phd in doctor of medicine

• PhD vs MD – Differences explained
• Types of Doctorates

A MD is a Doctor of Medicine, whilst a PhD is a Doctor of Philosophy. A MD program focuses on the application of medicine to diagnose and treat patients. A PhD program research focuses on research (in any field) to expand knowledge.

Introduction

This article will outline the key differences between a MD and a PhD. If you are unsure of which degree is suitable for you, then read on to find out the focuses and typical career paths of both. Please note this article has been written for the perspective of a US audience.

What is a MD?

MD (also seen stylized as M.D and M.D.) comes from the Latin term Medicīnae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Medicine.

MDs practice allopathic medicine (they use modern medicine to treat symptoms and diseases). A common example would be your physician, though there are numerous types of medical doctors, with different areas of speciality and as such may be referred to differently.

What is a PhD?

A PhD (sometimes seen stylized as Ph.D.) comes from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Philosophy.

A PhD can be awarded for carrying out original research in any field, not just medicine. In comparison to an MD, a PhD in a Medicinal field is focused on finding out new knowledge, as opposed to applying current knowledge.

A PhD in Medicine therefore does not require you to attend medical school or complete a residency program. Instead, you are required to produce a thesis (which summarizes your research findings) and defend your work in an oral examination.

What is the difference between a MD and a PhD?

Both are Doctoral Degrees, and someone with either degree can be referred to as a doctor. But for clarity, MDs are awarded to those with expertise in practicing medicine and are therefore more likely to be found in clinical environments. PhDs are awarded to researchers, and are therefore more likely to be found in academic environments.

This does not mean that MDs cannot pursue a research career, nor does it mean that a PhD cannot pursue clinical practice. It does mean, however, that PhDs are more suited to those who would wish to pursue a career in research, and that MDs are more suited to those who prefer the clinical aspects of medicine or aspire to become a practicing physician.

It should also be noted that a medical PhD doctorates possess transferable skills which make them desirable to various employers. Their familiarity with the scientific method and research experience makes them well suited to industry work beyond medical research.

Program structure and time

The standard MD program structure sees students undertake 2 years of coursework and classroom-based learning, before undertaking 2 years of rotational work in a clinical environment (such as a hospital). Getting an MD requires attending a medical school (accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education) and completing a residency program. Both of which prepare students to diagnose patients and practice clinical medicine.

The standard PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years and sees students undertake original research (monitored by a supervisor). Getting a PhD requires the contribution of novel findings, which leads to the advancement of knowledge within your field of research. With the exception of some clinical PhDs, a PhD alone is not enough to be able to prescribe medicine.

PhD doctorates are required to summarize the purpose, methodology, findings and significance of their research in a thesis. The final step is the ‘ Viva Voce ’ where the student must defend their thesis to a panel of examiners.

To summarize, a MD program usually lasts 4 years, whilst a PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years. Before being licensed to practice medicine, however, you must first complete a residency program which can last between 3 to 7 years.

What is a MD/PhD?

A MD/PhD is a dual doctoral degree. The program alternates between clinical focused learning and research focused work. This is ideal for those who are interested in both aspects of medicine. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, an estimated 600 students matriculate into MD-PhD programs each year .

The typical length of a MD/PhD program is 7 to 8 years, almost twice the length of a MD alone. As with a MD, MD/PhDs are still required to attend medical school and must complete a residency program before being able to practice medicine.

In comparison to PhD and MD programs, MD/PhD positions in the United States are scarce and consequently more competitive. The tuition fees for MD/PhD positions are typically much lower than MD and PhD positions are sometimes waived completely.

Those who possess a MD/PhD are commonly referred to as medical scientists. The ability to combine their medical knowledge with research skills enables MD/PhDs to work in a wide range of positions from academia to industrial research.

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Comparing the differences between MD vs. PhD vs. professional doctorate

By Michael Feder

This article has been vetted by University of Phoenix's editorial advisory committee.  Read more about our editorial process.

Reviewed by Marc Booker, PhD, Vice Provost, Strategy

At a glance

• MD is the abbreviation for Doctor of Medicine and PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. These are two types of doctoral degrees in addition to professional doctorates. 
• An MD is a doctoral degree for medical professionals, while a PhD is an academic degree focused on original research. Somewhat similar to a PhD are professional doctorates, which focus on applying practical research to problems in workplaces or communities.   
• A professional or practice-based doctorate (EdD, DBA, etc.) can be medical, and others are for scholar-practitioners in disciplines like education, business or psychology.
• University of Phoenix does not offer MD or PhD programs, but students can earn a doctorate in business, nursing, education or healthcare that allows them to build upon their industry expertise. Learn more about the differences between these degree programs and if one of the  five doctoral programs  at University of Phoenix is right for you !

What is a doctorate? Breaking down the three types

Some people might confuse an  MD (Doctor of Medicine)  with a  PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) , and vice versa. While both an MD and a PhD are prestigious degrees near the top of the  academic ladder , they each have a different meaning and come with very  different requirements .

Different still from both of those degrees are professional doctorates, which allow industry professionals to translate their education and experience into credibility and leadership through research. Professional doctorates have similar requirements to PhDs, such as a dissertation and residency, but focus on the application of research and professional growth over original research.

Upon graduation, those who have earned any of these three degrees can call themselves a “doctor,” but the path to a degree, the purpose behind it and its applications vary based on the choice. MD graduates want to work in medicine and healthcare. PhDs want to bring new knowledge and research to the world. A practice-based doctoral graduate wants to grow in their professional expertise. (If the last one sounds like you, University of Phoenix can help!)

Keep reading to learn more about these doctoral programs and which is right for you.

What does MD stand for?

MD is an abbreviation for Doctor of Medicine and identifies a  medical practitioner  who has completed undergraduate studies and four years of medical school. An MD program teaches medical students about the human body and diseases through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on clinical labs.

Several  types of physicians  might have this degree, depending on their area of study. For example, medical practitioners with an MD degree might become a medical doctor and potentially specialize in dermatology, cardiovascular disease, family medicine, oncology, pediatrics, neurology or preventive medicine. As you can see, this degree  can lead to a variety of career paths , depending on which specialty interests you and what your medical education is.

Learn more about online doctoral degrees at University of Phoenix. 

How to earn an MD

Becoming a Doctor of Medicine  requires a significant investment of time and money, but the reward can be well worth it. Before medical school, you’ll need to  take the Medical College Admission Test  (MCAT ® ) and earn a passing score. You’ll also need to build a portfolio of coursework and experience to help you gain admittance to medical school.

Medical school typically takes students four years to complete. You’ll learn the latest techniques and approaches for patient assessment, diagnosis and treatment. Medical schools commonly provide a combination of classroom,  research and clinical experience . You’ll work alongside peers and healthcare professionals as you develop skills in general medicine.

You’ll choose a field to specialize in during your final year of medical school. Students have more than 120 options to choose from when specializing, including  primary care,   pediatrics, geriatrics, emergency medicine and family medicine .

After graduating, you’ll complete residency training to further develop skills in your specialty. Residency typically lasts three to seven years, depending on the field you’ve selected. During the residency portion of your education, you’ll treat patients under the supervision of more experienced physicians.

Even after you begin to practice as an MD,  the educational portion of your career never stops . As practices change, patient needs evolve and research continues, MDs benefit from ongoing education to stay current.

What does PhD stand for?

A PhD, or  Doctor of Philosophy , is a doctoral degree that recognizes graduates who have completed a full postsecondary program. Students can earn a PhD in more fields than philosophy. After completing the necessary coursework, original research and hands-on experience, you can earn a PhD in fields like science, the humanities and engineering.

Earning a PhD can help unlock a wide range of potential career opportunities. Computer engineers, research scientists, statisticians, healthcare administrators, professors, chemists and other careers commonly require a PhD degree, in addition to appropriate undergraduate study.

How to earn a PhD

Becoming a PhD is also a  serious commitment  that requires an investment of  time, money and energy .

Here is what’s typically required to become a PhD:

• Complete a bachelor’s degree in your field
• Complete a master’s degree in an appropriate field
• Pass any program entrance exams
• Fulfill coursework, research and hands-on lab requirements in your program
• Finalize and defend your dissertation as a  doctoral candidate  (unless your program specifies otherwise)

It’s important to note that many PhD  programs have different requirements , prerequisites and parameters for students. Check with your preferred institution for a more detailed explanation of these requirements.

What is a professional doctorate?

While some professional or practice-based doctorate programs are medical,  others are designed for professionals in other fields . These programs are meant for  scholar-practitioners  in disciplines like education, business or psychology. One of the key differences between this degree and a PhD is the focus on applying research to a professional setting rather than conducting theoretical and research-focused studies. Often, programs are differentiated as academic versus professional.

Examples of doctoral degrees are Doctor of Education, Doctor of Nursing Practice and Doctor of Business Administration. Each of these programs focuses on a specific discipline and applying research in those areas to a professional setting.

How to earn a doctorate

While  practitioner doctoral programs  teach different skills, they all share common requirements. You’ll need to  complete a bachelor’s degree  in your field and sometimes a master’s degree, depending on program requirements.

After completing the necessary coursework and research, students also typically need to finish a supervised thesis and defend their dissertation or capstone project-specific coursework, research and hands-on labs alongside other students in the same field. However, this will depend on the specific program and its requirements.

What does the title “Dr.” really mean?

The term “doctor” or “Dr.” is commonly used today to describe a wide variety of occupations. Students who complete a doctoral degree can earn the title of “Dr.” even though they earned their credentials in a non-medical field like education or business management.

While a variety of professionals can earn a doctorate, the term is often still  reserved for medical practitioners . In conventional use,  doctors typically refer to medical physicians . However, it is appropriate to use “Dr.” if you graduated from any of the three programs discussed above.  

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What is doctoral candidacy?

Practitioner doctoral degree programs at university of phoenix.

While University of Phoenix (UOPX)  does not have  MD or PhD programs, it does offer several professional doctoral degrees that can be earned completely online. Students might choose the UOPX programs because classes are flexible and offered online, and because of the University’s unique “ Scholar-Practitioner-Leader model .”

If you are curious about a doctoral degree, the following programs are available at UOPX:

• Doctor of Business Administration  — This doctorate can help you gain strategic vision and skills to position yourself as a business leader. It explores how to solve organizational problems, how to design and conduct research studies, how to introduce innovative business ideas to the industry and more.
• Doctor of Management   — This doctorate equips you with critical thinking skills to find creative solutions to complex problems.
• Doctor of Education  — This doctoral program prepares you to use analytical, critical and innovative thinking to improve performance and solve complex problems in education.
• Doctor of Health Administration  — If you’re a health professional who is seeking greater responsibility in shaping the future of the health sector, this doctorate can help you meet the challenges inherent to today’s healthcare landscape, including economic fluctuations, burgeoning patient needs and industry-changing legislation.
• Doctor of Nursing Practice  — This doctorate is designed for working nurses who require a doctorate for advanced practice or nurses who desire their terminal degree. It does not prepare students for professional certification or state licensure as a nurse or as an advanced practice nurse.

These doctoral studies are only some of the many options for professionals who want to gain the  highest academic credentials  in their fields. Doctoral programs offer significant benefits to program graduates, including  newly developed skills , insight into field trends, hands-on research opportunities and  leadership capabilities .

Completing a doctoral program is also a strong indication to employers that you’re serious about your career and your field. With so many options for advanced study, these programs are available for most major fields. Even if you have already completed a bachelor’s or master’s degree in your discipline, a doctorate lends further credibility to your reputation and  can help prepare you for a leadership position .

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Michael Feder is a content marketing specialist at University of Phoenix, where he researches and writes on a variety of topics, ranging from healthcare to IT. He is a graduate of the Johns Hopkins University Writing Seminars program and a New Jersey native!

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In partnership with the  Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , the Bloomberg School offers students the opportunity to earn a Doctor of Medicine (MD) alongside a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) – a rigorous combination that prepares graduates for prestigious careers in academic medicine.

The long-lasting relationship between the School of Medicine and the Bloomberg School – both situated along the same city block here in Baltimore – fosters the ideal environment for this combined six or eight year program.

Students complete two years of medical school before devoting themselves full-time to their PhD studies. After completion of the PhD degree requirements, students then complete their MD degree.

Interested “physician-scientists” should contact the MD/PhD program administrator, Sharon Welling ( [email protected]  or 410-955-8008), and visit the  MD/PhD Program's website  for full details on admission requirements and application procedures.  

Is an MD-PhD Right for Me?

New section.

Do you want the opportunity to train in both medicine and research? An MD-PhD allows you to do just that. But what does it mean to become a physician scientist? We asked AAMC experts to explain why you might want to consider this type of training.

As you prepare to apply to medical school, it’s valuable to explore other potential career paths beyond a traditional MD degree. One path to consider is an MD-PhD degree, which provides training in both medicine and research.

But how do you know if it’s the right career path for you? We asked AAMC experts to explain the advantages of training to be a physician scientist through an MD-PhD program.  

Who are physician scientists? Physician scientists are focused on scientific discovery and patient care at the intersection of science and medicine, understanding human health and disease from a scientific and clinical perspective. Physician scientists have the unique ability to identify and study important questions in health care. There are four pathways to become a physician scientist:

• Complete MD training and then conduct extended research through fellowship training.
• Complete MD training and then return to graduate school to earn a PhD degree.
• Complete PhD training and then enter medical school to earn an MD degree.
• Work towards both degrees simultaneously in a dual MD-PhD degree program.

In each pathway, students are exposed to a career in scientific research while also treating patients in a clinical setting.

What are MD-PhD Programs? MD-PhD programs provide training for the dual degree by integrating research and clinical training experiences where students learn to conduct hypothesis driven research in a mentored environment. There are over 100 MD-PhD programs affiliated with U.S. medical schools, and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences partially supports approximately 45 programs, known as Medical Scientist Training Programs (MSTPs). 

These programs provide unique training experiences, including MD-PhD specific courses and professional development workshops, visiting scholar seminars, retreats, opportunities to attend national conferences and join organizations, and mentoring for graduate and residency training. The students and mentors in these programs are a vibrant community, working to advance the trainees’ development as a scientist and physician. 

How long does training take?

The MD-PhD career path is a commitment, as training to complete both MD and PhD degrees takes about 7 or 8 years.

How do I pay for a MD-PhD program?

Most programs offer financial support, including stipends, tuition waivers, and health insurance to help students cover the cost of their scientific and medical training.

Who are MD-PhD students?

Annually, an estimated 600 students matriculate into MD-PhD programs. This is only about 3% of all students who matriculate into medical school. PhD training for MD-PhD students is typically in biomedical sciences, such as molecular, cellular, or human or animal studies in biochemistry, cell biology and microbiology, immunology and genetics, neuroscience, pharmacology, and physiology. However, PhD training may also be in fields outside of the classical biomedical sciences, such as bioengineering, chemical biology, bioinformatics, public health, anthropology, and bioethics. 

What do MD-PhDs do after graduation?

Most MD-PhD graduates train in a residency program and become licensed to practice in a specific field of medicine. From there, they typically go on to careers that blend research and clinical medicine, though their research topic may or may not be closely related to their field of medical practice. Most MD-PhDs work in academic medical centers, such as medical schools or teaching hospitals. MD-PhDs also conduct research in institutes such as the National Institutes of Health or other government or private agencies, or work for pharma or biotech companies.

MD-PhD careers provide unique perspectives on questions about basic scientific discovery, medical intervention, or translational research. During their career, MD-PhDs may remain focused as a basic or clinical scientist, or become an administrative leader within their academic medical center. Their training provides opportunities to be successful in either environment. 

Is an MD-PhD path right for you? To find out more, visit the AAMC website for information on MD-PhD dual degree training . 

• @AAMCpremed

Helpful tools and information regarding medical MD-PhD programs.

Information about applying to MD-PhD programs, emphasizing the application process during COVID-19.

Information about MD-PhD programs, emphasizing the career and application process.

Learn about MD-PhD Programs from program leaders.

Upcoming short presentations will describe features of MD-PhD training, alumni careers, and detailed logistics of the application process.

Emily battled viral encephalitis for years during college, and now as a MD/PhD student, she reminds premeds that it's okay to ask for help.

Cesar couldn't apply to medical school when he first graduated from college due to his undocumented status. Now he's in a MD-PhD program and hopes to practice in the Southwest where there's a high need for Spanish-speaking physicians.

“M.D.” vs. “Ph.D.” vs. “Dr.”: Are They Synonyms?

Quick: when you hear the word doctor , what do you picture?

Most would probably describe someone in a white lab coat with a stethoscope hanging around their neck or someone in medical scrubs—someone you would seek out if you have a deep cut that needed stitches.

That word doctor , however, is a title assigned to many who don’t come close to that description, many of whom you wouldn’t want stitching up that cut. Take your English professor, for instance. No offense, Dr. Barrett. 

It can all be a bit confusing, which is why it’s important to know who and why someone might be called a doctor , as well as what all those initials and abbreviations after their name mean. Here we break it all down.

What does Dr. mean?

Let’s start with doctor or D r . for short. While the first definition of the word is “ a person licensed to practice medicine,” that doesn’t mean you want to take medical advice from anyone who calls themselves a doctor . There are many looser definitions of the word that follow and, frankly, make things a bit confusing.

For example, the third definition is older slang for a “cook, as at a camp or on a ship,” while the seventh entry is “an eminent scholar and teacher.” Bugs Bunny didn’t help matters either by plying anyone and everyone with his famous greeting,“What’s up, doc?” 

The term doctor can be traced back to the late 1200s, and it stems from a Latin word meaning “to teach.” It wasn’t used to describe a licensed medical practitioner until about 1400, and it wasn’t used as such with regularity until the late 1600s. It replaced the former word used for medical doctors— leech , which is now considered archaic. 

WATCH: When Did The Word "Doctor" Become Medical?

Physician vs. doctor : are these synonyms.

While the term physician is a synonym for doctor , it’s typically used to refer to those who practice general medicine rather than those who perform surgery, aka surgeons . 

A quack , on the other hand, is defined as “ a fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill.”

What does M.D. mean?

Moving on to initials that carry more weight than a nod from Bugs, let’s look at M.D.s .

M.D. , which can be used with or without the periods ( M.D. or MD )  is the designation for a medical doctor. This is earned by attending medical school (typically a four-year program after completing at least one undergraduate degree, plus a residency program), and learning to diagnose patients’ symptoms and offer treatment. 

The initials M and D stem from the Latin title  Medicīnae Doctor. There are many different types of doctors, with different specialties, but if you have a physical ailment, visiting a doctor with the initials M.D. is a good place to start.

Specialty doctors may add even more initials to their title, such as DCN (doctor of clinical nutrition), DDS (doctor of dental surgery), or countless others they acquire with additional training. To make things even more confusing, some may add abbreviations from medical associations they belong to, such as FAAEM (Fellow of the American Academy of Emergency Medicine). 

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What does Ph.D. mean?

As for Ph.D. , this stands for “doctor of philosophy.” It stems from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor.

You can get a Ph.D. in any number of subjects, from anthropology to mythological studies. It’s not an easy feat, however, as to earn one, you must do original research and write a dissertation . 

Ph.D. vs. M.D .: are these synonyms?

There are two big differences between Ph.D. s and M.D .s. When it comes to medicine, M.D.s can prescribe medications, and Ph.D.s can’t. And yes, it’s possible to be both an M.D. and a Ph.D. In fact, some med schools offer programs in which you can achieve both simultaneously. 

You can also get a professional doctorate degree in a number of fields. For example, you might receive a doctorate of education, an  Ed.D . 

So, in a nutshell, both M.D.s and Ph.Ds can be referred to as doctors . If you’re looking for someone to treat what ails you physically, then you want at least an M.D. following their name. If you want to dig deep into a subject and get advice from someone who has done their own research and who likely knows the latest and greatest developments in a particular area, then you’re probably looking for a Ph.D. And if someone has both, even better—depending on your needs, it may be just what the doctor ordered.

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What’s the Difference Between MD and PhD Programs?

What’s the difference between MD and PhD programs? Both an MD and a Ph.D. are doctorates awarded to people who finish the highest level of graduate education. However, MD and Ph.D. holders have quite distinct professional paths. Understanding the difference between MD and Ph.D. will help you choose the one that best matches your academic and career goals. Here, we’ll go through the similarities and distinctions between an MD and a Ph.D., as well as some pointers on how to decide between the two. Here are these medical degrees explained:

The Difference Between MD and Ph.D.

MDs are medical doctors who treat patients, whereas PhDs are researchers who specialize in a particular field of study. The Latin phrase medicinae doctor , which translates to teacher of medicine , is where we get the English acronym MD. People who have earned an MD, also known as a Doctor of Medicine, have participated in clinical training during their time in graduate school in order to become physicians upon completion of their studies.

The title philosophiae doctor , from which we get the name Ph.D., literally translates to teacher of philosophy . However, the term is applicable to a wider variety of people than merely philosophy teachers. Students pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy degree, sometimes known as a Ph.D., follow a curriculum distinct from that followed by those pursuing a Doctor of Medicine. Ph.D. candidates are required to undertake research in their respective fields of study rather than getting experience in the workforce. Graduates with PhDs usually find employment in a field relevant to their major or the specialized field they studied.

Dual MD/Ph.D. Programs

An MD/Ph.D. is a dual doctorate. The curriculum alternates between clinical and research-oriented components. This is perfect for people who want to learn both clinical and research-focused aspects of medicine. Approximately 600 students enter MD-PhD programs annually, according to the Association of American Medical Colleges.

MD/ Ph.D. vs MD 

MD Ph.D. graduates are also known as physician-scientists or medical scientists since they hold a Ph.D. in addition to their MD degree. Medical professionals with an MD degree and a Ph.D. are both considered medical doctors. To obtain this additional degree, you will need to participate in a program that is longer and structured differently than MD programs. MD Ph.D. programs typically last anywhere from seven to eight years and require students to attend both medical school and graduate school. On the other hand, medical doctor (MD) programs can be finished in just four years, which is just half the amount of time required for MD Ph.D. students.

Although the initial two years of instruction in both programs take place in classrooms, MD Ph.D. students continue to graduate school to work on their dissertations for an additional three to four years after those first two years. After that, they will return to medical school to complete their clinical training for another year or two. To obtain a license to practice medicine, graduates with an MD or MD Ph.D. degree must first finish a residency program that lasts between three and seven years.

Application and Cost

The application process is the same whether you are interested in an MD Ph.D. or an MD program. Most programs require you to apply through AMCAS. You will fill out all application sections (including the AMCAS work and activities section) and upload your coursework, letters of recommendation, and medical school personal statement. Find out if the CASPer test is required for admission to the schools of your choice. If so, begin practicing with CASPer sample questions as soon as possible. Students will be required to write two additional essays to explain why they want to pursue an MD Ph.D. degree as well as their research experience. 

In public medical schools, the annual tuition and fees for MD students are about $37,000; in private or out-of-state medical schools, the annual tuition and fees are about $62,000. In contrast, students enrolled in MD-PhD programs have access to reduced or even free tuition, as many programs waive tuition and provide financial aid to cover living costs. The National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) funds 49 MD Ph.D. programs through the highly competitive Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP).

Competition

Both MD Ph.D. and MD programs are notoriously difficult to get into, with acceptance rates ranging on average from 1 percent to 4 percent. The number of available MD Ph.D. programs is significantly lower than the number of MD programs, and the advantage of significantly reduced or waived tuition contributes to an even higher level of competition, particularly in MSTPs compared to MD programs.

To be a competitive MD Ph.D. applicant, you should have a higher GPA and MCAT score than if you applied as an MD applicant. MD programs have varying levels of competition, and there are MD programs that receive a large number of applicants competing for a limited number of spots. It is entirely dependent on the school, the program, and the application cycle to determine whether or not some MD programs are more competitive than MD-PhD programs.

Salary and Career Prospects

Although it may appear obvious that students who graduate from MD programs become medical doctors and the majority of them practice medicine in hospitals, clinics, medical centers, and private practices, some students are unsure of what a career as a physician-scientist entails. Although many MD Ph.D. graduates choose to complete their residency training in internal medicine, pathology, pediatrics, and neurology, there are also graduates working in a wide variety of other medical specialties, including surgery, radiology, and emergency medicine. Other typical specialties for MD graduates include pediatrics, emergency medicine, and family medicine. One study by the American Association for Medical Education and Research (AAMC) found that nearly 80 percent of MD Ph.D. graduates are employed as professors at medical schools or in research institutions such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), pharmaceutical companies, and other government agencies. More than 7,000 MD-PhD alumni participated in this study, and 82% said they would do it all over again, even if they could go back in time and do it all over again.

Physician-scientists are trained to not only have in-depth knowledge of the medical field but also of population health and disease, as well as the ability to conduct research and analysis independently. With a dual degree, physician-scientists can treat patients, detect health threats, and develop new treatments, therapies, or cures. When employed in academic settings, physician-scientists have the opportunity to teach, provide clinical services, and conduct their own or joint research. Physician-scientists typically earn between $60,000 and $115,000 per year, depending on the type and location of employment.

Physicians are responsible for managing and supporting the health and wellbeing of the patients in their care. They can manage and significantly improve their patients’ health through physical exams, diagnostic tests, treatment, and communication. Surgical procedures and treatment of illness and disease, either on a general or a specific level, may be performed by doctors of different specialties. The range of annual salaries is usually between $180,000 and $280,000, depending on the level of specialization.

Which Option Is the Most Suitable for You? MD or MD-PhD?

For some students putting on the safety glasses in science class or reviving a childhood teddy bear was a defining moment in choosing the medical field as their future path. However, not everyone is blessed with an immediate passion or the typical “aha” moment. Sometimes, a student’s interest in medicine or research develops later in life through experiences or education, which is perfectly normal. So what if your interests lie somewhere between the two fields of science and medicine? What factors should you consider when deciding between obtaining a degree in medicine (MD) and a joint degree (MD-PhD)? It is essential to choose only after you have considered various factors and are one hundred percent sure about your decision. The reality is that neither choice will be easy, and you’ll need to be willing to invest the necessary amount of time, money, and effort to achieve success.

Why Do Some Students Choose an MD-PhD?

Here are some reasons why people want to be both doctors and scientists.

As a physician-scientist, you’ll have a unique career path. One of the most rewarding aspects of working as a medical researcher is solving a patient’s medical issues while pursuing scientific research that could lead to a clinical cure for that particular disease.

MD-PhD trainees are medical researchers who also have a strong desire to practice medicine in a clinical setting.

The MD-PhD curriculum is designed to integrate the scientific and medical education of the future physician-scientist effectively and efficiently.

In the years leading up to their Ph.D., MD-PhD students complete coursework and receive formal training in research methodology.

Most MD-PhD programs offer trainees financial support in the form of stipends and scholarships to cover tuition costs. This financial support acknowledges the amount of time a student must devote to training in order to pursue a career in both medicine and research (MD-PhD). However, each program’s level of financial assistance varies, and some may provide assistance to only United States citizens and permanent residents.

MD-PhD Training Areas of Research

When applying to specific MD-PhD Programs, one essential factor to consider is the variety of the available graduate degree programs.

Most candidates for MD-PhD programs earn their Ph.D. in a biomedical laboratory discipline like cell biology, biochemistry, genetics, immunology, pharmacology, physiology, neuroscience, or biomedical engineering.

Students in some MD-PhD programs may also complete graduate work in non-laboratory disciplines such as computer science, economics, epidemiology, health care policy, or even the history of medicine and its social and cultural influences.

How to Choose Between an MD and a Ph.D.

Figure out what motivates you the most.

It would help if you first consider what you’re interested in and what drives you. This will help you figure out what you’re passionate about. Suppose you are confident that you are interested in medicine and assisting other people but are only slightly interested in research. In that case, it is probably a good idea to pursue medicine on its own rather than research. The MD Ph.D. program isn’t easy because it takes almost twice as long as an MD program. Students should only go for this joint degree if they are serious about both medicine and research. The joint program may be a good fit for you if you have a strong interest in disease mechanisms, are curious about the unknown, and can’t imagine a career that doesn’t involve research in some capacity.

First and foremost, decide if you want to become a medical doctor or a physician-scientist. People driven by their passions are more likely to find fulfillment in their work because they are doing what they truly want to do. You’ll have a rewarding career only when you have enough motivation to put in the necessary time and effort.

Think About the Dynamics of Your Preferred Job

Doctors spend a lot of time talking to their patients and families, and they need good communication skills. In hospitals, doctors may work unusual hours, even on weekends and holidays; in offices, they can have a more conventional schedule. If you decide to get a Ph.D., you might spend a lot of time working alone in a lab, or you might decide to teach students in your field. Whether you want an MD or a Ph.D. can depend on what kind of work environment and schedule you want.

Trust Your Own Experience

Is it possible to know for sure which path is the best for you? Before submitting your applications, get some hands-on experience in the field. This is the best opportunity to see whether you’ll like your future career path. If you’re torn between an MD and an MD Ph.D. program, make sure you get some clinical and research experience before making a decision. This is an excellent opportunity for you to gain practical experience in both fields and determine which ones pique your interest the most. You could sign up for volunteering opportunities that will give you first-hand experience in medicine or research. These experiences will be crucial when applying to medical school, but they’ll also help you narrow your interests.

Finally, remember that if you are still unsure which path is the best, you could always reach out to our Academic Advisors and seek their guidance.

By setting up a free one-on-one meeting with our friendly and knowledge advisors, you will be able to gain the valuable insight as to which career path you would like to take and how to get there. CLICK HERE TO GET STARTED .

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What is the Real Difference between an MD and PhD?

Phds advance knowledge, whereas mds merely apply existing knowledge..

Posted March 7, 2011 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

If you ask someone in the psychology world how people with PhDs (Doctor of Philosophy ) differ from those with MD (Doctor of Medicine) you may get an answer like "MDs can prescribe medication , whereas PhDs cannot." That is true. Another difference is that MDs generally make more money in the United States.

MDs are consider by many to be the "real doctors" because they can help with physiological medical problems. That too is true. I certainly don't refer to myself as "Dr. Kelly" in any context other than an academic setting, because people might get the false impression that I could jump in and help in the event of a broken foot or migraine headache.

All that sounds pretty bad for the PhD. But here's the most essential difference between the two degrees: PhDs advance knowledge, whereas MDs merely apply existing knowledge. Unlike the MD who does not need to produce any original research, the person earning a PhD must produce original research and write it up in a thesis or dissertation. Then a committee of experts must deem that thesis as offering an acceptable advancement of knowledge before the PhD is conferred. It typically takes a couple of years longer to earn a PhD than an MD. Part of the reason it takes so long is that the person earning the PhD is being trained on how to think critically about existing knowledge, and it can take a while to find one's niche and fill a gap in the knowledge base.

If you yourself want to make important scientific discoveries and then tell the world about them, you will be much better prepared by getting a PhD than an MD. You also will be much better prepared to criticize studies you read about in virtually any field because you will be trained in critical thinking and writing.

If you are deciding which degree is right for you, ask yourself if you will be content with applying the knowledge you learn (MD) from other people, or if you would like to get in on the action of making the discoveries yourself (PhD). For instance, would you like to be one of the scientists who are figuring out how to reverse the aging process (PhD)? Would you like to see if giving aging mice a particular the enzyme (one that you discover) makes their hair shiny again and restores their fertility (PhD)? Or would you be content giving your future medical patients the proper dose of the medications that arise from this research and then seeing the signs of youth return in your patients (MD)? These are the kinds of questions that college students everywhere should be asking themselves, and yet I have never seen them do so.

This difference in training also means that if you want to know what the cutting -edge knowledge is in a given field, you have to ask a PhD in that field, not an MD. So for instance, let's say you or your mate is having trouble getting pregnant . If you just ask your local obstetrician or gynecologist what the cutting edge discoveries are regarding fertility, that MD is not likely to know. That MD can give you fertility treatments that he or she has learned about and tried with other patients. It should be noted, however, that many MDs make an effort to remain abreast of scientific research long after their degree has been conferred.

The upshot of my message is this: We need both kinds of people, those who apply existing knowledge (such as the MD does in the medical field) and those who advance it (PhDs). But if you think a PhD is less qualified than an MD when it comes to having cutting-edge knowledge, you have that backwards.

Anita E. Kelly, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Notre Dame. She is author of The Clever Student and The Psychology of Secrets.

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Doctoral studies are carried out by science postgraduates, medical students combining clinical training with the PhD, and clinically qualified doctors undertaking scientific training. The research covers the whole spectrum of medical science from basic biology to clinical therapies.

Along with the specific research training provided in the laboratory in which they work, students receive further training within the department in the form of postgraduate workshops concentrating on research techniques, research seminars both on the Addenbrooke's site and elsewhere in the University, and postgraduate student seminars dealing with generic skills such as intellectual property rights, writing a thesis or paper, and entrepreneurship.

Candidates wishing to take a shorter course of research and write a thesis for the master's after one year may apply for the MPhil in Medical Sciences.

Learning Outcomes

Those who wish to progress to a PhD after completing an MPhil will be required to satisfy their potential supervisor, Head of Department and the Faculty Degree Committee that they have the skills and ability to achieve the higher degree.

The Postgraduate Virtual Open Day usually takes place at the end of October. It’s a great opportunity to ask questions to admissions staff and academics, explore the Colleges virtually, and to find out more about courses, the application process and funding opportunities. Visit the  Postgraduate Open Day  page for more details.

See further the  Postgraduate Admissions Events  pages for other events relating to Postgraduate study, including study fairs, visits and international events.

Key Information

3-4 years full-time, 4-7 years part-time, study mode : research, doctor of philosophy, department of medicine, course - related enquiries, application - related enquiries, course on department website, dates and deadlines:, lent 2024 (closed).

Some courses can close early. See the Deadlines page for guidance on when to apply.

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These deadlines apply to applications for courses starting in Michaelmas 2024, Lent 2025 and Easter 2025.

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Ph.D. vs. Doctorate: What are the Differences?

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For those who have a deep-seated attitude, pursuing a doctoral degree can be a tough yet beneficial journey. Currently enrolled in a doctorate program means that a person has already scooched over college admissions, went through high stake tests and exams, and finished all those research papers and long hours spent in university libraries hitting the books. While studying for a doctorate entails asserting oneself to an extensive amount of quality time and money , its significance and purpose usually pave the way to a lucrative end.

After having finished the Master’s Degree , students begin to think about their next step in their academic career. Then, paradoxically, while navigating through academia, they find themselves baffled by the immense terms and terminologies used to label specific degrees. Because the terms “Doctorate” and “Ph.D.” are somehow interlocked and overlap, and because “PhD” is sometimes used inconsistently, it can lead to considerable confusion. Ph.D. vs. Doctorate? You might wonder what their difference is, and why they are important. E xplaining what each of these terms stands for, the difference between them, and why they are valuable, can help you steer yourself down the right path from the outset.

Doctorate Degree vs. Ph.D.

At first glance, it is pretty easy to confuse these two terms. But it is important for everyone to be able to make a distinction between the two. In this article, we will discuss the difference between Ph.D. and Doctorate in detail in order to get rid of any confusion you may have. In the academic world, the terms Doctorate and Ph.D. are currently used interchangeably. Both of them are the top cap of the ladder. However, a doctorate is mostly used as an umbrella term covering many fields ranging from professional degrees, humanities, and scientific disciplines.

A Ph.D. or Doctor of Philosophy, on the other hand, is a subcategory of a doctoral degree, it is much more distinct and clear-cut and is usually narrower in nature encompassing only humanities and scientific fields. In plain English, when someone says they are enrolling on a doctoral degree, it means they are doing a Ph.D. in a specific field. So, technically, in common parlance, there is no difference between the two terms.

But at the other end of the spectrum, one should be careful not to confuse a professional doctoral degree with a Ph.D. The former is more practical and is designed to prepare students to apply existing knowledge to find solutions to real-life problems and has a direct application to a particular profession.

A Ph.D. is theoretical by nature and is more academic and research-focused. it is often fixed on disseminating knowledge by conducting authentic research which means reviewing and identifying gaps in current literature and evaluating the relevance of existing and emerging theories within a particular field.

What Is a Ph.D. Degree and Why Should You Go for It?

Students who acquire a Ph.D. are justly proud — they wear it as a badge of identity in the academic elite. Traditionally, a Ph.D. was associated with teaching, which from Latin licentia docendi meant “license to teach”. However, the concept of Ph.D. has been on shifting sands nowadays and has become a more general term that isn’t necessarily confined to teaching only.

The Value of a PhD

Obtaining a Ph.D. helps you capitalize on the emerging academic opportunities making you more easily identifiable to employers or businesses seeking to fill professional, higher-level job positions. Many of these career options, conversely, are not available to those who do not belong to the Ph.D. club. While pursuing a Ph.D. requires devoting a tremendous effort and time and making significant personal sacrifices pushing the boundaries of knowledge, it’s all in service of the area of study you’re most passionate and zealous about. Ultimately, once you’ve attained your Ph.D., you will have achieved the pinnacle of education— something not too many people have or are able to accomplish.

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What Is a Doctorate Degree?

A doctoral or doctorate degree is usually the most advanced degree one can earn in an academic discipline. Many pursue a doctorate degree to increase their professional credibility, be acknowledged as an expert in a specific field, and improve their resume.

A doctorate degree is a graduate-level credential that is usually earned after multiple years of graduate school. Earning a doctoral degree requires a significant level of research and work. In order to get this degree, one has to research a subject thoroughly, conduct new research and analysis, and provide a solution or interpretation into the field. But what types of doctoral degrees are available?

Types of Doctorate Degrees

There are two categories of doctorate degrees: an academic degree and a professional doctorate degree. An academic degree focuses on research, data analysis, and the evaluation of theory. A professional doctorate degree, on the other hand, is considered a terminal degree, which means that one has achieved the most advanced degree in the field. This degree is specifically designed for working professionals who want to grow in their careers.

Professional Doctorate Degrees

A professional doctorate is designed for working professionals who have experience in the field and want to increase their knowledge, improve their credibility, and advance their careers. This degree focuses on applying research to practical issues, coming up with interpretation and solutions, as well as designing effective professional practices within a particular field.

Professional doctoral degrees include:

Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)

The DBA degree is ideal for students who already have a general business background and are interested in delving deeper into the practical and theoretical aspects that underpin business education. More to the point, in DBA you will develop the ability to solve real-life problems, discover the relevant expertise to innovate and uphold complex business issues and so much more. Upon completion, DBA students will possess enhanced leadership and strategic skills as well as the tools to propel their careers in today’s marketplace. The Business Administration industry is keen on finding such graduates with business skills and this is indicated by the immense job positions currently available.

Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)

If you are interested in setting your eyes on creating lifelong learning among your students, making a positive influence in educational culture, contributing to the growing body of research in the education realm , or just enhancing your subject matter expertise, the Doctor of Education program ticks all the boxes. This degree maintains a rigorous approach in academic education that prepares graduates to showcase the skills and expertise to devise solutions in tackling the challenges in contemporary education practice and become transformational leaders in the industry.

Doctor of Computer Science (DCS)

The demand for computer scientists has reached its peak and it is among the most sought-after positions nowadays. With a degree in DCS, you will have the opportunity to design, apply innovative experiments, predict trends and, ultimately, develop a richer understanding and contribute to your area of expertise. After all, who doesn’t want an exciting and financially stable career?

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Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)

The Doctor of Medicine degree is designed to prepare you for various medical challenges in different settings nationally and internationally. This program will further develop your critical thinking and clinical reasoning skills required for safe, high-quality medical practices. It will also improve your leadership, communication, and teamwork skills for collaborative patient care.

Doctor of Optometry (O.D.)

This professional degree typically requires four years of study. It focuses on basic biological sciences such as anatomy and physiology, microbiology, neuroanatomy, and so on. This doctoral degree will prepare, educate, and train professionals to practice at the highest level of proficiency, professionalism, and integrity.

Doctor of Psychology (PsyD)

The Doctoral of Psychology degree concentrates on the clinical and applied aspects of psychology. This type of doctorate prepares students for professional practice and clinical placement. This degree will be highly beneficial when working directly with patients who need psychology services. In addition, this degree allows doctors of psychology to confidently function as researchers and clinicians.

How to Choose a Ph.D. Program?

Choosing a Ph.D. program can be pretty challenging; it is a big academic decision and investment that requires commitment and perseverance. But how can you pick the right Ph.D. program for you? Well, there are some tips to help you choose the best fit for your goals and preferences:

• Think about the reasons why you want a Ph.D., what you expect to gain from it, and whether it is compatible with your professional goals.
• Consider your research environment.
• Take your time to research, compare, and consider multiple opportunities carefully.
• Pick a subject that interests and motivates you but is also practical.
• Ask your professors and other scholars in the field for advice.

All in all, the terms “Doctorate’’ and “Ph.D.” are in essence the same, which means all Ph.D. students are Doctoral students as well. On the other hand, earning a Ph.D. degree is no joke. If anything, Ph.D. students have the tenacity, patience, persistence, and years of hard work that you can vouch for. Ultimately, deciding what type of doctoral degree you should hop on, depends on your career goals, what you are passionate about and how you are going to achieve it.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a doctorate and a ph.d..

In academic contexts, the terms “Doctorate” and “Ph.D.” are often used interchangeably, but there is a distinction. A Doctorate is an umbrella term covering a wide range of fields, including professional degrees, humanities, and scientific disciplines. A Ph.D., or Doctor of Philosophy, is a specific type of doctoral degree, typically focused on research and academic pursuits in the humanities and scientific fields.

Why should I pursue a Ph.D.?

Pursuing a Ph.D. can be a valuable endeavor, as it opens up academic and research opportunities, enhances your expertise in a specific field, and makes you more attractive to employers seeking candidates for high-level positions. It’s a chance to push the boundaries of knowledge and become an expert in your chosen study area.

What are the benefits of a professional doctorate?

Professional doctorate degrees, such as Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) or Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), are designed for working professionals who want to apply research to practical issues in their field. These degrees can enhance your career prospects, leadership skills, and problem-solving abilities within your profession.

How do I choose the right Ph.D. program?

To choose the right Ph.D. program, consider your career goals, research environment, and personal interests. Take your time to research and compare programs, seek advice from professors and experts in your field, and ensure that the program aligns with your professional aspirations.

What are the main differences between academic and professional doctorate degrees?

Academic doctorate degrees focus on research, theory evaluation, and data analysis, often leading to careers in academia or research. Professional doctorate degrees are more practical, designed for working professionals, and concentrate on applying research to real-world problems within a specific field.

Can I earn a Ph.D. in any field?

Ph.D. programs are available in various fields, including humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, engineering, and more. However, the specific availability of Ph.D. programs may vary by field and university.

Is a Ph.D. a challenging journey?

Yes, pursuing a Ph.D. can be a challenging journey that requires dedication, patience, and years of hard work. It involves conducting original research, writing a dissertation, and often teaching or assisting in courses. It’s a significant commitment, but it can be highly rewarding.

What are the potential career opportunities after earning a Ph.D.?

With a Ph.D., you can pursue careers in academia as a professor or researcher, work in research and development roles in various industries, or take on leadership positions in organizations. The specific career path will depend on your field of study and personal interests.

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Can PhDs legitimately claim to be doctors?

I’ve frequently heard people claim that individuals who hold PhDs are not “real” doctors. These people assert that only physicians can rightfully claim this title, and that it’s inappropriate for PhD-holders to use this term. For some reason, many also think that the MD is much more difficult to attain than a PhD for example in computer science.

So - should Ph.D.s Be Referred To As ‘Doctor?

Ps: currently i am a PhD student and don't know why the question is being devoted!

• 25 The answer is "Yes". –  Michael Commented Mar 27, 2017 at 15:07
• 1 Yes they can legitimately claim that, just not that they are medical doctors (or doctors in any other field they are no doctor in). –  skymningen Commented Mar 27, 2017 at 15:07
• 2 The people I know who say this (of themselves) are usually being somewhat sarcastic and say this as a form of irony . –  Dave L Renfro Commented Mar 27, 2017 at 16:30
• 2 This is possibly country dependent, but for Germany this is utterly wrong: "many also think that the MD is much more difficult to attain than a PhD" - Medical doctors get the equivalent of a "paper doctorate" thrown after them so they can be called "doctor" as part of their degree, while "real doctors" have to start a doctorate and carry out rigorous research to obtain the degree/academic title. Now other countries may handle this very differently and there this statement may or may not be true. –  DetlevCM Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 6:45
• 3 One of my former colleagues long ago told me: "The only time I call myself Dr Friedman is when I make a reservation at a restaurant." –  GEdgar Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 14:28

7 Answers 7

In the modern USA the title of doctor is valid for both medical doctors and holders of PhDs in the US, but particular customs may vary by institution. The general rule of thumb for etiquette is to refer to someone however they wish to be referred to. If you have a PhD that insists they be referred to as doctor it would be very impolite to not do so. Likewise if you have an MD who insists that you do not use their title it would be similarly impolite.

In situations where it is important to avoid confusion it is common to spell it out explicitly. Rather than using the honorific use the explicit degree, for example it is very common for email signatures to look like:

John Doe, Ph.D. in Computer Science

Dr. John Doe

Similarly, an MD would tend to say:

Jane Doe, MD, Cardiologist

Jane Doe, MD, Ph.D., Cardiology

I suspect that your question has another component, which is essentially whether or not it is "fair" for a Ph.D. holder to refer to themselves as doctor. This requires an assumption that the MD is more challenging to attain than a Ph.D., and that calling oneself a doctor is somehow illegitimately taking the status of a medical doctor. Let me just say that the people who have earned these degrees are generally less concerned about this than those who have not, and that the title someone puts after their name doesn't tell you very much about their individual ability, dedication, or experience.

One of the original meanings for the word "doctor" is teacher or scholar. It literally is derived from the Latin verb docēre which means to teach. As such, a medical doctor is literally a teacher or scholar of medicine. A Computer Science doctor is a teacher or scholar of computer science. The title "Dr" is just a recognition of level of knowledge that a person has obtained in a giving field through recognized academic challenges.

In France the situation is somewhat complex. The overall answer is "yes". But hear me out.

Let me first spell out the theory. It is important to make the distinction between the diploma , the degree , and the title .

• At the end of a " doctorat " (PhD), you are awarded a PhD diploma , which confers you the university degree of doctor. For this you must write a research thesis . This is the fourth and highest university degree. (The other three degrees are, in order, baccalauréat = high school degree, licence = bachelor, and master , none of which grant a title).
• At the end of studies of medicine, you are awarded a State diploma of "doctor of medicine" (MD). However, this diploma does not confer the university degree of doctor. To obtain the diploma, you must write a "practice thesis" ( thèse d'exercice ), which is not at all like a PhD thesis (no requirement of originality, lasts a much smaller time – writing a bibliographical survey is sufficient to obtain it for example). This means that someone who "only" has a diploma of doctor must do an actual PhD in medicine before teaching in university, or doing medical research, and write an actual research thesis. (Hence some people are "double doctors", a title I just made up.)

On a PhD diploma it is explicitly written "The national diploma of doctor is awarded to XXX and confers the degree of doctor , to enjoy the associated rights and prerogatives". The part in italics is not written on diplomas for medical doctors.

Both diplomas give you the title of "doctor". By law, only these diplomas give you the right of using this title. So yes, certainly, a PhD holder has the right to be called " docteur ". MD too. But no one else.

In fact, there is a famous story here. Someone got a " chargé de recherche " ("scientist") position at CNRS. This is somewhat prestigious in French academia, and very competitive. It is essentially a rank of "research-only associate professor". Then he wrote an article in a magazine, signing his name "Docteur XXX". A regional journal called him out on him, saying he was not a real doctor, but only a "mere scientist" (an inane statement once you know that a PhD is required to get this "scientist" position * ). This eventually went to the approximate equivalent of the Supreme Court ( Cour de cassation ), and the regional journal was condemned for defamation of character in 2009. You can read more about it here (in French). In 2013, the law was changed to explicitly state that PhD holders have the right to call themselves and be called "doctor" in professional settings.

So unless you want to get sued and lose (and we don't do plea deals here), you better call PhD holders "doctor" if they ask for it in France.

Now there is the practice. As you know, in theory, practice and theory are the same, but in practice, they differ :)

In ordinary situations, only medical doctors are called "docteur" . It is extremely rare for PhD holders to actually use the title, and then, only in writing (usually in very formal documents). I cannot recall ever hearing someone call a PhD holder "docteur", while I have heard it numerous times for medical doctors. I have a PhD since a few months ago, and only foreigners have called me "doctor". On doors, on faculty directories, on websites... nobody ever write "Dr X". It just doesn't happen.

So it is extremely unlikely that someone would insist that you call them "docteur" if they are not a medical doctor. (In fact even for a medical doctor it would be in bad taste for them to ask... anyway.) But if they do ask, you should oblige.

* Honesty makes me want to amend this a little. The French name for the position, " chargé de recherches ", literally means "someone who has been tasked with research". It sounds a bit bad, because it makes it sound like the person in question is a mere subordinate who does as they are told and nothing else. As I said, it's actually a permanent, research-only position, and a very competitive one at that. It's the same kind of deal as "assistant professor", who are not the assistant of anyone nowadays but still have this somewhat bad-sounding title. (In the private sector, someone with the level of responsibility of an assistant professor would certainly have a grandiose title like "Team manager"... but I digress.)

• Very informative and quite different from the US. And congratulations on your new degree. Here you would likely be called "Doc" by your students. –  Buffy Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 12:11
• @Buffy Thanks! (To be fair I've had it since November but I'm still happy about it :) ). The students just call me "Sir". On the other hand, the use of "professor" is much more relaxed, and I was sometimes called the "exercise session professor" when I was basically a TA, and should have been called " chargé de TD " = "someone tasked with exercise sessions"... Even though the actual title of "professor" is theoretically reserved for full professors. –  user9646 Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 12:13

For Germany the situation should be as follows, IANAL.

If you have your PhD degree from any university as listed in the Carnegie list (find the list here: https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/ ), then generally you can use the Dr. prefix instead of the PhD abbreviation.

(See FAQ item #18 here: https://www.berlin.de/sen/wissenschaft/studium/abschluesse-und-titelfuehrung/haeufige-fragen/ )

This should generalize in my opinion to the whole country.

I would like to refer to a dictionary to answer https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/doctor

The word doctor (in English) can refer to

A physician; a member of the medical profession; one who is trained and licensed to heal the sick or injured. The final examination and qualification may award a doctor degree in which case the post-nominal letters are D.O., DPM, M.D., DMD, DDS, DPT, DC, Pharm.D., in the US or MBBS in the UK. quotations ▼ If you still feel unwell tomorrow, see your doctor. A person who has attained a doctorate, such as a Ph.D. or Th.D. or one of many other terminal degrees conferred by a college or university.

Outside of academic circles, the former is the commonly used definition, so without context, "doctor" will be understood as "physician". And thus a PhD who isn't a physician appears to be a "doctor (PhD) who isn't a doctor (physician)" and this contradiction is commonly refered to as "not a real doctor" or "not that kind of doctor".

So I would say referring to a PhD as doctor is technically correct (and might be unambiguous with some context as in "doctor in computer science") but without context you do risk being misunderstood.

For languages other than English I don't have a good overview, but the same overload of meanings occurs e.g. in German ("Herr Doktor" is probably a male physician) while in Italian it is common to refer to your self as "dottore" after the master already (and then afaik the upper case / lower case spelling disambiguates the master from the PhD).

I've encountered this argument before. Remember, It's not as if the term 'doctor' is protected. Two cases in point:

• A two year law degree is called a 'juris doctor'. Newly minted JDs will be quick to remind you that they, too, are doctors.
• In parts of the U.K., calling a surgeon a 'doctor' is an insult, as historically the surgeons were barbers (who'd 'doctor you up'), because barbers had the sharp tools necessary for surgery. Many U.K. Surgeons go by 'Mr.'

My advice - relying on titles is pointless. Use your intellectual prowess to impress.

If all else fails, insist you go by 'Professor'....or if in or from Germany, 'Professor Doktor'.

• 7 All PhDs are Doctors (specifically, of Philosophy). Not all PhDs are Professors. –  Bryan Krause ♦ Commented Mar 28, 2017 at 22:26
• 4 Actually in some parts of the world the term doctor is protected. Germany is famous for it -- even people with PhDs from outside Germanu can't just call themselves Dr. Related to that a juris doctor is normally a post-graduate degree, but they don't call themselves doctors based on historical laws that once forbid lawyers from advertising (and so claiming to be a doctor was consider to promotional). Surgeons as I understand it normally complete medical school and become Dr , then when they complete there further training at a surgical college, they become Mister –  Frames Catherine White Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 7:11
• @LyndonWhite Yes, but only in the UK. –  Azor Ahai -him- Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 17:47
• @LyndonWhite if the university is on the Carnegie list, you can call yourself Dr. in Germany with a Ph. D. from a US university. –  stephanmg Commented Feb 3, 2021 at 14:31

Only Ph.D holders must be referred to as doctors. Physicians have only bachelors degrees, although the medical degree was divided into two stages in the U.S universities, still, Physicians only have bachelors degree. Doctors are researchers who have finished their dissertations and became scholars in their fields. Physicians don’t write a dissertation and all what they do is to “treat” people from illness, not to “teach” students in universities. Note: The word “Doctor” is a latin word that means “I teach”, and it has nothing to do with treatment or medicine.

• 2 That is country specific - in the European programs I'm familiar with, the physicians' degree is at least Master equivalent (not bachelor) and it is hard to find physicians who don't stay a little longer to write a dissertation and earn the "Dr. med". –  pseyfert Commented Aug 23, 2018 at 6:32

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• A){G=Math.round((C/2)-(A/2))}window.twttr.shareWin=window.open('//twitter.com/share?text=University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Promotes Kristine Wilckens, PhD, to Associate Professor of Psychiatry&hashtags=PittPsychiatry&url=','','left='+H+',top='+G+',width='+D+',height='+A+',personalbar=0,toolbar=0,scrollbars=1,resizable=1');E=F.createElement('script');E.src='//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js';F.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(E)}());"> Share on Twitter
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University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Promotes Kristine Wilckens, PhD, to Associate Professor of Psychiatry

We are pleased to announce that Kristine Wilckens, PhD, has been promoted to Associate Professor of Psychiatry by the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.

Dr. Wilckens received her PhD in cognitive psychology from the University of Pittsburgh, and completed postdoctoral research training in the Department’s National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)-funded Clinical and Translational Research Training in Geriatric Mental Health T32 program . 

Dr. Wilckens’s research incorporates her expertise in both sleep health and geriatric psychiatry. She employs a combination of observational and experimental methods, including cutting-edge imaging techniques, to examine the relationships between sleep, cognitive aging, and brain health, particularly executive function. She has found that more continuous and deeper sleep, characterized by slow-wave activity, promotes memory processing and executive function. She has also related sleep changes to functional imaging markers of executive function and Alzheimer’s disease, including studies using positron emission tomography.

She leads a National Institute on Aging (NIA)-funded R01 examining whether behaviorally enhanced slow-wave activity during sleep leads to improved task-related prefrontal-hippocampal connectivity, plasma Aβ levels, and cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. This research addresses whether a simple, feasible, and scalable behavioral sleep intervention improves functional neuroimaging indices of excitotoxicity, Alzheimer’s pathophysiology, and cognitive performance. In addition,

Dr. Wilckens leads an Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center pilot project focused on examining high-resolution flow of cerebrospinal fluid—remarkably, during sleep—in the 7-Tesla scanner. She additionally co-leads Project 2 in the Department’s NIA-funded Program Project Grant, “The role of astrogliosis in aging and the pathological and clinical progression of Alzheimer's disease,” and collaborates as a co-investigator on multiple additional grants.

Dr. Wilckens has published her research in top journals, and has been invited to present her research at numerous meetings including the National Institute on Aging Alzheimer's Disease Centers Fall Meeting. In addition, she is highly involved in service activities with the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, the Sleep Research Society, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine Foundation, and the Alzheimer’s Association International Society to Advance Alzheimer’s Research and Treatment.

A superb teacher, Dr. Wilckens has taught undergraduate, graduate, and medical students, as well as residents, postdoctoral scholars, and other learners. Her medical student teaching includes serving as a sleep medicine lecturer for the Psychiatry Clerkship, and as a facilitator for the Behavioral Medicine Seminar. Dr. Wilckens has provided additional lectures for graduate students in the Bioengineering in Psychiatry T32 predoctoral program , for the Pitt Learning Research and Development Center, and for trainees in the Department of Psychiatry’s National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)-funded Sleep Medicine T32 program . In the Department of Psychology, she has lectured to graduate students on sleep and circadian rhythms in Alzheimer’s disease, as well as to undergraduates on exercise, sleep, and brain health.

“Dr. Wilckens has established a national and rapidly growing international reputation as a leading expert in the area of sleep and cognition in older adults, and she skillfully employs observational and experimental methods, as well as intervention science, in her work,” said David Lewis, MD (Chair, Department of Psychiatry). “Her research is scientifically innovative and has great potential to improve lives. Dr. Wilckens is additionally a highly productive member of the scientific community and provides outstanding teaching and mentorship to diverse learners.”

Please join us in congratulating Dr. Wilckens!

Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences

Welcome Yunshuo “Caroline” Tang, MD, PhD

We are pleased to welcome Yunshuo “Caroline” Tang, MD, PhD, to our team of Neuro-Ophthalmology Faculty.

Dr. Tang recently completed her neuro-ophthalmology fellowship with us, and we are excited to add her to our team of expert physicians.

Yunshuo “Caroline” Tang, MD, PhD

Instructor, Neurology; Division of Neuro-Ophthalmology

Dr. Tang completed her MD and PhD degrees at the University of California, San Francisco, where she worked with Drs. Arturo Alvarez-Buylla, Michael Stryker, and John Rubinstein on the role of specific nerve cell populations in brain plasticity. She then joined Washington University as a resident in Adult Neurology. During her training, Dr. Tang was awarded a prestigious R25 grant from the National Institutes of Health, combining a research fellowship and a memory and aging clinical fellowship.

Dr. Tang’s research focuses on defining why retinal ganglion cells die in the setting of Nf1 optic glioma, leading to vision loss. She employs a variety of approaches, including single-cell RNA sequencing, to determine which RGC subtypes are most susceptible to optic glioma-induced death. Her goal is to leverage these findings to identify new treatments to reduce vision loss.

We are thrilled to have Dr. Tang join our team and look forward to her contributions to advancing our understanding and treatment of neuro-ophthalmologic conditions.

Areas of clinical interest

• Optic neuropathy
• Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
• Optic neuritis
• Posterior cortical atrophy
• Neurofibromatosis 1-associated optic glioma

Fellowship: Neuro-Ophthalmology 2024 Washington University in Saint Louis, MO

Fellowship: Dementia 2022 Washington University in Saint Louis, MO

Residency: Neurology 2021 Washington University in Saint Louis, MO

Medical Degree 2017 University of California – San Francisco

PhD : Reopening of critical period plasticity by transplanted interneuron progenitors 2015 University of California – San Francisco

Bachelor’s Degree: Molecular and Cell Biology 2007 University of California – Berkeley

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Kaelyn Sumigray’s research on morphogenesis and her academic journey

Kaelyn sumigray, phd.

Kaelyn Sumigray, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Genetics at Yale School of Medicine. Dr. Sumigray’s research program focuses on morphogenesis, how patterns arise during epithelial growth and maturation, and the functional and physiological requirement for those patterns. The main area of research is morphogenesis of the intestinal crypt, a pocket of epithelial cells in which intestinal stem cells reside. Her lab studies the cellular and molecular mechanisms through which epithelium forms the crypt architecture, which has significant implications for intestinal stem cell specification, maturation, and behavior.

To study stem cell niches, the Sumigray lab primarily uses mouse models and takes advantage of the sophisticated techniques available in this organism including lineage tracing, genetic cell ablation, conditional knockout, and inducible overexpression models. These are coupled with intestinal organoid culture approaches to study mechanisms of cell behavior. The Sumigray lab focuses on intestinal patterns through the lenses of both cellular architecture and cell state, and studies transcriptional changes that drive pattern formation using single cell RNA-sequencing approaches. There are specific challenges to studying postnatal intestinal morphogenesis, which takes place over several days, as there is currently no reliable way to continuously capture these dynamic events in vivo over that time scale. In addition, one arm of her lab studies the formation of a unique/rare cell type in the mammalian intestine. However, Dr. Sumigray said, “interestingly, mice lack this cell type, even though human intestines have it!” So her lab generated an organoid model and utilizes rats to study the specification of these cells.

Dr. Sumigray became fascinated by the cytoskeleton as an undergrad student. In graduate school she initially studied epidermal development, but when she identified a novel role for a gene in cytoskeletal organization in the epidermis, she wanted to see how well conserved its function was in other tissues. So, she said, “I looked in the intestine – and fell in love with its architecture. I wanted to understand how cell shapes within the intestine change to allow for crypts to invaginate – at the time, I was very obsessed with actomyosin contractility and apical constriction. I still am.” Her independent research started with a pure morphogenesis focus that has grown to include questions about how morphogenesis impacts stem cell function and behavior, and how that impacts other patterning events in the mouse intestine.

Dr. Sumigray has persevered through challenges as a Junior PI. She opened her lab at Yale School of Medicine in September 2019, and then had to shut it down after only 6 months because of the pandemic, which was incredibly challenging and a unique situation. Also, “I get excited about lots of scientific questions, and I think my lab’s research program reflects that,” she said. But in the beginning it was difficult (and is still difficult) to decide how to balance expansion into new areas with really sticking to one or two key areas of focus. One thing that was surprising to Dr. Sumigray when she started her lab was figuring out how to match a project with a lab member. She said, “projects have ‘personalities’ just like people, and there needs to be synergy between the two for them to be productive and fulfilling for all involved.” Running a lab has also helped Dr. Sumigray develop an approach to handle conflict within the lab; she keeps the lines of communication open and accessible according to her philosophy that lowering the barrier to communicating about conflict is important.

The Sumigray lab has recently made several exciting discoveries through the careful deep characterization of phenotypes, cells, and processes of intestinal morphogenesis. For instance, the lab has identified a molecular pathway that regulates the paths that cells take as they move from the crypt up the villi, which are finger-like projections of cells into the intestinal lumen that perform nutrient absorption functions. This discovery prompted the lab to adopt biophysical approaches to establish the intestinal epithelium as a model for studying collective cell migration. This research direction aims to understand how cells move in the intestine and how cell turnover is coupled with cell division. The Sumigray lab provides ample opportunities for both undergraduate and graduate students to engage in research. Currently, the lab hosts two undergraduate and five graduate students. Undergraduate students are paired with graduate students or postdoctoral researchers, allowing them to learn and master one of the lab’s favorite techniques: microscopy.

Featured in this article

• Kaelyn Sumigray, PhD Assistant Professor of Genetics; Co-Director, Yale Summer Enrichment Research Experience, Yale Center for Clinical Investigation (YCCI)

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in English

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Enhance Your Knowledge of Literary Theory, Research, and Writing with Liberty’s Ph.D. in English

Are you looking to deepen your understanding of literature, textual analysis, and the English language? Liberty University’s online Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in English is designed to help you do just that. This program gives you the chance to engage with complex texts, develop original research, and contribute to scholarly discussions in English studies.

Our online doctorate in English offers a comprehensive exploration of literature and major authors from a variety of time periods as well as the historical development of the English language. Throughout the program, you can hone your analytical skills and prepare to contribute innovative research to the existing body of academic knowledge, potentially influencing both scholarly and public discourse.

This program may be a great fit if you aspire to teach English, literature, or related subjects at the collegiate level. You can not only enrich your own understanding of important texts but also become equipped to guide the next generation of college students through studies in literary theory, writing, and more.

What Will You Learn in Liberty University’s Doctorate in English Online?

• American and British literature
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• Literary theory and advanced textual analysis
• Methods and materials of research
• Origin and evolution of English

In addition to taking core English classes, you’ll have the ability to customize your education through elective courses. That way, you can pursue specialized interests and topics that align with your academic and career goals. Your studies will culminate in the completion of a dissertation, where you will conduct research and work to contribute new knowledge to the field of English. The dissertation process gives you an opportunity to showcase your expertise and lay a strong foundation for your future academic or professional endeavors.

Potential Careers for Graduates of Our Ph.D. in English Online Program

• Literary agent

Benefits of Pursuing Your Doctorate in English Online with Liberty University

As a leader in distance education since 1985, we understand what it takes to create a flexible and affordable education for busy people. Since we have been investing in distance and online learning for decades, our experience has taught us how to streamline our degree options so you can focus on what really matters to you. While many schools offer online degrees, we believe Liberty stands out.

Here’s what sets us apart:

• We are recognized by multiple institutions for our academic quality, affordability, and accessibility . Our commitment to excellence also helped us rank in the top 10% of Niche.com’s best online schools in America . Earning your online degree from a nonprofit university with this kind of recognition can help set you apart from others in your field.
• The majority of tuition for undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs has not increased in 9 years. While many other online colleges have raised tuition, Liberty has been able to keep costs low as a nonprofit university.
• Liberty University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC).
• We want to provide you with the freedom to balance your studies with personal and professional commitments, which is why our Ph.D. in English is offered 100% online.

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We want to help you find the doctoral degree you want — at a price you’ve earned. As a thank-you for your military service, Liberty University offers eligible current and former service members like you or your spouse multiple pathways to earn a doctoral degree for only $300/credit hour . Here’s how:

• If you’re earning or have earned a master’s degree through Liberty, you automatically qualify for the low price (when you begin within 2 years of your master’s completion).
• If you haven’t earned a graduate degree through Liberty, our Executive Certificate program allows you to pay only $300/credit hour for a postgraduate certificate that can stand alone or potentially count as the first 21 hours of a related doctoral degree. Then pay just $300/credit hour for your doctorate. Learn more!

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Doctor of Medicine, MD

School of medicine.

The curriculum is organized to allow each of our graduates to achieve the eleven educational objectives noted in the Mission and Medical Education Program Objectives for the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine . The regular M.D. curriculum comprises four academic years designated First through Fourth Years. The academic requirements of this program can be combined with graduate study leading to a Master's or Ph.D. degree. 

The Genes to Society curriculum is highly integrated both vertically and horizontally across the four years. Elective time is available beginning in Quarter 4 of the Second Year. Elective courses are described in the programs of the various departments in the section under Departments and Divisions, Centers, Institutes, and Subjects of Instruction. This information is supplemented by an elective book which is updated annually. Selected students may interrupt the regular curriculum for one or more years in order to pursue special studies.

The study of science basic to the practice of medicine begins in the First Year with four months of Foundations courses, including Foundations of Human Anatomy, Scientific Foundations, Clinical Foundations, and Foundations in Public Health: Epidemiology, Ethics, and the Health Care System. These courses are intended to introduce students to the basic language and concepts of biomedical science, including molecular biology, cell biology, biochemistry, anatomy, and the social and behavioral sciences. During Clinical Foundations, students begin training in the physician-patient medical interview, physical diagnostics, and clinical reasoning. Each student is assigned a college advisor (see Student Advising, page 77) upon entry to medical school, who serves as the instructor in Clinical Foundations, and academic and career advisor for the remainder of the four years.

Following winter break in First Year, students begin an 13-month organ systems-based course, Organ Systems Foundations of Medicine, which presents genetics, molecular biology, advanced anatomy, physiology, pathology, pathophysiology, and clinical presentations related to each organ system. Immunology, Infectious Disease, Dermatology, Hematology/Oncology, Brain, Mind and Behavior, and Nerve System and Special Senses are covered in the First Year. One half-day per week is devoted to a precepted clinical experience, the Longitudinal Ambulatory Clerkship, which provides further training in patient-centered interviewing, physical diagnosis, and health care systems.

Beginning with the first week of medical school and periodically in between courses, 3-day TIME (Topics in Interdisciplinary Medicine) courses will focus students on a multidisciplinary topic related to the social and behavioral sciences. The First Year TIME courses are Disparities and Inequalities in Health Care, Nutrition and Behavior Change, High Value Healthcare, Disaster Medicine, Clinical Informatics, Global Health, and Pain Care. Students will have a variety of lecture and small group discussions supplemented by experiential and skill learning in each course. In the afternoons of these TIME courses students will be attending a Scholarly Concentration course in one of five concentrations: Basic Science Research, Clinical Research, Public and Community Health Service, Ethics and the Art of Medicine, and History of Medicine. Beginning as a seminar series, each student will eventually complete a mentored scholarly project by the end of the Second Year of study.

Second Year students return in late August to complete the Organ Systems Foundations of Medicine course in the following organ systems: Pulmonary, Renal, Cardiovascular, GI/Liver, Endocrine, Musculoskeletal, and Reproductive. The Longitudinal Clerkship continues one-half day per week until the winter break. The TIME courses in the Second Year are Substance Use Disorders, Patient Safety, and End-of-Life/Palliative Care. The Organ Systems Foundations of Medicine course ends in February of the Second Year, and is followed by a 3-week Transitions to the Wards course, which provides intensive training in procedural skills, team communication skills, and clinical reasoning in preparation for the hospital-based clerkships that follow.

In the final quarter of the Second Year, students begin the core clinical clerkships. These are 8-week rotations in the clinical disciplines of Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, and Women’s Health; 4-week rotations in Neurology and Psychiatry; and a 4.5-week rotation in Emergency Medicine. A week of Translational Science is required after each 8-week clerkship; during these weeks, students will return to a discussion of state of the art biomedical investigation. Students may elect to delay one Third Year 8-week rotation, but should complete this required core of rotation by the end of the first quarter in Year 4. Two 1-month advanced clinical rotations are required prior to graduation: a Subinternship and either the Advanced Critical Care Clerkship or the Advanced Adult Ambulatory Clerkship.

The clinical clerkships are devoted to the study of health and disease in the various clinical departments of the School of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Howard County General Hospital, Johns Hopkins All Children’s Hospital, Sinai Hospital of Baltimore, Anne Arundel Medical Center, St. Agnes Hospital, and other affiliated hospitals. Students are introduced to practical clinical problems through instruction and participation in a health care team. Elective courses available in every department range from direct participation in current biomedical research to advanced clinical work. Many clerkships and elective courses may be taken during the summer.

In addition to the advanced clinical clerkships noted above, students are required to complete a 2-week capstone course in the Fourth Year designed to refresh clinical skills and prepare them for internship. This course, Transition to Residency and Internship and Preparation for Life (TRIPLE), is offered twice in the spring of the Fourth Year, and includes simulation-based training, advanced cardiac life support, and advanced communication skills.

The academic year for first year students begins in August and ends in mid-June. There is a Thanksgiving break, winter break in December and a spring break in March.

Between the First and Second Years, there is a summer vacation of seven to nine weeks when students may engage in research or other studies. Students must arrange their schedules to include, between the start of the fourth quarter of the Second Year and graduation in May of the Fourth Year, 7 quarters of required clinical clerkships and 24.5 weeks of elective work; two additional vacation periods may also be scheduled. At the student’s discretion, vacation quarters may be used for research, board preparation, or additional elective study. Graduating students cannot schedule required core or advanced clerkships during the fourth quarter of the Fourth Year, unless approved by the Associate Dean for Student Affairs.

The total number of students in each class of the regular four year program is 120.

Programs in which elective study and research leading to graduate degrees are integrated with the medical program are described in a later section (“M.D.-Ph.D. Programs”). A limited number of stipends are available for students who wish to devote one full year to research.

Approval may be granted for elective study at institutions other than the Johns Hopkins University. In such instances, the student must present a description of the elective including goals and objectives to the Associate Dean for Student Affairs for approval. Electives are generally 4-4.5 weeks in length, and may not overlap with required courses for Johns Hopkins School of Medicine students.  One of the required elective quarters may be taken at another non-affiliated medical institution. Students desiring to study at other institutions must make final arrangements through the Office of the Registrar of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.

Students visiting other institutions and those who devote their free time to elective courses in this institution will be held responsible for proficient work just as in the case of the required subjects of instruction.

Formal registration for elective quarter programs is through the Office of the Registrar of the School of Medicine. The elective work for the Second through the Fourth Years is denoted by the symbol E (e.g., Neurology E). Such courses are listed numerically by department or sub-department. The catalogue does not list all elective courses. The Elective Book, an up-to-date description of all elective opportunities, is maintained by the Registrar and is available from the Registrar’s Office or the following website: http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/som/students/Academics/electives.html .

Required Work

The required departmental work for each course and core clerkship is usually regarded as a unit. It may be offered and graded as a single course, although the catalogue may indicate various course elements that comprise the whole. Formal registration for all required courses must be made through the Registrar of the School of Medicine.

Requirements for M.D. Degree

To be eligible for the M.D. degree, candidates must successfully complete the prescribed course of study of the First through the Fourth Years.

Preparation for Medical School

The courses taken and the grades earned are but a portion of an applicant’s credentials. Certain areas of study (i.e. introductory biology, chemistry, physics and organic chemistry with associated laboratory exercises, and calculus) have traditionally been of value to medical students. Beyond the successful fulfillment of these basic prerequisites the Committee on Admissions is concerned solely with the quality and scope of an applicant’s undergraduate educational experience. The field of concentration for undergraduate studies and the selection of additional courses in the sciences and mathematics should be the choice of the student and will not affect the admissions process.

Requirements for Admission

The following general requirements must be met by all applicants:

• Accredited Institution . All applicants must be or have previously been in attendance at an institution on the list entitled “Accredited Institutions of Postsecondary Education,’’ authorized and published by the American Council on Education, One DuPont Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Extension or evening courses taken in fulfillment of premedical course requirements are not acceptable unless they are identical to courses offered in the college’s regular academic program. Preparation in foreign universities, in most cases, must be supplemented by a year or more of course work in an accredited United States university. The School of Medicine accepts prerequisites completed at the community college level. The change in policy acknowledges that as part of the holistic review process used to select applicants to interview at Hopkins, many factors are considered. These factors include the rigor of the applicant’s course of studies, grades, MCAT scores, clinical and research exposure, letters of recommendation, personal statement, and the applicant’s understanding of medicine. In addition, we consider the path the applicants have taken which led to their desire to apply to medical school and become a physician.
• Required Academic Work. A list of specific pre-medical course requirements may be found under Course Requirements for Regular MD and MD-PhD Applicants. In order to assess the classroom performance of an applicant, the Committee on Admission requires that all of the coursework submitted in fulfillment of admission requirements must be evaluated on the basis of a traditional grading system. Such a system must employ a range of numbers or letters to indicate the comparative level of performance. If the applicant has received a grade of Pass/Credit for any of the specified premedical course requirements, the instructor must supply, in writing, a statement evaluating the student’s performance in that course. CLEP credits may not be substituted for any course requirement.
• Conditions of Admission. Students admitted to the School of Medicine on a conditional basis (i.e., requirement(s) yet to be completed) must fulfill those conditions prior to matriculation in the School of Medicine.
• Standardized Testing. The Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) is required for acceptance. The MCAT must be taken no later than September in the year the application is submitted. The oldest MCAT considered will be from four years prior to the year of matriculation.
• Letters of Recommendation. A recommendation from the applicant’s college premedical committee or an officially designated premedical advisor is required. If the college does not have a premedical advisor or premedical committee, two letters of recommendation are required from science faculty members in science departments who have taught the applicant and one non-science faculty member who has also taught the applicant. In addition to the letters indicated above, applicants with advanced degrees and/or full-time employment are required to submit recommendations from each component of their education and major work experiences.  In addition to those letters required for application to the MD Program, two additional letters of recommendation are required for all MD-PhD applicants. These letters are typically from faculty with whom the applicant has done research.
• Non-U.S. Citizen Applicants. Preparation in foreign universities, in most cases, must be supplemented by a year or more of course work in an accredited United States university. Official transcripts are required from all colleges attended outside the United States and Canada. Non-U.S. resident students are not eligible for federal or state funds. Financial aid funding is available to all current and newly admitted non-U.S. resident medical students. Financial aid assistance will be provided in the form of institutional loan and/or scholarship.
• Application Review. Following receipt of all required credentials, the committee on admission will review applications and make interview decisions. Applicants selected for interview will be notified by the committee. 

Application for Admission

Applicants must first submit an online application at American Medical College Application Service (AMCAS). The deadline for submitting an application to AMCAS for Johns Hopkins is October 15th.

Once you have completed your AMCAS application and it is verified, you will be invited to submit the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine secondary application. The deadline for submission of the secondary application for admission to either program is November 1st. 

Letters of recommendation to either the MD or MD-PhD Programs must be received by November 15th. 

Application Fee: The secondary application fee is non-refundable and must be paid online when submitting the secondary application. The application fee will be waived for applicants who have received an AMCAS fee waiver. Specific details are available in the secondary application instructions.

Committee on Admissions, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 N. Broadway, Suite G-49, Baltimore, MD 21205 or via email at [email protected] .

Accepted Applicants: It is the policy of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine to require criminal background investigations on accepted students in any professional or graduate program at the School of Medicine, interns, residents, and clinical fellows in any Graduate Medical Education program sponsored by Johns Hopkins, and other clinical and research postdoctoral fellows at the School of Medicine.

School of Medicine Technical Standards for Admission

Technical standards for medical students.

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The mission of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is to prepare physicians to practice clinical medicine of the highest standard with compassion and to identify and solve fundamental questions in the mechanisms, prevention and treatment of disease, in health care delivery and in the basic sciences. 

JHUSOM is committed to diversity and to attracting and educating students who will make the population of health care professional representative of the national population.  

Although students learn under the supervision of faculty, students interact with patients throughout their medical school education. Patient safety and wellbeing are therefore critical factors in establishing requirements involving the physical, cognitive, and interpersonal abilities of candidates for admission, promotion, and graduation. The necessary abilities and characteristics described below are also referred to as technical standards. They are defined in several broad categories including observation, communication, motor function, intellectual-conceptual, integrative, quantitative abilities, social and behavioral skills, and legal and ethical standards.

JHUSOM will consider for admission any applicant who meets its academic and nonacademic criteria and who demonstrates the ability to perform the skills listed in this document, with or without reasonable accommodations. 

The stated intention of a medical student to practice only specific areas of clinical medicine, or to pursue a non-clinical career, does not alter the School of Medicine’s requirement that all medical students achieve competence in the full curriculum required by the faculty.

Technical Standards 

Observation:  .

Medical students must acquire information as presented through demonstrations and experiences in the foundational sciences. Medical students must be able to obtain and interpret information through a comprehensive assessment of patients, correctly interpret diagnostic representations of patients’ physiological data, and accurately evaluate patients’ conditions and responses.   

Communication:  

Medical students must exhibit interpersonal skills to enable effective caregiving for patients, including the ability to communicate effectively, with all members of a multidisciplinary health-care team, patients, and those supporting patients. Medical students must be able to record information clearly and accurately interpret verbal and nonverbal communication.  

Motor Functions:  

Medical students must be able to perform routine physical examination and diagnostic maneuvers. Medical students must be able to provide general care and emergency treatment for patients, and to respond to emergency situations in a timely manner. These activities require some physical mobility, coordination of both gross and fine motor neuromuscular functions, and balance and equilibrium. Medical students must be able to meet applicable safety standards for the environment, and to follow universal precaution procedures.  

Intellectual-Conceptual, Integrative and Quantitative Abilities: 

Medical students must be able to effectively interpret, assimilate, understand, and communicate the complex information required to function within the medical school curriculum both in person and via remote technology, and engage in problem solving individually and in small groups. Medical students must demonstrate the ability to comprehend three-dimensional relationships and adapt to different learning environments and modalities.

Behavioral and Social Attributes:  

Medical students must exercise good judgment; attend to the responsibilities necessary for the care of patients; and develop mature, sensitive, and effective relationships with patients. Medical students must demonstrate the skills required to effectively manage heavy workloads, function under stress, adapt to changing environments, display flexibility, and learn to function in the face of the uncertainties inherent in the clinical problems of patients. Medical students are expected to exhibit professionalism, personal accountability, compassion, integrity, concern for others, and interpersonal skills including the ability to accept and apply feedback and treat all individuals in a respectful manner, regardless of gender identity, age, race, sexual orientation, religion, disability, or any other protected status.   

Ethics and Professionalism 

Medical students must maintain and display ethical and moral behavior commensurate with the role of a physician in all interactions with patients, faculty, staff, students, and the public. Medical students should understand and function within the legal and ethical aspects of the practice of medicine. 

The technical standards delineated above must be met with or without accommodation. Students who, after review of the technical standards, determine that they require reasonable accommodation to fully engage in the program should contact Student Disability Services to confidentially discuss their accommodation needs. Given the clinical nature of our programs, time may be needed to create and implement the accommodations. Accommodations are not retroactive; therefore, timely requests are essential and encouraged.  

Equal Access to the JHUSOM Educational Program   

Our core values translate into our work with all students, including those with disabilities. JHUSOM actively collaborates with students to develop innovative ways to ensure accessibility and creates a respectful accountable culture through our confidential disability services. JHUSOM is committed to excellence in accessibility; we encourage students with disabilities to disclose and seek accommodations.

Candidates with Disabilities   

• Candidates who have questions about or want to request accommodations, auxiliary aids and/or services should contact Student Disability Services .
• In accordance with Johns Hopkins’ policies which, in turn, embody applicable federal, state, and local laws (e.g., the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rehabilitation Act), the Medical School does not discriminate in admissions or educational programs against any individual on the basis of their disability or handicap. No otherwise qualified individual with a disability/handicap will be excluded from admission. 
• All candidates must be able to perform essential functions in a reasonably independent manner. Their use of senses such as touch, pain, temperature position, pressure, movement, stereognosis, and vibration must be sufficiently intact to enable them to carry out all activities required for a complete medical education. Candidates must have motor function capabilities to meet the demands of medical education and the demands of total patient care. The candidates for the medical degree must be able to independently demonstrate a range of abilities and skills. The use of trained intermediaries to carry out functions described in the technical standards will not be permitted. Intermediaries, no matter how well trained, apply their own powers of selection and observation, which could affect the student’s judgment and performance.

Requests for Accommodations  

• A candidate who has not been offered admission to the School of Medicine may disclose a disability and request accommodation during the admission process.  This is not required unless the candidate wants to request an accommodation for the admission process .  
• After admission, medical students (including admittees who have not yet accepted a place in a class at the School of Medicine, admittees who have accepted a place, and matriculating medical students) can disclose a disability and request accommodation through the Student Disability Services office  using our on-line registration system.  Documentation for accommodations must provide the specific functional limitations in which the student is seeking accommodations for. 
• While medical students can disclose a disability and request an accommodation at any time during their enrollment, students are encouraged to disclose the need for accommodation(s) as soon as possible. Time for documentation review and arrangement of accommodation(s) is necessary and may take up to four to six weeks. Accommodations are not retroactive. 

Ability to Meet the SOM Technical Standards   

Candidates for admission must review and verify their ability to meet the School of Medicine technical standards when completing the application for admission.

If at any point an enrolled medical student ceases to meet the technical standards of the School of Medicine, they may choose to work with Student Disability Services to determine if reasonable accommodations could remove barriers. They also may work with the Office of Medical Student Affairs to see what other services are available. Should, despite reasonable accommodation (whether the candidate chooses to use the accommodation or not), a candidate or student’s existing or acquired disability interferes with patient or peer safety, or otherwise impede the ability to complete Johns Hopkins School of Medicine’s undifferentiated program and advance to graduation, residency, training, or licensure, the candidate may be denied admission or may be separated, discontinued, or dismissed from the program.

Responsibility 

Monitoring of the ability of a candidate or student to meet the technical standards is the responsibility of a continuum of School of Medicine committees, faculty, and the medical student. For medical students who have matriculated into the School of Medicine, issues related to technical standards are evaluated by the Pre-Clerkship or Clerkship Student Assessment and Formational Committee and the Medical Student Promotions Committee and considered on an individual basis.

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Early Decision

We do not accept applications for early decision.

Deferred Admission

The Deferred Admission Plan enables students to diversify their educational and life experiences as they prepare for a career in medicine. Deferred admission may be approved for a period of one to two years to pursue international fellowships (Rhodes, Rotary, Marshall, Watson, Fulbright scholarships, etc.), join the Peace Corps, participate in service assignments in the United States or abroad, teach, or conduct research. Admitted applicants who are interested in deferring their matriculation into the first-year class, must submit a written request by April 15th for review and approval by the Deferral Committee. If approved, applicants must complete an AMCAS application by October 1st of the year prior to matriculation. Please contact the Admissions Office for further information.

Combined Study-MD-PhD

The Committee on Admission accepts applications not only from applicants for the MD program but from those who are interested in a combined MD-PhD degree. Provided with the Johns Hopkins application for the MD program is a supplemental form which should be completed by those applicants for the combined degree. Under the section “Graduate Programs’’ in this catalogue, those departments which offer study leading to a PhD degree are listed. When the application for the MD program as well as the “Application Supplement for Admission to Combined MD-PhD Study” are received along with all necessary letters of recommendation, they will be reviewed by the Committee on Admission, the MD-PhD Committee, and by the appropriate graduate department. If admitted to both degree programs, the student will ordinarily be expected to complete at least the first year of MD study before starting full-time PhD work. Students initially accepted for only one of the two degrees are eligible to reapply for study towards the other at a later time. Students enrolled in the MD program can make application for a graduate program at any time during the course of their medical training. See section entitled “The Training of Medical Scientists: MD- PhD Programs.”

Advanced Standing

Due to space limitations, the School of Medicine is unable to admit transfer students.

Doctor of Medicine

Persons who have already received the degree of Doctor of Medicine elsewhere or the equivalent will not be admitted as candidates for that degree from the Johns Hopkins University.

Course Requirements for Regular MD and MD-PhD Applicants

• Biology College Biology with laboratory, one year (8 semester hours) The student should have an appreciation for the diversity of life such as viruses, prokaryotes, plants and animals, and a familiarity with the life cycles and metabolic activities of these organisms. The student should attain a basic understanding of the structure and function of the mammalian cell. Included should be a basic understanding of mammalian genetics. Applicants with Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) credits in biology, acceptable to the student’s undergraduate college, may be used in fulfillment of the requirement, but they must take one additional semester of an advanced biology with lab. Individuals who have completed their studies in biology more than 4 years prior to their application are strongly advised to take a one semester advanced mammalian biology course. We will accept online prerequisite courses completed at an accredited college or university.
• Chemistry General college chemistry with laboratory, one year (8 semester hours) Organic Chemistry with laboratory, one semester, and one semester of biochemistry without a laboratory. The student should have knowledge of chemical equilibrium and thermodynamics, acid/base chemistry, the nature of ions in solution and redox reactions, the structure of molecules with special emphasis on bioorganic compounds, reaction rates, binding coefficients, and reaction mechanisms involved in enzyme kinetics. Also important is a basic understanding of the structure of nucleic acids including how they store and transfer information. Applicants with Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) credits in general chemistry acceptable to the student’s undergraduate college, may be used in fulfillment of the requirement, but they must take one additional semester of an advanced chemistry with lab. We will accept online prerequisite courses completed at an accredited college or university.
• Humanities, Social, & Behavioral Sciences The study of the humanities, social, and behavioral sciences is an essential foundation for the study of medicine. (24 semester hours) An applicant’s educational experience must include at least 24 semester hours in these disciplines. Effective communication skills are essential and candidates must be proficient in spoken and written English and be able to communicate well. Successful passage of the TOEFL examination is required for all students whose undergraduate instruction was conducted primarily in a language other than English. We will accept online prerequisite courses completed at an accredited college or university.
• Mathematics Calculus or statistics, one year (minimum of 6 semester hours) Mathematics courses should enable the student to develop equations, to interpret graphical representations of function, and to evaluate probability involved in testing hypotheses. Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) credit for calculus, acceptable to the student’s undergraduate college, may be used in fulfillment of the math requirement. Regardless of such credit, it is strongly recommended that applicants take at least one semester of statistics or epidemiology. We will accept online prerequisite courses completed at an accredited college or university.
• Physics General College Physics with laboratory, one year (8 semester hours) The student should have an understanding of the constants and units of physical measurement; Newtonian mechanics; the physical properties of various states of matter such as liquids, solids, and gases; and the basic aspects of electricity, magnetism, and optics. Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) credit for physics, acceptable to the student’s undergraduate college, may be used in fulfillment of the physics requirement. We will accept online prerequisite courses completed at an accredited college or university.

Program Requirements

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Dr. Charles Hong named Department of Medicine chair

October 17, 2023

Yet here is Detroit native Charles (aka “Chaz”) Hong, after earning multiple degrees from MIT and Yale and teaching medicine at Harvard, Vanderbilt, and the University of Maryland, back in Michigan as chair of the College of Human Medicine’s Department of Medicine.

“I never imagined I’d be coming back to Michigan,” said Hong, MD, PhD. “I’m not coming here for a homecoming. I came here because of Michigan State. It has an extraordinarily deep and broad base of fundamental research with equity woven into the fabric of everything we do. The opportunity to really make an impact is what attracted me here.”

Hong assumed the job in September after what Dean Aron Sousa described as “a national search yielding a remarkably strong pool.”

"One of the most impressive parts of Hong’s experience is his dedicated work as a mentor of students, residents, fellows, post-docs, and faculty,” Sousa wrote.

After growing up in the Detroit area, Hong earned his bachelor’s degree at MIT followed by an MD and PhD at Yale School of Medicine and a cardiology fellowship at Massachusetts General Hospital. He completed a research fellowship in chemical biology at Harvard Medical School, where he also taught before joining the faculty at the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. Immediately before joining Michigan State, he was Melvin Sharoky Professor and co-chief of cardiovascular medicine at the University of Maryland School of Medicine.

Hong’s research combines chemical biology, cell and molecular biology, stem cell biology, genetics, and cardiology. His work has led to a possible treatment for glioblastoma, an aggressive form of brain cancer.

Hong described his vision for the Department of Medicine as similar to the “Medici Effect,” the idea that creative sparks and disruptive innovations occur when talented people of diverse backgrounds come together. In addition to chairing the department, he will mentor clinician scientists through MSU’s partnership with Henry Ford Health.

“The opportunity exists for me to make it (the Department of Medicine) into a translational powerhouse in conjunction with our clinical partners,” quickly bringing new treatments from the lab to patients, Hong said. “We want to make the Department of Medicine into a biomedical equivalent of Renaissance Florence. We want to be at the heart of all these intersections between scientists, clinicians and entrepreneurs to make Michigan State a dynamic innovator of academic medicine.

“It’s a big task,” he said, but added: “I’m totally excited about this.”

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Wu Liu, clinical physicist who developed imaging techniques and treatments for cancer, dies at 51

Wu Liu, known for his sense of humor and optimism, was a national expert in radiation treatments for eye cancer.

June 25, 2024 - By Jennifer Welsh

Wu Liu, PhD, an associate professor of radiation oncology at Stanford Medicine who spent his career creating new imaging techniques and radiation treatments for cancer, died May 14 after a diagnosis of brain cancer last year. He was 51.

“Though Liu’s time with Stanford Medicine was far too short, his impact will be enduring,” said Lloyd Minor , MD, dean of the Stanford School of Medicine and vice president for medical affairs at Stanford University. “He was a gifted clinician and an indispensable part of our cancer radiology program, developing new treatments for cancers of the eye.”

Liu’s clinical focus was developing and improving cancer treatments for patients using radioactive sources. These treatments, called brachytherapy, involve placing radioactive materials near tumors to damage cancer cells. He was especially instrumental at the Stanford Cancer Center , where he designed treatment plaques tailored to each patient with an optimal distribution of radioactive materials, his colleagues said. This treatment substantially improved patient comfort and treatment accuracy.

“He was a national expert in brachytherapy, the go-to person for eye plaque brachytherapy,” said Lei Xing , PhD, a professor of radiation oncology. “I appreciated his high standard of work and strong ability to take on responsibilities and initiatives. He was an ideal colleague to have around any clinic.”

During his career as a medical physicist, Wu published more than 42 peer-reviewed papers in leading journals. He also taught medical physics residents and helped develop the curriculum for the radiation physics residency program.

“Wu accomplished a lot. During his time as a postdoc in my lab, he spearheaded several projects to track the tumor motions in real time and made significant contributions to radiation therapy techniques,” said Xing, the Jacob Haimson and Sarah S. Donaldson Professor. “His work sparked significant research and clinical activities in radiation oncology, leading to much-improved patient care.”

Not only was Liu an excellent, patient-focused researcher, but he was also “an easygoing, sociable, family-focused person,” his friend and colleague Ruijiang Li , PhD, associate professor of radiation oncology, said of Liu, who leaves behind a wife and daughter. “He was open-minded, generous, humble and true to himself. Wu is known for his sense of humor and optimism.”

A dear friend and close colleague

Liu’s family said he combined modesty and ambition with a strong intellect. He appreciated that his research helped others and cared deeply for his family and friends.

“We lost a dear friend and a close colleague,” Li said. “His death gives us another personal reason, as cancer researchers, to find better ways to detect cancer early and treat cancer.”

Wu Liu on a family trip to Scotland. Courtesy of the Liu family

Born in Beijing, China, on July 23, 1972, Liu was the youngest of the family by a long stretch — 18 years from his next-youngest sibling. His father was a magazine editor, and his mother was a book proofreader.

Liu attended high school in Beijing, then earned a bachelor’s degree in astronomy from Nanjing University and a master’s degree in astrophysics from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing.

He switched to medical physics when he moved to the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he earned a master’s degree in computer science in 2006 and a PhD in medical physics in 2007. Shortly after, he joined Stanford Medicine as a postdoctoral scholar in Xing’s lab.

There, Liu developed new ways to deal with patient movement during image-guided radiation therapy, including using artificial intelligence to improve the cancer treatment.

“He was a postdoc who every lab would like to have,” Xing said. “He was a highly motivated and great team player. He made his mentors look good and made me proud.”

After his postdoctoral studies, Liu took a position at Yale-New Haven Hospital as an assistant professor of radiation oncology. In 2019, Liu returned to California as an associate professor of radiation oncology at Stanford Medicine. His work in the clinic included planning, checking and delivering brachytherapy and external beam radiation treatments and performing checks, calibration and quality assurance evaluations on radiation machinery.

Liu went on leave after his diagnosis of glioblastoma in August 2023 but kept up with his collaborators to discuss their projects and offered guidance to his trainees.

Soccer enthusiast and family man

In graduate school, Liu was an extroverted, talkative and popular person, his wife, Nina Hsieh, said. He liked to be the center of the conversation. They met at a party in a student apartment complex and married in May 2003.

He wooed her with his astronomy, poetry and literature knowledge, especially a Chinese epic tale, “The Romance of the Three Kingdoms.”

His decency and integrity as a human being served as a model for us all.

Hsieh said Liu enjoyed making people laugh and had a positive attitude toward life, even during the most challenging times.

“Wu was humble, dedicated and true to himself, and he would stand up for what he believed in,” Li said. “I will miss our late-night beers, the hourlong chats during hikes, and how we were equally bad at tennis.”

Besides playing tennis badly, Liu’s hobbies included studying history and traveling the world. Hsieh said that during his travels, he liked to visit universities and walk around their campuses. They also took regular family ski trips to Lake Tahoe, where Liu spent his time on the slopes conquering black diamonds. He also liked to hike, visiting state parks and coastal areas with his daughter.

He was well known for his love of soccer: “I felt that his passion toward soccer was only slightly less than his passion toward his research and clinical responsibilities,” Xing said.

Liu and Hsieh’s daughter, Sienna, was born in 2013. Sienna was Liu’s favorite person to share his love of soccer with, whether kicking the ball in the park behind their house or taking her to Stanford women’s soccer games.

“Although he was very busy with his job, he liked to spend time with family. He never forgot a birthday, anniversary or holiday and liked to celebrate them,” Hsieh said. “His decency and integrity as a human being served as a model for us all.”

Liu was a member of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine and the American Society for Radiation Oncology. He was on the board of editors for the Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics , served on the physics committee for the American Brachytherapy Society, and was a member of the science council and research grants evaluation subcommittee for ASTRO.

Liu is survived by his wife, Nina Hsieh, and daughter, Sienna Liu, of Palo Alto, California. His mother, Xingguang Gan; brother, Xiaoxin Liu; and sister, Xueqing Liu, all of Beijing, survive him, along with multiple nieces and nephews. His father, Tai Liu, preceded him in death.

• Jennifer Welsh Jennifer Welsh is a freelance writer

About Stanford Medicine

Stanford Medicine is an integrated academic health system comprising the Stanford School of Medicine and adult and pediatric health care delivery systems. Together, they harness the full potential of biomedicine through collaborative research, education and clinical care for patients. For more information, please visit med.stanford.edu .

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