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How to make a scientific presentation

Scientific presentation outlines

Questions to ask yourself before you write your talk, 1. how much time do you have, 2. who will you speak to, 3. what do you want the audience to learn from your talk, step 1: outline your presentation, step 2: plan your presentation slides, step 3: make the presentation slides, slide design, text elements, animations and transitions, step 4: practice your presentation, final thoughts, frequently asked questions about preparing scientific presentations, related articles.

A good scientific presentation achieves three things: you communicate the science clearly, your research leaves a lasting impression on your audience, and you enhance your reputation as a scientist.

But, what is the best way to prepare for a scientific presentation? How do you start writing a talk? What details do you include, and what do you leave out?

It’s tempting to launch into making lots of slides. But, starting with the slides can mean you neglect the narrative of your presentation, resulting in an overly detailed, boring talk.

The key to making an engaging scientific presentation is to prepare the narrative of your talk before beginning to construct your presentation slides. Planning your talk will ensure that you tell a clear, compelling scientific story that will engage the audience.

In this guide, you’ll find everything you need to know to make a good oral scientific presentation, including:

• The different types of oral scientific presentations and how they are delivered;
• How to outline a scientific presentation;
• How to make slides for a scientific presentation.

Our advice results from delving into the literature on writing scientific talks and from our own experiences as scientists in giving and listening to presentations. We provide tips and best practices for giving scientific talks in a separate post.

There are two main types of scientific talks:

• Your talk focuses on a single study . Typically, you tell the story of a single scientific paper. This format is common for short talks at contributed sessions in conferences.
• Your talk describes multiple studies. You tell the story of multiple scientific papers. It is crucial to have a theme that unites the studies, for example, an overarching question or problem statement, with each study representing specific but different variations of the same theme. Typically, PhD defenses, invited seminars, lectures, or talks for a prospective employer (i.e., “job talks”) fall into this category.

➡️ Learn how to prepare an excellent thesis defense

The length of time you are allotted for your talk will determine whether you will discuss a single study or multiple studies, and which details to include in your story.

The background and interests of your audience will determine the narrative direction of your talk, and what devices you will use to get their attention. Will you be speaking to people specializing in your field, or will the audience also contain people from disciplines other than your own? To reach non-specialists, you will need to discuss the broader implications of your study outside your field.

The needs of the audience will also determine what technical details you will include, and the language you will use. For example, an undergraduate audience will have different needs than an audience of seasoned academics. Students will require a more comprehensive overview of background information and explanations of jargon but will need less technical methodological details.

Your goal is to speak to the majority. But, make your talk accessible to the least knowledgeable person in the room.

This is called the thesis statement, or simply the “take-home message”. Having listened to your talk, what message do you want the audience to take away from your presentation? Describe the main idea in one or two sentences. You want this theme to be present throughout your presentation. Again, the thesis statement will depend on the audience and the type of talk you are giving.

Your thesis statement will drive the narrative for your talk. By deciding the take-home message you want to convince the audience of as a result of listening to your talk, you decide how the story of your talk will flow and how you will navigate its twists and turns. The thesis statement tells you the results you need to show, which subsequently tells you the methods or studies you need to describe, which decides the angle you take in your introduction.

➡️ Learn how to write a thesis statement

The goal of your talk is that the audience leaves afterward with a clear understanding of the key take-away message of your research. To achieve that goal, you need to tell a coherent, logical story that conveys your thesis statement throughout the presentation. You can tell your story through careful preparation of your talk.

Preparation of a scientific presentation involves three separate stages: outlining the scientific narrative, preparing slides, and practicing your delivery. Making the slides of your talk without first planning what you are going to say is inefficient.

Here, we provide a 4 step guide to writing your scientific presentation:

• Outline your presentation
• Plan your presentation slides
• Make the presentation slides
• Practice your presentation

Writing an outline helps you consider the key pieces of your talk and how they fit together from the beginning, preventing you from forgetting any important details. It also means you avoid changing the order of your slides multiple times, saving you time.

Plan your talk as discrete sections. In the table below, we describe the sections for a single study talk vs. a talk discussing multiple studies:

The following tips apply when writing the outline of a single study talk. You can easily adapt this framework if you are writing a talk discussing multiple studies.

Introduction: Writing the introduction can be the hardest part of writing a talk. And when giving it, it’s the point where you might be at your most nervous. But preparing a good, concise introduction will settle your nerves.

The introduction tells the audience the story of why you studied your topic. A good introduction succinctly achieves four things, in the following order.

• It gives a broad perspective on the problem or topic for people in the audience who may be outside your discipline (i.e., it explains the big-picture problem motivating your study).
• It describes why you did the study, and why the audience should care.
• It gives a brief indication of how your study addressed the problem and provides the necessary background information that the audience needs to understand your work.
• It indicates what the audience will learn from the talk, and prepares them for what will come next.

A good introduction not only gives the big picture and motivations behind your study but also concisely sets the stage for what the audience will learn from the talk (e.g., the questions your work answers, and/or the hypotheses that your work tests). The end of the introduction will lead to a natural transition to the methods.

Give a broad perspective on the problem. The easiest way to start with the big picture is to think of a hook for the first slide of your presentation. A hook is an opening that gets the audience’s attention and gets them interested in your story. In science, this might take the form of a why, or a how question, or it could be a statement about a major problem or open question in your field. Other examples of hooks include quotes, short anecdotes, or interesting statistics.

Why should the audience care? Next, decide on the angle you are going to take on your hook that links to the thesis of your talk. In other words, you need to set the context, i.e., explain why the audience should care. For example, you may introduce an observation from nature, a pattern in experimental data, or a theory that you want to test. The audience must understand your motivations for the study.

Supplementary details. Once you have established the hook and angle, you need to include supplementary details to support them. For example, you might state your hypothesis. Then go into previous work and the current state of knowledge. Include citations of these studies. If you need to introduce some technical methodological details, theory, or jargon, do it here.

Conclude your introduction. The motivation for the work and background information should set the stage for the conclusion of the introduction, where you describe the goals of your study, and any hypotheses or predictions. Let the audience know what they are going to learn.

Methods: The audience will use your description of the methods to assess the approach you took in your study and to decide whether your findings are credible. Tell the story of your methods in chronological order. Use visuals to describe your methods as much as possible. If you have equations, make sure to take the time to explain them. Decide what methods to include and how you will show them. You need enough detail so that your audience will understand what you did and therefore can evaluate your approach, but avoid including superfluous details that do not support your main idea. You want to avoid the common mistake of including too much data, as the audience can read the paper(s) later.

Results: This is the evidence you present for your thesis. The audience will use the results to evaluate the support for your main idea. Choose the most important and interesting results—those that support your thesis. You don’t need to present all the results from your study (indeed, you most likely won’t have time to present them all). Break down complex results into digestible pieces, e.g., comparisons over multiple slides (more tips in the next section).

Summary: Summarize your main findings. Displaying your main findings through visuals can be effective. Emphasize the new contributions to scientific knowledge that your work makes.

Conclusion: Complete the circle by relating your conclusions to the big picture topic in your introduction—and your hook, if possible. It’s important to describe any alternative explanations for your findings. You might also speculate on future directions arising from your research. The slides that comprise your conclusion do not need to state “conclusion”. Rather, the concluding slide title should be a declarative sentence linking back to the big picture problem and your main idea.

It’s important to end well by planning a strong closure to your talk, after which you will thank the audience. Your closing statement should relate to your thesis, perhaps by stating it differently or memorably. Avoid ending awkwardly by memorizing your closing sentence.

By now, you have an outline of the story of your talk, which you can use to plan your slides. Your slides should complement and enhance what you will say. Use the following steps to prepare your slides.

• Write the slide titles to match your talk outline. These should be clear and informative declarative sentences that succinctly give the main idea of the slide (e.g., don’t use “Methods” as a slide title). Have one major idea per slide. In a YouTube talk on designing effective slides , researcher Michael Alley shows examples of instructive slide titles.
• Decide how you will convey the main idea of the slide (e.g., what figures, photographs, equations, statistics, references, or other elements you will need). The body of the slide should support the slide’s main idea.
• Under each slide title, outline what you want to say, in bullet points.

In sum, for each slide, prepare a title that summarizes its major idea, a list of visual elements, and a summary of the points you will make. Ensure each slide connects to your thesis. If it doesn’t, then you don’t need the slide.

Slides for scientific presentations have three major components: text (including labels and legends), graphics, and equations. Here, we give tips on how to present each of these components.

• Have an informative title slide. Include the names of all coauthors and their affiliations. Include an attractive image relating to your study.
• Make the foreground content of your slides “pop” by using an appropriate background. Slides that have white backgrounds with black text work well for small rooms, whereas slides with black backgrounds and white text are suitable for large rooms.
• The layout of your slides should be simple. Pay attention to how and where you lay the visual and text elements on each slide. It’s tempting to cram information, but you need lots of empty space. Retain space at the sides and bottom of your slides.
• Use sans serif fonts with a font size of at least 20 for text, and up to 40 for slide titles. Citations can be in 14 font and should be included at the bottom of the slide.
• Use bold or italics to emphasize words, not underlines or caps. Keep these effects to a minimum.
• Use concise text . You don’t need full sentences. Convey the essence of your message in as few words as possible. Write down what you’d like to say, and then shorten it for the slide. Remove unnecessary filler words.
• Text blocks should be limited to two lines. This will prevent you from crowding too much information on the slide.
• Include names of technical terms in your talk slides, especially if they are not familiar to everyone in the audience.
• Proofread your slides. Typos and grammatical errors are distracting for your audience.
• Include citations for the hypotheses or observations of other scientists.
• Good figures and graphics are essential to sustain audience interest. Use graphics and photographs to show the experiment or study system in action and to explain abstract concepts.
• Don’t use figures straight from your paper as they may be too detailed for your talk, and details like axes may be too small. Make new versions if necessary. Make them large enough to be visible from the back of the room.
• Use graphs to show your results, not tables. Tables are difficult for your audience to digest! If you must present a table, keep it simple.
• Label the axes of graphs and indicate the units. Label important components of graphics and photographs and include captions. Include sources for graphics that are not your own.
• Explain all the elements of a graph. This includes the axes, what the colors and markers mean, and patterns in the data.
• Use colors in figures and text in a meaningful, not random, way. For example, contrasting colors can be effective for pointing out comparisons and/or differences. Don’t use neon colors or pastels.
• Use thick lines in figures, and use color to create contrasts in the figures you present. Don’t use red/green or red/blue combinations, as color-blind audience members can’t distinguish between them.
• Arrows or circles can be effective for drawing attention to key details in graphs and equations. Add some text annotations along with them.
• Write your summary and conclusion slides using graphics, rather than showing a slide with a list of bullet points. Showing some of your results again can be helpful to remind the audience of your message.
• If your talk has equations, take time to explain them. Include text boxes to explain variables and mathematical terms, and put them under each term in the equation.
• Combine equations with a graphic that shows the scientific principle, or include a diagram of the mathematical model.
• Use animations judiciously. They are helpful to reveal complex ideas gradually, for example, if you need to make a comparison or contrast or to build a complicated argument or figure. For lists, reveal one bullet point at a time. New ideas appearing sequentially will help your audience follow your logic.
• Slide transitions should be simple. Silly ones distract from your message.
• Decide how you will make the transition as you move from one section of your talk to the next. For example, if you spend time talking through details, provide a summary afterward, especially in a long talk. Another common tactic is to have a “home slide” that you return to multiple times during the talk that reinforces your main idea or message. In her YouTube talk on designing effective scientific presentations , Stanford biologist Susan McConnell suggests using the approach of home slides to build a cohesive narrative.

To deliver a polished presentation, it is essential to practice it. Here are some tips.

• For your first run-through, practice alone. Pay attention to your narrative. Does your story flow naturally? Do you know how you will start and end? Are there any awkward transitions? Do animations help you tell your story? Do your slides help to convey what you are saying or are they missing components?
• Next, practice in front of your advisor, and/or your peers (e.g., your lab group). Ask someone to time your talk. Take note of their feedback and the questions that they ask you (you might be asked similar questions during your real talk).
• Edit your talk, taking into account the feedback you’ve received. Eliminate superfluous slides that don’t contribute to your takeaway message.
• Practice as many times as needed to memorize the order of your slides and the key transition points of your talk. However, don’t try to learn your talk word for word. Instead, memorize opening and closing statements, and sentences at key junctures in the presentation. Your presentation should resemble a serious but spontaneous conversation with the audience.
• Practicing multiple times also helps you hone the delivery of your talk. While rehearsing, pay attention to your vocal intonations and speed. Make sure to take pauses while you speak, and make eye contact with your imaginary audience.
• Make sure your talk finishes within the allotted time, and remember to leave time for questions. Conferences are particularly strict on run time.
• Anticipate questions and challenges from the audience, and clarify ambiguities within your slides and/or speech in response.
• If you anticipate that you could be asked questions about details but you don’t have time to include them, or they detract from the main message of your talk, you can prepare slides that address these questions and place them after the final slide of your talk.

➡️ More tips for giving scientific presentations

An organized presentation with a clear narrative will help you communicate your ideas effectively, which is essential for engaging your audience and conveying the importance of your work. Taking time to plan and outline your scientific presentation before writing the slides will help you manage your nerves and feel more confident during the presentation, which will improve your overall performance.

A good scientific presentation has an engaging scientific narrative with a memorable take-home message. It has clear, informative slides that enhance what the speaker says. You need to practice your talk many times to ensure you deliver a polished presentation.

First, consider who will attend your presentation, and what you want the audience to learn about your research. Tailor your content to their level of knowledge and interests. Second, create an outline for your presentation, including the key points you want to make and the evidence you will use to support those points. Finally, practice your presentation several times to ensure that it flows smoothly and that you are comfortable with the material.

Prepare an opening that immediately gets the audience’s attention. A common device is a why or a how question, or a statement of a major open problem in your field, but you could also start with a quote, interesting statistic, or case study from your field.

Scientific presentations typically either focus on a single study (e.g., a 15-minute conference presentation) or tell the story of multiple studies (e.g., a PhD defense or 50-minute conference keynote talk). For a single study talk, the structure follows the scientific paper format: Introduction, Methods, Results, Summary, and Conclusion, whereas the format of a talk discussing multiple studies is more complex, but a theme unifies the studies.

Ensure you have one major idea per slide, and convey that idea clearly (through images, equations, statistics, citations, video, etc.). The slide should include a title that summarizes the major point of the slide, should not contain too much text or too many graphics, and color should be used meaningfully.

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Oral Presentation Structure

Finally, presentations normally include interaction in the form of questions and answers. This is a great opportunity to provide whatever additional information the audience desires. For fear of omitting something important, most speakers try to say too much in their presentations. A better approach is to be selective in the presentation itself and to allow enough time for questions and answers and, of course, to prepare well by anticipating the questions the audience might have.

As a consequence, and even more strongly than papers, presentations can usefully break the chronology typically used for reporting research. Instead of presenting everything that was done in the order in which it was done, a presentation should focus on getting a main message across in theorem-proof fashion — that is, by stating this message early and then presenting evidence to support it. Identifying this main message early in the preparation process is the key to being selective in your presentation. For example, when reporting on materials and methods, include only those details you think will help convince the audience of your main message — usually little, and sometimes nothing at all.

The opening

• The context as such is best replaced by an attention getter , which is a way to both get everyone's attention fast and link the topic with what the audience already knows (this link provides a more audience-specific form of context).
• The object of the document is here best called the preview because it outlines the body of the presentation. Still, the aim of this element is unchanged — namely, preparing the audience for the structure of the body.
• The opening of a presentation can best state the presentation's main message , just before the preview. The main message is the one sentence you want your audience to remember, if they remember only one. It is your main conclusion, perhaps stated in slightly less technical detail than at the end of your presentation.

In other words, include the following five items in your opening: attention getter , need , task , main message , and preview .

Even if you think of your presentation's body as a tree, you will still deliver the body as a sequence in time — unavoidably, one of your main points will come first, one will come second, and so on. Organize your main points and subpoints into a logical sequence, and reveal this sequence and its logic to your audience with transitions between points and between subpoints. As a rule, place your strongest arguments first and last, and place any weaker arguments between these stronger ones.

The closing

After supporting your main message with evidence in the body, wrap up your oral presentation in three steps: a review , a conclusion , and a close . First, review the main points in your body to help the audience remember them and to prepare the audience for your conclusion. Next, conclude by restating your main message (in more detail now that the audience has heard the body) and complementing it with any other interpretations of your findings. Finally, close the presentation by indicating elegantly and unambiguously to your audience that these are your last words.

Starting and ending forcefully

Revealing your presentation's structure.

To be able to give their full attention to content, audience members need structure — in other words, they need a map of some sort (a table of contents, an object of the document, a preview), and they need to know at any time where they are on that map. A written document includes many visual clues to its structure: section headings, blank lines or indentations indicating paragraphs, and so on. In contrast, an oral presentation has few visual clues. Therefore, even when it is well structured, attendees may easily get lost because they do not see this structure. As a speaker, make sure you reveal your presentation's structure to the audience, with a preview , transitions , and a review .

The preview provides the audience with a map. As in a paper, it usefully comes at the end of the opening (not too early, that is) and outlines the body, not the entire presentation. In other words, it needs to include neither the introduction (which has already been delivered) nor the conclusion (which is obvious). In a presentation with slides, it can usefully show the structure of the body on screen. A slide alone is not enough, however: You must also verbally explain the logic of the body. In addition, the preview should be limited to the main points of the presentation; subpoints can be previewed, if needed, at the beginning of each main point.

Transitions are crucial elements for revealing a presentation's structure, yet they are often underestimated. As a speaker, you obviously know when you are moving from one main point of a presentation to another — but for attendees, these shifts are never obvious. Often, attendees are so involved with a presentation's content that they have no mental attention left to guess at its structure. Tell them where you are in the course of a presentation, while linking the points. One way to do so is to wrap up one point then announce the next by creating a need for it: "So, this is the microstructure we observe consistently in the absence of annealing. But how does it change if we anneal the sample at 450°C for an hour or more? That's my next point. Here is . . . "

Similarly, a review of the body plays an important double role. First, while a good body helps attendees understand the evidence, a review helps them remember it. Second, by recapitulating all the evidence, the review effectively prepares attendees for the conclusion. Accordingly, make time for a review: Resist the temptation to try to say too much, so that you are forced to rush — and to sacrifice the review — at the end.

Ideally, your preview, transitions, and review are well integrated into the presentation. As a counterexample, a preview that says, "First, I am going to talk about . . . , then I will say a few words about . . . and finally . . . " is self-centered and mechanical: It does not tell a story. Instead, include your audience (perhaps with a collective we ) and show the logic of your structure in view of your main message.

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Research Conference Presentations: Some Tips and Examples

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Open Access

Ten simple rules for effective presentation slides

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Biomedical Engineering and the Center for Public Health Genomics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America

• Kristen M. Naegle

Published: December 2, 2021

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009554
• Reader Comments

Citation: Naegle KM (2021) Ten simple rules for effective presentation slides. PLoS Comput Biol 17(12): e1009554. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009554

Copyright: © 2021 Kristen M. Naegle. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The author received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The author has declared no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The “presentation slide” is the building block of all academic presentations, whether they are journal clubs, thesis committee meetings, short conference talks, or hour-long seminars. A slide is a single page projected on a screen, usually built on the premise of a title, body, and figures or tables and includes both what is shown and what is spoken about that slide. Multiple slides are strung together to tell the larger story of the presentation. While there have been excellent 10 simple rules on giving entire presentations [ 1 , 2 ], there was an absence in the fine details of how to design a slide for optimal effect—such as the design elements that allow slides to convey meaningful information, to keep the audience engaged and informed, and to deliver the information intended and in the time frame allowed. As all research presentations seek to teach, effective slide design borrows from the same principles as effective teaching, including the consideration of cognitive processing your audience is relying on to organize, process, and retain information. This is written for anyone who needs to prepare slides from any length scale and for most purposes of conveying research to broad audiences. The rules are broken into 3 primary areas. Rules 1 to 5 are about optimizing the scope of each slide. Rules 6 to 8 are about principles around designing elements of the slide. Rules 9 to 10 are about preparing for your presentation, with the slides as the central focus of that preparation.

Rule 1: Include only one idea per slide

Each slide should have one central objective to deliver—the main idea or question [ 3 – 5 ]. Often, this means breaking complex ideas down into manageable pieces (see Fig 1 , where “background” information has been split into 2 key concepts). In another example, if you are presenting a complex computational approach in a large flow diagram, introduce it in smaller units, building it up until you finish with the entire diagram. The progressive buildup of complex information means that audiences are prepared to understand the whole picture, once you have dedicated time to each of the parts. You can accomplish the buildup of components in several ways—for example, using presentation software to cover/uncover information. Personally, I choose to create separate slides for each piece of information content I introduce—where the final slide has the entire diagram, and I use cropping or a cover on duplicated slides that come before to hide what I’m not yet ready to include. I use this method in order to ensure that each slide in my deck truly presents one specific idea (the new content) and the amount of the new information on that slide can be described in 1 minute (Rule 2), but it comes with the trade-off—a change to the format of one of the slides in the series often means changes to all slides.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

Top left: A background slide that describes the background material on a project from my lab. The slide was created using a PowerPoint Design Template, which had to be modified to increase default text sizes for this figure (i.e., the default text sizes are even worse than shown here). Bottom row: The 2 new slides that break up the content into 2 explicit ideas about the background, using a central graphic. In the first slide, the graphic is an explicit example of the SH2 domain of PI3-kinase interacting with a phosphorylation site (Y754) on the PDGFR to describe the important details of what an SH2 domain and phosphotyrosine ligand are and how they interact. I use that same graphic in the second slide to generalize all binding events and include redundant text to drive home the central message (a lot of possible interactions might occur in the human proteome, more than we can currently measure). Top right highlights which rules were used to move from the original slide to the new slide. Specific changes as highlighted by Rule 7 include increasing contrast by changing the background color, increasing font size, changing to sans serif fonts, and removing all capital text and underlining (using bold to draw attention). PDGFR, platelet-derived growth factor receptor.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009554.g001

Rule 2: Spend only 1 minute per slide

When you present your slide in the talk, it should take 1 minute or less to discuss. This rule is really helpful for planning purposes—a 20-minute presentation should have somewhere around 20 slides. Also, frequently giving your audience new information to feast on helps keep them engaged. During practice, if you find yourself spending more than a minute on a slide, there’s too much for that one slide—it’s time to break up the content into multiple slides or even remove information that is not wholly central to the story you are trying to tell. Reduce, reduce, reduce, until you get to a single message, clearly described, which takes less than 1 minute to present.

Rule 3: Make use of your heading

When each slide conveys only one message, use the heading of that slide to write exactly the message you are trying to deliver. Instead of titling the slide “Results,” try “CTNND1 is central to metastasis” or “False-positive rates are highly sample specific.” Use this landmark signpost to ensure that all the content on that slide is related exactly to the heading and only the heading. Think of the slide heading as the introductory or concluding sentence of a paragraph and the slide content the rest of the paragraph that supports the main point of the paragraph. An audience member should be able to follow along with you in the “paragraph” and come to the same conclusion sentence as your header at the end of the slide.

Rule 4: Include only essential points

While you are speaking, audience members’ eyes and minds will be wandering over your slide. If you have a comment, detail, or figure on a slide, have a plan to explicitly identify and talk about it. If you don’t think it’s important enough to spend time on, then don’t have it on your slide. This is especially important when faculty are present. I often tell students that thesis committee members are like cats: If you put a shiny bauble in front of them, they’ll go after it. Be sure to only put the shiny baubles on slides that you want them to focus on. Putting together a thesis meeting for only faculty is really an exercise in herding cats (if you have cats, you know this is no easy feat). Clear and concise slide design will go a long way in helping you corral those easily distracted faculty members.

Rule 5: Give credit, where credit is due

An exception to Rule 4 is to include proper citations or references to work on your slide. When adding citations, names of other researchers, or other types of credit, use a consistent style and method for adding this information to your slides. Your audience will then be able to easily partition this information from the other content. A common mistake people make is to think “I’ll add that reference later,” but I highly recommend you put the proper reference on the slide at the time you make it, before you forget where it came from. Finally, in certain kinds of presentations, credits can make it clear who did the work. For the faculty members heading labs, it is an effective way to connect your audience with the personnel in the lab who did the work, which is a great career booster for that person. For graduate students, it is an effective way to delineate your contribution to the work, especially in meetings where the goal is to establish your credentials for meeting the rigors of a PhD checkpoint.

Rule 6: Use graphics effectively

As a rule, you should almost never have slides that only contain text. Build your slides around good visualizations. It is a visual presentation after all, and as they say, a picture is worth a thousand words. However, on the flip side, don’t muddy the point of the slide by putting too many complex graphics on a single slide. A multipanel figure that you might include in a manuscript should often be broken into 1 panel per slide (see Rule 1 ). One way to ensure that you use the graphics effectively is to make a point to introduce the figure and its elements to the audience verbally, especially for data figures. For example, you might say the following: “This graph here shows the measured false-positive rate for an experiment and each point is a replicate of the experiment, the graph demonstrates …” If you have put too much on one slide to present in 1 minute (see Rule 2 ), then the complexity or number of the visualizations is too much for just one slide.

Rule 7: Design to avoid cognitive overload

The type of slide elements, the number of them, and how you present them all impact the ability for the audience to intake, organize, and remember the content. For example, a frequent mistake in slide design is to include full sentences, but reading and verbal processing use the same cognitive channels—therefore, an audience member can either read the slide, listen to you, or do some part of both (each poorly), as a result of cognitive overload [ 4 ]. The visual channel is separate, allowing images/videos to be processed with auditory information without cognitive overload [ 6 ] (Rule 6). As presentations are an exercise in listening, and not reading, do what you can to optimize the ability of the audience to listen. Use words sparingly as “guide posts” to you and the audience about major points of the slide. In fact, you can add short text fragments, redundant with the verbal component of the presentation, which has been shown to improve retention [ 7 ] (see Fig 1 for an example of redundant text that avoids cognitive overload). Be careful in the selection of a slide template to minimize accidentally adding elements that the audience must process, but are unimportant. David JP Phillips argues (and effectively demonstrates in his TEDx talk [ 5 ]) that the human brain can easily interpret 6 elements and more than that requires a 500% increase in human cognition load—so keep the total number of elements on the slide to 6 or less. Finally, in addition to the use of short text, white space, and the effective use of graphics/images, you can improve ease of cognitive processing further by considering color choices and font type and size. Here are a few suggestions for improving the experience for your audience, highlighting the importance of these elements for some specific groups:

• Use high contrast colors and simple backgrounds with low to no color—for persons with dyslexia or visual impairment.
• Use sans serif fonts and large font sizes (including figure legends), avoid italics, underlining (use bold font instead for emphasis), and all capital letters—for persons with dyslexia or visual impairment [ 8 ].
• Use color combinations and palettes that can be understood by those with different forms of color blindness [ 9 ]. There are excellent tools available to identify colors to use and ways to simulate your presentation or figures as they might be seen by a person with color blindness (easily found by a web search).
• In this increasing world of virtual presentation tools, consider practicing your talk with a closed captioning system capture your words. Use this to identify how to improve your speaking pace, volume, and annunciation to improve understanding by all members of your audience, but especially those with a hearing impairment.

Rule 8: Design the slide so that a distracted person gets the main takeaway

It is very difficult to stay focused on a presentation, especially if it is long or if it is part of a longer series of talks at a conference. Audience members may get distracted by an important email, or they may start dreaming of lunch. So, it’s important to look at your slide and ask “If they heard nothing I said, will they understand the key concept of this slide?” The other rules are set up to help with this, including clarity of the single point of the slide (Rule 1), titling it with a major conclusion (Rule 3), and the use of figures (Rule 6) and short text redundant to your verbal description (Rule 7). However, with each slide, step back and ask whether its main conclusion is conveyed, even if someone didn’t hear your accompanying dialog. Importantly, ask if the information on the slide is at the right level of abstraction. For example, do you have too many details about the experiment, which hides the conclusion of the experiment (i.e., breaking Rule 1)? If you are worried about not having enough details, keep a slide at the end of your slide deck (after your conclusions and acknowledgments) with the more detailed information that you can refer to during a question and answer period.

Rule 9: Iteratively improve slide design through practice

Well-designed slides that follow the first 8 rules are intended to help you deliver the message you intend and in the amount of time you intend to deliver it in. The best way to ensure that you nailed slide design for your presentation is to practice, typically a lot. The most important aspects of practicing a new presentation, with an eye toward slide design, are the following 2 key points: (1) practice to ensure that you hit, each time through, the most important points (for example, the text guide posts you left yourself and the title of the slide); and (2) practice to ensure that as you conclude the end of one slide, it leads directly to the next slide. Slide transitions, what you say as you end one slide and begin the next, are important to keeping the flow of the “story.” Practice is when I discover that the order of my presentation is poor or that I left myself too few guideposts to remember what was coming next. Additionally, during practice, the most frequent things I have to improve relate to Rule 2 (the slide takes too long to present, usually because I broke Rule 1, and I’m delivering too much information for one slide), Rule 4 (I have a nonessential detail on the slide), and Rule 5 (I forgot to give a key reference). The very best type of practice is in front of an audience (for example, your lab or peers), where, with fresh perspectives, they can help you identify places for improving slide content, design, and connections across the entirety of your talk.

Rule 10: Design to mitigate the impact of technical disasters

The real presentation almost never goes as we planned in our heads or during our practice. Maybe the speaker before you went over time and now you need to adjust. Maybe the computer the organizer is having you use won’t show your video. Maybe your internet is poor on the day you are giving a virtual presentation at a conference. Technical problems are routinely part of the practice of sharing your work through presentations. Hence, you can design your slides to limit the impact certain kinds of technical disasters create and also prepare alternate approaches. Here are just a few examples of the preparation you can do that will take you a long way toward avoiding a complete fiasco:

• Save your presentation as a PDF—if the version of Keynote or PowerPoint on a host computer cause issues, you still have a functional copy that has a higher guarantee of compatibility.
• In using videos, create a backup slide with screen shots of key results. For example, if I have a video of cell migration, I’ll be sure to have a copy of the start and end of the video, in case the video doesn’t play. Even if the video worked, you can pause on this backup slide and take the time to highlight the key results in words if someone could not see or understand the video.
• Avoid animations, such as figures or text that flash/fly-in/etc. Surveys suggest that no one likes movement in presentations [ 3 , 4 ]. There is likely a cognitive underpinning to the almost universal distaste of pointless animations that relates to the idea proposed by Kosslyn and colleagues that animations are salient perceptual units that captures direct attention [ 4 ]. Although perceptual salience can be used to draw attention to and improve retention of specific points, if you use this approach for unnecessary/unimportant things (like animation of your bullet point text, fly-ins of figures, etc.), then you will distract your audience from the important content. Finally, animations cause additional processing burdens for people with visual impairments [ 10 ] and create opportunities for technical disasters if the software on the host system is not compatible with your planned animation.

Conclusions

These rules are just a start in creating more engaging presentations that increase audience retention of your material. However, there are wonderful resources on continuing on the journey of becoming an amazing public speaker, which includes understanding the psychology and neuroscience behind human perception and learning. For example, as highlighted in Rule 7, David JP Phillips has a wonderful TEDx talk on the subject [ 5 ], and “PowerPoint presentation flaws and failures: A psychological analysis,” by Kosslyn and colleagues is deeply detailed about a number of aspects of human cognition and presentation style [ 4 ]. There are many books on the topic, including the popular “Presentation Zen” by Garr Reynolds [ 11 ]. Finally, although briefly touched on here, the visualization of data is an entire topic of its own that is worth perfecting for both written and oral presentations of work, with fantastic resources like Edward Tufte’s “The Visual Display of Quantitative Information” [ 12 ] or the article “Visualization of Biomedical Data” by O’Donoghue and colleagues [ 13 ].

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the countless presenters, colleagues, students, and mentors from which I have learned a great deal from on effective presentations. Also, a thank you to the wonderful resources published by organizations on how to increase inclusivity. A special thanks to Dr. Jason Papin and Dr. Michael Guertin on early feedback of this editorial.

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• PubMed/NCBI
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• 3. Teaching VUC for Making Better PowerPoint Presentations. n.d. Available from: https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/making-better-powerpoint-presentations/#baddeley .
• 8. Creating a dyslexia friendly workplace. Dyslexia friendly style guide. nd. Available from: https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/advice/employers/creating-a-dyslexia-friendly-workplace/dyslexia-friendly-style-guide .
• 9. Cravit R. How to Use Color Blind Friendly Palettes to Make Your Charts Accessible. 2019. Available from: https://venngage.com/blog/color-blind-friendly-palette/ .
• 10. Making your conference presentation more accessible to blind and partially sighted people. n.d. Available from: https://vocaleyes.co.uk/services/resources/guidelines-for-making-your-conference-presentation-more-accessible-to-blind-and-partially-sighted-people/ .
• 11. Reynolds G. Presentation Zen: Simple Ideas on Presentation Design and Delivery. 2nd ed. New Riders Pub; 2011.
• 12. Tufte ER. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. 2nd ed. Graphics Press; 2001.

How to create professional presentations for scientific conferences

Mind the Graph

The Science Educator

Conferences, seminars and presentations are very common in a researcher routine. But you probably already know that. However, as we have always a lot of lab work to do, it isn’t easy to find time to create an attractive and professional presentation. Especially when you don’t have the right tool.

But an attractive presentation is very important not just to keep the audience attention but to be taken seriously as a scientist. In other words, you need to value your data. You will achieve this by stetting high standards.

I already wrote several tutorials on how to create presentations for scientific conferences. You can find them here and here . But today I want to talk specifically about the use of pattern between the slides. It is the best way to create an harmonic and professional presentation. This means, you need to combine the cover with the other slides.

Template available on mind the graph

Take a look of 3 things to pay attention when you are creating a presentation for scientific conferences:

Colors are a powerful tool to set a pattern in a creation. It will help the reader (or the audience) to follow you and understand the connection between the subjects you are presenting to them.

According to our designers, you must to structure the layout to create a natural information flow, with highlighted information that the reader will see first, even from a distance, such as title and main image. The more secondary information should be less prominent in order not to pollute the view and take priority. The best way to do that is using colors. A vivid color will catch the attention quickly. Keep them to the main information of your slide. Meanwhile a grayscale will be more discreet and it is recommend to be used in secondary elements.

Important: Choose one or two main color to your presentation and the repeat it in the slides.

Check out this video tutorial:

To combine colors you can use complementary colors. I explained about in this post.

Choosing the font of your presentation is very important. This will help you to make it more professional and provide an intuitive experience to the reader. Keep in mind that your audience will be at a considerable distance, so test if your text is easy to be seen and read. Separate paragraphs and headlines clearly and do not use many different fonts.

Also, remember that you will be speaking while your audience look to the slides and read the text. Do not pollute the slide with too many text.

The slide must NOT compete with you. Rather, slides are a tool to help people visualize what you are saying to them.

Choose at most 3 fonts and maintain consistency. Also, choose fonts that are more professionals and easy to read like helvetica, gothan and so on . You can use a different and cool font to the headline but avoid the “comic sans” effect.

This is my favourite part of creating a presentation. Images are very powerful to explain something and catch the attention of the audience. Normally the images in scientific conferences are charts, photography and illustrations.

It is important to use accurate scientific illustrations.

I strongly recommend you to move from this to this:

On mind the graph you will find thousands of scientific illustrations to use on infographics, posters, presentations and more. You can create your presentation and download it in pdf or png format. You also can present directly on mind the graph.

To use a photography or to show a chart you can upload it to the platform. It is very easy.

To save time: Start from templates

We have several presentation templates available. It is a good way to save time and create something beautiful at the same time. The good news? You can start NOW!

Originally published at Mind The Graph .

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How to give a dynamic scientific presentation

August 4, 2015 | 12 min read

By Marilynn Larkin

Convey your ideas and enthusiasm – and avoid the pitfalls that put audiences to sleep

Joann Halpern, PhD, moderates a panel at the German Center for Research and Innovation in New York. (Photo by Nathalie Schueller)

Giving presentations is an important part of sharing your work and achieving recognition in the larger medical and scientific communities. The ability to do so effectively can contribute to career success.

However, instead of engaging audiences and conveying enthusiasm, many presentations fall flat. Pitfalls include overly complicated content, monotone delivery and focusing on what  you  want to say rather than what the audience is interested in hearing.

Effective presentations appeal to a wide range of audiences — those who work in your area of interest or in related fields, as well as potential funders, the media and others who may find your work interesting or useful.

There are two major facets to a presentation: the content and how you present it. Let’s face it, no matter how great the content, no one will get it if they stop paying attention. Here are some pointers on how to create clear, concise content for scientific presentations – and how to deliver your message in a dynamic way.

Presentation pointers: content

Here are five tips for developing effective content for your presentation:

1. Know your audience. 

Gear your presentation to the knowledge level and needs of the audience members. Are they colleagues? Researchers in a related field? Consumers who want to understand the value of your work for the clinic (for example, stem cell research that could open up a new avenue to treat a neurological disease)?

2. Tell audience members up front why they should care and what’s in it for them. 

What problem will your work help solve? Is it a diagnostic test strategy that reduces false positives? A new technology that will help them to do their own work faster, better and less expensively? Will it help them get a new job or bring new skills to their present job?

Dr. Marius Stan with Vince Gilligan, creator, producer and head writer for  Breaking Bad.

3. Convey your excitement. 

Tell a brief anecdote or describe the “aha” moment that convinced you to get involved in your field of expertise. For example,  Dr. Marius Stan opens in new tab/window , a physicist and chemist known to the wider world as the carwash owner on  Breaking Bad opens in new tab/window ,  explained that mathematics has always been his passion, and the “explosion” of computer hardware and software early in his career drove his interest to computational science, which involves the use of mathematical models to solve scientific problems. Personalizing makes your work come alive and helps audience members relate to it on an emotional level.

4. Tell your story. 

A presentation is  your  story. It needs a beginning, a middle and an end. For example, you could begin with the problem you set out to solve. What did you discover by serendipity? What gap did you think your work could fill? For the middle, you could describe what you did, succinctly and logically, and ideally building to your most recent results. And the end could focus on where you are today and where you hope to go.

Donald Ingber, MD, PhD, Director of the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, gives a keynote address at the Society for Laboratory Automation and Screening’s 2015 conference and exhibition in Washington, DC.

Start with context . Cite research — by you and others — that brought you to this point. Where does your work fit within this context? What is unique about it? While presenting on organs-on-chips technology at a recent conference, Dr. Donald Ingber, Director of the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard, described the pioneering work of others in the field, touched on its impact, then went on to show his unique contributions to the field. He did not

present his work out of context, as though his group were the only one achieving results.

Frame the problem : “We couldn’t understand why our experiment wasn’t working so we investigated further”; “We saw an opportunity to cut costs and speed things up.”

Prof. Doris Rusch, PhD, talks about creating games to mimic the struggles of anorexia and the anxiety of OCD, at the 12th Annual Games for Change Festival in New York City. (Photo by Gabi Porter)

Provide highlights of what you did, tied to the audience’s expertise and/or reasons for attending your presentation. Present the highlights in a logical order. Avoid going into excruciating detail. If people are interested in steps you don’t cover, they’ll ask and you can expand during the Q&A period. A meeting I covered on educational gaming  

gave presenters just 10 minutes each to talk about their work. Most used three to five slides, making sure to include a website address for more information on each slide. Because these speakers were well prepared, they were able to identify and communicate their key points in the short timeframe. They also made sure attendees who wanted more information would be able to find it easily on their websites. So don’t get bogged down in details — the what  is often more important than the how .

Conclude by summing up key points and acknowledging collaborators and mentors. Give a peek into your next steps, especially if you’re interested in recruiting partners. Include your contact details and Twitter handle.

5. Keep it simple. 

Every field has its jargon and acronyms, and science and medicine are no exceptions. However, you don’t want audience members to get stuck on a particular term and lose the thread of your talk. Even your fellow scientists will appreciate brief definitions and explanations of terminology and processes, especially if you’re working in a field like microfluidics, which includes collaborators in diverse disciplines, such as engineering, biomedical research and computational biology.

I’ve interviewed Nobel laureates who know how to have a conversation about their work that most anyone can understand – even if it involves complex areas such as brain chemistry or genomics. That’s because they’ve distilled their work to its essence, and can then talk about it at the most basic level as well as the most complicated. Regardless of the level of your talk, the goal should be to communicate, not obfuscate.

Presentation pointers: you

Here are 10 tips to help you present your scientific work and leave the audience wanting more.

1. Set the stage. 

Get your equipment ready and run through your slides if possible (use the “speaker ready” room if one is available). If you’ve never been in the venue, try getting there early and walk the room. Make sure you have water available.

2. Get ready to perform. 

Every presentation is a performance. The most important part is to know your lines and subject. Some people advocate memorizing your presentation, but if you do so, you can end up sounding stilted or getting derailed by an interruption. When you practice, focus on the key points you want to make (note them down if it helps) and improvise different ways of communicating them.

It’s well known that a majority of people fear public speaking — and even those who enjoy it may get stage fright. Fear of public speaking will diminish with experience. I’ve been presenting and performing for many years but still get stage fright. Try these strategies to manage the fear:

Breathe slowly and deeply for a few minutes before your talk.

Visualize yourself giving a relaxed talk to a receptive audience. This works best if you can close your eyes for a few minutes. If you’re sitting in the audience waiting to be introduced and can’t close your eyes, look up at the ceiling and try visualizing that way.

Do affirmations. Tell yourself you are relaxed, confident — whatever works for you. Whether affirmations are effective is a matter of debate, but you won’t know unless you try.

Assume one or more “power poses,” developed by social psychologist and dancer Dr. Amy Cuddy opens in new tab/window of the Harvard Business School, before giving your presentation. She demonstrates them in this TED talk opens in new tab/window . Power poses are part of the emerging field of embodiment research (see a comprehensive collection of articles opens in new tab/window related to this research in the journal Frontiers in Psychology ). Research on power poses has yielded mixed results to date, but they’re worth a try.

3. Stride up to the podium. 

Seeing you walk energetically energizes the audience. They expect you to engage them and you have their attention.

4. Stand tall and keep your chest lifted. 

It’s more difficult to breathe and speak when your shoulders are rolled forward and your chest caves in. Standing tall is also a way of conveying authority. If you’re presenting from a sitting position, sit up in your seat, keep your arms relaxed and away from your sides (i.e., don’t box yourself in by clasping your arms or clasping your hands in your lap).

Not only will you appear more relaxed if you smile, but research has shown that smiling — even when forced — reduces stress. Plus the audience enjoys watching and listening to someone who’s smiling rather than being stern or overly serious, especially if your topic is complicated.

One of the most enjoyable presentations I’ve covered was on animal versus human cognition. It dealt with the evolution and activation of different parts of the brain. By inserting anecdotes in with complex didactic information, presenter Dr. Onur Güntürkün, Professor of Biological Psychology at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum in Germany, made the topic accessible and compelling.

6. Speak up. 

The audience came to your talk so they really do want to hear what you have to say. If a microphone is available, use it. I’ve seen countless presenters stand in front of a microphone yet somehow manage not to talk into it. Talk from your diaphragm, not your throat, to give your voice authority and resonance.

7. Take your time. 

A moment or two of silence as you gather your thoughts or move to a new topic can actually make the audience pay attention. Don’t feel you have to talk continuously, and avoid filler phrases, such as “you know.”

8. Talk to the audience, not the screen. 

Making eye contact with one or more friendly faces can relax you and help you connect to the audience. It will also prevent you from reading your slides, which you don’t want to do unless absolutely necessary (for example, if you forget the statistics supporting a particular point).

9. Stick to your time frame. 

We’ve all done it, but it’s not fun to have to cycle rapidly through your last 10 slides because the moderator has given you a two-minute warning and you’re nowhere near the end. Try to pace yourself. When preparing your slides and practicing (i.e., rehearsing for your performance), make a note on the slide you think you should be discussing when you’re about midway through your talk. This gives you a benchmark and lets you know if you need to speed up or slow down the rest of the presentation.

Related resource

The  Elsevier Publishing Campus opens in new tab/window  is a free online platform that provides lectures, interactive training and professional advice on a wide range of topics, from the fundamentals of publishing to broader issues like gender in research and open science. Researchers can register for training courses, learn from leaders in research and publishing, and take part in topical debates. For every module or seminar completed, researchers are recognized for their efforts with an awarded  certificate opens in new tab/window  from Elsevier.

Six dos and don’ts of PowerPoint slides

1. Less is more.  Although there are no “rules,” I’ve found that 20-25 slides work well for a one hour presentation. You’ll have a better idea what works for you if you time yourself during a practice session.

2. Create sections.  Use a title slide to start a new section or change the subject. This will also help you organize your presentation and make sure it flows logically.

3. Avoid clutter.  Stick to three to five bullet points per slide  at most . Bullet points should contain key words — not complete sentences. For examples of what  not  to do, see this recent editorial in the  Washington Post , which  urges a ban on PowerPoint presentations opens in new tab/window .

4. Make it readable.  Rule of thumb for fonts: 28-40 point for headlines; 18-28 for text; 12-14 for references. Use  sans serif  fonts, and make sure you have a strong contrast between the background and text (e.g., black or dark blue text on a white background; white text on a blue background). Don’t use ALL CAPS; underscore a point by putting it in italics or bold (underlining can make the text more difficult to read).

5. Use visuals.  In a recent talk, presenters explained why biological image processing and analysis is a hot field in laboratory R&D. The reason is simple: you can tell a lot more about cells with an image versus a cell count. The same is true of your presentation: a single image of something particularly relevant to your work is more engaging and has the potential to convey more information than words.

That said, it’s important to keep the visual simple — an image of a single cell or pathway, for example. If you use graphs to show comparisons or results, indicate what the axes represent and which variables (ideally, not more than two or three) you’re displaying.

Generally, steer clear of videos. One of the few effective videos I’ve seen was of a Caledonian crow creating a tool to obtain food, which Dr. Güntürkün included in the presentation referred to above. Videos of in vitro experiments and imaging results rarely help support a point because the low resolution makes everything look grainy.

6. Check your spelling.  Nothing takes away from credibility like misspelled words, especially if they’re up on large screen for a minute or more — or worse, repeated throughout your presentation. After you use spell check, proof your presentation yourself. Let a day go by if possible; it’s easier to pick up errors after a break.

Contributor

Marilynn Larkin

Writer and Editor for medical, scientific and consumer audiences

Home Blog Education How to Prepare Your Scientific Presentation

How to Prepare Your Scientific Presentation

Since the dawn of time, humans were eager to find explanations for the world around them. At first, our scientific method was very simplistic and somewhat naive. We observed and reflected. But with the progressive evolution of research methods and thinking paradigms, we arrived into the modern era of enlightenment and science. So what represents the modern scientific method and how can you accurately share and present your research findings to others? These are the two fundamental questions we attempt to answer in this post. 

What is the Scientific Method?

To better understand the concept, let’s start with this scientific method definition from the International Encyclopedia of Human Geography :

The scientific method is a way of conducting research, based on theory construction, the generation of testable hypotheses, their empirical testing, and the revision of theory if the hypothesis is rejected. 

Essentially, a scientific method is a cumulative term, used to describe the process any scientist uses to objectively interpret the world (and specific phenomenon) around them. 

The scientific method is the opposite of beliefs and cognitive biases — mostly irrational, often unconscious, interpretations of different occurrences that we lean on as a mental shortcut. 

The scientific method in research, on the contrary, forces the thinker to holistically assess and test our approaches to interpreting data. So that they could gain consistent and non-arbitrary results. 

The common scientific method examples are:

• Systematic observation 
• Experimentation
• Inductive and deductive reasoning
• Formation and testing of hypotheses and theories

All of the above are used by both scientists and businesses to make better sense of the data and/or phenomenon at hand. 

The Evolution of the Scientific Method 

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ancient thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle are believed to be the forefathers of the scientific method. They were among the first to try to justify and refine their thought process using the scientific method experiments and deductive reasoning. 

Both developed specific systems for knowledge acquisition and processing. For example, the Platonic way of knowledge emphasized reasoning as the main method for learning but downplayed the importance of observation. The Aristotelian corpus of knowledge, on the contrary, said that we must carefully observe the natural world to discover its fundamental principles. 

In medieval times, thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, and Andreas Vesalius among many others worked on further clarifying how we can obtain proven knowledge through observation and induction. 

The 16th–18th centuries are believed to have given the greatest advances in terms of scientific method application. We, humans, learned to better interpret the world around us from mechanical, biological, economic, political, and medical perspectives. Thinkers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, and their followers also increasingly switched to a tradition of explaining everything through mathematics, geometry, and numbers. 

Up till today, mathematical and mechanical explanations remain the core parts of the scientific method. 

Why is the Scientific Method Important Today? 

Because our ancestors didn’t have as much data as we do. We now live in the era of paramount data accessibility and connectivity, where over 2.5 quintillions of data are produced each day. This has tremendously accelerated knowledge creation.

But, at the same time, such overwhelming exposure to data made us more prone to external influences, biases, and false beliefs. These can jeopardize the objectivity of any research you are conducting. 

Scientific findings need to remain objective, verifiable, accurate, and consistent. Diligent usage of scientific methods in modern business and science helps ensure proper data interpretation, results replication, and undisputable validity. 

6 Steps of the Scientific Method

Over the course of history, the scientific method underwent many interactions. Yet, it still carries some of the integral steps our ancestors used to analyze the world such as observation and inductive reasoning. However, the modern scientific method steps differ a bit. 

1. Make an Observation 

An observation serves as a baseline for your research. There are two important characteristics for a good research observation:

• It must be objective, not subjective. 
• It must be verifiable, meaning others can say it’s true or false with this. 

For example, This apple is red (objective/verifiable observation). This apple is delicious (subjective, harder-to-verify observation).

2. Develop a Hypothesis

Observations tell us about the present or past. But the goal of science is to glean in the future. A scientific hypothesis is based on prior knowledge and produced through reasoning as an attempt to descriptive a future event.

Here are characteristics of a good scientific hypothesis: 

• General and tentative idea
• Agrees with all available observations
• Testable and potentially falsifiable

Remember: If we state our hypothesis to indicate there is no effect, our hypothesis is a cause-and-effect relationship . A hypothesis, which asserts no effect, is called a null hypothesis. 

3. Make a Prediction 

A hypothesis is a mental “launchpad” for predicting the existence of other phenomena or quantitative results of new observations.

Going back to an earlier example here’s how to turn it into a hypothesis and a potential prediction for proving it. For example: If this apple is red, other apples of this type should be red too. 

Your goal is then to decide which variables can help you prove or disprove your hypothesis and prepare to test these. 

4. Perform an Experiment 

Collect all the information around variables that will help you prove or disprove your prediction. According to the scientific method, a hypothesis has to be discarded or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental results.

Yes, you may come up with an elegant theory. However, if your hypothetical predictions cannot be backed by experimental results, you cannot use them as a valid explanation of the phenomenon. 

5. Analyze the Results of the Experiment

To come up with proof for your hypothesis, use different statistical analysis methods to interpret the meaning behind your data.

Remember to stay objective and emotionally unattached to your results. If 95 apples turned red, but 5 were yellow, does it disprove your hypothesis? Not entirely. It may mean that you didn’t account for all variables and must adapt the parameters of your experiment. 

Here are some common data analysis techniques, used as a part of a scientific method: 

• Statistical analysis
• Cause and effect analysis (see cause and effect analysis slides )
• Regression analysis
• Factor analysis
• Cluster analysis
• Time series analysis
• Diagnostic analysis
• Root cause analysis (see root cause analysis slides )

6. Draw a Conclusion 

Every experiment has two possible outcomes:

• The results correspond to the prediction
• The results disprove the prediction 

If that’s the latter, as a scientist you must discard the prediction then and most likely also rework the hypothesis based on it. 

How to Give a Scientific Presentation to Showcase Your Methods

Whether you are doing a poster session, conference talk, or follow-up presentation on a recently published journal article, most of your peers need to know how you’ve arrived at the presented conclusions.

In other words, they will probe your scientific method for gaps to ensure that your results are fair and possible to replicate. So that they could incorporate your theories in their research too. Thus your scientific presentation must be sharp, on-point, and focus clearly on your research approaches. 

Below we propose a quick framework for creating a compelling scientific presentation in PowerPoint (+ some helpful templates!). 

1. Open with a Research Question 

Here’s how to start a scientific presentation with ease: share your research question. On the first slide, briefly recap how your thought process went. Briefly state what was the underlying aim of your research: Share your main hypothesis, mention if you could prove or disprove them. 

It might be tempting to pack a lot of ideas into your first slide but don’t. Keep the opening of your presentation short to pique the audience’s initial interest and set the stage for the follow-up narrative.

2. Disclose Your Methods

Whether you are doing a science poster presentation or conference talk, many audience members would be curious to understand how you arrived at your results. Deliver this information at the beginning of your presentation to avoid any ambiguities. 

Here’s how to organize your science methods on a presentation: 

• Do not use bullet points or full sentences. Use diagrams and structured images to list the methods
• Use visuals and iconography to use metaphors where possible.
• Organize your methods by groups e.g. quantifiable and non-quantifiable

Finally, when you work on visuals for your presentation — charts, graphs, illustrations, etc. — think from the perspective of a subject novice. Does the image really convey the key information around the subject? Does it help break down complex ideas?

3. Spotlight the Results 

Obviously, the research results will be your biggest bragging right. However, don’t over-pack your presentation with a long-winded discussion of your findings and how revolutionary these may be for the community. 

Rather than writing a wall of text, do this instead:

• Use graphs with large axis values/numbers to showcase the findings in great detail
• Prioritize formats that are known to everybody (e.g. odds ratios, Kaplan Meier curves, etc.)
• Do not include more than 5 lines of plain text per slide 

Overall, when you feel that the results slide gets too cramped, it’s best to move the data to a new one. 

Also, as you work on organizing data on your scientific presentation PowerPoint template , think if there are obvious limitations and gaps. If yes, make sure you acknowledge them during your speech.

4. Mention Study Limitations 

The scientific method mandates objectivity. That’s why every researcher must clearly state what was excluded from their study. Remember: no piece of scientific research is truly universal and has certain boundaries. However, when you fail to personally state those, others might struggle to draw the line themselves and replicate your results. Then, if they fail to do so, they’d question the viability of your research.

5. Conclude with a Memorable Takeaway Message 

Every experienced speaker will tell you that the audience best retains the information they hear first and last. Most people will attend more than one scientific presentation during the day. 

So if you want the audience to better remember your talk, brainstorm a take-home message for the last slide of your presentation. Think of your last slide texts as an elevator pitch — a short, concluding message, summarizing your research.

To Conclude

Today we have no shortage of research and scientific methods for testing and proving our hypothesis. However, unlike our ancestors, most scientists experience deeper scrutiny when it comes to presenting and explaining their findings to others. That’s why it’s important to ensure that your scientific presentation clearly relays the aim, vector, and thought process behind your research.

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How to deliver an oral presentation

Georgina wellstead.

a Lister Hospital, East and North Hertfordshire NHS Trust

Katharine Whitehurst

b Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital

Buket Gundogan

c University College London

d Guy's St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

Delivering an oral presentation in conferences and meetings can seem daunting. However, if delivered effectively, it can be an invaluable opportunity to showcase your work in front of peers as well as receive feedback on your project. In this “How to” article, we demonstrate how one can plan and successfully deliver an engaging oral presentation.

Giving an oral presentation at a scientific conference is an almost inevitable task at some point during your medical career. The prospect of presenting your original work to colleagues and peers, however, may be intimidating, and it can be difficult to know how to approach it. Nonetheless, it is important to remember that although daunting, an oral presentation is one of the best ways to get your work out there, and so should be looked upon as an exciting and invaluable opportunity.

Slide content

Although things may vary slightly depending on the type of research you are presenting, the typical structure is as follows:

• Opening slide (title of study, authors, institutions, and date)
• Methodology
• Discussion (including strengths and weaknesses of the study)

Conclusions

Picking out only the most important findings to include in your presentation is key and will keep it concise and easy to follow. This in turn will keep your viewers engaged, and more likely to understand and remember your presentation.

Psychological analysis of PowerPoint presentations, finds that 8 psychological principles are often violated 1 . One of these was the limited capacity of working memory, which can hold 4 units of information at any 1 time in most circumstances. Hence, too many points or concepts on a slide could be detrimental to the presenter’s desire to give information.

You can also help keep your audience engaged with images, which you can talk around, rather than lots of text. Video can also be useful, for example, a surgical procedure. However, be warned that IT can let you down when you need it most and you need to have a backup plan if the video fails. It’s worth coming to the venue early and testing it and resolving issues beforehand with the AV support staff if speaking at a conference.

Slide design and layout

It is important not to clutter your slides with too much text or too many pictures. An easy way to do this is by using the 5×5 rule. This means using no more than 5 bullet points per slide, with no more than 5 words per bullet point. It is also good to break up the text-heavy slides with ones including diagrams or graphs. This can also help to convey your results in a more visual and easy-to-understand way.

It is best to keep the slide design simple, as busy backgrounds and loud color schemes are distracting. Ensure that you use a uniform font and stick to the same color scheme throughout. As a general rule, a light-colored background with dark-colored text is easier to read than light-colored text on a dark-colored background. If you can use an image instead of text, this is even better.

A systematic review study of expert opinion papers demonstrates several key recommendations on how to effectively deliver medical research presentations 2 . These include:

• Keeping your slides simple
• Knowing your audience (pitching to the right level)
• Making eye contact
• Rehearsing the presentation
• Do not read from the slides
• Limiting the number of lines per slide
• Sticking to the allotted time

You should practice your presentation before the conference, making sure that you stick to the allocated time given to you. Oral presentations are usually short (around 8–10 min maximum), and it is, therefore, easy to go under or over time if you have not rehearsed. Aiming to spend around 1 minute per slide is usually a good guide. It is useful to present to your colleagues and seniors, allowing them to ask you questions afterwards so that you can be prepared for the sort of questions you may get asked at the conference. Knowing your research inside out and reading around the subject is advisable, as there may be experts watching you at the conference with more challenging questions! Make sure you re-read your paper the day before, or on the day of the conference to refresh your memory.

It is useful to bring along handouts of your presentation for those who may be interested. Rather than printing out miniature versions of your power point slides, it is better to condense your findings into a brief word document. Not only will this be easier to read, but you will also save a lot of paper by doing this!

Delivering the presentation

Having rehearsed your presentation beforehand, the most important thing to do when you get to the conference is to keep calm and be confident. Remember that you know your own research better than anyone else in the room! Be sure to take some deep breaths and speak at an appropriate pace and volume, making good eye contact with your viewers. If there is a microphone, don’t keep turning away from it as the audience will get frustrated if your voice keeps cutting in and out. Gesturing and using pointers when appropriate can be a really useful tool, and will enable you to emphasize your important findings.

Presenting tips

• Do not hide behind the computer. Come out to the center or side and present there.
• Maintain eye contact with the audience, especially the judges.
• Remember to pause every so often.
• Don’t clutter your presentation with verbal noise such as “umm,” “like,” or “so.” You will look more slick if you avoid this.
• Rhetorical questions once in a while can be useful in maintaining the audience’s attention.

When reaching the end of your presentation, you should slow down in order to clearly convey your key points. Using phases such as “in summary” and “to conclude” often prompts those who have drifted off slightly during your presentation start paying attention again, so it is a critical time to make sure that your work is understood and remembered. Leaving up your conclusions/summary slide for a short while after stopping speaking will give the audience time to digest the information. Conclude by acknowledging any fellow authors or assistants before thanking the audience for their attention and inviting any questions (as long as you have left sufficient time).

If asked a question, firstly thank the audience member, then repeat what they have asked to the rest of the listeners in case they didn’t hear the first time. Keep your answers short and succinct, and if unsure say that the questioner has raised a good point and that you will have to look into it further. Having someone else in the audience write down the question is useful for this.

The key points to remember when preparing for an oral presentation are:

• Keep your slides simple and concise using the 5×5 rule and images.
• When appropriate; rehearse timings; prepare answers to questions; speak slowly and use gestures/ pointers where appropriate; make eye contact with the audience; emphasize your key points at the end; make acknowledgments and thank the audience; invite questions and be confident but not arrogant.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no financial conflict of interest with regard to the content of this report.

Sponsorships or competing interests that may be relevant to content are disclosed at the end of this article.

Published online 8 June 2017

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Best Science PowerPoint Templates and Slide Design Examples

Professional powerpoint templates and slide design examples for science talks, academic conferences, and graduate thesis presentations..

Most presentation templates are too cheesy for research talks. Scientists need slides that allow for quick customization and that make it easy to illustrate all the key points of a research project. This article shows well-designed scientific presentation slide examples and also links to fully customizable professional templates. 

Download Science PowerPoint Templates

Whether you are creating a research presentation for the first time or have years of experience, the PowerPoint templates linked below have user-friendly slides that quickly allow you to create science talks that will engage your audience and make your main points clear.

Scientific Presentation Slide Design Examples

My top recommendation for creating effective technical presentations is to use simple slide designs and a recurring theme for the main points that allow your audience to easily follow your data story. The sections below show scientific slide design examples to help you clearly show your results.

Title Slides

The best title slide designs for scientific talks have an easy-to-understand title and an engaging image. The title slide is the first impression for your audience and is most effective when you remove excess technical terms. The title text should be much more simplified than your scientific publication. The examples below show two versions of title slides from the templates, one with a dark background and one with a light background.

Science Background Slides

After title slides, the next part of your presentation should use background slides that show both the scientific concepts and also includes slides that engage the audience with the high-level purpose of your research or related entertaining images. Don't be afraid to connect to your audience with a joke or something personal about your role in the research.

Make a Connection to a Shared Purpose

The slide to the right shows an example of how to present the higher-level purpose of your research. Consider asking your audience "why is this important" and then show the relevance of the data to to medical treatments or fundamental science questions.

Use Illustrations to Explain Scientific Concepts and Methods

Another great way to maintain audience engagement for background information is to use slide designs that incorporate illustrations and use very little text. Most people do not read slides, so illustrated images go a long way to improve audience comprehension. Explore free online courses to learn how to incorporate illustrations and images into your scientific presentations.

Main Point Slides

After presenting background information, it is important to create a series of slides that show the main point(s) of your research. Good main point slide designs use a consistent theme and do not overload each slide with too many details.

One design tip to keep your data-focused slides simple is to limit the presentation to only one to two core concepts per slide. The examples shown here illustrate how to edit the science PowerPoint template slides to create effective research slide designs with simple concepts and minimal text.

Take Home Message Slide

Good scientific presentations also include a take home message slide that clearly summarizes the one idea that you want people to remember or to take action on after your talk.

This slide should have a unique design that stands out from the rest of the slides to let your audience know that this is essential information.

Acknowledgement Slides

Finally, your talk should end with a thoughtful acknowledgement slide that matches the overall presentation theme. Make sure to include all of your collaborators and make it easy to read.

Science Talk Design Tips Summary

Good visual design is an essential part of creating effective research presentations and below is a summary of the slide design tips provided in this article. To further your science communication training, you can also consider signing up for free online courses to expand your scientific illustration and data visualization skills.

• Title: Create a slide with an easy-to-understand title and an engaging image.
• Background: Engage your audience with information that shows the "why" behind your work and use illustrations to make your scientific methods clear.
• Main Points: Limit the information shown on each slide and use a consistent design theme.
• Take Home Message: Use a slide design that is unique and catches the audience attention to present the primary message that you want your audience to remember after the talk. 
• Acknowledgement: Include an acknowledgement slide that thanks your collaborators and matches the overall design theme.

Create professional science figures with illustration services or use the online courses and templates to quickly learn how to make your own designs.

Interested in free design templates and training.

Explore scientific illustration templates and courses by creating a Simplified Science Publishing Log In. Whether you are new to data visualization design or have some experience, these resources will improve your ability to use both basic and advanced design tools.

Interested in reading more articles on scientific design? Learn more below:

Scientific Presentation Guide: How to Create an Engaging Research Talk

Data Storytelling Techniques: How to Tell a Great Data Story in 4 Steps

Free Research Poster Templates and Tutorials

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A 10-15 Minute Scientific Presentation, Part 1: Creating an Introduction

For many young scientists, the hardest part of a presentation is the introduction. How do you set the stage for your talk so your audience knows exactly where you're going?

Here's how: follow the the CCQH pattern -- C ontext, C omplication, Q uestion, H ypothesis. Fit your research into this pattern, and you will be able to introduce your work in just a few minutes, using just 1 or 2 slides.

The video below show how to use the CCQH pattern using an example of published scientific research. You will see how powerful -- and how adapatable -- the CCQH pattern is.

Make sure you select 720p HD on the video (bottom right corner) for best resolution and so scientific illustrations and figures are clear.

You can also find this video, and others related to scientific communication, at the CLIMB youtube channel: http://www.youtube.com/climbprogram

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Tips for Oral Presentations at Scientific Meetings and Conferences

By Nina Lichtenberg

Tis’ the season for the biennial, annual, or semi-annual life science conference; and this time around, you’re scheduled to give a presentation in front of every known expert in your field of study (yikes!) Your thoughts may range from “I can’t wait to share my shiny new data with a room full of scientists!”, to “Why me?”

Never fear, whether thrilled or terrified, follow these tips below to engage your audience and give a stellar presentation. Please note that the advice below applies to all forms of presentations but is focused on those that take place at scientific meetings or conferences. If you don’t have any presentations scheduled but would like to give one, check out the last section on seeking presentation opportunities.

You have an upcoming conference presentation scheduled, now what?

The first step to giving a talk is creating a presentation. The book Designing Science Presentations by Matt Carter is an excellent visually-oriented guide to designing and delivering presentations, and even offers tips on other forms of science communication, like creating figures for manuscripts. Plus, it’s free to download via your university network (see link here ).

Prior to your presentation, and generally throughout your PhD, it’s a good idea to take notes on presentation organization, style, voice, and audience engagement techniques. As a graduate student, you’ve probably attended dozens of talks – both good and bad. Take notes on what stood out to you and what you thought made each presentation successful (or unsuccessful) at getting the speaker’s story across. What made the talk engaging? Was it the way they introduced their research using a witty, real-life or pop culture example? Perhaps it was the way they paused during transitions between topics to ask if the audience had any questions. Maybe it was simply the speaker’s demeanor, or the font, color, or layout of their slides. Integrate what you learned into your presentation. About 25% of the notes I jot down during talks are about the actual manner in which data are presented.

Practice, practice, practice – but don’t over practice

In the few weeks leading up to your presentation, you may be tempted to practice alone, or maybe even to your beloved, non-judgmental furry friend in the comforts of your own home. As tempting as this may sound, practicing in front of a real human audience is key. It’s important to practice in front of others, professors or your peers, for a few critical reasons: this experience will be the closest to the real deal, allowing you to work on your voice and audience engagement, and importantly, your audience will give you feedback on how to communicate your data. They may point out topics you rushed through and/or give you tips on organization. Work on the timing – one slide (or less) per minute is a fairly universal rule. This is especially important for short data blitz style presentations, which are often strictly limited to just 5 or 10 minutes.

Even if you don’t have an imminent conference presentation scheduled, presenting your work throughout your PhD will well prepare you for future conferences and job talks. At my university there are several opportunities for graduate students to present their recent findings in short (5-20 min) and long (1 hr) formats in seminars open to professors, postdocs, and fellow students. If you prefer an informal audience, practice your talk in lab meeting. Additionally, there are often graduate student led organizations that host informal after-lab meetings exactly for this purpose.

If such resources are not available on your campus or at your institution, create them yourself! Not only will these forums give you the chance to practice your talk, but they may expose you to research topics, presentation styles, and individuals from across disciplines. If you’re short on time, gather a handful of science and/or non-science friends and practice your talk on campus or at home. Practice in front of non-scientists (roommates maybe?) – this will benefit you in the long run. “Talking shop” with those outside of your field will strengthen your skills in communicating your data to a broad audience, which is critical for publishing in high-impact journals, getting grants, and for so much more.

Practice, but don’t over practice. Some scientists, including myself, need to spend the time going through what they plan to say for each slide many times before the talk. But for others, this results in a presentation that sounds too rehearsed and a bit robotic. During the presentation, you may need to deviate from the talk that’s drilled into your head to answer unexpected questions or to speed up if you’re running short on time. Preparing an over-rehearsed talk will make adaptation difficult.

So, practice until you’ve memorized every line, or go over your talk just a few times? Practice until your nerves are calm in front of your mock audience, then quit practicing and brush up on some background knowledge that will help you answer tricky questions from audience members.

Tips for the actual real-life presentation

If you’ve but the time into creating a well-organized presentation and have practiced, even a little bit, you will be fine.

Before the presentation: If you’re speaking as part of a symposium, familiarize yourself with the other speakers (and their research) in the panel and at the conference in general. You don’t want to get caught not recognizing someone important. Upon arriving to the conference venue, check out the room in which you will be giving the presentation so that there are no surprises – make note of where the podium is and the microphone, of course.

During the presentation: Take it slow. This will help calm your nerves or jitters. Pausing for a few seconds after each sentence will help. Speak at an appropriate volume and clearly. Remember to look at your audience members for a majority of the time, and not at your slides or down at the floor! Also, the audience doesn’t know your data as well as you do – don’t be afraid to elaborate a bit or remind them of certain goals of your research, even if a technique or result seems elementary to you.

After the presentation: Take a deep breath (you’re done!) Thank the meeting organizers for the speaking opportunity. If there are any questions from the audience, answer them as best you can. If you don’t have a great answer, it’s not a big deal. Offer to speak with the attendee further after the talk or symposium.

The final tips below may seem obvious, but nonetheless important.

• Check your presentation for any errors in spelling, grammar, and file conversion, and make sure it is formatted as requested by the organizer/your contact person (i.e. the dreaded Mac to PC, or vice versa PowerPoint conversion issues)
• Dress to impress – you and your data will be well-received if you look put together
• Get a good night’s sleep

Getting a speaking opportunity at a conference

The easiest way to find speaking opportunities at conferences is to browse the conference organization’s webpage for calls for abstracts. Typically, a conference organizing committee will ask for an abstract anywhere from 1-6 months prior to a conference. Tip: keep abstract deadlines marked on a calendar!

Word of mouth is powerful. Ask your colleagues and/or other graduate students in your program about conferences they’ve attended, especially more senior students who may have already given talks at a few conferences. Also, don’t be afraid to ask professors if they are organizing any conference symposia. You never know if they’re looking for someone to fill a spot – perhaps your shiny new data would be perfect for what they’re organizing. They may also be able to refer you to their colleagues in charge of organizing other scientific meetings.

Of course, attending a conference requires (many) expenses: abstract submission fees, registration fees, poster printing, flight, hotel – it adds up. Travel awards are excellent resources, especially for graduate students. Typically, travel awards are open to both national and international students and typically cover costs of registration, and often offer a discount (or full coverage) on travel expenses. Travel award deadlines are often different from those of abstract submissions and require a recommendation letter – these details can be found on the conference website.

If you win a travel award, awardees are usually invited to attend professional development workshops and to present their data as a talk at the conference. So, not only does the cover some of your travel expenses, but it gives you an opportunity to present your data – win-win! Don’t forget to put the award (and your talk) on your CV. Tip: outside companies and research foundations, like Hello Bio , offer travel awards to students.

Presenting your research at a conference or meeting is a unique, exciting opportunity. It’s not just a chance to share your newest data with your scientific peers, but a chance to build communication skills and boost self-confidence; thus, benefiting both your career and well-being. So, if a speaking opportunity arises don’t hesitate, jump on it!

Nina Lichtenberg earned her undergraduate degree in Psychology from the University of Maryland, College Park. Currently, she is working on wrapping up her PhD in the Psychology department at UCLA by studying the neural circuitry of memory retrieval and decision making. Apart from research, she spends her time developing a neuroscience outreach program that connects undergraduates with the local LA community and builds their scicomm skills.

You can follow Nina on Twitter @NTlichten or connect with her on LinkedIn . Want to meet Nina in person (and see her present some data)? She’ll be at the annual Society for Neuroscience meeting in San Diego, CA, from November 3-7 giving poster presentations on her outreach and science.

Read Nina’s other blog post: Tips for poster presentations at scientific meetings and conferences

Other resources you may find helpful

One of the things we’re most passionate about is supporting early career life scientists. Here are some other guides and resources that you may find helpful:

• The Life Scientists' Guide to Wellbeing
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• Apply for a Travel Grant : every month we give away $500 to PhD students and Postdocs so that they can attend a scientific conference. Give it a go - it's really easy to apply.
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How to Plan a Successful Scientific Conference

Published on 07 Aug 2023

In today's rapidly evolving scientific landscape, conferences play a crucial role in sharing knowledge, forging collaborations , and pushing the frontiers of research. But the road to planning a scientific conference can often be overwhelming (especially if it’s your first time leading an organizing committee).

In this guide, we break down the process into manageable steps, equipping you with the knowledge you need to host an unforgettable event. Buckle up for a crash course on planning a successful scientific conference that's bound to have your attendees buzzing with excitement!

What is a scientific conference?

A scientific conference is a structured gathering where researchers share insights and discoveries in their respective fields, foster collaborations, and keep up-to-date with cutting-edge research.

Scientific conferences can have a variety of topics, they tend to be larger in size and wider in scope than symposiums, which are more focused on a particular subject or issue. They are also different from professional conferences as they are aimed at academia and the scientific community.

The hallmark of a great scientific conference is the quality and relevance of its content, paired with a dynamic, inclusive environment that encourages meaningful connections and exchanges. Having good coffee doesn’t hurt either!

13 Steps to plan a great research conference

Planning a research conference requires strategic vision, careful execution, and a meticulous attention to detail. Let's dive into the key steps you’ll want to consider as an organiser:

1. Define your theme and objectives

Every great scientific conference starts with a clear purpose. Set clear objectives, whether it's facilitating knowledge exchange, providing networking opportunities, or showcasing innovative research. Consider your target audience, which may include researchers, academics, postdocs and graduate students, industry professionals, or a combination. This is also a good time to discuss the theme of your academic conference as it will inform other decisions and promotional plans you may make later on.

2. Form a conference planning committee

Assemble a diverse conference planning committee with expertise in the event's subject area. Assign core responsibilities to different members of the team, from program development and logistics to marketing and financial management. This distribution of roles helps ensure that every aspect of the upcoming event is given the attention it needs.

3. Build your event budget

Creating an event budget is crucial to ensure the financial success of your scientific conference. Estimate your expenses, including venue costs, speaker fees, marketing, catering, audiovisual equipment, and staff. Allocate funds wisely, as even the smallest overlooked details, like those sneaky coffee break expenses, can add up!

Identify the financial resources you have available and consider other potential revenue sources such as registration fees, sponsorships, and grants. Set registration fees that cover your expenses and determine sponsorship packages to attract funding from organizations interested in supporting scientific research and innovation.

4. Choose your conference format

Choosing a scientific conference format isn't your typical 'this or that' scenario—it's a 'this, that, or both!' Choose from a traditional in-person conference, a digitally savvy virtual one, or the best of both worlds: a hybrid model. Each format has its unique advantages, so choose the one that best suits your audience, budget, and objectives.

• In-person conferences offer traditional networking opportunities and more varied sponsorship options.
• Virtual conferences provide access to wider audiences and cost savings. It’s also a more popular approach post-pandemic.
• Hybrid conferences combine these benefits, enabling both physical attendance and online participation. But, they’re a bit more work (it’s like planning two events in one).

Whatever conference format option you choose, make sure you find event management software that can support it.

Fourwaves offers software solutions for a variety of conference formats.

5. Set a date and secure an event venue

Selecting an appropriate date and venue is critical for the success of your conference. Consider factors such as the availability of potential attendees and speakers, accessibility, and cost. Avoid date clashes with significant events or holidays (nobody wants to choose between Christmas dinner and a keynote speech!).

When choosing a venue, determine whether you need to book a conference center, hotel, and/or university facilities. Ensure the chosen venue has the necessary infrastructure, including audiovisual equipment, internet connectivity, and sufficient space for sessions, exhibitors, and networking. Also, remember to evaluate whether it aligns with your chosen conference format.

6. Select your scientific conference software

Choosing an efficient conference planning tool is essential for streamlining administrative tasks. Look for an abstract management platform that allows you to manage registrations, speaker submissions, poster sessions, scheduling, and attendee communication. Research available options, considering features, user-friendliness, pricing, and customer support.

Luckily, there’s plenty of software out there that is designed specifically for scientific events.

Fourwaves is the Swiss Army knife of scientific conference management tools, complete with nifty features such as registration, abstract management, peer-review, virtual poster presentations, and collaboration capabilities. It’s the backstage crew that keeps your event running smoothly.

7. Find the right keynote speakers and presenters

Keynote speakers play a vital role in attracting attendees and enhancing the quality of your scientific conference. Identify experts and thought leaders in your field who can deliver engaging and informative presentations. Reach out to them early in the planning process, providing details about your conference and the benefits of participation. Consider diverse perspectives and ensure the speakers align with the conference theme and goals.

In addition to your keynote speakers, you’ll need other presenters to bulk out your scientific conference program. So set up your peer review software and start accepting submissions to your conference early. Then, use that same software to facilitate the review and selection of high-quality presentations.

8. Plan your event program

Create a detailed event schedule that outlines session topics, speaker presentations, networking breaks, poster sessions, debates, and any additional activities. Allocate sufficient time for each session and ensure a balance between different topics and presentation formats. If it's a multi-day conference, create tracks or parallel sessions to cater to diverse interests.

Be sure to craft a conference program that balances riveting keynote speeches, illuminating workshops, and engaging panel discussions. And don’t forget to incorporate social events and networking breaks—these are your conference's intermissions, where attendees can mingle and mull over the knowledge they've gained.

Fourwaves conference management software can help you design and display an easy-to-navigate event schedule.

9. Secure conference sponsorships

Grab the attention of potential sponsors with attractive, tiered packages that offer a variety of options for visibility and benefits. Conference sponsors can include companies, research institutions, government agencies, or even individuals. And remember, sponsors aren't just ATMs—they're partners who can add value to your scientific conference in a myriad of ways, so keep them in the loop and cater to their needs. Follow up with sponsors regularly to ensure their questions are answered and their contributions are acknowledged.

10. Set up your conference registration system

Set up an online event registration system to collect attendee information, process payments, and issue registration confirmations. Consider segmenting registration fees based on attendee categories, such as early bird rates, student rates, or group discounts.

Once you’ve opened registrations, keep a watchful eye on registration numbers and remember—creating a sense of urgency (i.e. “Just a few tickets left!”) can trigger a flurry of last-minute sign-ups.

11. Create an event website

Develop an event website to provide attendees with information about the conference. Include details such as the conference theme, dates, location, registration process, abstract submission guidelines, and important deadlines. Once you’ve determined your program, upload this to the event site as well.

Make sure the website is user-friendly, visually appealing, and mobile-responsive. Using a tool like Fourwaves can simplify the process of making an event website and allow for seamless registration and abstract submission.

An example of conference website on Fourwaves.

12. Arrange other conference logistics

From ensuring the availability of necessary facilities at the venue to organizing catering and transportation, efficient logistics management is key to a successful conference.

• Coordinate with the chosen venue to ensure availability of lecture halls, breakout rooms, audiovisual equipment, and Wi-Fi. Arrange catering services for meals, snacks, and beverages during the conference.
• Organize transportation options, if necessary, for participants traveling to the conference.
• Plan for accommodation. Research and negotiate with hotels near the conference venue to secure room blocks at discounted rates. Provide clear instructions on how participants can book accommodation within the room blocks.

These small and easy-to-overlook details can often make or break the conference experience for your attendees.

13. Promote your scientific conference

Effectively promoting your scientific conference is crucial for attracting attendees and ensuring its success. Utilize various marketing channels, including social media, email newsletters, academic networks, and relevant mailing lists. Create compelling content that highlights the conference's unique features, keynote speakers, and session topics. Encourage speakers and attendees to share the event with their networks (On their Linkedin for example). Leverage partnerships with professional associations and research organizations to extend your reach.

Additionally, consider offering early-bird registration discounts, organizing webinars or panel discussions related to the conference topic, and reaching out to media outlets or academic publications for coverage. This way you’ll reach as much as the scientific community as possible.

A great promotional plan needs a seamless registration process to match. Fourwaves offers features to help you turn leads into attendees with the click of a button.

Get started planning your scientific conference today

Embarking on the journey of planning a scientific conference might seem daunting. So start by taking it one step at a time and giving careful attention to each part of the process. Set yourself up with the right resources and tools, and you’ll be well on your way to organizing an event that provides a valuable platform for knowledge exchange and networking within your field.

To help you get started, Fourwaves event software includes a suite of features tailored for scientific conference organizers. We're an experienced, enthusiastic partner that streamlines your planning process and we support you in hosting an event that leaves a lasting impact. So, what are you waiting for? Get started planning your scientific conference today!

Book a 1-on-1 demo to discover how you can use Fourwaves for your scientific conference, or try it yourself . 

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Scientific Conference Presentation Template

Conference template

Transcript: Created by: Katherine Chuang Edited by: Jeff Narell (Mr.Narell) Oktapodi Movie Special Thanks to: Mr.Narell Nicola Shanks Miranda Overson Alexis Gero How do we know your character? You know me as a funny, caring, fashionable, bubbly, person. Thursday 15, 2:00 Student Lead Conference Katherine Chuang Creative Problem Solver Thinks Critically: In English I decoded a cuneiform riddle and I had to think critically. What makes you balanced and whole? I think that what makes me a balanced whole is if i can do my best at everything and try my hardest. Thank You for Watching! Thinks Creatively: In Digital Wheel I had to think creatively when I did my Oktipodi movie, I had to make noises with my mouth. Goal #1: My goal is to focus on my homework more and manage my time more efficiently, to do that I should turn off or move away anything that might distract me when I am doing my homework. Goal #2: My personal goal is to practice piano more when I am at home and when I have more free time I can read more. Goals Presents Ideas using Multiple Mediums: In English I had to participate and act out an act at the beginning of the school for English and that caused me to be an effective communicator. Effective Communicator Best Self

Scientific Presentation

Transcript: Freezing Liquids Procedure Experiment Hypothesis: They will all freeze. Before What houshold liquids will freeze? -ice tray -6 degree freezer -glass cleaner,dish soap, simple green, bleach, fabric softener, water Materials And Equipment 1. Fill every other cube of the ice tray with a different liquid. 2. Place in the freezer 3. Record temperature and status of liquids every two hours. a.) Control group: water b.)variables: independant: type of liquid dependant: will it freeze? All of the liquids froze at 0 degrees in two hours. (pic of frozen cubes) Theory: I believe they all froze because they still have some water in them. Results

Lilly's conference template

Transcript: 3 Things I am good at... 3rd Quarter Conferences Handwriting Multiplication Finding common denominators Digestive system How to multiply & divide decimals Things I've learned this year... Typing We are reading a book called Secret Keepers. It is about a boy who found a watch that can turn him invisible for 15 minutes then he reappears. Turning invisible also makes him really hungry and tired. In social studies we are learning about the revolutionary war. We also planned and did a debate. Science & Social Studies Turn things in on time ELA N: plan a debate In DLI we are learning about where to put commas in sentences to still make sense. keep things organized Have a better attitude Reading Not blurt P: Not be late to class 3 Skills that will help me in middle school that I can improve on... Long Division In math we are learning how to multiply and divide fractions. We are also learning a new math curriculum which I think is boring, and I do not get the new math curriculum. Boston Tea Party -Student Led- Be more organized Things I need to work on... Math Turning things in on time Needs Improvement 3 Goals to Work Towards By Lilly Hollingsworth Not have a messy locker Estimating Fractions Exercises Self-Control *P Follows Directives & School and Classroom Rules *P Completes Quality Work *M Time Management *P Organizational Skills *N Shows Respect towards: Peers *P Adults *P Progressing Life Long Learning Skills Evaluation M: american revolution Subject Summary Meets Standard 0 + - = 9 8 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 c

Scientific Conference

Transcript: Scientific Conference Are Sharks andSeals Alike?? Well Lets See.... So this means seals and sharks will share or share a common ancestor. If you look at the picture some of the skeleton spinal cords are similar or shaped alike. These similarities are called Common Ancestor... Do You Know The Definition of Common Ancestor Common Ancestor Defined.... The definition of Comman Ancestor is the most recent species from two different species. Going Into Depth References This Presentation Has Been Brought to you By: Avianne K. Jones March 19th, 2012 Ms.Sider 7th grade Google.com/images Google.com Ask.com Seal Is Shapede Like A Shark Right It has been scientifically proven that most animals who share common ancestore were once combined as one. Research is shown that most of the animals onced were combined. For Example a gekco and a lizard. A gecko and lizard share common ancestors but at some point back then they were combined a one. Years later there had to be a conversion to a point where they both were seperated and named as their own. Sharks are formed like seals

Conference Template

Transcript: My reading goal is to read chapter books and understand characters. My mom and can help me by reading the words I don't understand or if I don't know how to spell the word. If I was reading a book with a word that I didn't understand what it means then Mrs.Brennan can help me look in a dictionary to see what it means. Reading l you Math Help I Might Need My math goal is to understand lines,rays,and line segments. big I can add and subtract with other methods and I can write a personal narrative and fictional narratives. When I set goals I can be a better person and I can create a way to reach that goal Accomplishments I can accomplish this goal by hanging out with my friends and family and I can also be nice and give them things and not take things Welcome to My Conference Adam bik my relationship goal is to have more friends and have a amazing family. I can accomplish this goal by reading the book and understand how they feel and see if they feel good or mad. Goals: Setting goals are important to me because... I can accomplish this goal by looking at lines,rays,and line segments and making a picture in my head to remind me of what a ray,line,and line segment is. Relationships

International Scientific Conference

Transcript: International Scientific Conference A run-down of the event The Event THE EVENT This is the largest gathering of the world's known scientist and known figures. The event aims to give people insights about our period of science and where it's heading. OPENING CEREMONY OPENING CEREMONY We are proud to present that we have invited Neil deGrasse Tyson and William Sanford Nye also known as Bill Nye the Science Guy. OPENING OF THE BOOTHS OPENING OF BOOTHS The scientist gathered will be presenting their long-time project CONFERENCE PROPER TALKS This is time where you can talk with known scientist and even Neil deGrasse Tyson and Bill Nye. So, don't miss it!

Bella's Conference Template

Transcript: 3 Things I am good at... 3rd Quarter Conferences cleaning my desk Multiplication Turning in my fished work How to add,subtract, and multiply decimals Things I've learned this year... getting all my stuff done more often - Similes - Metaphors - Understatement - Personification - Fact and Opinion - Key Qualities of the Organizational trait - Key Words -Organization of Nonfiction Texts -Decimals -How to add and subtract fractions -Different strategies addition and subtraction -How to divide better -How to estimate better -Trying different ways of reading problems -Matter -How animals interact with each other -A bit about gravity -The Engineering process -Native Americans and how they live -Slaves -The Revolutionary War -The colonies Science & Social Studies Being on time ELA N: How to whisper read better -Comparatives -Superlatives -Quotes -Letters How to write numbers -Where to put commas -Similes -Metaphors Managing my impulsivity Reading Typing the right way How to make an Imovie Thinking flexibly P: not causing drama 3 Skills that will help me in middle school that I can improve on... Participating How to manage my inpulsivity -Student Led- getting a higher reading level Things I need to work on... Math Reading out loud Needs Improvement 3 Goals to Work Towards By Isabella Coalter Getting more organized Striving for accuracy Exercises Self-Control *P Follows Directives & School and Classroom Rules *M Completes Quality Work p Time Management *m Organizational Skills *p Shows Respect towards: Peers *m Adults *m Progressing Life Long Learning Skills Evaluation M: How to convert fraction into percents Subject Summary Meets Standard 0 + - = 9 8 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 c

scientific presentation

Transcript: We found out where too go. By using Las Ui By NASA We used solar panels to collect the energy Useing this type of graph we looked up the sunlight per month for every town. the vertical lines are the watts per minute The horizontal is the month The line is were the town rests on watts per minute for the month in conclusion, We thought we could go Around the country on solar energy Our experiment agrees with our guess it took us a lot of planning, but we made it without fail This is my presentation. Or Vote pick one good= bad= findings part 2 Reasoning Background findings Jan. Las Cruces New Mexico Feb.-Columbia Missouri Mar.-Indianola Iowa Solar power bus Conclusion Explanation We wanted to stop polluting the air so we converted to solar energy

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Reference Examples

More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual . Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual .

To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of work (e.g., journal article ) and follow the relevant example.

When selecting a category, use the webpages and websites category only when a work does not fit better within another category. For example, a report from a government website would use the reports category, whereas a page on a government website that is not a report or other work would use the webpages and websites category.

Also note that print and electronic references are largely the same. For example, to cite both print books and ebooks, use the books and reference works category and then choose the appropriate type of work (i.e., book ) and follow the relevant example (e.g., whole authored book ).

Examples on these pages illustrate the details of reference formats. We make every attempt to show examples that are in keeping with APA Style’s guiding principles of inclusivity and bias-free language. These examples are presented out of context only to demonstrate formatting issues (e.g., which elements to italicize, where punctuation is needed, placement of parentheses). References, including these examples, are not inherently endorsements for the ideas or content of the works themselves. An author may cite a work to support a statement or an idea, to critique that work, or for many other reasons. For more examples, see our sample papers .

Reference examples are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 10 and the Concise Guide Chapter 10

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Textual works are covered in Sections 10.1–10.8 of the Publication Manual . The most common categories and examples are presented here. For the reviews of other works category, see Section 10.7.

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Audiovisual media are covered in Sections 10.12–10.14 of the Publication Manual . The most common examples are presented together here. In the manual, these examples and more are separated into categories for audiovisual, audio, and visual media.

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9 Free Conference Planning Templates for Your Next Big Event

By Joe Weller | August 14, 2023

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It’s a substantial commitment to plan a conference — and plan it well. Planning a big event with proposals to approve, speakers to schedule, and advertising materials to create and promote can feel overwhelming. By utilizing our library of conference planning templates, event organizers can prepare for a conference of any size without letting important details slip through the cracks.

In this guide, you will find various conference planning templates — from proposals to evaluations — along with tips on how to use conference planning templates, the benefits of using them, and what to include in them.

1. Conference Proposal Template

Download Conference Proposal Template Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

Speakers, vendors, suppliers, and organizational partners matter at a conference. Members of a brand’s target audience may agree to attend upcoming conferences or participate in conference activities if brands they are interested in or associated with decide to partner with the conference’s organization. This conference proposal template helps organizers analyze and choose the best organizational partners for their conference’s goals and target audience.

• Use: This template is best for client and speaker proposals.
• Benefits: This template allows potential clients and speakers to propose their services or partnership to an organization holding a conference.
• Key Elements: This template includes space to outline services, performance expectations, pricing and payment terms, estimated fees, event information, and work scoping.

2. Conference Budget Template

Download Conference Budget Template Microsoft Excel | Google Sheets | Adobe PDF

While planning the budget for a conference, there are plenty of moving parts to account for, including venue, entertainment, and marketing costs. A conference budget template can help coordinators track conference costs, budget for expected and unexpected expenses, and account for conference budgeting restrictions.

• Use: This template is best for calculating projected and actual conference subtotals.
• Benefits: This template provides users with categorized sections for calculating individual item subtotals and overall conference budgets.
• Key Elements: This template includes sections for projected subtotals and actual subtotals for each item across various categories.

3. Conference Agenda Template

Download Conference Agenda Template Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Smartsheet

Organizers can use conference agenda templates to keep track of potential conference facilitators and attendees, schedule presentations, and provide attendees, presenters, and other conferencegoers with detailed presentation descriptions. This template can also help organizers estimate presentation times and session durations.

• Use: This template is best for scheduling conference presentations and calculating their duration.
• Benefits: This template allows coordinators and creators to schedule agenda items and describe their contents, presenters, and possible attendees.
• Key Elements: This template includes spaces for a conference’s call-in number, call-in code, and web link, as well as the attendees requested, conference schedule, description of the agenda items, and the event’s presenter, start time, and duration.

4. Conference Call Agenda Template

Download Conference Call Agenda Template Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

Whether on video or by phone, a conference call agenda template can help coordinators plan schedules and deliver agenda item descriptions to attendees before a conference starts. This clear agenda can help keep conference calls on schedule and provide attendees with additional information.

• Use: This template is best for scheduling conference call agendas.
• Benefits: This template allows conference call coordinators to schedule agenda items, create item descriptions, and account for attendees.
• Key Elements: This template includes space for the meeting title, subject, facilitator, attendees, description of agenda items, presenters, and event duration.

5. Conference Planning Checklist

Download Conference Planning Checklist Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

It’s no secret that people love checking items off a list — with this conference planning checklist, you can organize and complete essential conference planning tasks. This template can help you visualize your progress while planning a conference and help organizers understand what needs to happen 3 to 24 months before it begins.

• Use: This template is best for all stages of conference planning.
• Benefits: This template provides users with a checklist of items to consider when planning any type of conference.
• Key Elements: This template includes planning sections for every stage of the conference, from  24 months pre-event to immediately post-event, with each stage including a separate checklist of items.

6. Conference Planning Worksheet

Download Conference Planning Worksheet Template Microsoft Excel | Google Sheets | Smartsheet

A conference planning worksheet can help organizers estimate projected expenses, complete conference purchases, and track pending items needed for a conference. This template also allows users to organize conference items by category, gauge the amount allocated and spent per item, and provide the difference between a projected and actual conference subtotal.

• Use: This template is best for tracking the purchases — both pending and completed — of all your must-have items. 
• Benefits: This template provides a variety of conference item categories for tracking your expenses and having your conference needs in one place.
• Key Elements: This template includes sections for venue, decor, food and beverage, event programming, entertainment, travel, guest services, registration, communication, public relations, marketing, social media, advertising, sponsors, logistics, and other items.

7. Conference Workflow Template

Download Conference Workflow Template Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

Conferences that frequently launch marketing campaigns have a variety of digital assets that need to be created pre- and post-event. These assets — blog posts, social media campaigns, email campaigns, press releases, and more — must be assigned and executed by specific dates. Conference workflow templates help conference owners organize these projects and approve their completion.

• Use: This template is best for conferences with a marketing campaign.
• Benefits: This template allows conference organizers to create workflows covering a project’s pre- and post-event items.
• Key Elements: This template includes sections for different categories and tasks related to the campaign, along with each one’s respective manager, deadline, and approval status.

8. Conference Sign-in Sheet Template

Download Conference Sign-in Sheet Template Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

Not all conferences require attendees to check in, but a conference sign-in sheet template can be a helpful tool for organizers hoping to track conference attendance. Organizers can use this template for conferences of all sizes to list observations or write comments during a conference’s duration.

• Use: This template is best for conferences where tracking attendance is necessary.
• Benefits: This template is a streamlined organizational sign-in sheet for conferences of all sizes.
• Key Elements: This template includes sections for conference information, including its organizers, location, and attendee names and their signatures.

9. Conference Evaluation Form

Download Conference Evaluation Form Microsoft Word | Google Docs | Adobe PDF

When a conference is complete, there’s no time to sit back and relax. Instead, conference organizers should send follow-up communication to suppliers, vendors, and speakers and post-conference evaluations to attendees. This conference evaluation form can help organizations discover strengths and weaknesses in their events and help organizers get a jump start for new conference preparations.

• Use: This template is best for post-conference evaluations.
• Benefits: This template allows conference organizers to collect post-conference data about attendants’ experiences and recommendations.
• Key Elements: This template includes post-conference survey questions covering attendant demographics and backgrounds.

What to Include In a Conference Planning Template

What you should include in a conference planning template depends on which template you choose to use, if you plan an in-person or virtual conference , and what your conference needs to succeed.

It’s best to include some general information in all conference planning templates:

• Conference Description: Include a conference description on each planning template to ensure each document gets completed according to its specific event.
• Conference Goals: A conference’s goals are the core of the event. Outlining these goals can consistently keep all investors aware of their expectations and collaborate on goal-specific ideas.
• Budget: You must account for many conference expenses — big and small — during every stage of the conference planning process.

How To Use a Conference Planning Template

Like any good template, a conference planning template is a great place to start when diving into the planning process for a big event . To best utilize any type of conference planning template, you should also use a project management system to organize your planning documents.

Share your conference planning templates with others involved, including marketers, advertisers, content creators, web developers, sales managers, and more. Conference planning should be a collaborative process, so keeping templates updated and shared across teams is the best way to use them.

Additionally, you should use conference planning templates along with other process templates. Organizers can use our library of conference templates in tandem to create a structured, organized planning process from start to finish — no matter the size or theme of a conference.

Benefits of Using Conference Planning Templates

During the pre-planning, duration, and post-planning stages of an event, conference planning templates can produce many valuable benefits:

• Conference planning can occur virtually and asynchronously.
• Updates are easy and quick to share across teams.
• All data, including attendants, vendors, suppliers, and speakers, are accounted for and tracked in a central location. 
• Calculate budgets before purchasing begins.
• Organizers and staff are assigned expectations in advance of due dates.
• Streamline timelines and task assignments.
• Checklists allow organizers to visualize the planning progress.
• Automatic status updates are available, and plans are shareable across wider teams.
• During a conference, tasks can be managed, assigned, and finished.

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