means to construct reality.

Hermeneutics

Originally, the term hermeneutics referred exclusively to the study of sacred texts such as the Talmud or the Bible.

Hermeneuticists originally used various methods to get at the meaning of these texts, such as through studying the meaning of terms and phrases from the document in other writings from the same era, the social and political context in which the passage was written, and the way the concepts discussed are used in other parts of the document (Williams, 2000).

Gradually, however, hermeneutics expanded beyond this original meaning to include understanding human action in context.

There are many variations on hermeneutics; however, Smith (1991) concluded that they all share two characteristics in common:

An emphasis on the importance of language in understanding, because language can both limit and make possible what people can say,

An emphasis on the context, particularly the historical one, as a frame for understanding, because human behavior and ideas must be understood in context, rather than in isolation.

Hermeneutics has several different subcategories, including validation, critical, and philosophical. The first of these, validation, is based on post positivism and assumes that hermeneutics can be a scientific way to find the truth.

Critical hermeneutics is focused on critical theory, and aims to highlight the historical conditions that lead to oppression.

Finally, philosophical hermeneutics aims to develop understanding and rejects the idea that there is a certain research method that will uncover the truth without fail (Smith, 1991).

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a type of social action theory that focuses on studying people’s perceptions of the world.

Understanding different perspectives often call for different methods of research and different ways of reporting results. Research methods that attempt to examine the subjective perceptions of the person being studied are often called phenomenological research methods.

Interpretivists generally tend to use qualitative methods such as case studies and ethnography, writing reports that are rich in detail in order to depict the context needed for understanding.

Ethnography

Ethnography, a research method derived largely from anthropology, emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its culture.

In practice, an ethnographic researcher must immerse themself into a social culture over an extended period of time and engage, observe, and record the daily life of the culture being studied and its social participants within their natural setting.

In addition, ethnographic researchers must take extensive field notes and narrate their experience in descriptive detail so that readers can experience the same culture as the researcher.

This gives the researcher two roles: relying on their unique knowledge and engagement to generate insights, and convincing the scientific community that this behavior applies across different situations (Schwandt, 1994).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism starts which the assumptions that humans inhabit a symbolic world, in which symbols, such as language, have a shared meaning.

The social world is therefore constructed by the meaning that individual attach to events and phenomena and these are transmitted across generations through language.

A central concept of symbolic interactionism is the Self , which allows individuals to calculate the effects of their actions.

Interpretivist Research Designs

Interpretivists can collect qualitative data using a variety of techniques. The most frequent of these are interviews. These can manifest in many forms, such as face-to-face, over the telephone, or in focus groups.

Another technique for interpretivist data collection is observation. Observation can include direct observation, a technique common to case research where the researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomena that they are studying.

Thirdly, interpretivists can use documentation as a data collecting technique, collecting external and internal documents, such as memos, emails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles, websites, and so on — to cast further insight into a phenomenon of interest or to corroborate other forms of evidence (Smith, 1993).

Some examples of actions may include organizational changes, such as through introducing people or technology, initiated with the goal of improving an organization’s performance or profitability as a business.

Examples of Interpretive Research

Decision making in businesses.

Although interpretive research tends to rely heavily on qualitative data, quantitative data can add more precision and create a clearer understanding of the phenomenon being studied than qualitative data.

For example, Eisenhardt (1989) conducted an interpretive study of decision-making in high-velocity firms.

Eisenhardt collected numerical data on how long it took each firm to make certain strategic decisions (ranging from 1.5 months to 18 months), how many decision alternatives were considered for each decision, and surveyed her respondents to capture their perceptions of organizational conflict.

This numerical data helped Eisenhardt to clearly distinguish high-speed decision making firms from low-speed decision makers without relying on respondents” subjective perceptions.

This differentiation then allowed Eisenhardt to examine the number of decision alternatives considered by and the extent of conflict in high-speed and low-speed firms.

Eisenhardt”s study is one example of how interpretivist researchers can use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative data to study their phenomena of interest.

Teaching and Technology

Waxman and Huang (1996) conducted an interpretivist study on the relationship between computers and teaching strategies.

While positivists and post positivists may use the data from that study to make a general statement about the relationship between computers and teaching strategies, interpretivists would argue that the context of the study could alter this general conclusion entirely.

For example, Waxman and Huang (1996) mention in their paper that the school district where the data were collected had provided training for teachers that emphasized the use of “constructivist” approaches to teaching and learning.

This training may mean that the study would have generated different results in a school district where teachers were provided extensive training on a different teaching method.

Interpretivists are concerned about how data are situated, and how this context can affect the data.

Interpretivism vs. Positivism

Whereas positivism looks for universals based on data, interpretivism looks for an understanding of a particular context, because this context is critical to interpreting the data gathered.

Generally, interpretivist research is prepared to sacrifice reliability and representativeness for greater validity while positivism requires research to be valid, reliable, and representative.

While a positivist may use largely quantitative research methods, official statistics, social surveys, questionnaires, and structured interviews to conduct research, interpretivists may rely on qualitative methods, such as personal documents , participant observation, and unstructured interviews (Alharahshel & Pius, 2020; Bhattacherjee, 2012).

Interprevists and positivists also differ in how they see the relationship between the society and the individual. Positivists believe that society shapes the individual, and that society consists of “social facts” that exercise coercive control over individuals.

This means that people”s actions can generally be explained by the social norms that they have been exposed to through socialization, social class, gender, and ethnic background.

Many positivist researchers view interpretive research as erroneous and biased, given the subjective nature of qualitative data collection and the process of interpretation used in such research.

However, the failure of many positivist techniques to generate insights has resulted in a resurgence of interest in interpretive research since the 1970s, now informed with exacting methods and criteria to ensure the reliability and validity of interpretive inferences (Bhattacherjee, 2012).

Alharahsheh, H. H., & Pius, A. (2020). A review of key paradigms: Positivism VS interpretivism . Global Academic Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2 (3), 39-43.

Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices . University of South Florida.

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Making fast strategic decisions in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 32 (3), 543-576.

Goldkuhl, G. (2012). Pragmatism vs interpretivism in qualitative information systems research .  European journal of information systems, 21 (2), 135-146.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). Criticism and the growth of knowledge: Volume 4: Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science , London, 1965 (Vol. 4). Cambridge University Press.

Myers, M. D. (2008). Qualitative Research in Business & Management . SAGE Publications.

Schwandt, T. A. (1994). Constructivist, interpretivist approaches to human inquiry. Handbook of qualitative research, 1 (1994), 118-137.

Schwartz-Shea, P., & Yanow, D. (2013). Interpretive research design: Concepts and processes . Routledge.

Smith, D. G. (1991). Hermeneutic inquiry: The hermeneutic imagination and the pedagogic text. Forms of curriculum inquiry , 3.

Smith, J. K. (1993). After the demise of empiricism: The problem of judging social and education inquiry .

Waxman, H. C., & Huang, S. Y. L. (1996). Classroom instruction differences by level of technology use in middle school mathematics. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 14 (2), 157-169.

Walsham, G. (1995). The emergence of interpretivism in IS research .  Information systems research, 6 (4), 376-394.

Williams, M. (2000). Interpretivism and generalisation. Sociology, 34 (2), 209-224.

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The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

5-minute read

• 22nd January 2023

In this guide, you’ll learn all about the four research paradigms and how to choose the right one for your research.

Introduction to Research Paradigms

A paradigm is a system of beliefs, ideas, values, or habits that form the basis for a way of thinking about the world. Therefore, a research paradigm is an approach, model, or framework from which to conduct research. The research paradigm helps you to form a research philosophy, which in turn informs your research methodology.

Your research methodology is essentially the “how” of your research – how you design your study to not only accomplish your research’s aims and objectives but also to ensure your results are reliable and valid. Choosing the correct research paradigm is crucial because it provides a logical structure for conducting your research and improves the quality of your work, assuming it’s followed correctly.

Three Pillars: Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology

Before we jump into the four types of research paradigms, we need to consider the three pillars of a research paradigm.

Ontology addresses the question, “What is reality?” It’s the study of being. This pillar is about finding out what you seek to research. What do you aim to examine?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It asks, “How is knowledge gathered and from what sources?”

Methodology involves the system in which you choose to investigate, measure, and analyze your research’s aims and objectives. It answers the “how” questions.

Let’s now take a look at the different research paradigms.

1.   Positivist Research Paradigm

The positivist research paradigm assumes that there is one objective reality, and people can know this reality and accurately describe and explain it. Positivists rely on their observations through their senses to gain knowledge of their surroundings.

In this singular objective reality, researchers can compare their claims and ascertain the truth. This means researchers are limited to data collection and interpretations from an objective viewpoint. As a result, positivists usually use quantitative methodologies in their research (e.g., statistics, social surveys, and structured questionnaires).

This research paradigm is mostly used in natural sciences, physical sciences, or whenever large sample sizes are being used.

2.   Interpretivist Research Paradigm

Interpretivists believe that different people in society experience and understand reality in different ways – while there may be only “one” reality, everyone interprets it according to their own view. They also believe that all research is influenced and shaped by researchers’ worldviews and theories.

As a result, interpretivists use qualitative methods and techniques to conduct their research. This includes interviews, focus groups, observations of a phenomenon, or collecting documentation on a phenomenon (e.g., newspaper articles, reports, or information from websites).

3.   Critical Theory Research Paradigm

The critical theory paradigm asserts that social science can never be 100% objective or value-free. This paradigm is focused on enacting social change through scientific investigation. Critical theorists question knowledge and procedures and acknowledge how power is used (or abused) in the phenomena or systems they’re investigating.

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Researchers using this paradigm are more often than not aiming to create a more just, egalitarian society in which individual and collective freedoms are secure. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used with this paradigm.

4.   Constructivist Research Paradigm

Constructivism asserts that reality is a construct of our minds ; therefore, reality is subjective. Constructivists believe that all knowledge comes from our experiences and reflections on those experiences and oppose the idea that there is a single methodology to generate knowledge.

This paradigm is mostly associated with qualitative research approaches due to its focus on experiences and subjectivity. The researcher focuses on participants’ experiences as well as their own.

Choosing the Right Research Paradigm for Your Study

Once you have a comprehensive understanding of each paradigm, you’re faced with a big question: which paradigm should you choose? The answer to this will set the course of your research and determine its success, findings, and results.

To start, you need to identify your research problem, research objectives , and hypothesis . This will help you to establish what you want to accomplish or understand from your research and the path you need to take to achieve this.

You can begin this process by asking yourself some questions:

• What is the nature of your research problem (i.e., quantitative or qualitative)?
• How can you acquire the knowledge you need and communicate it to others? For example, is this knowledge already available in other forms (e.g., documents) and do you need to gain it by gathering or observing other people’s experiences or by experiencing it personally?
• What is the nature of the reality that you want to study? Is it objective or subjective?

Depending on the problem and objective, other questions may arise during this process that lead you to a suitable paradigm. Ultimately, you must be able to state, explain, and justify the research paradigm you select for your research and be prepared to include this in your dissertation’s methodology and design section.

Using Two Paradigms

If the nature of your research problem and objectives involves both quantitative and qualitative aspects, then you might consider using two paradigms or a mixed methods approach . In this, one paradigm is used to frame the qualitative aspects of the study and another for the quantitative aspects. This is acceptable, although you will be tasked with explaining your rationale for using both of these paradigms in your research.

Choosing the right research paradigm for your research can seem like an insurmountable task. It requires you to:

●  Have a comprehensive understanding of the paradigms,

●  Identify your research problem, objectives, and hypothesis, and

●  Be able to state, explain, and justify the paradigm you select in your methodology and design section.

Although conducting your research and putting your dissertation together is no easy task, proofreading it can be! Our experts are here to make your writing shine. Your first 500 words are free !

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Interpretivism (interpretivist) Research Philosophy

Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves researchers to interpret elements of the study, thus interpretivism integrates human interest into a study. Accordingly, “interpretive researchers assume that access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments”. [1] Development of interpretivist philosophy is based on the critique of  positivism  in social sciences. Accordingly, this philosophy emphasizes qualitative analysis over quantitative analysis.

Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical position of idealism, and is used to group together diverse approaches, including social constructivism , phenomenology and hermeneutics; approaches that reject the objectivist view that meaning resides within the world independently of consciousness” [2] . According to interpretivist approach, it is important for the researcher as a social actor to appreciate differences between people. [3]  Moreover, interpretivism studies usually focus on meaning and may employ multiple methods in order to reflect different aspects of the issue.

Important Aspects of Interpretivism

Interpretivist approach is based on naturalistic approach of data collection such as interviews and observations . Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism philosophy. In this type of studies, meanings emerge usually towards the end of the research process.

The most noteworthy variations of interpretivism include the following:

• Hermeneutics refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Hermeneutics mainly focuses on biblical texts and wisdom literature and as such, has a little relevance to business studies.
• Phenomenology is “the philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world through directly experiencing the phenomena”. [4]
• Symbolic interactionism accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects having shared meanings. According to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed

In general interpretivist approach is based on the following beliefs:

1. Relativist ontology .  This approach perceives reality as intersubjectively that is based on meanings and understandings on social and experiential levels.

2. Transactional or subjectivist epistemology.  According to this approach, people cannot be separated from their knowledge; therefore there is a clear link between the researcher and research subject.

The basic differences between positivism and interpretivism are illustrated by Pizam and Mansfeld (2009) in the following manner:

	Objective, tangible, single	Socially constructed, multiple
	Explanation, strong prediction	Understanding, weak prediction
	What is general, average and representative	What is specific, unique, and deviant
	Laws Absolute (time, context, and value free)	Meanings Relative (time, context, culture, value bound)
	Rigid separation	Interactive, cooperative, participative
	How many people think and do a specific thing, or have a specific problem	What some people think and do, what kind of problems they are confronted with, and how they deal with them

Assumptions and research philosophies

The use of interpretivism approach in business studies involves the following principles as suggested by Klein and Myers (1999)

• The Fundamental Principle of the Hermeneutic Circle.
• The Principle of Contextualization
• The Principle of Interaction between the Researchers and the Subjects
• The Principle of Abstraction and  Generalization
• The Principle of Dialogical Reasoning
• The Principle of Multiple Interpretations
• The Principle of Suspicion

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interpretivism

Main disadvantages associated with interpretivism relate to subjective nature of this approach and great room for bias on behalf of researcher. Primary data generated in interpretivist studies cannot be generalized since data is heavily impacted by personal viewpoint and values. Therefore, reliability and representativeness of data is undermined to a certain extent as well.

On the positive side, thanks to adoption of interpretivism, qualitative research areas such as cross-cultural differences in organizations, issues of ethics, leadership and analysis of factors impacting leadership etc. can be studied in a great level of depth. Primary data generated via Interpretivism studies might be associated with a high level of validity because data in such studies tends to be trustworthy and honest.

Generally, if you are following interpretivism research philosophy in your dissertation the depth of discussion of research philosophy depends on the level of your studies. For a dissertation at Bachelor’s level it suffices to specify that you are following Interpretivism approach and to describe the essence of this approach in a short paragraph. For a dissertation at Master’s level discussion needs to be expanded into 2-3 paragraphs to include justification of your choice for interpretivist approach.

At a PhD level, on the other hand, discussion of research philosophy can cover several pages and you are expected to discuss the essence of interpretivism by referring to several relevant secondary data sources. Your justification for the selection of interpretivism need to be offered in a succinct way in about two paragraphs.

My e-book,   The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance contains discussions of theory and application of research philosophy. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  research design ,  methods of data collection  and  data analysis  are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Myers, M.D. (2008) “Qualitative Research in Business & Management” SAGE Publications

[2] Collins, H. (2010) “Creative Research: The Theory and Practice of Research for the Creative Industries” AVA Publications

[3] Source: Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6 th  edition, Pearson Education Limited

[4] Littlejohn, S.W. & Foss, K.A. (2009) “Encyclopedia of Communication Theory” Vol.1, SAGE Publication

Interpretivism

Often contrasted with Positivism is Interpretivism. The starting point for Interpretivism – which is sometimes called Anti-Positivism – is that knowledge in the human and social sciences cannot conform to the model of natural science because there are features of human experience that cannot objectively be “known”. This might include emotions; understandings; values; feelings; subjectivities; socio-cultural factors; historical influence; and other meaningful aspects of human being. Instead of finding “truth” the Interpretivist aims to generate understanding and often adopts a relativist position.

Qualitative methods are preferred as ways to investigate these phenomena. Data collected might be unstructured (or “messy”) and correspondingly a range of techniques for approaching data collection have been developed. Interpretivism acknowledges that it is impossible to remove cultural and individual influence from research, often instead making a virtue of the positionality of the researcher and the socio-cultural context of a study.

One key consideration here is the purported validity of qualitative research. Interpretivism tends to emphasize the subjective over the objective. If the starting point for an investigation is that we can’t fully and objectively know the world, how can we do research into this without everything being a matter of opinion? Essentially Positivism and Interpretivism retain different ontologies and epistemologies with contrasting notions of rigour and validity (in the broadest rather than statistical sense). Interpretivist research often embraces a relativist epistemology, bringing together different perspectives in search of an overall understanding or narrative.

Kivunja & Kuyini (2017) describe the essential features of Interpretivism as:

• The admission that the social world cannot be understood from the standpoint of an individual
• The belief that realities are multiple and socially constructed
• The acceptance that there is inevitable interaction between the researcher and his or her research participants
• The acceptance that context is vital for knowledge and knowing.
• The belief that knowledge is created by the findings, can be value laden and the values need to be made explicit
• The need to understand the individual rather than universal laws
• The belief that causes and effects are mutually interdependent
• The belief that contextual factors need to be taken into consideration in any systematic pursuit of understanding

Interpretivism as a research paradigm is often accompanied by Constructivism as an ontological and epistemological grounding. Many learning theories emphasize Constructivism as an organising principle, and Constructivism often underlies aspects of educational research.

Interpretivist Methods : Case Studies; Conversational analysis; Delphi; Description; Document analysis; Interviews; Focus Groups; Grounded theory; Phenomenography; Phenomenology; Thematic analysis

[INSERT Figure 2]

methodological aspects of Positivism and Interpretivism. Positivism Interpretivism Ontology Being in the world Direct access (Naturalism) Indirect access (Idealism) Reality Objective, accessible Subjectively experienced Epistemology Relation between knowledge and reality Objective knowledge of the world is possible supported by appropriate method Objective knowledge of the world is possible supported by appropriate method Epistemological goals Generalisation, abstraction, discovery of law-like relationships Knowledge of specific, concrete cases and examples Basic approach Hypothesis formation and testing Describing and seeking to understand phenomena in context Methodology Focus Description and explanation Understanding and interpretation Research Perspective Detached, objective Embedded in the phenomena under investigation Role of emotions Strict separation between the cognitions and feeling of the researchers Emotional response can be part of coming to understanding Limits of researcher influence Discovery of external, objective reality – minimal influence Object of study is potentially influenced by the activity of the researcher Valued approaches Consistency, clarity, reproducibility, rationality, lack of bias Insight, appreciation of context and prior understanding Fact/value distinction Clear distinction between facts and values Distinction is less rigid, acknowledges entanglement Archetypal research methods Quantitative (e.g. statistical analysis) Qualitative (e.g. case study) Figure 2. Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology across Positivism and Interpretivism (adapted from Carson et al., 2001)

Research Methods Handbook Copyright © 2020 by Rob Farrow; Francisco Iniesto; Martin Weller; and Rebecca Pitt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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> > - assumes that reality as we know it is constructed intersubjectively through the meanings and understandings developed socially and experientially. - assumes that we cannot separate ourselves from what we know.  The investigator and the object of investigation are linked such that who we are and how we understand the world is a central part of how we understand ourselves, others and the world. - recognition that the choices we make through the research process have political and ethical consideration.  - evaluting the substance or content of an interpretive work . 10(3) pp. 378-395. . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. . Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company. . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . New York: Free Press. . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. . Chicago: Aldine. . pp. 105-117. . Theory and History of Literature. Volume 10. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. . New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.       , Volume 1, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff. : "Commonsense and scientific interpretations of human action" pp. 3-47; "Concept and theory formation in the social sciences" pp. 48-66; "On multiple realities" pp. 207-259. (GEM Anscome transl). Third Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall. to go back to Common Paradigms

	© RWJF 2008 P.O. Box 2316 College Road East and Route 1 Princeton, NJ 08543	-->Citation: Cohen D, Crabtree B. "Qualitative Research Guidelines Project." July 2006.

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31 Interpretation In Qualitative Research: What, Why, How

Allen Trent, College of Education, University of Wyoming

Jeasik Cho, Department of Educational Studies, University of Wyoming

• Published: 02 September 2020
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This chapter addresses a wide range of concepts related to interpretation in qualitative research, examines the meaning and importance of interpretation in qualitative inquiry, and explores the ways methodology, data, and the self/researcher as instrument interact and impact interpretive processes. Additionally, the chapter presents a series of strategies for qualitative researchers engaged in the process of interpretation and closes by presenting a framework for qualitative researchers designed to inform their interpretations. The framework includes attention to the key qualitative research concepts transparency, reflexivity, analysis, validity, evidence, and literature. Four questions frame the chapter: What is interpretation, and why are interpretive strategies important in qualitative research? How do methodology, data, and the researcher/self impact interpretation in qualitative research? How do qualitative researchers engage in the process of interpretation? And, in what ways can a framework for interpretation strategies support qualitative researchers across multiple methodologies and paradigms?

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Interpretivism and Qualitative Research

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Interpretivism is commonly associated with the employment of qualitative methods. In philosophical discussions of interpretivism, however, the way in which qualitative research is conducted and may serve as basis for the advancement of interpretations is almost never considered. In this paper, I explore how the philosophical discussions may benefit from taking into account the way qualitative researchers go about their business. From this perspective, I examine Taylor’s influential defense of interpretivism and two objections to it, the argument from lack of brute data and the argument from underdetermination. I argue that, by bringing into view how qualitative research proceeds, it may be shown that Taylor’s position should be amended, that the argument from brute data should be dismissed, and that the argument from underdetermination has a much smaller scope than assumed by its proponents.

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Chapter 2: Foundations of qualitative research – paradigms, philosophical underpinnings

Darshini Ayton and Tess Tsindos

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Recognise and understand the four main paradigms that underpin research.
• Understand how paradigms differ between qualitative and quantitative research.
• Describe the differences between approaches in inductive and deductive research.

What is a paradigm ?

All research takes place within a paradigm. A paradigm is a worldview – a framework of beliefs, values and methods. For researchers, the paradigm or worldview framing their research informs the meaning they interpret from the data. Each researcher works within their own, unique paradigm; this includes the techniques they choose for collecting and analysing data. 1 There are four main research paradigms in social science (see Table 2.1. ) :

• positivist , or scientific , paradigm
• interpretivist , or constructivist , paradigm (also known as the naturalistic paradigm)
• radical , or critical , paradigm
• post – structuralist paradigm. 2,3

These paradigms reflect the researcher ’ s beliefs about what is reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology), the means to obtain ing knowledge (methodology) and the values of the researcher (axiology). 3 We might think of ontology as ‘what is true’ and epistemology as ‘how do we know those truths?’. The positivist paradigm is suited to quantitative research because it is grounded in the notion of cause and effect . T he remaining three paradigms are suited to qualitative research because they are grounded in exploration and understanding . 3  

Qualitative research is embedded in the interpretivist, or constructivist paradigm. The understandings and beliefs of interpretivism or constructivism can be considered in terms of:

• Assumptions and values: The research seeks to understand what it is to be human, and the significance and meanings people ascribe to life events. It aims to identify what is important and what is evidence. 4
• Researcher–participant relationship: The relationship is ‘intersubjective’ – that is, the researcher is the listener and interpreter of the data obtained from the participant. The researcher discovers the truth of a situation through thinking and analysis, rather than sensory observation. Interpretation is required. 4
• Methodology (the research approach): Qualitative research includes study designs such as descriptive, phenomenology, action research, case study, grounded theory and ethnography. 4 These are covered in section 2 of this textbook.
• Ontology (the nature of reality): The researcher recognises that there are multiple subjective realities, and that these are socially constructed in the interactions between research participants and between the researcher and participants. 5
• Epistemology (the theory of knowledge, or how knowledge is created): Knowledge is derived from the everyday. The researcher creates meaning from the data through their thinking and analysis of the data informed by their encounters with participants. 3
• Axiology (the value and ethics of the research): The research will reflect the values of the researcher who aims to present a balanced interpretation of the results. 5

A good example of the interpretivist or constructivist paradigm is a study exploring physical and bodily pain. We humans each experience pain differently, due to many factors, including how we were socialised to respond to pain in our family and communities, our individual pain threshold, our past experiences of pain and the context of our current pain – what else is happening in that moment of pain. Thus, it is reasonable to say that pain is socially constructed. In health care, pain is measured on a numerical scale, but it is the person’s perception of the pain that determines the number assigned to their pain (self-report). We may therefore question whether there is an objective, scientific method for measuring pain. A common facilitator for pain relief – paracetamol – reduces pain for some people and not for others. Consider why this is the case. (It is the person’s perception of what is working to relieve their perceived pain.) Positivists do not rely on subjective experiences, only facts and a singular truth: objectivity. Constructionists and intepretivists contend that subjective and social experiences create reality, and that there are many truths.

Although it is not one of the four main paradigms, post-positivism is another paradigm that appears in the literature. Post-positivism asserts that there are multiple and competing views of science, and multiple truths. Therefore, researchers cannot be completely objective, unbiased and value-free, as the positivist paradigm asserts. 4 This shift in perspective from positivism to post-positivism has led to the incorporation of qualitative methods into the post-positivist paradigm, to enable the research to explore participants’ experiences of the phenomenon under study. This paradigm is included in Table 2.1. since its basic ontology is similar to the positivist paradigm. 6

Table 2.1. Research paradigms in social science

Paradigm	Positivist/scientific	Interpretivist / constructivist	Radical/critical	Post-structuralist
	Objectivity, systematic and detailed observation. Seeks to explore cause and effect. Problem-solving. Stems from science and mathematics.	Seeks to understand what it is to be human, and the significance and meanings people ascribe to life events. Aims to identify what is important and what is evidence.	The desire to change the world and not to just describe it. The world is unjust and inequalities stem from the social lines of gender identity, ethnicity, class, age, sexuality etc. Action is required and it is possible to change these injustices.	No one can stand outside the traditions or discourses of their time.
	The researcher is the ‘expert’ and is expected to be objective. The participant is the object of the research.	‘Intersubjective’ – the researcher is the listener and interpreter of the data obtained from the participant. The researcher discovers the truth of a situation through thinking and analysis, rather than sensory observation. Requires interpretation.	The researcher takes a normative stance and has views or beliefs about what social structures are powerful and what should be done to change them. The relationship is characterised as co-research, reciprocal, participative, empowering and power-sharing.	The researcher analyses participants as subjects of discourse, in which the researcher is also embedded.
	Quantitative experimental, or non-experimental. Hypothesis-driven, statistical-testing, evidence-based practice.	Qualitative – interviews, grounded theory methodology, hermeneutics, phenomenological research.	Emancipatory action research, participatory research, collaborative research, critical ethnography, critical or radical hermeneutics, critical policy analysis.	Research focused on texts – written, spoken and visual. Methodologies allow for complexity and contradiction in data. Discourse analysis, feminist post-structuralism and queer research are examples.
	Social reality is stable and ordered, and made up of discrete and observed events.	Reality is subjective and socially constructed.	Social change must begin at the roots of social reality.	Power is always part of social practices and in the construction of different forms of knowledge.
	Knowledge is derived from sensory observations by an objective researcher. Knowledge is sought so that people (health workers, policy makers, and professionals), can explain, predict, or control events. Knowledge is gained through testing an hypothesis.	Knowledge is derived from everyday observations.	Knowledge is socially constructed, communal, contextual and subjective; however, it is also rational and emancipative.	Knowledge is social in nature.
	The researcher is removed and distanced from the research to ensure that their beliefs and values do not influence the research or research interpretations.	The researcher is part of the research. The ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the research will reflect the values of the researcher. The researcher aims to present a balanced interpretation of the results based on their own understanding and the data.	The researcher seeks to change the world through their research by drawing on the experiences of marginalised and disempowered groups in society. The researcher values participation and power sharing.	The researcher is embedded in the same discourses as the research participants and aims to understand how power works through the constructed discourses of participants.

In Table 2.2. an article is provided to highlight the different components of the research paradigms. Note: The aims are reproduced verbatim from the papers (word for word).

Table 2.2. Examples of paradigms within published research

Paradigm	Positivist	Constructivist	Radical/critical	Post structuralist
	'To determine whether medical masks are non-inferior to N95 respirators to prevent COVID-19 in healthcare workers providing routine care.'[abstract]	'To understand the experiences of home health care workers caring for patients in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic.'[abstract]	'To better understand the challenges Australian healthcare workers have faced during the COVID-19 pandemic.'[abstract]	'To explore media reporting on the role of nurses as being consistently positioned as ‘heroes’ during COVID-19.'[abstract]
	Knowledge is objectively measured. In this paper, the primary outcome was confirmed COVID-19 infection on a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction test (RT-PCR). Sera from participants were also tested for IgG antibodies. These are objective scientific measurements.	Knowledge is created from the experiences and perspectives of the 33 home health care workers in New York City.	Knowledge is created in the form of advocacy and critical voices of the current state of play.	Knowledge is created through the analysis of discourse to understand social norms and assumptions which influence behaviour and expectations.
	Pragmatic, randomised, open-label, multicentre trial	Qualitative grounded theory study	Qualitative analysis of responses to an open letter to the Australian government, advocating for better respiratory protection for healthcare workers	Foucauldian discourse analysis of media reports
	COVID testing via RT-PCR was administered via nasopharyngeal swabs and was administered at baseline and the end of follow-up (10 weeks post-baseline). Other measures such as serologic evidence of infection via IgG antibodies, respiratory illness/infection, work-related absenteeism, and for those who were positive for COVID – intensive care admission, mechanical ventilation or death. Participants received a text message twice a week asking about signs and symptoms of COVID which triggered a PCR test if symptoms were present. These measures are examples of discrete and objectively measurable observations.	The interview guides canvassed the everyday experiences of healthcare workers during COVID with questions on "1) What workers knew about COVID; 2) how COVID affected their work and 3) the challenges they experienced during COVID". These questions create the opportunity for participants to share their stories which is an example of social construction.	The data collection was a social change activity. An open letter was written to the federal government, calling for better access to respiratory protection, infection-control guidelines and transparent reporting of healthcare worker infections. It garnered 3500+ signatures. Healthcare workers were invited to share their concerns and experiences, which led to 569 free-text contributions. These contributions are an example of a call for social change and action based on social reality.	Three Canadian newspapers were searched over three months for articles related to nurses and COVID-19, leading to 559 articles being identified. These were screened for relevance, and 50 articles were included in the analysis. The articles were analysed through a process called ‘making strange’, in an attempt to remove assumptions and read the stories as an outsider. Articles were read multiple times over weeks to identify discourses about nurses in the context of COVID-19. with particular attention given to the discourse of caring and disciplinary power. These newspaper articles are an example of how sensemaking of a social phenomenon (COVID-19) in the context of a particular role (nurse) creates hierarchies and power dynamics in society.
	This study had 29 healthcare facilities, and healthcare workers were randomly allocated to either medical masks or N95 respirators. A total of 1009 healthcare workers were enrolled (the calculated required sample size was 875 people). The randomisation and large participant numbers were to ensure generalisability and objective ability to detect a difference between COVID-19 infections in participants wearing a medical mask versus those wearing a respirator. This approach aims to reduce bias.	Three of the researchers were experienced in how to conduct qualitative interviews. They conducted the interviews and were guided by a semi-structured interview guide, which was developed based on prior research by the team, other studies and conversations with agency leaders. Hence, data collection was informed by subjective experiences and research literature. Data analysis involved three researchers in the coding process, through an analysis process called the constant comparative approach, which is a common approach in grounded theory analysis. This approach is systematic, with much interaction across time and between researchers. Because researchers are involved in the data analysis and interpretation of data, their values and experiences as individuals will shape the analysis process.	This study is fundamentally a call to action and is underpinned by the value of social justice. Some of the authors were actively involved in national advocacy campaigns, leading to strong engagement with healthcare workers for this open letter. The signatories demanded change due to what they perceived to be unfair and unjust circumstances for healthcare workers. The free-text responses provided specific examples of injustice, which were then themed to provide an overall narrative.	Fifty articles were analysed to determine how the discourses of ‘nurses as heroes’ and ‘nurses as carers’ and ‘nurses as sacrifice’ created a reality in which nurses were afraid of speaking up to advocate for their protection at work and hence compromised their own safety.

Approaches in qualitative methods

Approaches are how a researcher intends to carry out their research. In qualitative research, there are two main approaches:

• Inductive: Driven by the participants and their data

An inductive approach employs a ‘whole world’ view and includes the wider social and historical context. It considers the layers that surround the individual – temporal, spatial, ideational, institutional and structural, and focuses on meanings, ideas and experiences. The inductive approach is concerned with participants’ subjective views. When examining what participants have said in an interview, the researcher searches for themes, setting aside preconceived notions. 6 (Review the example in Chapter 3 of exploring seniors’ perceptions of health and loneliness. T he theoretical drive of the research is inductive because it is describ ing and explor ing the perceptions of seniors . ) An inductive research approa ch is hypothesis – generating – this means the researchers do not have preconceived ideas of what they will find in their research and data , and hypotheses will be generated in the process of analysing the data . 6

• Deductive: Driven by a pre-existing theory, framework or series of questions

A deductive approach can employ a theory or framework to guide the research, and responses are usually categorised into pre-determined labels (most often called ‘codes’). This is usually how questionnaires or structured interviews are interpreted. The pre-determined codes are based on the questions asked in interviews or focus groups. A deductive approach, particularly in the positivist paradigm, is hypothesis-testing – the researchers are looking for evidence of specific ideas, concepts and relationships in the research and data. 5

All research takes place within a paradigm, consciously or subconsciously; that is, regardless of whether this is understood by the researcher. To interpret the data well, qualitative researchers must explore and acknowledge their own framework of beliefs, values and methods informing the meaning of their data. Qualitative research is embedded in the interpretivist paradigm. Four main paradigms have been explored and explained in this chapter.

• Donmoyer R. Paradigm. In: Given LM, ed. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods .  SAGE Publications; 2008:591-595.
• Denzin NK, Lincoln YS. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. SAGE Publications; 2006.
• Giddings LS, Grant BM. Mixed methods research for the novice researcher. Contemp Nurse. 2006;23(1):3-11. doi:10.5172/conu.2006.23.1.3
• Levers, M-JD. Philosophical paradigms, grounded theory, and perspectives on emergence. SAGE Open . 2013;3(4). doi:10.1177/2158244013517243
• Kivunja C, Kuyini AB. Understanding and applying research paradigms in educational contexts. International Journal of Higher Education. 2017;6(5):26-41. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n5p26
• Morse JM. The paradox of qualitative research design. Qual Health Res. 2003;13(10):1335-1336. doi:10.1177/1049732303258368
• Loeb M, Bartholomew A, Hashmi M, et al. Medical masks versus N95 respirators for preventing COVID-19 among health care workers: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(12):1629-1638. doi:10.7326/M22-1966
• Sterling MR, Tseng E, Poon A, et al. Experiences of home health care workers in New York City during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic: a qualitative analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180(11):1453-1459. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.3930
• Ananda-Rajah M, Veness B, Berkovic D, Parker C, Kelly G, Ayton D. Hearing the voices of Australian healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Leader. 2021;5:31-35. doi:10.1136/leader-2020-000386
• Boulton M, Garnett A, Webster F. A Foucauldian discourse analysis of media reporting on the nurse-as-hero during COVID-19. Nurs Inq. 2022;29(3):e12471. doi:10.1111/nin.12471

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton and Tess Tsindos is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding Interpretivism in Research Practice

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Interpretivism is a research philosophy that focuses on understanding and interpreting social phenomena and meanings from a subjective perspective. It emphasizes the subjective experiences, beliefs, and values of individuals, and the importance of context in shaping these interpretations.

Within the interpretivist paradigm, researchers typically employ qualitative research methods such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis to gather data. They focus on exploring the meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their experiences, rather than seeking universal laws or objective truths.

This research philosophy acknowledges the role of the researcher in shaping the research process and recognizes that knowledge is socially constructed. It highlights the importance of multiple perspectives and encourages reflexivity in the research process.

In summary, interpretivism is a research philosophy that emphasizes understanding subjective meanings and interpretations within their social context, using qualitative research methods. It acknowledges the subjective nature of knowledge and the role of the researcher in shaping the research process.

Key Takeaways

• Interpretivism paradigm emphasizes the subjective experiences and meanings individuals attach to social phenomena.
• Research philosophy guides researchers in selecting appropriate methods and approaches based on their philosophical beliefs.
• Incorporating interpretivism in research can lead to a deeper understanding of social and cultural aspects.
• Research philosophy enhances the validity and reliability of research findings.

The Interpretivist Paradigm

The Interpretivist Paradigm is a research philosophy that focuses on understanding and interpreting the social and cultural phenomena in the world. It emphasizes the subjective nature of reality and acknowledges that individuals create meaning through their experiences and interactions. In this paradigm, researchers aim to comprehend and interpret the meanings and symbols attached to human behavior and social interactions.

Unlike the positivist paradigm, which relies on objective measurements and quantitative data, the interpretivist paradigm uses qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of texts. Researchers in this paradigm aim to gain a deep understanding of the social and cultural context in which individuals operate.

One key characteristic of the interpretivist paradigm is the recognition of multiple perspectives and the importance of context. It acknowledges that individuals may interpret and experience the same situation differently based on their personal beliefs, values, and experiences. This paradigm emphasizes the need to consider the perspectives of the participants and the social dynamics surrounding their experiences.

The interpretivist paradigm also acknowledges the role of the researcher in the research process. Researchers in this paradigm recognize that their own values, beliefs, and biases can influence the interpretation of data. They strive for reflexivity, which involves reflecting on their own biases and assumptions throughout the research process.

The interpretivist paradigm focuses on understanding and interpreting the social and cultural phenomena through qualitative methods. it recognizes the subjective nature of reality and the importance of multiple perspectives and context in understanding human behavior and social interactions. by adopting this research philosophy, researchers aim to gain a deeper understanding of the complex and subjective nature of the social world.

→   Understanding the Influence of the Hawthorne Effect on Behavior Research

The Interpretivist Assumptions

Introduction.

Interpretivism is a research philosophy that focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their experiences. It is an alternative to positivism, which emphasizes the use of scientific methods to uncover objective truths. Interpretivism acknowledges the complexity and uniqueness of human behavior and seeks to explore the social and cultural contexts that shape it.

In this paradigm, researchers aim to gain insights into individuals' lived experiences and the meanings they ascribe to them.

Key Assumptions of Interpretivism

• Subjectivity over Objectivity: Interpretivism assumes that reality is subjective and varies from person to person. It emphasizes that individuals construct their own realities based on their interpretations of the world around them. Therefore, researchers should focus on understanding these subjective interpretations rather than seeking universal truths.
• Contextual Understanding: Interpretivism recognizes the importance of social and cultural contexts in shaping individuals' experiences. It emphasizes the need to study these contexts to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior. Researchers should consider factors such as culture, history, and language when interpreting the meanings individuals attach to their experiences.
• Qualitative Methods: Interpretivism advocates for the use of qualitative research methods to capture the richness and complexity of individuals' experiences. These methods, such as interviews, observations, and case studies, allow researchers to gather in-depth, subjective data that can uncover the nuances of human behavior.
• Emic Perspective: Interpretivism encourages researchers to adopt an emic perspective, which means understanding phenomena from the viewpoint of the individuals being studied. It requires researchers to immerse themselves in the participants' world, respecting their unique perspectives and interpretations.

Table: Key Assumptions of Interpretivism

Assumption	Explanation
Subjectivity over Objectivity	Reality is subjective and varies from person to person. Researchers should focus on subjective interpretations.
Contextual Understanding	Social and cultural contexts shape individuals' experiences. Researchers should study these contexts.
Qualitative Methods	Qualitative research methods capture the richness of human experiences.
Emic Perspective	Researchers adopt participants' viewpoints to understand phenomena.

Interpretivism offers a valuable perspective for conducting research, particularly in the social sciences. By embracing subjectivity, contextual understanding, qualitative methods, and the emic perspective, researchers can gain insights into the meanings individuals attach to their experiences. This approach allows for a deeper appreciation of the complexity and uniqueness of human behavior, contributing to a richer understanding of the world we live in.

→   Exploring the Influence of a Positivist Perspective on Sociological Research

Research Design

In the interpretivism paradigm, the research design plays a crucial role in understanding and analyzing social phenomena. It involves a holistic approach, focusing on the subjective meanings and interpretations of individuals in the research context. This approach aims to explore the complexity of human behavior and social interactions, emphasizing the importance of context and the role of the researcher as an active participant.

When designing research within the interpretivism paradigm, researchers often use qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and document analyses. These methods allow for in-depth exploration and understanding of the research topic. Additionally, researchers may employ tools like thematic analysis or grounded theory to identify patterns and themes within the data.

Tables, facts, and lists can be useful in presenting research findings in a clear and concise manner. For instance, a table can be used to summarize the characteristics of the research participants, while a list can outline the key themes or concepts identified in the analysis. Facts can be incorporated to provide supporting evidence or to highlight important findings.

Key Considerations in Research Design

• Research Questions: Clearly define the research questions that align with the research objectives and the interpretivism paradigm.
• Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate qualitative methods that allow for rich data collection, such as interviews or participant observations.
• Sampling Strategy: Determine the appropriate sampling strategy to ensure a diverse range of participants and perspectives.
• Data Analysis Techniques: Choose suitable techniques, such as thematic analysis or content analysis, to analyze the collected data and uncover meaningful insights.
• Ethical Considerations: Adhere to ethical guidelines in research involving human participants, ensuring informed consent and maintaining confidentiality.
• Researcher Reflexivity: Reflect on the researcher's influence and biases on the research process and findings.

By adopting an interpretivism paradigm and designing research accordingly, researchers can gain a deep understanding of social phenomena and contribute to the existing knowledge in their field. The use of appropriate research design, along with effective data collection and analysis methods, ensures the rigor and validity of the research conducted within this paradigm.

Interpretivist Sociological Perspectives

Interpretivist sociological perspectives focus on understanding social phenomena through the subjective interpretations of individuals and groups. This approach acknowledges that social reality is constructed through the meanings and symbols people attach to their experiences.

Interpretivists argue that social reality is not objective and fixed but rather shaped by the interactions and interpretations of individuals. They emphasize the importance of understanding people's perspectives, beliefs, and values to gain insight into social phenomena.

One key aspect of interpretivist sociology is the concept of verstehen, which means "understanding" in German. Verstehen involves putting oneself in the shoes of others to grasp their motivations, intentions, and the meanings they attach to their actions. By adopting this empathetic stance, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the social world.

Another key concept within interpretivism is the notion of reflexivity. Researchers must be aware of their own biases, assumptions, and the potential impact they may have on their interpretation of social phenomena. Reflexivity encourages researchers to critically examine their own perspectives and acknowledge how their positionality may shape their understanding.

Interpretivist sociological perspectives often employ qualitative research methods such as interviews, participant observation, and textual analysis. These methods allow researchers to uncover the rich and nuanced meanings individuals attribute to their social experiences.

Interpretivist sociological perspectives emphasize the importance of understanding social reality through the subjective interpretations of individuals and groups. verstehen and reflexivity are key concepts that guide interpretive research, enabling researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of social phenomena.

"The interpretivist perspective recognizes that social reality is not fixed and objective but is constructed through the subjective interpretations of individuals and groups."

Interpretivist Research Designs

Interpretivist research designs are a type of qualitative research that aims to understand social phenomena through the lens of subjective experiences and meanings. It focuses on exploring the complexities and nuances of human behavior, beliefs, and values. The interpretivism paradigm emphasizes the importance of context and the understanding that reality is socially constructed.

Case Research: Case research is a common approach within interpretivist research designs. It involves in-depth analysis of a specific case or a small number of cases to gain a deep understanding of the phenomenon under study. Researchers immerse themselves in the case, collecting and analyzing various forms of qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents.

This approach allows for rich and detailed insights into the particular context and provides a holistic understanding of the research topic.

Action Research: Action research is another methodology embraced by interpretivist researchers. It emphasizes the active involvement of researchers in collaboration with participants to bring about practical solutions to real-world problems. It follows a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting, allowing for continuous learning and improvement. Action research is often conducted in collaboration with stakeholders, ensuring that the research findings have a direct impact on the community or organization being studied.

Interpretivist research designs provide a valuable framework for understanding and exploring subjective experiences and meanings. case research offers a deep understanding of specific cases, while action research promotes practical solutions through collaborative engagement. these approaches contribute to the richness of qualitative research and provide insights that can inform policy and practice.

Examples of Interpretive Research

Interpretive research is a qualitative research approach that aims to understand and interpret social phenomena based on the subjective meaning individuals assign to them. In this research paradigm, the focus is on exploring and comprehending the complexities of human experiences, beliefs, and perspectives.

• Phenomenological analysis: This approach seeks to uncover the essence and meaning of lived experiences. For example, a study may explore the lived experiences of individuals who have undergone a major life transition, such as becoming a parent or recovering from an illness.
• Ethnographic study: Ethnography involves immersing oneself in a particular social or cultural group to understand their beliefs, customs, and behaviors. For instance, a researcher may conduct an ethnographic study to examine the cultural practices and rituals of a specific religious community.
• Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a methodology used to develop theories based on empirical data. Researchers collect and analyze data to identify patterns, categories, and themes. For example, a grounded theory study might explore the experiences and coping mechanisms of individuals with chronic pain.
• Narrative inquiry: Narrative inquiry focuses on studying the stories and narratives individuals construct to make sense of their experiences. Researchers analyze personal narratives to understand how individuals interpret and give meaning to their lives. An example could be a study examining the narratives of cancer survivors and their journey towards recovery.
• Case study: Case studies involve in-depth examination of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. Researchers collect detailed information through interviews, observations, and document analysis. A case study might investigate the organizational culture of a specific company or explore the life experiences of a marginalized community.

These examples illustrate the diverse applications of interpretive research in understanding human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena. Interpretive research offers valuable insights into the subjective perspectives and meanings individuals ascribe to various aspects of their lives. By exploring these subjective realities, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of the human experience.

Interpretivism vs. Positivism

Interpretivism paradigm & research philosophy.

Interpretivism and positivism are two contrasting research philosophies that guide the approach and methodology of social science research. While positivism emphasizes objectivity and the use of quantitative data, interpretivism focuses on subjectivity and the understanding of social phenomena through qualitative methods.

Interpretivism, also known as the interpretive paradigm, posits that social reality is complex and cannot be reduced to simple cause-and-effect relationships. It recognizes that individuals have their own unique experiences and subjective interpretations of the world. Therefore, interpretivists aim to understand these interpretations and meanings through methods such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis.

On the other hand, positivism, rooted in the natural sciences, seeks to uncover universal laws and principles that govern social phenomena. It relies heavily on empirical evidence and quantitative data to establish causal relationships. Positivists believe that social reality can be studied objectively and that researchers should maintain a neutral stance to avoid bias.

One key difference between interpretivism and positivism is their view on the role of the researcher. Interpretivists acknowledge that the researcher's background, experiences, and biases can influence the research process. They argue that the researcher's subjectivity should be embraced and disclosed to enhance the understanding of the social phenomenon being studied. In contrast, positivists strive to minimize the researcher's influence and maintain objectivity throughout the research process.

In terms of data collection and analysis, interpretivists primarily use qualitative methods. They focus on understanding the meanings and interpretations of individuals or groups, often through in-depth interviews, participant observation, or analysis of textual data. Positivists, on the other hand, rely on quantitative methods to measure and analyze data objectively. They use surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis to identify patterns, correlations, and causal relationships.

Interpretivism and positivism represent two distinct research philosophies with different ontological and epistemological assumptions. interpretivism emphasizes subjectivity, understanding, and qualitative methods, while positivism emphasizes objectivity, causality, and quantitative methods. researchers choose their research philosophy based on the nature of their research questions and the desired depth of understanding. both approaches have their merits and limitations, and the choice between them depends on the research context and objectives.

*This article provides an overview of the differences between interpretivism and positivism in the context of research philosophy and the interpretive paradigm. It highlights the contrasting ontological and epistemological assumptions, the role of the researcher, and the methods used in data collection and analysis. By understanding these differences, researchers can make informed choices about their research approach and methodology.

Interpretivism paradigm and research philosophy provide valuable frameworks for understanding the social and cultural aspects of research. By emphasizing the importance of subjective experiences and meaning-making, interpretivism allows researchers to delve deeper into the complexities of human behavior. This approach recognizes that individuals bring their unique perspectives and interpretations to the research process, contributing to the richness of the findings.

Research philosophy, on the other hand, guides researchers in selecting appropriate methods and approaches based on their epistemological and ontological beliefs. It helps to ensure that the research aligns with the underlying philosophical assumptions and enhances the validity and reliability of the findings. Incorporating interpretivism paradigm and research philosophy in studies can lead to a deeper understanding of social phenomena and generate meaningful insights.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is interpretivism paradigm.

Interpretivism is a research philosophy that emphasizes the subjective nature of reality and the importance of understanding the meanings people assign to their experiences. It seeks to uncover the underlying meanings and interpretations that inform people's actions and behaviors. In research, this approach involves collecting and analyzing data through methods such as interviews, observations, and case studies, to gain an in-depth understanding of the participants' perspectives and experiences.

What is the difference between Interpretivism and Positivism?

Interpretivism and Positivism are two contrasting research philosophies. Positivism emphasizes the objective study of reality through empirical observation and quantitative data collection, while Interpretivism focuses on understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations people assign to their experiences. In this sense, Positivism is concerned with discovering truths about the world, while Interpretivism seeks to understand the world from the perspective of the people being studied.

What is Research Philosophy?

Research Philosophy refers to the beliefs and assumptions that shape the way researchers approach and conduct their research. It involves decisions about the nature of reality, the role of the researcher, and the methods used to collect and analyze data. Different research philosophies, such as Interpretivism, Positivism, and Pragmatism, have different assumptions and approaches to research, and these can influence the outcomes and conclusions of the research.

How does Interpretivism Paradigm influence research methods?

Interpretivism Paradigm influences research methods by emphasizing the importance of understanding the meanings and interpretations people assign to their experiences. This involves using methods such as interviews, observations, and case studies to collect and analyze data in-depth, and to gain an understanding of the participants' perspectives and experiences.

Interpretivism also emphasizes the role of the researcher in interpreting and making sense of the data collected, and in recognizing and acknowledging their own subjectivity and influence on the research process.

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PARADIGMS: Positivists, Interpretivists, and Critical Inquiry

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This article traces the underlying theoretical framework of educational research. It outlines the definitions of epistemology, ontology and paradigm and the origins, main tenets, and key thinkers of the 3 paradigms; positivist, interpetivist and critical. By closely analyzing each paradigm, the literature review focuses on the ontological and epistemological assumptions of each paradigm. Finally the author analyzes not only the paradigm's weakness but also the author's own construct of reality and knowledge which align with the critical paradigm. The English Language Teaching (ELT) field has moved from an ad hoc field with amateurish research to a much more serious enterprise of professionalism. More teachers are conducting research to not only inform their teaching in the classroom but also to bridge the gap between the external researcher dictating policy and the teacher negotiating that policy with the practical demands of their classroom. I was a layperson, not an educational researcher. Determined to emancipate myself from my layperson identity, I began to analyze the different philosophical underpinnings of each paradigm, reading about the great thinkers' theories and the evolution of social science research. Through this process I began to examine how I view the world, thus realizing my own construction of knowledge and social reality, which is actually quite loose and chaotic. Most importantly, I realized that I identify most with the critical paradigm assumptions and that my future desired role as an educational researcher is to affect change and challenge dominant social and political discourses in ELT. The following literature review is the product of my transformation from teacher to educational researcher. I will begin by defining the operational definitions of ontology, epistemology and paradigm. Then, I trace the origins, main tenets, and key thinkers of the 3 paradigms; positivist, interpetivist and critical, focusing on the ontological and epistemological assumptions of each paradigm. Through this analysis of different paradigms, I will expose not only each paradigm's weakness but also my own construct of reality and knowledge.

Diwakar Singh

Being a research scholar myself, I have faced great confusion understanding the philosophical underpinning of research. The available abundant resource only multiplied my owes. It is mainly due to the fact that finding one general definition of a term is very difficult. A term is defined differently in different disciplines and also differently in different context in the same discipline. This makes the life of early researchers even more difficult. The lack of knowledge and confusion about epistemology, ontology, methodology, and methods keeps the budding researchers always finding one source or the other to understand these concepts clearly. Generally, research scholars are quite ignorant about the importance these terms have in the research process and how the lack of proper understanding is going to affect the kind of research they are undertaking. Having struggled to understand the journey of research, made me explore a number of resources. The problem in understanding the complexity was not the lack of resources but on the contrary their availability in abundance. Also, the knowledge is available in a fragmented form and more than solving the doubts they create even more confusion. A great deal of effort is made to synthesize the fragmented knowledge at one place and present the paper in easy to understand even to a novice researcher. An attempt is made to make research scholars understand the philosophical underpinnings of research with respect to various paradigms in a very lucid manner. This is going to make their philosophical journey quite smooth. They can have a better understanding of these processes from the beginning of their research process. However, due to ever-increasing paradigms, some of the most important ones are only discussed. The journey of a research scholar is most challenging and also most rewarding. Sound Understanding of philosophical underpinnings of research paves the path for smooth and successful completion of quality research and gives joy achieved once in a lifetime. Keywords: Research Paradigm, Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Methods

Research Philosophy and Paradigm

Kevin D O'Gorman

For no apparent reason, research philosophy tends to send dissertation students into a mild panic. The befuddlement caused by a range of new terminology relating to the philosophy of knowledge is unnecessary when all that you are trying to achieve is some clarity over the status of any knowledge claims you make in your study. Accounting and Finance sits within the broader context of the social sciences, and this chapter offers a guide to the standard philosophical positions required to specify the particular form of research you plan to undertake. Collectively, these positions will define what we refer to as a research paradigm (see Figure 4.1: Methods Map). For us, a comprehensive artic-ulation of a research design draws together five layers of interlocking choices that you, the researcher, should make when specifying how you plan to execute your research. There is no single 'right' way to undertake research, but there are distinct traditions, each of which tends to operate with its own, internally consistent, set of choices. The Methods Map offers a clear and structured approach that will ensure that you can identify each of the choices you make in selecting the research design for your project. The process of developing a research design begins with the location of your proposed work within a particular research paradigm. Certain methods of data gathering and analysis tend to follow from certain paradigms, although it is important to notice that these implied pathways are not fixed. What is truly important is your ability to recognise and justify the interlocking choices which represent your own research design. Later chapters will deconstruct and explain the subsequent stages of the Map, namely those choices relating to both data gathering and data analysis. The sections that follow in this chapter relate to the starting point of the Methods Map, labelled 'Research Paradigm. ' We shall first consider the reasons for articulating a research philosophy, before exploring objective and subjective ontologies, and the epistemological positions known as positivism, critical realism, action research and interpretivism. In passing, we will also look at rhetoric (the study of persuasive language) and axiology (the study of value) as a means of rounding out your understanding of some key phrases and concepts.

ACM SIGCSE Bulletin

Beytulhikme An International Journal of Philosophy

yavuz ercan Gul

All research is based on some basic assumptions about how good research is done and which research method is appropriate. It is important to be aware of these assumptions in conducting any research. The unjustified use of approaches with very different understandings of reality in the same study casts a shadow over the seriousness of the research. Because it guides scientific research through research paradigms, assumptions and principles. This study focuses on the research paradigm by examining the basic assumptions of Positivism, Naturalism and Pragmatism (ontology, epistemology, axiology and methodology). The main purpose of the study is to show researchers that when choosing a method, they also adopt a philosophical tradition and that they must act in accordance with this tradition during the study process. As a result, researchers conducting scientific research need to know that they are also choosing a belief and worldview when determining a method. A researcher who determines a method suitable for the quantitative approach should know that he also accepts that reality is knowable and generalizable in accordance with the positivist tradition. On the other hand, a researcher who conducts a study in accordance with the qualitative approach must know that he/she complies with the naturalist interpretive tradition that emphasizes that reality is more than one or uncertain

Zorica Patel

Marwa Elshafie

Jeremy Woodhill

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