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IB Psychology a guide to research methods

Whether you are studying IB Psychology at Standard Level or Higher Level you will need to have an understanding of approaches to researching behaviour in order to sufficiently answer the exam questions you will encounter. Below is an excerpt from our forthcoming IB Psychology Standard Level and Higher Level study guide written by IB teacher and author Jacob Solomon, which presents a guide to research methods you will encounter in your studies. Bookmark this useful tool and refer back to it throughout your IB Psychology course and during your IB exam preparation to remind yourself of these fundamentals of researching behaviour. For a reminder of when our IB Psychology study guide becomes available, sign-up for our newsletter below.

Approaches to researching behaviour

This part of the syllabus enables you to apply critical thinking skills in evaluating the strengths and limitations of the research studies by challenging their assumptions, designs, methodologies, findings, and conclusions. Though methodology and critical analysis underlie the entire syllabus, they are formally examined in their own right at HL only. 

However, approaches to researching behavior form a vital, integral part of the course, without which psychology would have little or no credibility. Methods used to study behavior including the design of the investigation, the methods of analysis, the drawing of conclusions and the critical analysis of the results. These are essential elements within the theories and research studies occurring throughout the chapter’s text. Suitable responses to exam questions in Papers 1 and 2, as well as 3 will tend to incorporate research methods and their critical analysis of their use in various depths. This applies equally to HL and SL students. For this reason, SL students as well as HL students will need to be familiar with the content of this chapter. Its purpose is to place and present the methods mostly already encountered into a systematic framework that is coherent, logical, all-embracing, and easy to review.  

Indeed, every essay response question in Papers 1 and 2 (HL and SL) allocates 12 marks out of 22 for the method-related issues: Criterion C use of research to support answer (6 marks), and Criterion D critical thinking (6).  

As a student, you will find yourself constantly dealing with methods as you progress through the course. You will have also grappled with research designs, hypotheses, methods of analysis, and evaluation of evidence in the experimental investigation that form your internal assessment. You should also find yourself revisiting earlier theories and research studies in the light of your growing understanding of the methods through your progress in this unit. 

Quantitative research methods used in psychology

The five quantitative methods in the table below are commonly used to investigate psychological phenomena. These are laboratory experiments, field experiments, quasi-experiments, natural experiments, and correlations research.

Laboratory experiments

Description

Uses similar samples in the control condition and in the test condition(s). The IV (independent variable) is manipulated entirely by the researcher.

Allows researcher to determine cause and effect. 

Laboratory environment is easier to replicate than natural environment.

Limitations

Needs to take into account possible extraneous variables that if not suitably controlled can become confounding variables which may negate the validity of the study.

Field experiments

Similar to #1, but the researcher manipulates the IV in a natural, real-life rather than laboratory setting 

Allows researcher to determine cause and effect. Ecological validity; natural setting 

May be difficult to control extraneous variables in a natural environment May be harder to find similar conditions for replication  

Quasi-experiments 

The IV is pre-existing; it occurs naturally, e.g. gender, age group, nationality. It is not manipulated by the researcher

Ecological validity; natural setting.

Experimenter cannot manipulate the IV. 

Natural experiments 

All variables occur naturally. The IV cannot be manipulated by the researcher

Likely to have ecological validity. 

Extraneously variables could be difficult to control May be hard to find similar conditions for replication

Correlations research 

Non experimental: no test and control populations, no IV and DV (dependent variable). Focus on two or more variables that may be related to each other, the degree of the relationship being shown in the statistical degree that the variables appear to be related. 

Allows the use of quantitative data that might be difficult or impossible to manipulate experimentally, e.g. genotypes. 

Can accommodate the collection of data over a longer period of time. 

Cannot not demonstrate cause and effect: variables A and B which appear to be correlated may have both been influenced by not-studied variable C. At best, can only indicate a statistically significant relationship. 

Qualitative methods used in Psychology

The three qualitative methods in the table below are commonly used to investigate psychological phenomena. These are interviews, observations, and case studies.

These methods can elicit in-depth information that cannot always be obtained by quantitative research. Qualitative research can also explore in depth relationships that have been indicated by previous quantitative studies.

1. Interviews  

Interviews in qualitative research are typically  semi-structured  or  unstructured.  They become  focus groups  where several respondents are being interviewed at the same time.  

Semi-structured interviews  include both closed and open-ended questions that enable the participant to expand in detail and the researcher to use prompts to keep the responses within the framework of the research objectives. They tend to be informal and conversational in style.  

Unstructured interviews  tend to be narrative in content: typically, “tell me what you thought, how you acted, and how you would act now when in that situation”. They tend to be flexible: the participant can be asked to expand on the parts of the the narrative of importance to the researcher.  

Focus groups  typically consist of about 6 respondents where the researcher, presents the areas of investigation and keeps the group discussion on focus. It can enable participants to react to one another as they would in real life. 

Interviews and focus groups enable the researcher to pursue themes of importance that arise during the interview that until then may have not been considered by the researcher. 

They also enable participant(s) to communicate an in-depth experience from their own viewpoint though which the researcher can explore how they construct meaning in their lives. 

As long as focus groups are well-structured, and skillfully managed, they can respond to issues raised by others and enable the interviewer to access the spectrum of opinion. The participant is likely to feel less pressure from the interviewer when being one of a few than when being the only one. 

May be time consuming and demanding to analyze.  

Lack of investigator  reflexivity  (where the data’s accuracy may be influenced by the viewpoint of the researcher) could affect the objectivity of the research.  

Possibility of the participants’ responses being affected by  demand characteristics  (the participant responds according to what he or she thinks that the researcher wants to hear), especially when not feeling relaxed and secure. 

Lack of structure can elicit a great deal of irrelevant information and can often be difficult to manage. 

Focus groups may face clashes in personalities, dominant personalities over-presenting and shy participants unable to make their contributions heard.

2. Observations  

Naturalistic observations include  participant observation  (where the researcher(s) act as part of the group studied) or  non-participant observation ; and  overt observation  (where participants know that they are being watched)   or  covert observation  (where participants do not know that they are being watched).  

Naturalistic observations  in qualitative (as well as in quantitative) research involve measuring naturally-occurring behavior with as much precision as possible. 

Likely to produce field-notes, record frequencies of behavior, and intensities of the behavior (e.g. displays of aggression) as judged by the observing researcher.

Likely to have high ecological validity as it takes place in the natural environment, and in the usual routines of those being watched 

Can supply a relatively large amount of detailed data. Observation can more easily build up trust between participant and researcher than in the laboratory environment, with less likelihood of participants’ behaviors being influenced by demand characteristics – particularly true in covert observations.  

Using several observers with standardized procedures and comparing notes afterwards reduces possible individual researcher bias.

Difficulties in assessing how far naturalistic observation-based findings may be transferable to environments that are not the same as the one observed.  

Problems with in recording data accurately and objectively in the field, particularly if only one researcher is involved.  

(b) Possibility of interference from extraneously variables: atypical behavior may erroneously generalized as being the norm.  

Ethical issues involved in covert observations that have to be justified, as this method invariably involves deception.  

Possibilities of the  Hawthorne Effect : where the behavior of those observed differs from the norm as they perceive they are being watched.  

Possible difficulties in finding similar environments in which to replicate the research. 

3. Case studies   

Focus is on one individual or a small group, usually over a period.  

Data collection could use both periodic observations and semi-structured interviews with the student and teacher. For example, a researcher focuses on a single immigrant teenager in investigating the efficacy of a particular approach for learning English for the first time. It can be used to investigate sensitive issues, such as team issues and conflicts within a group. 

Likely to elicit highly level of detail. Also, the only way of studying people in unique circumstances (for example a single survivor of a particular sensory deprivation).  

Likely to share the advantages common to observations and semi-structured interviews (above). 

Likely to share the same difficulties common to observations and semi-structured interviews (above). 

Possible hazard of the  interviewer effect , where the interviewer’s attitude and demeanor could influence respondent inaccuracy, for example giving a sudden frown that could prompt a demand-characteristics-influenced response (applies also to interviews in general).  

The respondent may exercise the right to withdraw information later regarded as sensitive, leaving the investigator with no recourse to continue the study. 

Continue revising

The review of research methods is but one component of approaches to researching behaviour. You will need to build your understanding of other elements such as research design, ethical considerations in psychology, analysing data, evaluating research, and drawing conclusions. Throughout your IB diploma, seek out tools that help you develop your critical thinking skills and overall understanding and refer back to them regularly to inform your revision and exam preparation. Our IB Psychology resource page is a great place to start when looking for new tools or resources.

The Working Memory Model ( SL IB Psychology )

Revision note.

Psychology Content Creator

The Working Memory Model

What is the Working Memory Model?

• The Working Memory Model (WMM) was devised by Baddeley & Hitch (1974) as a response to Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory in terms of providing a more dynamic and flexible model of memory
• The WMM focuses on short-term memory (STM) only, there is no provision made for the functions or types of long-term memory in the model, it only aims to explain the ‘here and now’ of memory i.e. what you need to work for you in the current moment
• The WMM sees STM as a complex information processor rather than as a static unitary store
• the central executive (CM)
• the phonological loop (PL)
• the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS) with the
• episodic buffer (EP) which was added much later on in 2000

What is the Central Executive?

• The CE is the driving force of the WMM as it decides which tasks are to be assigned to which specific slave systems e.g. the VSS or the PL rather like the managing director of a company
• The CE is not so much a memory store but a ‘command centre’ as it plays a key role in controlling the processes of working memory
• Although the CE is probably the most important element of the WMM it is very difficult to test (unlike the VSS and the PL)
• The CE decides which information to pay attention to and which information to ignore and it then directs the slave systems to act accordingly

What is the Phonological Loop?

• The PL attends to and organises acoustic information in the form of spoken or written information (e.g. written words are encoded via vocalising or ‘speaking’, them in the mind so that visual information becomes acoustic information)
• the phonological store and
• the articulatory control system
• The phonological store is the ‘inner ear’ of the WMM as it processes and stores acoustic, speech-based information for a very short duration (a couple of seconds)
• The articulatory control system translates written words into speech so that they can then be kept in the phonological store in a kind of loop or ‘holding pattern’ so that we can gain access to it quickly, e.g. repeating a phone number over and over again until we can put it into our phone

What is the Visuospatial Sketchpad?

• The VSS attends to and organises visual and spatial information e.g. the colour of a flower, the arrangement of windows and doors in a house
• The VSS is used when you recognise a photo of your friend on social media for example or when you give directions to a stranger (e.g. How do I get to the train station?)
• the visual cache and
• the inner scribe
• The visual cache is the ‘inner eye’ of the WMM as it stores information about form and colour (e.g. a purple triangle)
• The inner scribe contains spatial and movement-related information (e.g. how to get from one side of a crowded room to the other)
• The inner scribe rehearses information which is then stored in the visual cache

Your inner scribe is constantly responding to an array of visual stimuli…

What is the Episodic Buffer?

• The EB was added to the model in 2000 as a way of acknowledging that the CE has to communicate with LTM in order to be able to function effectively
• Our working memory needs access to the information stored in LTM to be able to respond to the current situation – not being able to remember which side of the road to drive on, for example, could cause all sorts of problems!
• The EB acts as a sort of messenger that communicates between LTM and the slave systems of the WMM
• The EB arranges information into ‘packets’ and, when the time is right, it moves this information to other slave systems in a way which makes sense for the individual and which follows a set sequence i.e. events occur continuously rather than seeming out of joint (e.g. if you are having a conversation you see the other person speaking at the same time as their lips move)

Which research studies support the WMM?

• Baddeley et al. (1973) – dual-task lab experiment provides support for the PL and VSS The case of KF
• (Shallice & Warrington, 1974) – the case study of a brain-damaged patient provides evidence of the PL and the VSS as separate slave systems

Baddeley et al. (1973) is available as a separate Key Study – just navigate the Cognitive Processing section of this topic to find it along with the Key Study for the Multi-Store Model of Memory (Two Key Studies of Models of Memory)

Evaluation of the Working Memory Model

• The WMM provides a much more detailed and dynamic model of STM than the multi-store model of memory does as it explains how different processes in memory e.g. response to acoustic and visual information occur at the same time
• The WMM can be tested under controlled conditions such as those used in a lab experiment
• There is very little insight or evidence as to how the CE functions in terms of directing attention towards the slave systems
• Not properly explaining the role of LTM in memory means that the WMM is limited and ignores key factors in the ways that STM and LTM combine to produce working memory

As part of critical thinking don’t forget that you can suggest how to improve a model or a theory. You might suggest a better way of conceptualising memory in a model for example (possibly by combining elements of both the MSM and the WMM)

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Author: Claire Neeson

Claire has been teaching for 34 years, in the UK and overseas. She has taught GCSE, A-level and IB Psychology which has been a lot of fun and extremely exhausting! Claire is now a freelance Psychology teacher and content creator, producing textbooks, revision notes and (hopefully) exciting and interactive teaching materials for use in the classroom and for exam prep. Her passion (apart from Psychology of course) is roller skating and when she is not working (or watching 'Coronation Street') she can be found busting some impressive moves on her local roller rink.

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