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Essay on Gautam Buddha

An Introduction

Gautam Buddha is popularly called Lord Buddha or The Buddha. He was a great and religious leader of ancient India. He is regarded as the founder of Buddhism, which is one of the most followed religions in the world today.

The followers of Buddha are now called Buddhists which means the enlightened beings, the ones who have rediscovered the path to freedom starting from ignorance, craving to the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Buddha himself propagated it for nearly 45 years.

His teachings are based on his insights of suffering and dissatisfaction ending in a state called Nirvana.

Gautam Buddha is considered to be one of the greatest religious preachers in the world. He was the preacher of peace and harmony. In this Gautam Buddha essay, you will find one long and one short piece about the epic religious guru followed by many. Studying this piece will help you learn who Gautama Buddha was and what made him choose the path of spirituality. The long and short essay on Gautam Buddha will help students of Class 5 and above to write one on their own. These essays are specially designed so that you can have all the needed information about Gautam Buddha. This essay will help you to understand the life of Gautam Buddha in minimum words. Basically in a few words, this essay gives you a brief detail about Buddha.

Gautam Buddha, the messenger of peace, equality, and fraternity, was born in Lumbini in the 6th Century BC, the Terai region of Nepal. His real name was Siddhartha Gautam. He belonged to the royal family of Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodhana, the ruler. Maya Devi, Gautam’s mother, died soon after giving birth to him. He was a thoughtful child with a broad mind. He was very disciplined and liked to question contemporary concepts to understand and gather more knowledge.

He wanted to devote his life to spirituality and meditation. This was what his father did not like about him. He went against his father’s wishes to find spirituality. His father was worried that someday, Gautam will leave his family to pursue his wishes. For this, Suddhodhana always guarded his son against the harshness surrounding him. He never let his son leave the palace anytime. When he was 18 years of age, Gautam was married to Yashodhara, a princess with magnificent beauty. They had a son named ‘Rahul’. Even though Siddhartha’s family was complete and happy, he did not find peace. His mind always urged him intending to find the truth beyond the walls.

As per the Buddhist manuscripts, when Siddhartha saw an old man, an ailing person, and a corpse, he understood that nothing in this material world is permanent. All the pleasures he enjoyed were temporary and someday, he had to leave them behind. His mind startled from the realization. He left his family, the throne, and the kingdom behind and started roaming in the forests and places aimlessly. All he wanted was to find the real truth and purpose of life. In his journey, he met with scholars and saints but nobody was able to quench his thirst for truth.

He then commenced meditation with the aim to suffer and then realized the ultimate truth sitting under a huge banyan tree after 6 years. It was in Bodh Gaya in Bihar. He turned 35 and was enlightened. His wisdom knew no boundaries. The tree was named Bodhi Vriksha. He was very satisfied with his newly found knowledge and gave his first speech on enlightenment in Sarnath. He found the ultimate truth behind the sorrows and troubles people face in the world. It was all due to their desires and attraction to earthly things.

A couple of centuries after he died, he came to be known as the Buddha which means the enlightened one. All the teachings of Buddha were compiled in the Vinaya. His teachings were passed to the Indo-Aryan community through oral traditions.

In his lecture, he mentioned the Noble Eightfold Path to conquer desires and attain full control. The first 3 paths described how one can gain physical control. The next 2 paths showed us how to achieve the fullest mental control. The last 2 paths were described to help people attain the highest level of intellect. These paths are described as Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration synchronously.

The title “Buddha” was used by several ancient groups and for each group, it had its meaning. The word Buddhism refers to a living being who has got enlightened and just got up from his phase of ignorance. Buddhism believes that there have been Buddhas in the past before Gautam Buddha and there will be Buddhas in the future also. The Buddhists celebrate the life of Gautam Buddha starting from his birth to his enlightenment and passage into Nirvana stage as well.

In his life, Gautam Buddha had done a lot of spiritual things and lived his life by going through so much. Each suffering and each liberation of his has turned into teachings.

Some of them are explained below:

Finding Liberation: the ultimate motive of our soul is to find liberation.

The Noble truth of Life: for salvation, you need to know about all the four Noble truths of your life.

Suffering is not a Joke:   each suffering leads you to experience a new you.

There are noble eightfold paths that you need to follow.

Death is final, the one who has taken birth will die surely and everything in life is impermeable, you are not going to have anything that will be permanent so focus on salvation rather than pleasing others.

He preached that only sacrifice cannot make a person happy and free from all the bonds he has in the world. He also defined the final goal as Nirvana. Even to this day, his preaching finds meaning and can be related to our sorrows. According to his teachings, the right way of thinking, acting, living, concentrating, etc can lead to such a state. He never asked anyone to sacrifice or pray all day to achieve such a state. This is not the way to gain such a mindful state.

He didn’t mention any god or an almighty controlling our fate. His teachings are the best philosophical thoughts one can follow. Gautam Buddha was his new name after gaining Nirvana and knowing the truth. He was sure that no religion can lead to Nirvana. Only the Noble Eightfold Path can be the way to achieve such a state. He breathed last in 483 BC in Kushinagar, now situated in Uttar Pradesh and his life became an inspiration.

Even after being in a happy family with a loving wife and son, he left his royal kingdom in search of the truth. No one was able to satisfy him with knowledge. He then attained his enlightenment under a banyan tree in Bodh Gaya. He described the Noble Eightfold Path that everyone should follow to get rid of sorrow and unhappiness. He died in 483 BC but his preaching is found to be still relevant to this date. This tells us how Siddhartha became Gautam Buddha. It also tells us about his valuable preaching and shows us the way to achieve Nirvana.

FAQs on Essay on Gautam Buddha

1. What made Siddhartha realize pleasures are Temporary?

When he first saw an ailing person, a corpse, and an old man, he realized worldly pleasures are temporary. He realized that all the pleasures that this world is running behind are fake. Nothing will stay forever, even the ones whom you love the most will leave you sooner or later, so you should not run behind these material pleasures. Focus on attaining salvation. Everyone who has taken birth will definitely leave one day, the thing that you have today will not be there tomorrow. There is only one soul for yourself. The body or the material things that you are proud of today will leave you tomorrow. Everything is not going to be the same.

2. What did he do to achieve Knowledge and Peace?

Gautam Buddha was more focused on achieving salvation, he wanted to know the truth of life. He wanted to have knowledge of all the things and peace along with Moksha. To receive knowledge and peace, Gautam Buddha left his home and his family behind. He wandered here and there aimlessly just to find peace in his life. Not only this, he talked with many scholars and saints so that he could receive the knowledge of everything that he was searching for. 

3. What did he Preach?

Gautam Buddha was the preacher of peace. In this essay, we are introduced to the preaching of Gautam Buddha. He has taught all about how to receive salvation and attain Nirvana without following any particular religion. Some of his preachings are :

Have respect for your life.

No lying and respect for honesty.

No sexual misconduct and at least you should respect the people of the same community and respect women as well. 

The path of sufferings, truth of causes; these factors will create a path of salvation for you. You need to believe in the reality of life and then move towards attaining the ultimate.

4. Does Gautam Buddha believe in God?

Buddhists actually don't believe in any dainty figure or God but according to them, there are some supernatural powers present in this universe that can help people or they can even encourage people to move toward enlightenment. Gautam Buddha, on seeing people dying and crying, realized that human life is nothing but suffering and all you need to do is get over this materialistic world and lead your life towards attaining salvation. Nothing is permanent nor even this body, so enlighten yourself towards the path of salvation.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Life of the buddha.

The Dream of Queen Maya (the Buddha's Conception)

Birth of the Buddha Shakyamuni

Vajrapani Attends the Buddha at His First Sermon

The Death of the Buddha (Parinirvana)

Drum panel depicting a stupa with the Buddha’s descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven

Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni

Niche with the Seated Bodhisattva Shakyamuni Flanked by Devotees and an Elephant

Reliquary in the Shape of a Stupa

Head of Buddha

Seated Buddha Vairocana

Seated Buddha

Reliquary(?) with Scenes from the Life of Buddha

Book Cover from a Manuscript of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra

Plaque with Scenes from the Life of the Buddha

Buddha Sheltered by a Naga

“Devadatta,” Chapter 12 of the Lotus Sutra (Hoke-kyō, Daibadatta-bon)

Death of the Historical Buddha (Nehan-zu)

Illustrated manuscript of the Lotus Sutra (Miaofa lianhua jing), Volume 2

Unidentified artist (mid-14th century)

Scene from the Life of the Buddha

Kathryn Selig Brown Independent Scholar

October 2003

According to tradition, the historical Buddha lived from 563 to 483 B.C. , although scholars postulate that he may have lived as much as a century later. He was born to the rulers of the Shakya clan, hence his appellation Shakyamuni, which means “sage of the Shakya clan.” The legends that grew up around him hold that both his conception and birth were miraculous. His mother, Maya, conceived him when she dreamed that a white elephant entered her right side ( 1976.402 ). She gave birth to him in a standing position while grasping a tree in a garden ( 1987.417.1 ). The child emerged from Maya’s right side fully formed and proceeded to take seven steps. Once back in the palace, he was presented to an astrologer who predicted that he would become either a great king or a great religious teacher, and he was given the name Siddhartha (“He who achieves His Goal”). His father, evidently thinking that any contact with unpleasantness might prompt Siddhartha to seek a life of renunciation as a religious teacher, and not wanting to lose his son to such a future, protected him from the realities of life.

The ravages of poverty, disease, and even old age were therefore unknown to Siddhartha, who grew up surrounded by every comfort in a sumptuous palace. At age twenty-nine, he made three successive chariot rides outside the palace grounds and saw an old person, a sick person, and a corpse, all for the first time. On the fourth trip, he saw a wandering holy man whose asceticism inspired Siddhartha to follow a similar path in search of freedom from the suffering caused by the infinite cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Because he knew his father would try to stop him, Siddhartha secretly left the palace in the middle of the night ( 28.105 ) and sent all his belongings and jewelry back with his servant and horse. Completely abandoning his luxurious existence, he spent six years as an ascetic ( 1987.218.5 ), attempting to conquer the innate appetites for food, sex, and comfort by engaging in various yogic disciplines. Eventually near death from his vigilant fasting, he accepted a bowl of rice from a young girl. Once he had eaten, he had a realization that physical austerities were not the means to achieve spiritual liberation. At a place now known as Bodh Gaya (“enlightenment place”), he sat and meditated all night beneath a pipal tree. After defeating the forces of the demon Mara, Siddhartha reached enlightenment ( 1982.233 ) and became a Buddha (“enlightened one”) at the age of thirty-five.

The Buddha continued to sit after his enlightenment, meditating beneath the tree and then standing beside it for a number of weeks. During the fifth or sixth week, he was beset by heavy rains while meditating but was protected by the hood of the serpent king Muchilinda ( 1987.424.19ab ). Seven weeks after his enlightenment, he left his seat under the tree and decided to teach others what he had learned, encouraging people to follow a path he called “The Middle Way,” which is one of balance rather than extremism. He gave his first sermon ( 1980.527.4 ) in a deer park in Sarnath, on the outskirts of the city of Benares. He soon had many disciples and spent the next forty-five years walking around northeastern India spreading his teachings. Although the Buddha presented himself only as a teacher and not as a god or object of worship, he is said to have performed many miracles during his lifetime ( 1979.511 ). Traditional accounts relate that he died at the age of eighty ( 2015.500.4.1 ) in Kushinagara, after ingesting a tainted piece of either mushroom or pork. His body was cremated and the remains distributed among groups of his followers. These holy relics were enshrined in large hemispherical burial mounds ( 1985.387 ), a number of which became important pilgrimage sites.

In India, by the Pala period (ca. 700–1200), the Buddha’s life was codified into a series of “Eight Great Events” ( 1982.233 ). These eight events are, in order of their occurrence in the Buddha’s life: his birth ( 1976.402 ), his defeat over Mara and consequent enlightenment ( 1982.233 ; 1985.392.1 ), his first sermon at Sarnath ( 1980.527.4 ), the miracles he performed at Shravasti ( 1979.511 ), his descent from the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods ( 28.31 ), his taming of a wild elephant ( 1979.511 ), the monkey’s gift of honey, and his death ( 2015.500.4.1 ).

Brown, Kathryn Selig. “Life of the Buddha.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/hd_buda.htm (October 2003)

Further Reading

Pal, Pratapaditya, et al. Light of Asia: Buddha Sakyamuni in Asian Art . Exhibition catalogue. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1984.

Snellgrove, David L., ed. The Image of the Buddha . Tokyo: Kodansha, 1978.

Additional Essays by Kathryn Selig Brown

• Brown, Kathryn Selig. “ Nepalese Painting .” (October 2003)
• Brown, Kathryn Selig. “ Nepalese Sculpture .” (October 2003)
• Brown, Kathryn Selig. “ Tibetan Buddhist Art .” (October 2003)

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Siddhartha Gautama

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Siddhartha Gautama (better known as the Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) was, according to legend, a Hindu prince who renounced his position and wealth to seek enlightenment as a spiritual ascetic, attained his goal and, in preaching his path to others, founded Buddhism in India in the 6th-5th centuries BCE.

The events of his life are largely legendary, but he is considered an actual historical figure and a younger contemporary of Mahavira (also known as Vardhamana , l. c. 599-527 BCE) who established the tenets of Jainism shortly before Siddhartha's time.

According to Buddhist texts, a prophecy was given at Siddhartha's birth that he would become either a powerful king or great spiritual leader. His father, fearing he would become the latter if he were exposed to the suffering of the world, protected him from seeing or experiencing anything unpleasant or upsetting for the first 29 years of his life. One day (or over the course of a few) he slipped through his father's defenses and saw what Buddhists refer to as the Four Signs:

• An aged man
• A religious ascetic

Through these signs, he realized that he, too, could become sick, would grow old, would die, and would lose everything he loved. He understood that the life he was living guaranteed he would suffer and, further, that all of life was essentially defined by suffering from want or loss. He therefore followed the example of the religious ascetic, tried different teachers and disciplines, and finally attained enlightenment through his own means and became known as the Buddha (“awakened” or “enlightened” one).

Afterwards, he preached his “middle way” of detachment from sense objects and renunciation of ignorance and illusion through his Four Noble Truths , the Wheel of Becoming, and the Eightfold Path to enlightenment. After his death , his disciples preserved and developed his teachings until they were spread from India to other countries by the Mauryan king Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE). From the time of Ashoka on, Buddhism has continued to flourish and, presently, is one of the major world religions.

Historical Background

Siddhartha was born in Lumbini (in modern-day Nepal) during a time of social and religious transformation. The dominant religion in India at the time was Hinduism ( Sanatan Dharma , “Eternal Order”) but a number of thinkers of the period had begun to question its validity and the authority of the Vedas (the Hindu scriptures) as well as the practices of the priests.

On a practical level, critics of orthodox Hinduism claimed that the religion was not meeting the needs of the people. The Vedas were said to have been received directly from the universe and could not be questioned, but these scriptures were all in Sanskrit , a language the people could not understand, and were interpreted by the priests to encourage acceptance of one's place in life – no matter how difficult or impoverished – while they themselves continued to live well from temple donations.

On a theological level, people began to question the entire construct of Hinduism. Hinduism taught that there was a supreme being, Brahman, who had not only created the universe but was the universe itself. Brahman had established the divine order, maintained this order, and had delivered the Vedas to enable human beings to participate in this order with understanding and clarity.

It was understood that the human soul was immortal and that the goal of life was to perform one's karma (action) in accordance with one's dharma (duty) in order to break free from the cycle of rebirth and death ( samsara ) and attain union with the oversoul ( atman ). It was also understood that the soul would be incarnated in physical bodies multiple times, over and over, until one finally attained this liberation.

The Hindu priests of the time defended the faith, which included the caste system, as part of the divine order but, as new ideas began to circulate, more people questioned whether that order was divine at all when all it seemed to offer was endless rounds of suffering. Scholar John M. Koller comments:

From a religious perspective, new ways of faith and practice challenged the established Vedic religion. The main concern dominating religious thought and practice at the time of the Buddha was the problem of suffering and death. Fear of death was an especially acute problem, because death was seen as an unending series of deaths and rebirths. Although the Buddha's solution to the problem was unique, most religious seekers at this time were engaged in the search for a way to obtain freedom from suffering and repeated death. (46)

Many schools of thought arose at this time in response to this need. Those which supported orthodox Hindu thought were known as astika (“there exists”), and those which rejected the Vedas and the Hindu construct were known as nastika (“there does not exist”). Among the nastika schools which survived the time and developed were Charvaka , Jainism, and Buddhism.

Early Life & Renunciation

Siddhartha Gautama grew up in this time of transition and reform but, according to the famous Buddhist legend concerning his youth, would not have been aware of any of it. When he was born, it was prophesied that he would become a great king or spiritual leader and his father, hoping for the former, hid his son away from anything that might be distressing. Siddhartha's mother died within a week of his birth, but he had no awareness of this, and his father did not want him to experience anything else as he grew which might inspire him to adopt a spiritual path.

Siddhartha lived among the luxuries of the palace , was married, had a son, and lacked for nothing as the heir-apparent of his father until his experience with the Four Signs. Whether he saw the aged man, sick man, dead man, and ascetic in rapid succession on a single ride in his carriage (or chariot , depending on the version), or over four days, the story relates how, with each one of the first three, he asked his driver, “Am I, too, subject to this?” His coachman responded, telling him how everyone aged, everyone was subject to illness, and everyone died.

Reflecting upon this, Siddhartha understood that everyone he loved, every fine object, all his grand clothes, his horses, his jewels would one day be lost to him – could be lost to him at any time on any day – because he was subject to age, illness, and death just like everyone else. The idea of such tremendous loss was unbearable to him but, he noticed, the religious ascetic – just as doomed as anyone – seemed at peace and so asked him why he seemed so content. The ascetic told him he was pursuing the path of spiritual reflection and detachment, recognizing the world and its trappings as illusion, and was therefore unconcerned with loss as he had already given everything away.

Siddhartha knew that his father would never allow him to follow this path and, further, he had a wife and son he was responsible for who would also try to prevent him. At the same time, though, the thought of accepting a life he knew he would ultimately lose and suffer for was unbearable. One night, after looking at all of the precious objects he was attached to and his sleeping wife and son, he walked out of the palace, left his fine clothes, put on the robes of an ascetic, and departed for the woods. In some versions of the story, he is assisted by supernatural means while, in others, he simply leaves.

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Criticism of the Four Signs Tale

Criticism of this story often includes the objection that Siddhartha could not possibly have gone 29 years without ever becoming sick, seeing an older person, or being aware of death, but this is explained by scholars in two ways:

• the story is symbolic of the conditions which cause/relieve suffering
• the story is an artificial construct to give Buddhism an illustrious past

Koller addresses the first point, writing :

Most likely the truth of the legend of the four signs is symbolic rather than literal. In the first place, they may symbolize existential crises in Siddhartha's life occasioned by experiences with sickness, old age, death, and renunciation. More important, these four signs symbolize his coming to a deep and profound understanding of the true reality of sickness, old age, death, and contentment and his conviction that peace and contentment are possible despite the fact that everyone experiences old age, sickness, and death. (49)

Scholars Robert E. Buswell, Jr. and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. address the second point noting that the story of the Four Signs was written over 100 years after Buddha's death and that early Buddhists were “motivated in part by the need to demonstrate that what the Buddha taught was not the innovation of an individual, but rather the rediscovery of a timeless truth” in order to give the belief system the same claim to ancient, divine origins held by Hinduism and Jainism (149).

The story may or may not be true, but it hardly matters because it has come to be accepted as truth. It appears first in full in the Lalitavistara Sutra (c. 3rd century CE) and, before that, may have undergone extensive revision via oral tradition. The symbolic meaning seems obvious and the claim it was written to enhance the standing of Buddhist thought, which had to contend with the established faiths of Hinduism and Jainism for adherents, also seems probable.

Ascetic Life & Enlightenment

Siddhartha at first sought out the famous teacher Arada Kalama with whom he studied until he had mastered all Kamala knew, but the “attainment of nothingness” he gained did nothing to free him from suffering. He then became a student of the master Udraka Ramaputra who taught him how to suppress his desires and attain a state “neither conscious nor unconscious”, but this did not satisfy him as it, also, did not address the problem of suffering. He subjected himself to the harshest ascetic disciplines, most likely following a Jain model, eventually eating only a grain of rice a day, but, still, he could not find what he was looking for.

In one version of his story, at this point he stumbles into a river, barely strong enough to keep his head above water, and receives direction from a voice on the wind. In the more popular version, he is found in the woods by a milkmaid named Sujata, who mistakes him for a tree spirit because he is so emaciated, and offers him some rice milk. The milk revives him, and he ends his asceticism and goes to nearby village of Bodh Gaya where he seats himself on a bed of grass beneath a Bodhi tree and vows to remain there until he understands the means of living without suffering.

Deep in a meditative state, Siddhartha contemplated his life and experiences. He thought about the nature of suffering and fully recognized its power came from attachment. Finally, in a moment of illumination, he understood that suffering was caused by the human insistence on permanent states of being in a world of impermanence. Everything one was, everything one thought one owned, everything one wanted to gain, was in a constant state of flux. One suffered because one was ignorant of the fact that life itself was change and one could cease suffering by recognizing that, since this was so, attachment to anything in the belief it would last was a serious error which only trapped one in an endless cycle of craving, striving, rebirth, and death. His illumination was complete, and Siddhartha Gautama was now the Buddha, the enlightened one.

Tenets & Teachings

Although he could now live his life in contentment and do as he pleased, he chose instead to teach others the path of liberation from ignorance and desire and assist them in ending their suffering. He preached his first sermon at the Deer Park at Sarnath at which he introduced his audience to his Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are:

• Life is suffering
• The cause of suffering is craving
• The end of suffering comes with an end to craving
• There is a path which leads one away from craving and suffering

The fourth truth directs one toward the Eightfold Path, which serves as a guide to live one's life without the kind of attachment that guarantees suffering:

• Right Intention
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Effort
• Right Mindfulness
• Right Concentration

By recognizing the Four Noble Truths and following the precepts of the Eightfold Path, one is freed from the Wheel of Becoming which is a symbolic illustration of existence. In the hub of the wheel sit ignorance, craving, and aversion which drive it. Between the hub and the rim of the wheel are six states of existence: human, animal, ghosts, demons, deities, and hell-beings. Along the rim of the wheel are depicted the conditions which cause suffering such as body-mind, consciousness, feeling, thirst, grasping among many others which bind one to the wheel and cause one to suffer.

In recognizing the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path, one will still experience loss, feel pain, know disappointment but it will not be the same as the experience of duhkha , translated as “suffering” which is unending because it is fueled by the soul's ignorance of the nature of life and of itself. One can still enjoy all aspects of life in pursuing the Buddhist path, only with the recognition that these things cannot last, it is not in their nature to last, because nothing in life is permanent.

Buddhists compare this realization to the end of a dinner party. When the meal is done, one thanks one's host for the pleasant time and goes home; one does not fall to the floor crying and lamenting the evening's end. The nature of the dinner party is that it has a beginning and an ending, it is not a permanent state, and neither is anything else in life. Instead of mourning the loss of something that one could never hope to have held onto, one should appreciate what one has experienced for what it is – and let it go when it is over.

Buddha called his teaching the Dharma which means “cosmic law ” in this case (not “duty” as in Hinduism) as it is based entirely on the concept of undeniable consequences for one's thoughts which form one's reality and dictate one's actions. As the Buddhist text Dhammapada puts it:

Our life is shaped by our mind; we become what we think. Suffering follows an evil thought as the wheels of a cart follow the oxen that draw it. Our life is shaped by our mind; we become what we think. Joy follows a pure thought like a shadow that never leaves. (I.1-2)

The individual is ultimately responsible for his or her level of suffering because, at any point, one can choose not to engage in the kinds of attachments and thought processes which cause suffering. Buddha would continue to teach his message for the rest of his life before dying at Kushinagar where, according to Buddhists, he attained nirvana and was released from the cycle of rebirth and death after being served a meal by one Cunda, a student, who some scholars claim may have poisoned him, perhaps accidentally.

Before dying of dysentery, he requested his remains be placed in a stupa at a crossroads, but his disciples divided them between themselves and had them interred in eight (or ten) stupas corresponding to important sites in Buddha's life. When Ashoka the Great embraced Buddhism, he had the relics disinterred and then reinterred in 84,000 stupas across India.

He then sent missionaries to other countries to spread Buddha's message where it was received so well that Buddhism became more popular in countries like Sri Lanka, China , Thailand, and Korea than it was in India - a situation which, actually, is ongoing – and Buddhist thought developed further after that. Today, the efforts of Siddhartha Gautama are appreciated worldwide by those who have embraced his message and still follow his example of appreciating, without clinging, to the beauty of life.

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Bibliography

• Baird, F. E. & Heimbeck, R. S. Philosophic Classics: Asian Philosophy. Routledge, 2005.
• Buddha. The Dhammapada. Royal Classics, 2020.
• Burtt, E. A. The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha. Berkley, 2000.
• Buswell, R. E. jr & Lopez, D. S. jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2013.
• Keay, J. India: A History. Grove Press, 2010.
• Koller, J. M. Asian Philosophies. Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Long, J. D. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
• Long, J. D. Jainism: An Introduction. I.B. Tauris, 2009.

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The life of the Buddha

Although born a prince, he realized that conditioned experiences could not provide lasting happiness or protection from suffering. After a long spiritual search he went into deep meditation, where he realized the nature of mind. He achieved the state of unconditional and lasting happiness: the state of enlightenment, of buddhahood. This state of mind is free from disturbing emotions and expresses itself through fearlessness, joy and active compassion. For the rest of his life, the Buddha taught anyone who asked how they could reach the same state.

Buddha’s early life

India at the time of the Buddha was very spiritually open. Every major philosophical view was present in society, and people expected spirituality to influence their daily lives in positive ways.

At this time of great potential, Siddhartha Gautama, the future Buddha, was born into a royal family in what is now Nepal, close to the border with India. Growing up, the Buddha was exceptionally intelligent and compassionate. Tall, strong, and handsome, the Buddha belonged to the Warrior caste. It was predicted that he would become either a great king or spiritual leader. Since his parents wanted a powerful ruler for their kingdom, they tried to prevent Siddharta from seeing the unsatisfactory nature of the world. They surrounded him with every kind of pleasure. He was given five hundred attractive ladies and every opportunity for sports and excitement. He completely mastered the important combat training, even winning his wife, Yasodhara, in an archery contest.

Suddenly, at age 29, he was confronted with impermanence and suffering. On a rare outing from his luxurious palace, he saw someone desperately sick. The next day, he saw a decrepit old man, and finally a dead person. He was very upset to realize that old age, sickness and death would come to everyone he loved. Siddharta had no refuge to offer them.

The next morning the prince walked past a meditator who sat in deep absorption. When their eyes met and their minds linked, Siddhartha stopped, mesmerized. In a flash, he realized that the perfection he had been seeking outside must be within mind itself. Meeting that man gave the future Buddha a first and enticing taste of mind, a true and lasting refuge, which he knew he had to experience himself for the good of all.

Buddha’s enlightenment

The Buddha decided he had to leave his royal responsibilities and his family in order to realize full enlightenment. He left the palace secretly, and set off alone into the forest. Over the next six years, he met many talented meditation teachers and mastered their techniques. Always he found that they showed him mind’s potential but not mind itself. Finally, at a place called Bodhgaya, the future Buddha decided to remain in meditation until he knew mind’s true nature and could benefit all beings. After spending six days and nights cutting through mind’s most subtle obstacles, he reached enlightenment on the full moon morning of May, a week before he turned thirty-five.

At the moment of full realization, all veils of mixed feelings and stiff ideas dissolved and Buddha experienced the all-encompassing here and now. All separation in time and space disappeared. Past, present, and future, near and far, melted into one radiant state of intuitive bliss. He became timeless, all-pervading awareness. Through every cell in his body he knew and was everything. He became Buddha , the Awakened One.

After his enlightenment, Buddha traveled on foot throughout northern India. He taught constantly for forty-five years. People of all castes and professions, from kings to courtesans, were drawn to him. He answered their questions, always pointing towards that which is ultimately real.

Throughout his life, Buddha encouraged his students to question his teachings and confirm them through their own experience. This non-dogmatic attitude still characterizes Buddhism today.

The Editors

The Life of the Buddha

For more than 2,500 years, people have followed the path to liberation as taught by the Buddha. For just as long, the Buddha’s life story has had a powerful inspirational and motivational effect on many.

The story of the Buddha is an ode to the almost superhuman effort the Buddha made to achieve his liberation , the almost infinite patience it took, and the deep love and compassion that led him to share this path with others.

The emphasis is on ‘almost’ because his life story is ultimately a human story. The Buddha was not a god, not a being supernatural from birth. No, the Buddha was essentially a human being, like you and me.

More then anything else, the story of the Buddha shows that liberation is possible, even for ordinary mortals like us.

Fortunately, unlike the Buddha, we do not have to discover the path to the necessary deep insight into reality all by ourselves. We can follow the path of the Buddha , as long as we are willing to make the necessary effort. As the Buddha said (Dhp 276):

“You yourselves must strive, the Buddhas only point the way”

But who was the Buddha? What was his life like? And what exactly is a “Buddha”? In this text we hope to answer all these questions.

For this we will tell the story, beginning with the first intention during his life as Sumedha, through his quest as Siddhartha Gautama to the climax of his eventual liberation and his first teaching.

We will tell this story as much as possible using the words of the Buddha himself, as they have been transmitted in the ancient Buddhist scriptures.

Table of Contents

Time in perspective, the intention of sumedha, siddharta gautama becomes a buddha, setting in motion the wheel of dhamma.

If you want to appreciate the Buddha’s effort in its fullest, it is good to first get a little more sense of some basic Buddhist cosmology first so that things can be put into perspective, especially when it comes to the sense of time.

The Buddha sometimes used the word kalpa , here translated as ‘eon’ as an indication of time.

There are different kinds of eons, but for now only the kalpa in the sense of the maha-kalpa , or great-eon, is important.

During such an eon the universe as we know it arises, living beings can slowly but surely thrive, until finally a period comes in which the universe decays again and is followed by a period of emptiness.

After the period of emptiness the next eon ‘just’ begins and with it a new cycle of creation and decay of a universe, followed by a next cycle, and so on and so forth. The Buddha gave the following example to get a feeling for the length of a single eon:

“Imagine a large granite block at the beginning of the eon, about 25km by 25km by 25km, many times larger than the highest mountain in the Himalayas, and every 100 years a man wipes this block once with a silk cloth. Sooner will the granite block be weathered down than that an eon will be over.”

According to the Buddha, there is no first beginning, no moment of time to which there was no previous ignorance.

When some monks asked him how many eons, how many cycles from one universe to another, have passed, the Buddha gave the following equation:

“If you take the total number of grains of sand in the depths of the Ganges River, from where it begins to where it ends, even that number will be less than the number of eons that have already passed.”

The endless wandering of beings in this beginningless, unsatisfactory cycle of coming and going, is samsāra .

Next to some specific skills of the Buddha , his position in time is especially unique. He was the first to rediscovered the truth that leads to the liberation from samsāra , and thus the attainment of Nibbāna (Nirvana).

The truth (the Dhamma) rediscovered by the Buddha is universal and can be understood by anyone following his example with patience and energy.

Like a guide who shows travelers the way through dangerous and difficult terrain, or like a lamp that illuminates the darkness in the night, the Buddha only shows the way to this truth and liberation, you walk the path yourself.

The Dhamma always existed and will always exist, one can only determine whether or not the path leading to it has been pointed out by a Buddha in a period of time.

Those who have followed the Dhamma, the Buddha’s way to final liberation, the noble Sangha, can themselves serve as a guide for others. After all, only someone who sees can lead a blind person; only if you are healthy can you take care of the sick.

The Buddha, with his first exposition of the Dhamma , initiated the current Buddha-sāsana , i.e. the period in which the Dhamma, the truth, can be heard and the path to liberation can be practiced . Just like everything this time too will come to an end, after which a dark period will dawn. During that period the Dhamma cannot be heard, there are no enlightened beings on earth and there is no light to guide beings in the darkness.

If we combine this with the knowledge of the eons it will not be surprising that in the infinity of the past there have been countless Buddhas followed by countless dark periods and also in the future there will continue to be Buddha’s in the world who will point the way to liberation from suffering.

With this in mind we can begin the story of the Buddha of our time.

Many will have heard of the life of Prince Siddharta Gautama and his quest for enlightenment over 2500 years ago.

According to the Buddhavamsa (chronicles of Buddhas) however, the story begins earlier, many, many world cycles ago, many, many thousands of eons ago, at the time of an earlier Buddha, the Buddha Dipankara.

At the time of the Buddha Dipankara, a young man from a wealthy family called Sumedha lived in the same area.

Throughout his life, Sumedha was increasingly reluctant to accept the insubstantiality of existence. Seeking liberation from the suffering resulting from life and death, he decided to give away all his wealth away and live in the mountains as an ascetic.

There he practiced meditation full of energy and dedication and successfully developed high concentration .

At one point Sumedha heard of the existence of the Buddha Dipankara and that this Buddha would soon visit a nearby village.

The ascetic experienced a feeling of bliss upon hearing the word ‘Buddha’ and exclaimed “Buddha, Buddha!” full of joy. The thought came to him:

“[Extremely rare is it to hear the word Buddha, much rarer is it to meet a Buddha.] Here I will plant my seeds, verily, don’t let this opportunity pass!”

And he went to the village. He arrived early and got permission to help repair the path the Buddha would walk on during his visit.

While working hard, he kept thinking “Buddha, Buddha!” However, before his part of the path was finished, the Buddha appeared with his retinue of monks.

When Sumedha saw the Buddha, he was immediately deeply impressed by his calm and wise appearance.

Then he saw, on the part of the road he was tending to, a pool of mud through which the Buddha would inevitably have to walk in order to continue on his way.

Inspired by respect Sumedha threw herself into the mud pool to serve as a human bridge and thought:

“Let the Buddha and his disciples walk over me, don’t let them walk through the mud pool – this act will contribute to my well-being.”

As the Buddha approached Sumeda became more and more inspired and the thought came to him:

“I have the mental ability to become an Arahant, an enlightened one, today if I want to, but it does not feel right for me to let others wander around in samsāra while I could develop the energy to help all beings. What if I were to make an effort to become a Buddha just like Buddha Dipankara?”

When Buddha Dipankara arrived at Sumedha he stopped, looked at Sumedha and made the following prediction:

“See here, this young ascetic, lying in the mud at the risk of his own life. In countless eons, he will be a Buddha in the world, just as I am now.”

Thus, Sumedha’s intention was affirmed by the Buddha, and he and his disciples did not continue on their way, but walked respectfully around Sumedha.

Reflecting on what had happened and what it would take to become a Buddha, Sumedha saw ten paramis (specific mental qualities) that he would have to develop to the utmost perfection, namely generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, effort, loving kindness and equanimity.

And so Sumedha became a Bodhisatta , a Buddha-to-be .

Throughout all the subsequent lives in all those long eons, the Bodhisatta worked on his paramis, culminating in the attainment of the highest perfection of each of these qualities in his last birth 2500 years ago during his life as prince Siddharta Gautama.

About 2500 years ago, Siddharta Gautama was born as the son of Queen Maya and King Suddhodana, leader of the Sakya clan in the kingdom of Kapilavastu in Kosala, in modern day  northern India.

Seven days after his birth his mother queen Maya died and her sister, Pajapati, takes care of the young child.

The seer Asita comes to the king’s court and gives the following prophecy:

“The son of the king of Sakya will become world ruler or, if he turns away from the courteous life, a fully liberated one, a Buddha.”

To prevent Siddharta from turning away from his royal life, he was raised protected and married at the age of 16 to Princess Yasodhara. Together they had a son, Rahula.

Siddharta however, realizes despite his father’s frantic efforts to protect him in luxury and pleasure, that everyone is subject to old age, sickness and death and to all the suffering that accompanies life. He himself later says (AN 3:39) :

“Bhikkhus, I was delicately nurtured, most delicately nurtured, extremely delicately nurtured. At my father’s residence lotus ponds were made just for my enjoyment: in one of them blue lotuses bloomed, in another red lotuses, and in a third white lotuses. I used no sandalwood unless it came from Kāsi and my headdress, jacket, lower garment, and upper garment were made of cloth from Kāsi. By day and by night a white canopy was held over me so that cold and heat, dust, grass, and dew would not settle on me.”

“I had three mansions: one for the winter, one for the summer, and one for the rainy season. I spent the four months of the rains in the rainy-season mansion, being entertained by musicians, none of whom were male, and I did not leave the mansion. While in other people’s homes slaves, workers, and servants are given broken rice together with sour gruel for their meals, in my father’s residence they were given choice hill rice, meat, and boiled rice.”

“Amid such splendor and a delicate life, it occurred to me: ‘An uninstructed worldling, though himself subject to old age, not exempt from old age, feels repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when he sees another who is old, overlooking his own situation. Now I too am subject to old age and am not exempt from old age. Such being the case, if I were to feel repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when seeing another who is old, that would not be proper for me.’ When I reflected thus, my intoxication with youth was completely abandoned.”

“Again, it occurred to me: ‘An uninstructed worldling, though himself subject to illness, not exempt from illness, feels repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when he sees another who is ill, overlooking his own situation. Now I too am subject to illness and am not exempt from illness. Such being the case, if I were to feel repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when seeing another who is ill, that would not be proper for me.’ When I reflected thus, my intoxication with health was completely abandoned.”

“Again, it occurred to me: ‘An uninstructed worldling, though himself subject to death, not exempt from death, feels repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when he sees another who has died, overlooking his own situation. Now I too am subject to death and am not exempt from death. Such being the case, if I were to feel repelled, humiliated, and disgusted when seeing another who has died, that would not be proper for me.’ When I reflected thus, my intoxication with life was completely abandoned.”

As a result of this realisation, Siddharta decided at the age of 29 to leave the rich life of a prince behind and to go forth into homelessness as a wandering ascetic, in order to find a solution for the suffering in the world (MN 26, 36, 85, 100) :

“Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and went forth from the home life into homelessness.”

At first he went to the great meditation teachers of his time, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, but although he quickly reached the highest meditation level taught by these teachers, and was asked by both to continue to guide their students as the highest teacher, he found only the temporary cessation of suffering and not the definitive end of birth, old age, illness and death he was looking for.

So Siddharta decided to continue his search and moved into the jungle to spend years in extreme ascetic practices.

He subjects himself to violent practices such as barely eating, enduring extreme pains, breathing as little as possible and more, everything in order to control his body and mind.

Five ascetics, Kondanna, Bhadduya, Wappa, Mahanama, and Assaji, who also left behind riches and a household life in search of liberation from suffering, were deeply impressed by Siddharta’s effort and followed him closely.

After six years of intense asceticism, Siddharta’s body was completely emaciated and his death was near, without having reached liberation from suffering.

Legend has it that at that moment a minstrel passes by the place where Siddharta sits with his travelling companion, and Siddharta hears the minstrel telling him how to get the strings of his lute right:

“The strings shouldn’t be too slack, but certainly not too hard. If they are too slack, you don’t get a sound, too tight and they snap, but if you tension them exactly in the middle of these two extremes, you get the most beautiful tones.”

At that moment Siddharta remembers a moment as a young boy when he was sitting in the cooling shade of a rose apple tree while his father was working in the fields.

As he sat there, without torment, cool and pleasant, in complete peace, his mind became silent. And he reached, immersed in a meditation that was natural to him, a high concentration .

Thinking about this Siddharta realized that not the violent asceticism with self-flagellation and not the courteous life full of sensory longing but precisely this middle ground of concentration and letting go is the way to liberation ( MN 36, 85, 100 ):

“I thought: ‘Whatever recluses or brahmins in the past have experienced painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost, there is none beyond this. And whatever recluses and brahmins in the future will experience painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost, there is none beyond this. And whatever recluses and brahmins at present experience painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost, there is none beyond this. But by this racking practice of austerities I have not attained any superhuman states, any distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones. Could there be another path to enlightenment?’”

“I considered: ‘I recall that when my father the Sakyan was occupied, while I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I entered upon and abided in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by applied and sustained thought, with rapture and pleasure born of seclusion. Could that be the path to enlightenment?’ Then, following on that memory, came the realisation: ‘That is indeed the path to enlightenment.’”

“I thought: ‘Why  am I afraid of that pleasure that has nothing to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome states?’ I thought: ‘I am not afraid of that pleasure since it has nothing to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome states.’”

“I considered: ‘It is not easy to attain that pleasure with a body so excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and porridge.’ And I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and porridge. Now at that time five bhikkhus were waiting upon me, thinking: ‘If our recluse Gotama achieves some higher state, he will inform us.’ But when I ate the boiled rice and porridge, the five bhikkhus were disgusted and left me, thinking: ‘The recluse Gotama now lives luxuriously; he has given up his striving and reverted to luxury.’”

This is how Siddharta traveld on the middle road, rediscovered by him.

At that moment the five ascetics leave him, they know nothing of Siddharta’s new insight and think that Siddharta has given up the search for liberation and turned back to the worldly life. But nothing could be further from the truth.

Siddharta strenghtens his body and, free from sensory desire and self-flagellation, sits under a Bodhi tree ( MN 36 ):

“Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength, then quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I entered upon and abided in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by applied and sustained thought, with rapture and pleasure born of seclusion. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain. With the stilling of applied and sustained thought, I entered upon and abided in the second jhāna, which has self-confidence and singleness of mind without applied and sustained thought, with rapture and pleasure born of concentration. With the fading away as well of rapture, I abided in equanimity, and mindful and fully aware, still feeling pleasure with the body, I entered upon and abided in the third jhāna, on account of which noble ones announce: ‘He has a pleasant abiding who has equanimity and is mindful.’ With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief, I entered upon and abided in the fourth jhāna, which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.”

“When my concentrated mind was thus purified, bright, unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the recollection of past lives. I recollected my manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births, three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births, a hundred thousand births, many aeons of world-contraction, many aeons of world-expansion, many aeons of world-contraction and expansion: ‘There I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my life-term; and passing away from there, I reappeared elsewhere; and there too I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my life-term; and passing away from there, I reappeared here.’ Thus with their aspects and particulars I recollected my manifold past lives. This was the first true knowledge attained by me in the first watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who abides diligent, ardent, and resolute.”

“When my concentrated mind was thus purified, bright, unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate. I understood how beings pass on according to their actions thus: ‘These worthy beings who were ill conducted in body, speech, and mind, revilers of noble ones, wrong in their views, giving effect to wrong view in their actions, on the dissolution of the body, after death, have reappeared in a state of deprivation, in a bad destination, in perdition, even in hell; but these worthy beings who were well conducted in body,  speech, and mind, not revilers of noble ones, right in their views, giving effect to right view in their actions, on the dissolution of the body, after death, have reappeared in a good destination, even in the heavenly world.’ Thus with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and I understood how beings pass on according to their actions. This was the second true knowledge attained by me in the middle watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who abides diligent, ardent, and resolute.”

“When my concentrated mind was thus purified, bright, unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the destruction of the taints. I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is suffering’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the origin of suffering’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the cessation of suffering’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ I directly knew as it actually is: ‘These are the taints’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the origin of the taints’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the cessation of the taints’; I directly knew as it actually is: ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of the taints.’ When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taint of sensual desire, from the taint of being, and from the taint of ignorance. When it was liberated there came the knowledge: ‘It is liberated.’ I directly knew: ‘Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming to any state of being.’ This was the third true knowledge attained by me in the last watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who abides diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.”

According to legend, Mara, the evil one, the seducer, the personification of death, challenges Siddharta during this last night.

First he sends his army to Siddharta to frighten him. Mara’s horrible and terrifying forces scream and roar and fire arrows at Siddharta, but Siddharta’s infinite loving kindness turns the arrows into flowers upon reaching him.

Then Mara sends his three beautiful daughters (desire, aversion and attachment) to Siddharta to seduce him and bind him to the world. They dance and sing with their voluptuous bodies and beautiful voices, but Siddharta remains completely untouched due to his concentration, separated from sensory desires and unwholesome mental qualities.

Finally, Mara, despairing that Siddharta will escape from his chains, asks why Siddharta thinks he has the right to free herself from all suffering.

Siddharta touches the earth with the fingertips of his right hand and calls upon the universe as a witness to the effort he has made in all his countless livetimes, during all those endless eons, with the sole goal of attaining liberation.

The universe trembles in achknowledgement and Mara is defeated.

Thus Siddharta Gautama, meditating under the Bodhi Tree, attains the complete, universal enlightenment of a Buddha.

After his enlightenment, the Buddha stays in retreat for a while. At a certain point the thought arises in him ( MN 26 ):

“This Dhamma that I have attained is profound, hard to see and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattainable by mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. But this generation delights in attachment, takes delight in attachment, rejoices in attachment. It is hard for such a generation to see this truth, namely, specific conditionality, dependent origination . And it is hard to see this truth, namely, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna.”

Out of compassion for the world, he decides to look into the world in search of beings who could understand his path ( MN 26 ):

“I saw beings with little dust in their eyes and with much dust in their eyes, with keen faculties and with dull faculties, with good qualities and with bad qualities, easy to teach and hard to teach, and some who dwelt seeing fear and blame in the other world. “

The Buddha wonders to whom he should point out his way first and thinks of his earlier meditation teachers Alara Kalaman and Uddaka Ramaputta, but the knowledge arises in him that these teachers have now died.

Then he thinks of the five ascetics that followed him for so long during his asceticism and sees that they are close by and receptive to his teachings.

Later, having arrived at the five ascetics in the deer park in Sarnath, near present day Varanasi, the Buddha gives his first teaching with which sets in motion the wheel of Dhamma, after which the path to liberation can again be heard and followed in the world. The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta is thus the Buddha’s first sermon ( SN 56.11 ):

Thus have i heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Baraṇasi in the Deer Park at Isipatana. There the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus of the group of five thus:

“Bhikkhus, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone forth into homelessness. What two? The pursuit of sensual happiness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathagata has awakened to the middle way, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.

“And what, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision … which leads to Nibbāna? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonreliance on it.

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view … right concentration.

“‘This is the noble truth of suffering’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of suffering is to be fully understood’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of suffering has been fully understood’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering is to be abandoned’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been abandoned’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering is to be realized’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering is to be developed’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“‘This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering has been developed’: thus, bhikkhus, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, true knowledge, and light.

“So long, bhikkhus, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths as they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was not thoroughly purified in this way, I did not claim to have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this generation with its ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans. But when my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths as they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was thoroughly purified in this way, then I claimed to have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this generation with its ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is the liberation of my mind. This is my last birth. Now there is no more renewed existence.’”

This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, the bhikkhus of the group of five delighted in the Blessed One’s statement. And while this discourse was being spoken, there arose in the Venerable Kondañña the dust-free, stainless vision of the Dhamma: “Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.”

And when the Wheel of the Dhamma had been set in motion by the Blessed One, the earth-dwelling devas raised a cry: “At Baraṇasi, in the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed Wheel of the Dhamma has been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by anyone in the world.” Having heard the cry of the earth-dwelling devas, the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings raised a cry: “At Baraṇasi … this unsurpassed Wheel of the Dhamma has been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be stopped … by anyone in the world.” Having heard the cry of the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings, the Tavatiṃsa devas … the Yama devas … the Tusita devas … the Nimmanarati devas … the Paranimmitavasavatti devas … the devas of Brahma’s company raised a cry: “At Baraṇasi, in the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed Wheel of the Dhamma has been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by anyone in the world.”

Thus at that moment, at that instant, at that second, the cry spread as far as the brahma world, and this ten thousandfold world system shook, quaked, and trembled, and an immeasurable glorious radiance appeared in the world surpassing the divine majesty of the devas.

Then the Blessed One uttered this inspired utterance: “Koṇḍañña has indeed understood! Koṇḍañña has indeed understood!” In this way the Venerable Koṇḍañña acquired the name “Añña Koṇḍañña—Koṇḍañña Who Has Understood.”

Koṇḍañña was thus the first disciple of the Buddha who understood the true nature of things from his own experience.

This is a very important moment and good to think about.

It emphasizes that the path the Buddha taught can actually be realized by others, that the Buddha only points the way.

It is sometimes said that the Buddha’s path is a selfish path because it is about liberating yourself. But this is not true. It is out of love and compassion for all beings that the Buddha shared his way with us.

When he had 60 disciples who were all completely liberated from suffering, enlightened, Arahant , he commanded them to go forth into the world and share the path to liberation ( Vin I:20 ):

“Go, bhikkhu’s , for the good of many, for the happiness of many, out of compassion for the world, for the good, the welfare and the happiness of gods and men. Don’t let two of you go the same way.”

2500 years ago, out of love and compassion for the world, the Buddha left his home and made an unimaginable effort to find a way to the end of suffering, to find liberation, enlightenment, Nibbāna .

Having found this way, this truth, the Dhamma, having fathomed and realized it, he taught it to the world out of love and compassion for all being.

And for the past 2500 years, his enlightened disciples have followed his example and patiently worked to keep the path to deliverance in the world out of love and compassion and to share it with all who have the ability to listen to it.

Do you want to start meditating or deepen your practice? We offer personal guidance, completely on a donation basis.

You yourselves must strive, the Buddhas only point the way Buddha, Dhp 276

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Who Is The Buddha?

The life story of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama

The Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama, was born around 567 B.C.E., in a small kingdom just below the Himalayan foothills. His father was a chief of the Shakya clan. It is said that twelve years before his birth the brahmins prophesied that he would become either a universal monarch or a great sage. To prevent him from becoming an ascetic, his father kept him within the confines of the palace. Gautama grew up in princely luxury, shielded from the outside world, entertained by dancing girls, instructed by brahmins, and trained in archery, swordsmanship, wrestling, swimming, and running. When he came of age he married Gopa, who gave birth to a son. He had, as we might say today, everything.

And yet, it was not enough. Something—something as persistent as his own shadow—drew him into the world beyond the castle walls. There, in the streets of Kapilavastu, he encountered three simple things: a sick man , an old man , and a corpse being carried to the burning grounds. Nothing in his life of ease had prepared him for this experience. When his charioteer told him that all beings are subject to sickness, old age, and death, he could not rest.

As he returned to the palace, he passed a wandering ascetic walking peacefully along the road, wearing the robe and carrying the single bowl of a sadhu. He then resolved to leave the palace in search of the answer to the problem of suffering. After bidding his wife and child a silent farewell without waking them, he rode to the edge of the forest. There, he cut his long hair with his sword and exchanged his fine clothes for the simple robes of an ascetic.

Finding Liberation

With these actions Siddhartha Gautama joined a whole class of men who had dropped out of Indian society to find liberation. There were a variety of methods and teachers , and Gautama investigated many—atheists, materialists, idealists, and dialecticians. The deep forest and the teeming marketplace were alive with the sounds of thousands of arguments and opinions, unlike in our time.

Gautama finally settled down to work with two teachers. From Arada Kalama, who had three hundred disciples, he learned how to discipline his mind to enter the sphere of nothingness. But even though Arada Kalama asked him to remain and teach as an equal, he recognized that this was not liberation, and left. Next Siddhartha learned how to enter the concentration of mind which is neither consciousness nor unconsciousness from Udraka Ramaputra. But neither was this liberation and Siddhartha left his second teacher.

For six years Siddhartha along with five companions practiced austerities and concentration. He drove himself mercilessly, eating only a single grain of rice a day, pitting mind against body. His ribs stuck through his wasted flesh and he seemed more dead than alive.

The Middle Path

His five companions left him after he made the decision to take more substantial food and to abandon asceticism. Then, Siddhartha entered a village in search of food.  There, a woman named Sujata offered him a dish of milk and a separate vessel of honey. His strength returned, Siddhartha washed himself in the Nairanjana River, and then set off to the Bodhi tree. He spread a mat of kusha grass underneath, crossed his legs and sat.

He sat, having listened to all the teachers, studied all the sacred texts and tried all the methods. Now there was nothing to rely on, no one to turn to, nowhere to go. He sat solid and unmoving and determined as a mountain, until finally, after six days, his eye opened on the rising morning star, so it is said, and he realized that what he had been looking for had never been lost, neither to him nor to anyone else. Therefore there was nothing to attain, and no longer any struggle to attain it.

“Wonder of wonders,” he is reported to have said, “this very enlightenment is the nature of all beings, and yet they are unhappy for lack of it.” So it was that Siddhartha Gautama woke up at the age of thirty-five, and became the Buddha, the Awakened One, known as Shakyamuni, the sage of the Shakyas.

For seven weeks he enjoyed the freedom and tranquillity of liberation. At first he had no inclination to speak about his realization. He felt would be too difficult for most people to understand. But when, according to legend, Brahma, chief of the three thousand worlds, requested that the Awakened One teach, since there were those “whose eyes were only a little clouded over,” the Buddha agreed.

The First Noble Truth

Shakyamuni’s two former teachers, Udraka and Arada Kalama, had both died only a few days earlier, and so he sought the five ascetics who had left him. When they saw him approaching the Deer Park in Benares they decided to ignore him, since he had broken his vows. Yet they found something so radiant about his presence that they rose, prepared a seat, bathed his feet and listened as the Buddha turned the wheel of the dharma, the teachings, for the first time.

Related: What are The Four Noble Truths?

The First Noble Truth of the Buddha stated that all life, all existence, is characterized by duhkha.  The Sanskrit word meaning suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness. Even moments of happiness have a way of turning into pain when we hold onto them, or, once they have passed into memory, they twist the present as the mind makes an inevitable, hopeless attempt to recreate the past. The teaching of the Buddha is based on direct insight into the nature of existence. Ir is a radical critique of wishful thinking and the myriad tactics of escapism—whether through political utopianism, psychological therapeutics, simple hedonism, or (and it is this which primarily distinguishes Buddhism from most of the world’s religions) the theistic salvation of mysticism.

Suffering is true

Duhkha is Noble, and it is true. It is a foundation, a stepping stone, to be comprehended fully, not to be escaped from or explained. The experience of duhkha, of the working of one’s mind, leads to the Second Noble Truth, the origin of suffering, traditionally described as craving, thirsting for pleasure, but also and more fundamentally a thirst for continued existence, as well as nonexistence. Examination of the nature of this thirst leads to the heart of the Second Noble Truth, the idea of the “self,” or “I,” with all its desires, hopes, and fears, and it is only when this self is comprehended and seen to be insubstantial that the Third Noble Truth, the cessation of suffering, is realized.

The first sangha

The five ascetics who listened to the Buddha ‘s first discourse in the Deer Park became the nucleus of a community, a sangha , of men (women were to enter later) who followed the way the Buddha had described in his Fourth Noble Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path. These bhikshus , or monks, lived simply, owning a bowl, a robe, a needle, a water strainer, and a razor, since they shaved their heads as a sign of having left home. They traveled around northeastern India, practicing meditation alone or in small groups, begging for their meals.

Related: The Noble Eightfold Path

The Buddha’s teaching, however, was not only for the monastic community. Shakyamuni had instructed them to bring it to all: “Go ye, O bhikshus, for the gain of the many, the welfare of the many, in compassion for the world, for the good, for the gain, for the welfare of gods and men.”

For the next forty-nine years Shakyamuni walked through the villages and towns of India, speaking in the vernacular, using common figures of speech that everyone could understand. He taught a villager to practice mindfulness while drawing water from a well, and when a distraught mother asked him to heal the dead child she carried in her arms, he did not perform a miracle, but instead instructed her to bring him a mustard seed from a house where no one had ever died. She returned from her search without the seed, but with the knowledge that death is universal.

Death and Impermanence

As the Buddha’s fame spread, kings and other wealthy patrons donated parks and gardens for retreats.  The Buddha accepted these, but he continued to live as he had ever since his twenty-ninth year: as a wandering sadhu, begging his own meal, spending his days in meditation. Only now there was one difference. Almost every day, after his noon meal, the Buddha taught. None of these discourses, or the questions and answers that followed, were recorded during the Buddha’s lifetime.

The Buddha died in the town of Kushinagara, at the age of eighty, having eaten a meal of pork or mushrooms. Some of the assembled monks were despondent, but the Buddha, lying on his side, with his head resting on his right hand, reminded them that everything is impermanent, and advised them to take refuge in themselves and the dharma—the teaching. He asked for questions a last time. There were none. Then he spoke his final words: “Now then, bhikshus, I address you: all compound things are subject to decay; strive diligently.”

The first rainy season after the Buddha’s parinirvana , it is said that five hundred elders gathered at a mountain cave near Rajagriha, where they held the First Council. Ananda, who had been the Buddha’s attendant, repeated all the discourses, or sutras , he had heard, and Upali recited the two hundred fifty monastic rules, the Vinaya , while Mahakashyapa recited the Abhidharma , the compendium of Buddhist psychology and metaphysics.  These three collections, which were written on palm leaves a few centuries later and known as the Tripitaka (literally “three baskets”), became the basis for all subsequent versions of the Buddhist canon.

Adapted from How the Swans Came to the Lake (Shambhala Publications).

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The Buddha (fl. circa 450 BCE) is the individual whose teachings form the basis of the Buddhist tradition. These teachings, preserved in texts known as the Nikāyas or Āgamas , concern the quest for liberation from suffering. While the ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is thus to help individuals attain the good life, his analysis of the source of suffering centrally involves claims concerning the nature of persons, as well as how we acquire knowledge about the world and our place in it. These teachings formed the basis of a philosophical tradition that developed and defended a variety of sophisticated theories in metaphysics and epistemology.

1. Buddha as Philosopher

2. core teachings, 3. non-self, 4. karma and rebirth, 5. attitude toward reason, primary sources, secondary sources, other internet resources, related entries.

This entry concerns the historical individual, traditionally called Gautama, who is identified by modern scholars as the founder of Buddhism. According to Buddhist teachings, there have been other buddhas in the past, and there will be yet more in the future. The title ‘Buddha’, which literally means ‘awakened’, is conferred on an individual who discovers the path to nirvana, the cessation of suffering, and propagates that discovery so that others may also achieve nirvana. This entry will follow modern scholarship in taking an agnostic stance on the question of whether there have been other buddhas, and likewise for questions concerning the superhuman status and powers that some Buddhists attribute to buddhas. The concern of this entry is just those aspects of the thought of the historical individual Gautama that bear on the development of the Buddhist philosophical tradition.

The Buddha will here be treated as a philosopher. To so treat him is controversial, but before coming to why that should be so, let us first rehearse those basic aspects of the Buddha’s life and teachings that are relatively non-controversial. Tradition has it that Gautama lived to age 80. Up until recently his dates were thought to be approximately 560–480 BCE, but many scholars now hold that he must have died around 405 BCE. He was born into a family of some wealth and power, members of the Śākya clan, in the area of the present border between India and Nepal. The story is that in early adulthood he abandoned his comfortable life as a householder (as well as his wife and young son) in order to seek a solution to the problem of existential suffering. He first took up with a number of different wandering ascetics ( śramanas ) who claimed to know the path to liberation from suffering. Finding their teachings unsatisfactory, he struck out on his own, and through a combination of insight and meditational practice attained the state of enlightenment ( bodhi ) which is said to represent the cessation of all further suffering. He then devoted the remaining 45 years of his life to teaching others the insights and techniques that had led him to this achievement.

Gautama could himself be classified as one of the śramanas . That there existed such a phenomenon as the śramanas tells us that there was some degree of dissatisfaction with the customary religious practices then prevailing in the Gangetic basin of North India. These practices consisted largely in the rituals and sacrifices prescribed in the Vedas. Among the śramanas there were many, including the Buddha, who rejected the authority of the Vedas as definitive pronouncements on the nature of the world and our place in it (and for this reason are called ‘heterodox’). But within the Vedic canon itself there is a stratum of (comparatively late) texts, the Upaniṣads , that likewise displays disaffection with Brahmin ritualism. Among the new ideas that figure in these (‘orthodox’) texts, as well as in the teachings of those heterodox śramanas whose doctrines are known to us, are the following: that sentient beings (including humans, non-human animals, gods, and the inhabitants of various hells) undergo rebirth; that rebirth is governed by the causal laws of karma (good actions cause pleasant fruit for the agent, evil actions cause unpleasant fruit, etc.); that continual rebirth is inherently unsatisfactory; that there is an ideal state for sentient beings involving liberation from the cycle of rebirth; and that attaining this state requires overcoming ignorance concerning one’s true identity. Various views are offered concerning this ignorance and how to overcome it. The Bhagavad Gītā (classified by some orthodox schools as an Upaniṣad ) lists four such methods, and discusses at least two separate views concerning our identity: that there is a plurality of distinct selves, each being the true agent of a person’s actions and the bearer of karmic merit and demerit but existing separately from the body and its associated states; and that there is just one self, of the nature of pure consciousness (a ‘witness’) and identical with the essence of the cosmos, Brahman or pure undifferentiated Being.

The Buddha agreed with those of his contemporaries embarked on the same soteriological project that it is ignorance about our identity that is responsible for suffering. What sets his teachings apart (at this level of analysis) lies in what he says that ignorance consists in: the conceit that there is an ‘I’ and a ‘mine’. This is the famous Buddhist teaching of non-self ( anātman ). And it is with this teaching that the controversy begins concerning whether Gautama may legitimately be represented as a philosopher. First there are those (e.g. Albahari 2006) who (correctly) point out that the Buddha never categorically denies the existence of a self that transcends what is empirically given, namely the five skandhas or psychophysical elements. While the Buddha does deny that any of the psychophysical elements is a self, these interpreters claim that he at least leaves open the possibility that there is a self that is transcendent in the sense of being non-empirical. To this it may be objected that all of classical Indian philosophy—Buddhist and orthodox alike—understood the Buddha to have denied the self tout court . To this it is sometimes replied that the later philosophical tradition simply got the Buddha wrong, at least in part because the Buddha sought to indicate something that cannot be grasped through the exercise of philosophical rationality. On this interpretation, the Buddha should be seen not as a proponent of the philosophical methods of analysis and argumentation, but rather as one who sees those methods as obstacles to final release.

Another reason one sometimes encounters for denying that the Buddha is a philosopher is that he rejects the characteristically philosophical activity of theorizing about matters that lack evident practical application. On this interpretation as well, those later Buddhist thinkers who did go in for the construction of theories about the ultimate nature of everything simply failed to heed or properly appreciate the Buddha’s advice that we avoid theorizing for its own sake and confine our attention to those matters that are directly relevant to liberation from suffering. On this view the teaching of non-self is not a bit of metaphysics, just some practical advice to the effect that we should avoid identifying with things that are transitory and so bound to yield dissatisfaction. What both interpretations share is the assumption that it is possible to arrive at what the Buddha himself thought without relying on the understanding of his teachings developed in the subsequent Buddhist philosophical tradition.

This assumption may be questioned. Our knowledge of the Buddha’s teachings comes by way of texts that were not written down until several centuries after his death, are in languages (Pāli, and Chinese translations of Sanskrit) other than the one he is likely to have spoken, and disagree in important respects. The first difficulty may not be as serious as it seems, given that the Buddha’s discourses were probably rehearsed shortly after his death and preserved through oral transmission until the time they were committed to writing. And the second need not be insuperable either. (See, e.g., Cousins 2022.) But the third is troubling, in that it suggests textual transmission involved processes of insertion and deletion in aid of one side or another in sectarian disputes. Our ancient sources attest to this: one will encounter a dispute among Buddhist thinkers where one side cites some utterance of the Buddha in support of their position, only to have the other side respond that the text from which the quotation is taken is not universally recognized as authoritatively the word of the Buddha. This suggests that our record of the Buddha’s teaching may be colored by the philosophical elaboration of those teachings propounded by later thinkers in the Buddhist tradition.

Some scholars (e.g., Gombrich 2009, Shulman 2014) are more sanguine than others about the possibility of overcoming this difficulty, and thereby getting at what the Buddha himself had thought, as opposed to what later Buddhist philosophers thought he had thought. No position will be taken on this dispute here. We will be treating the Buddha’s thought as it was understood within the later philosophical tradition that he had inspired. The resulting interpretation may or may not be faithful to his intentions. It is at least logically possible that he believed there to be a transcendent self that can only be known by mystical intuition, or that the exercise of philosophical rationality leads only to sterile theorizing and away from real emancipation. What we can say with some assurance is that this is not how the Buddhist philosophical tradition understood him. It is their understanding that will be the subject of this essay.

The Buddha’s basic teachings are usually summarized using the device of the Four Nobles’ Truths:

• There is suffering.
• There is the origination of suffering.
• There is the cessation of suffering.
• There is a path to the cessation of suffering.

The first of these claims might seem obvious, even when ‘suffering’ is understood to mean not mere pain but existential suffering, the sort of frustration, alienation and despair that arise out of our experience of transitoriness. But there are said to be different levels of appreciation of this truth, some quite subtle and difficult to attain; the highest of these is said to involve the realization that everything is of the nature of suffering. Perhaps it is sufficient for present purposes to point out that while this is not the implausible claim that all of life’s states and events are necessarily experienced as unsatisfactory, still the realization that all (oneself included) is impermanent can undermine a precondition for real enjoyment of the events in a life: that such events are meaningful by virtue of their having a place in an open-ended narrative.

It is with the development and elaboration of (2) that substantive philosophical controversy begins. (2) is the simple claim that there are causes and conditions for the arising of suffering. (3) then makes the obvious point that if the origination of suffering depends on causes, future suffering can be prevented by bringing about the cessation of those causes. (4) specifies a set of techniques that are said to be effective in such cessation. Much then hangs on the correct identification of the causes of suffering. The answer is traditionally spelled out in a list consisting of twelve links in a causal chain that begins with ignorance and ends with suffering (represented by the states of old age, disease and death). Modern scholarship has established that this list is a later compilation. For the texts that claim to convey the Buddha’s own teachings give two slightly different formulations of this list, and shorter formulations containing only some of the twelve items are also found in the texts. But it seems safe to say that the Buddha taught an analysis of the origins of suffering roughly along the following lines: given the existence of a fully functioning assemblage of psychophysical elements (the parts that make up a sentient being), ignorance concerning the three characteristics of sentient existence—suffering, impermanence and non-self—will lead, in the course of normal interactions with the environment, to appropriation (the identification of certain elements as ‘I’ and ‘mine’). This leads in turn to the formation of attachments, in the form of desire and aversion, and the strengthening of ignorance concerning the true nature of sentient existence. These ensure future rebirth, and thus future instances of old age, disease and death, in a potentially unending cycle.

The key to escape from this cycle is said to lie in realization of the truth about sentient existence—that it is characterized by suffering, impermanence and non-self. But this realization is not easily achieved, since acts of appropriation have already made desire, aversion and ignorance deeply entrenched habits of mind. Thus the measures specified in (4) include various forms of training designed to replace such habits with others that are more conducive to seeing things as they are. Among these is training in meditation, which serves among other things as a way of enhancing one’s observational abilities with respect to one’s own psychological states. Insight is cultivated through the use of these newly developed observational powers, as informed by knowledge acquired through the exercise of philosophical rationality. There is a debate in the later tradition as to whether final release can be attained through theoretical insight alone, through meditation alone, or only by using both techniques. Ch’an, for instance, is based on the premise that enlightenment can be attained through meditation alone, whereas Theravāda advocates using both but also holds that analysis alone may be sufficient for some. (This disagreement begins with a dispute over how to interpret D I.77–84; see Cousins 2022, 81–6.) The third option seems the most plausible, but the first is certainly of some interest given its suggestion that one can attain the ideal state for humans just by doing philosophy.

The Buddha seems to have held (2) to constitute the core of his discovery. He calls his teachings a ‘middle path’ between two extreme views, and it is this claim concerning the causal origins of suffering that he identifies as the key to avoiding those extremes. The extremes are eternalism, the view that persons are eternal, and annihilationism, the view that persons go utterly out of existence (usually understood to mean at death, though a term still shorter than one lifetime is not ruled out). It will be apparent that eternalism requires the existence of the sort of self that the Buddha denies. What is not immediately evident is why the denial of such a self is not tantamount to the claim that the person is annihilated at death (or even sooner, depending on just how impermanent one takes the psychophysical elements to be). The solution to this puzzle lies in the fact that eternalism and annihilationism both share the presupposition that there is an ‘I’ whose existence might either extend beyond death or terminate at death. The idea of the ‘middle path’ is that all of life’s continuities can be explained in terms of facts about a causal series of psychophysical elements. There being nothing more than a succession of these impermanent, impersonal events and states, the question of the ultimate fate of this ‘I’, the supposed owner of these elements, simply does not arise.

This reductionist view of sentient beings was later articulated in terms of the distinction between two kinds of truth, conventional and ultimate. Each kind of truth has its own domain of objects, the things that are only conventionally real and the things that are ultimately real respectively. Conventionally real entities are those things that are accepted as real by common sense, but that turn out on further analysis to be wholes compounded out of simpler entities and thus not strictly speaking real at all. The stock example of a conventionally real entity is the chariot, which we take to be real only because it is more convenient, given our interests and cognitive limitations, to have a single name for the parts when assembled in the right way. Since our belief that there are chariots is thus due to our having a certain useful concept, the chariot is said to be a mere conceptual fiction. (This does not, however, mean that all conceptualization is falsification; only concepts that allow of reductive analysis lead to this artificial inflation of our ontology, and thus to a kind of error.) Ultimately real entities are those ultimate parts into which conceptual fictions are analyzable. An ultimately true statement is one that correctly describes how certain ultimately real entities are arranged. A conventionally true statement is one that, given how the ultimately real entities are arranged, would correctly describe certain conceptual fictions if they also existed. The ultimate truth concerning the relevant ultimately real entities helps explain why it should turn out to be useful to accept conventionally true statements (such as ‘King Milinda rode in a chariot’) when the objects described in those statements are mere fictions.

Using this distinction between the two truths, the key insight of the ‘middle path’ may be expressed as follows. The ultimate truth about sentient beings is just that there is a causal series of impermanent, impersonal psychophysical elements. Since these are all impermanent, and lack other properties that would be required of an essence of the person, none of them is a self. But given the right arrangement of such entities in a causal series, it is useful to think of them as making up one thing, a person. It is thus conventionally true that there are persons, things that endure for a lifetime and possibly (if there is rebirth) longer. This is conventionally true because generally speaking there is more overall happiness and less overall pain and suffering when one part of such a series identifies with other parts of the same series. For instance, when the present set of psychophysical elements identifies with future elements, it is less likely to engage in behavior (such as smoking) that results in present pleasure but far greater future pain. The utility of this convention is, however, limited. Past a certain point—namely the point at which we take it too seriously, as more than just a useful fiction—it results in existential suffering. The cessation of suffering is attained by extirpating all sense of an ‘I’ that serves as agent and owner.

The Buddha’s ‘middle path’ strategy can be seen as one of first arguing that since the word ‘I’ is a mere enumerative term like ‘pair’, there is nothing that it genuinely denotes; and then explaining that our erroneous sense of an ‘I’ stems from our employment of the useful fiction represented by the concept of the person. While the second part of this strategy only receives its full articulation in the later development of the theory of two truths, the first part can be found in the Buddha’s own teachings, in the form of several philosophical arguments for non-self. Best known among these is the argument from impermanence (S III.66–8), which has this basic structure:

It is the fact that this argument does not contain a premise explicitly asserting that the five skandhas (classes of psychophysical element) are exhaustive of the constituents of persons, plus the fact that these are all said to be empirically observable, that leads some to claim that the Buddha did not intend to deny the existence of a self tout court . There is, however, evidence that the Buddha was generally hostile toward attempts to establish the existence of unobservable entities. In the Pohapāda Sutta (D I.178–203), for instance, the Buddha compares someone who posits an unseen seer in order to explain our introspective awareness of cognitions, to a man who has conceived a longing for the most beautiful woman in the world based solely on the thought that such a woman must surely exist. And in the Tevijja Sutta (D I.235–52), the Buddha rejects the claim of certain Brahmins to know the path to oneness with Brahman, on the grounds that no one has actually observed this Brahman. This makes more plausible the assumption that the argument has as an implicit premise the claim that there is no more to the person than the five skandhas .

Premise (1) appears to be based on the assumption that persons undergo rebirth, together with the thought that one function of a self would be to account for diachronic personal identity. By ‘permanent’ is here meant continued existence over at least several lives. This is shown by the fact that the Buddha rules out the body as a self on the grounds that the body exists for just one lifetime. (This also demonstrates that the Buddha did not mean by ‘impermanent’ what some later Buddhist philosophers meant, viz., existing for just a moment; the Buddhist doctrine of momentariness represents a later development.) The mental entities that make up the remaining four types of psychophysical element might seem like more promising candidates, but these are ruled out on the grounds that these all originate in dependence on contact between sense faculty and object, and last no longer than a particular sense-object-contact event. That he listed five kinds of psychophysical element, and not just one, shows that the Buddha embraced a kind of dualism. But this strategy for demonstrating the impermanence of the psychological elements shows that his dualism was not the sort of mind-body dualism familiar from substance ontologies like those of Descartes and of the Nyāya school of orthodox Indian philosophy. Instead of seeing the mind as the persisting bearer of such transient events as occurrences of cognition, feeling and volition, he treats ‘mind’ as a kind of aggregate term for bundles of transient mental events. These events being impermanent, they too fail to account for diachronic personal identity in the way in which a self might be expected to.

Another argument for non-self, which might be called the argument from control (S III.66–8), has this structure:

Premise (1) is puzzling. It appears to presuppose that the self should have complete control over itself, so that it would effortlessly adjust its state to its desires. That the self should be thought of as the locus of control is certainly plausible. Those Indian self-theorists who claim that the self is a mere passive witness recognize that the burden of proof is on them to show that the self is not an agent. But it seems implausibly demanding to require of the self that it have complete control over itself. We do not require that vision see itself if it is to see other things. The case of vision suggests an alternative interpretation, however. We might hold that vision does not see itself for the reason that this would violate an irreflexivity principle, to the effect that an entity cannot operate on itself. Indian philosophers who accept this principle cite supportive instances such as the knife that cannot cut itself and the finger-tip that cannot touch itself. If this principle is accepted, then if the self were the locus of control it would follow that it could never exercise this function on itself. A self that was the controller could never find itself in the position of seeking to change its state to one that it deemed more desirable. On this interpretation, the first premise seems to be true. And there is ample evidence that (2) is true: it is difficult to imagine a bodily or psychological state over which one might not wish to exercise control. Consequently, given the assumption that the person is wholly composed of the psychophysical elements, it appears to follow that a self of this description does not exist.

These two arguments appear, then, to give good reason to deny a self that might ground diachronic personal identity and serve as locus of control, given the assumption that there is no more to the person than the empirically given psychophysical elements. But it now becomes something of a puzzle how one is to explain diachronic personal identity and agency. To start with the latter, does the argument from control not suggest that control must be exercised by something other than the psychophysical elements? This was precisely the conclusion of the Sāṃkhya school of orthodox Indian philosophy. One of their arguments for the existence of a self was that it is possible to exercise control over all the empirically given constituents of the person; while they agree with the Buddha that a self is never observed, they take the phenomena of agency to be grounds for positing a self that transcends all possible experience.

This line of objection to the Buddha’s teaching of non-self is more commonly formulated in response to the argument from impermanence, however. Perhaps its most dramatic form is aimed at the Buddha’s acceptance of the doctrines of karma and rebirth. It is clear that the body ceases to exist at death. And given the Buddha’s argument that mental states all originate in dependence on sense-object contact events, it seems no psychological constituent of the person can transmigrate either. Yet the Buddha claims that persons who have not yet achieved enlightenment will be reborn as sentient beings of some sort after they die. If there is no constituent whatever that moves from one life to the next, how could the being in the next life be the same person as the being in this life? This question becomes all the more pointed when it is added that rebirth is governed by karma, something that functions as a kind of cosmic justice: those born into fortunate circumstances do so as a result of good deeds in prior lives, while unpleasant births result from evil past deeds. Such a system of reward and punishment could be just only if the recipient of pleasant or unpleasant karmic fruit is the same person as the agent of the good or evil action. And the opponent finds it incomprehensible how this could be so in the absence of a persisting self.

It is not just classical Indian self-theorists who have found this objection persuasive. Some Buddhists have as well. Among these Buddhists, however, this has led to the rejection not of non-self but of rebirth. (Historically this response was not unknown among East Asian Buddhists, and it is not rare among Western Buddhists today.) The evidence that the Buddha himself accepted rebirth and karma seems quite strong, however. The later tradition would distinguish between two types of discourse in the body of the Buddha’s teachings: those intended for an audience of householders seeking instruction from a sage, and those intended for an audience of monastic renunciates already versed in his teachings. And it would be one thing if his use of the concepts of karma and rebirth were limited to the former. For then such appeals could be explained away as another instance of the Buddha’s pedagogical skill (commonly referred to as upāya ). The idea would be that householders who fail to comply with the most basic demands of morality are not likely (for reasons to be discussed shortly) to make significant progress toward the cessation of suffering, and the teaching of karma and rebirth, even if not strictly speaking true, does give those who accept it a (prudential) reason to be moral. But this sort of ‘noble lie’ justification for the Buddha teaching a doctrine he does not accept fails in the face of the evidence that he also taught it to quite advanced monastics (e.g., A III.33). And what he taught is not the version of karma popular in certain circles today, according to which, for instance, an act done out of hatred makes the agent somewhat more disposed to perform similar actions out of similar motives in the future, which in turn makes negative experiences more likely for the agent. What the Buddha teaches is instead the far stricter view that each action has its own specific consequence for the agent, the hedonic nature of which is determined in accordance with causal laws and in such a way as to require rebirth as long as action continues. So if there is a conflict between the doctrine of non-self and the teaching of karma and rebirth, it is not to be resolved by weakening the Buddha’s commitment to the latter.

The Sanskrit term karma literally means ‘action’. What is nowadays referred to somewhat loosely as the theory of karma is, speaking more strictly, the view that there is a causal relationship between action ( karma ) and ‘fruit’ ( phala ), the latter being an experience of pleasure, pain or indifference for the agent of the action. This is the view that the Buddha appears to have accepted in its most straightforward form. Actions are said to be of three types: bodily, verbal and mental. The Buddha insists, however, that by action is meant not the movement or change involved, but rather the volition or intention that brought about the change. As Gombrich (2009) points out, the Buddha’s insistence on this point reflects the transition from an earlier ritualistic view of action to a view that brings action within the purview of ethics. For it is when actions are seen as subject to moral assessment that intention becomes relevant. One does not, for instance, perform the morally blameworthy action of speaking insultingly to an elder just by making sounds that approximate to the pronunciation of profanities in the presence of an elder; parrots and prelinguistic children can do as much. What matters for moral assessment is the mental state (if any) that produced the bodily, verbal or mental change. And it is the occurrence of these mental states that is said to cause the subsequent occurrence of hedonically good, bad and neutral experiences. More specifically, it is the occurrence of the three ‘defiled’ mental states that brings about karmic fruit. The three defilements ( kleśa s) are desire, aversion and ignorance. And we are told quite specifically (A III.33) that actions performed by an agent in whom these three defilements have been destroyed do not have karmic consequences; such an agent is experiencing their last birth.

Some caution is required in understanding this claim about the defilements. The Buddha seems to be saying that it is possible to act not only without ignorance, but also in the absence of desire or aversion, yet it is difficult to see how there could be intentional action without some positive or negative motivation. To see one’s way around this difficulty, one must realize that by ‘desire’ and ‘aversion’ are meant those positive and negative motives respectively that are colored by ignorance, viz. ignorance concerning suffering, impermanence and non-self. Presumably the enlightened person, while knowing the truth about these matters, can still engage in motivated action. Their actions are not based on the presupposition that there is an ‘I’ for which those actions can have significance. Ignorance concerning these matters perpetuates rebirth, and thus further occasions for existential suffering, by facilitating a motivational structure that reinforces one’s ignorance. We can now see how compliance with common-sense morality could be seen as an initial step on the path to the cessation of suffering. While the presence of ignorance makes all action—even that deemed morally good—karmically potent, those actions commonly considered morally evil are especially powerful reinforcers of ignorance, in that they stem from the assumption that the agent’s welfare is of paramount importance. While recognition of the moral value of others may still involve the conceit that there is an ‘I’, it can nonetheless constitute progress toward dissolution of the sense of self.

This excursus into what the Buddha meant by karma may help us see how his middle path strategy could be used to reply to the objection to non-self from rebirth. That objection was that the reward and punishment generated by karma across lives could never be deserved in the absence of a transmigrating self. The middle path strategy generally involves locating and rejecting an assumption shared by a pair of extreme views. In this case the views will be (1) that the person in the later life deserves the fruit generated by the action in the earlier life, and (2) that this person does not deserve the fruit. One assumption shared by (1) and (2) is that persons deserve reward and punishment depending on the moral character of their actions, and one might deny this assumption. But that would be tantamount to moral nihilism, and a middle path is said to avoid nihilisms (such as annihilationism). A more promising alternative might be to deny that there are ultimately such things as persons that could bear moral properties like desert. This is what the Buddha seems to mean when he asserts that the earlier and the later person are neither the same nor different (S II.62; S II.76; S II.113). Since any two existing things must be either identical or distinct, to say of the two persons that they are neither is to say that strictly speaking they do not exist.

This alternative is more promising because it avoids moral nihilism. For it allows one to assert that persons and their moral properties are conventionally real. To say this is to say that given our interests and cognitive limitations, we do better at achieving our aim—minimizing overall pain and suffering—by acting as though there are persons with morally significant properties. Ultimately there are just impersonal entities and events in causal sequence: ignorance, the sorts of desires that ignorance facilitates, an intention formed on the basis of such a desire, a bodily, verbal or mental action, a feeling of pleasure, pain or indifference, and an occasion of suffering. The claim is that this situation is usefully thought of as, for instance, a person who performs an evil deed due to their ignorance of the true nature of things, receives the unpleasant fruit they deserve in the next life, and suffers through their continuing on the wheel of saṃsāra. It is useful to think of the situation in this way because it helps us locate the appropriate places to intervene to prevent future pain (the evil deed) and future suffering (ignorance).

It is no doubt quite difficult to believe that karma and rebirth exist in the form that the Buddha claims. It is said that their existence can be confirmed by those who have developed the power of retrocognition through advanced yogic technique. But this is of little help to those not already convinced that meditation is a reliable means of knowledge. What can be said with some assurance is that karma and rebirth are not inconsistent with non-self. Rebirth without transmigration is logically possible.

When the Buddha says that a person in one life and the person in another life are neither the same nor different, one’s first response might be to take ‘different’ to mean something other than ‘not the same’. But while this is possible in English given the ambiguity of ‘the same’, it is not possible in the Pāli source, where the Buddha is represented as unambiguously denying both numerical identity and numerical distinctness. This has led some to wonder whether the Buddha does not employ a deviant logic. Such suspicions are strengthened by those cases where the options are not two but four, cases of the so-called tetralemma ( catuṣkoṭi ). For instance, when the Buddha is questioned about the post-mortem status of the enlightened person or arhat (e.g., at M I.483–8) the possibilities are listed as: (1) the arhat continues to exist after death, (2) does not exist after death, (3) both exists and does not exist after death, and (4) neither exists nor does not exist after death. When the Buddha rejects both (1) and (2) we get a repetition of ‘neither the same nor different’. But when he goes on to entertain, and then reject, (3) and (4) the logical difficulties are compounded. Since each of (3) and (4) appears to be formally contradictory, to entertain either is to entertain the possibility that a contradiction might be true. And their denial seems tantamount to affirmation of excluded middle, which is prima facie incompatible with the denial of both (1) and (2). One might wonder whether we are here in the presence of the mystical.

There were some Buddhist philosophers who took ‘neither the same nor different’ in this way. These were the Personalists ( Pudgalavādins ), who were so called because they affirmed the ultimate existence of the person as something named and conceptualized in dependence on the psychophysical elements. They claimed that the person is neither identical with nor distinct from the psychophysical elements. They were prepared to accept, as a consequence, that nothing whatever can be said about the relation between person and elements. But their view was rejected by most Buddhist philosophers, in part on the grounds that it quickly leads to an ineffability paradox: one can say neither that the person’s relation to the elements is inexpressible, nor that it is not inexpressible. The consensus view was instead that the fact that the person can be said to be neither identical with nor distinct from the elements is grounds for taking the person to be a mere conceptual fiction. Concerning the persons in the two lives, they understood the negations involved in ‘neither the same nor different’ to be of the commitmentless variety, i.e., to function like illocutionary negation. If we agree that the statement ‘7 is green’ is semantically ill-formed, on the grounds that abstract objects such as numbers do not have colors, then we might go on to say, ‘Do not say that 7 is green, and do not say that it is not green either’. There is no contradiction here, since the illocutionary negation operator ‘do not say’ generates no commitment to an alternative characterization.

There is also evidence that claims of type (3) involve parameterization. For instance, the claim about the arhat would be that there is some respect in which they can be said to exist after death, and some other respect in which they can be said to no longer exist after death. Entertaining such a proposition does not require that one believe there might be true contradictions. And while claims of type (4) would seem to be logically equivalent to those of type (3) (regardless of whether or not they involve parameterization), the tradition treated this type as asserting that the subject is beyond all conceptualization. To reject the type (4) claim about the arhat is to close off one natural response to the rejections of the first three claims: that the status of the arhat after death transcends rational understanding. That the Buddha rejected all four possibilities concerning this and related questions is not evidence that he employed a deviant logic.

The Buddha’s response to questions like those concerning the arhat is sometimes cited in defense of a different claim about his attitude toward rationality. This is the claim that the Buddha was essentially a pragmatist, someone who rejects philosophical theorizing for its own sake and employs philosophical rationality only to the extent that doing so can help solve the practical problem of eliminating suffering. The Buddha does seem to be embracing something like this attitude when he defends his refusal to answer questions like that about the arhat , or whether the series of lives has a beginning, or whether the living principle ( jīva ) is identical with the body. He calls all the possible views with respect to such questions distractions insofar as answering them would not lead to the cessation of the defilements and thus to the end of suffering. And in a famous simile (M I.429) he compares someone who insists that the Buddha answer these questions to someone who has been wounded by an arrow but will not have the wound treated until they are told who shot the arrow, what sort of wood the arrow is made of, and the like.

Passages such as these surely attest to the great importance the Buddha placed on sharing his insights to help others overcome suffering. But this is consistent with the belief that philosophical rationality may be used to answer questions that lack evident connection with pressing practical concerns. And on at least one occasion the Buddha does just this. Pressed to give his answers to the questions about the arhat and the like, the Buddha first rejects all the possibilities of the tetralemma, and defends his refusal on the grounds that such theories are not conducive to liberation from saṃsāra . But when his questioner shows signs of thereby losing confidence in the value of the Buddha’s teachings about the path to the cessation of suffering, the Buddha responds with the example of a fire that goes out after exhausting its fuel. If one were asked where this fire has gone, the Buddha points out, one could consistently deny that it has gone to the north, to the south, or in any other direction. This is so for the simple reason that the questions ‘Has it gone to the north?’, ‘Has it gone to the south?’, etc., all share the false presupposition that the fire continues to exist. Likewise the questions about the arhat and the like all share the false presupposition that there is such a thing as a person who might either continue to exist after death, cease to exist at death, etc. (Anālayo 2018, 41) The difficulty with these questions is not that they try to extend philosophical rationality beyond its legitimate domain, as the handmaiden of soteriologically useful practice. It is rather that they rest on a false presupposition—something that is disclosed through the employment of philosophical rationality.

A different sort of challenge to the claim that the Buddha valued philosophical rationality for its own sake comes from the role played by authority in Buddhist soteriology. For instance, in the Buddhist tradition one sometimes encounters the claim that only enlightened persons such as the Buddha can know all the details of karmic causation. And to the extent that the moral rules are thought to be determined by the details of karmic causation, this might be taken to mean that our knowledge of the moral rules is dependent on the authority of the Buddha. Again, the subsequent development of Buddhist philosophy seems to have been constrained by the need to make theory compatible with certain key claims of the Buddha. For instance, one school developed an elaborate form of four-dimensionalism, not because of any deep dissatisfaction with presentism, but because they believed the non-existence of the past and the future to be incompatible with the Buddha’s alleged ability to cognize past and future events. And some modern scholars go so far as to wonder whether non-self functions as anything more than a sort of linguistic taboo against the use of words like ‘I’ and ‘self’ in the Buddhist tradition (Collins 1982: 183). The suggestion is that just as in some other religious traditions the views of the founder or the statements of scripture trump all other considerations, including any views arrived at through the free exercise of rational inquiry, so in Buddhism as well there can be at best only a highly constrained arena for the deployment of philosophical rationality.

Now it could be that while this is true of the tradition that developed out of the Buddha’s teachings, the Buddha himself held the unfettered use of rationality in quite high esteem. This would seem to conflict with what he is represented as saying in response to the report that he arrived at his conclusions through reasoning and analysis alone: that such a report is libelous, since he possesses a number of superhuman cognitive powers (M I.68). But at least some scholars take this passage to be not the Buddha’s own words but an expression of later devotionalist concerns (Gombrich 2009: 164). Indeed one does find a spirited discussion within the tradition concerning the question whether the Buddha is omniscient, a discussion that may well reflect competition between Buddhism and those Brahmanical schools that posit an omniscient creator. And at least for the most part the Buddhist tradition is careful not to attribute to the Buddha the sort of omniscience usually ascribed to an all-perfect being: the actual cognition, at any one time, of all truths. Instead a Buddha is said to be omniscient only in the much weaker sense of always having the ability to cognize any individual fact relevant to the soteriological project, viz. the details of their own past lives, the workings of the karmic causal laws, and whether a given individual’s defilements have been extirpated. Moreover, these abilities are said to be ones that a Buddha acquires through a specific course of training, and thus ones that others may reasonably aspire to as well. The attitude of the later tradition seems to be that while one could discover the relevant facts on one’s own, it would be more reasonable to take advantage of the fact that the Buddha has already done all the epistemic labor involved. When we arrive in a new town we could always find our final destination through trial and error, but it would make more sense to ask someone who already knows their way about.

The Buddhist philosophical tradition grew out of earlier efforts to systematize the Buddha’s teachings. Within a century or two of the death of the Buddha, exegetical differences led to debates concerning the Buddha’s true intention on some matter, such as that between the Personalists and others over the status of the person. While the parties to these debates use many of the standard tools and techniques of philosophy, they were still circumscribed by the assumption that the Buddha’s views on the matter at hand are authoritative. In time, however, the discussion widened to include interlocutors representing various Brahmanical systems. Since the latter did not take the Buddha’s word as authoritative, Buddhist thinkers were required to defend their positions in other ways. The resulting debate (which continued for about nine centuries) touched on most of the topics now considered standard in metaphysics, epistemology and philosophy of language, and was characterized by considerable sophistication in philosophical methodology. What the Buddha would have thought of these developments we cannot say with any certainty. What we can say is that many Buddhists have believed that the unfettered exercise of philosophical rationality is quite consistent with his teachings.

• Albahari, Miri, 2006, Analytical Buddhism , Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• –––, 2014, ‘Insight Knowledge of No Self in Buddhism: An Epistemic Analysis,’ Philosophers’ Imprint , 14(1), available online .
• Anālayo, Bhikkhu, 2018, Rebirth in Early Buddhism and Current research , Cambridge, MA: Wisdom.
• Collins, Stephen, 1982, Selfless Persons , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Cousins, L. S., 2022, Meditations of the Pali Tradition: Illuminating Buddhist Doctrine, History, and Practice, edited by Sarah Shaw, Boulder, CO: Shambala.
• Gethin, Rupert, 1998, The Foun dations of Buddhism , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Gombrich, Richard F., 1996, How Buddhism Began , London: Athlone.
• –––, 2009, What the Buddha Thought , London: Equinox.
• Gowans, Christopher, 2003, Philosophy of the Buddha , London: Routledge.
• Harvey, Peter, 1995, The Selfless Mind , Richmond, UK: Curzon.
• Jayatilleke, K.N., 1963, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge , London: George Allen and Unwin.
• Rahula, Walpola, 1967, What the Buddha Taught , 2 nd ed., London: Unwin.
• Ronkin, Noa, 2005, Early Buddhist Metaphysics , London: Routledge.
• Ruegg, David Seyfort, 1977, ‘The Uses of the Four Positions of the Catuṣkoṭi and the Problem of the Description of Reality in Mahāyāna Buddhism,’ Journal of Indian Philosophy , 5: 1–71.
• Siderits, Mark, 2021, Buddhism As Philosophy , 2nd edition, Indianapolis: Hackett.
• Smith, Douglass and Justin Whitaker, 2016, ‘Reading the Buddha as a Philosopher,’ Philosophy East and West , 66: 515–538.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

• The Pali Tipitaka , Pali texts
• Ten Philosophical Questions to Ask About Buddhism , a series of talks by Richard P. Hayes
• Access to Insight , Readings in Theravada Buddhism
• Buddhanet , Buddha Dharma Education Association

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Who Was Buddha?

The name Buddha means "one who is awakened" or "the enlightened one." While scholars agree that Buddha did in fact exist, the specific dates and events of his life are still debated.

According to the most widely known story of his life, after experimenting with different teachings for years, and finding none of them acceptable, Siddhartha Gautama spent a fateful night in deep meditation beneath a tree. During his meditation, all of the answers he had been seeking became clear, and he achieved full awareness, thereby becoming Buddha.

Buddha was born in the 6th century B.C., or possibly as early as 624 B.C., according to some scholars. Other researchers believe he was born later, even as late as 448 B.C. And some Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha lived from 563 B.C. to 483 B.C.

But virtually all scholars believe Siddhartha Gautama was born in Lumbini in present-day Nepal. He belonged to a large clan called the Shakyas.

In 2013, archaeologists working in Lumbini found evidence of a tree shrine that predated other Buddhist shrines by some 300 years, providing new evidence that Buddha was probably born in the 6th century B.C.

Siddhartha Gautama

Siddhartha ("he who achieves his aim") Gautama grew up the son of a ruler of the Shakya clan. His mother died seven days after giving birth.

A holy man, however, prophesied great things for the young Siddhartha: He would either be a great king or military leader or he would be a great spiritual leader.

To protect his son from the miseries and suffering of the world, Siddhartha's father raised him in opulence in a palace built just for the boy and sheltered him from knowledge of religion, human hardship and the outside world.

According to legend, he married at the age of 16 and had a son soon thereafter, but Siddhartha's life of worldly seclusion continued for another 13 years.

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Siddhartha in the Real World

The prince reached adulthood with little experience of the world outside the palace walls, but one day he ventured out with a charioteer and was quickly confronted with the realities of human frailty: He saw a very old man, and Siddhartha's charioteer explained that all people grow old.

Questions about all he had not experienced led him to take more journeys of exploration, and on these subsequent trips he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse and an ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic had renounced the world to seek release from the human fear of death and suffering.

Siddhartha was overcome by these sights, and the next day, at age 29, he left his kingdom, his wife and his son to follow a more spiritual path, determined to find a way to relieve the universal suffering that he now understood to be one of the defining traits of humanity.

The Ascetic Life

For the next six years, Siddhartha lived an ascetic life, studying and meditating using the words of various religious teachers as his guide.

He practiced his new way of life with a group of five ascetics, and his dedication to his quest was so stunning that the five ascetics became Siddhartha's followers. When answers to his questions did not appear, however, he redoubled his efforts, enduring pain, fasting nearly to starvation and refusing water.

Whatever he tried, Siddhartha could not reach the level of insight he sought, until one day when a young girl offered him a bowl of rice. As he accepted it, he suddenly realized that corporeal austerity was not the means to achieve inner liberation, and that living under harsh physical constraints was not helping him achieve spiritual release.

So he had his rice, drank water and bathed in the river. The five ascetics decided that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and would now follow the ways of the flesh, and they promptly left him.

The Buddha Emerges

That night, Siddhartha sat alone under the Bodhi tree, vowing to not get up until the truths he sought came to him, and he meditated until the sun came up the next day. He remained there for several days, purifying his mind, seeing his entire life, and previous lives, in his thoughts.

During this time, he had to overcome the threats of Mara, an evil demon, who challenged his right to become the Buddha. When Mara attempted to claim the enlightened state as his own, Siddhartha touched his hand to the ground and asked the Earth to bear witness to his enlightenment, which it did, banishing Mara.

And soon a picture began to form in his mind of all that occurred in the universe, and Siddhartha finally saw the answer to the questions of suffering that he had been seeking for so many years. In that moment of pure enlightenment, Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha.

Armed with his new knowledge, the Buddha was initially hesitant to teach, because what he now knew could not be communicated to others in words. According to legend, it was then that the king of gods, Brahma, convinced Buddha to teach, and he got up from his spot under the Bodhi tree and set out to do just that.

About 100 miles away, he came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long, who had abandoned him on the eve of his enlightenment. Siddhartha encouraged them to follow a path of balance instead of one characterized by either aesthetic extremism or sensuous indulgence. He called this path the Middle Way.

To them and others who had gathered, he preached his first sermon (henceforth known as Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma) , in which he explained the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which became the pillars of Buddhism.

The ascetics then became his first disciples and formed the foundation of the Sangha, or community of monks. Women were admitted to the Sangha, and all barriers of class, race, sex and previous background were ignored, with only the desire to reach enlightenment through the banishment of suffering and spiritual emptiness considered.

For the remainder of his years, Buddha traveled, preaching the Dharma (the name given to his teachings) in an effort to lead others along the path of enlightenment.

Buddha died around the age of 80, possibly of an illness from eating spoiled meat or other food. When he died, it is said that he told his disciples that they should follow no leader, but to "be your own light."

The Buddha is undoubtedly one of the most influential figures in world history, and his teachings have affected everything from a variety of other faiths (as many find their origins in the words of the Buddha) to literature to philosophy, both within India and to the farthest reaches of the world.

QUICK FACTS

• Name: Buddha
• Birth Year: 563
• Birth City: Lumbini
• Birth Country: Nepal
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: Buddha was a spiritual teacher in Nepal during the 6th century B.C. Born Siddhartha Gautama, his teachings serve as the foundation of the Buddhist religion.
• Nacionalities
• Nepalese (Nepal)
• Death Year: 483
• Death Country: India

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CITATION INFORMATION

• Article Title: Buddha Biography
• Author: Biography.com Editors
• Website Name: The Biography.com website
• Url: https://www.biography.com/religious-figures/buddha
• Access Date:
• Publisher: A&E; Television Networks
• Last Updated: July 13, 2020
• Original Published Date: April 2, 2014

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"His message old and yet very new and original for those immersed in metaphysical subtleties, captured the imagination of the intellectuals; it went deep down into the hearts of the people." king, ruled over the land of the Saakyans at Kapilavatthu on the Nepalese frontier. As he came from the Gotama family he was known as Suddhodana Gotama. Mahaamaayaa, princess of the Koliyas, was Suddhodana’s queen. It was his deep compassion that led him to the quest ending in enlightenment, in Buddhahood. It was compassion that now moved his heart towards the great renunciation and opened for him the doors of the golden cage of his home life. It was compassion that made his determination unshakeable even by the last parting glance at his beloved wife asleep with the baby in her arms. When his mind was thus liberated, there came the knowledge, "liberated" and he understood: "Destroyed is birth, the noble life (brahmacariya) has been lived, done is what was to be done, there is no more of this to come" (meaning, there is no more continuity of the mind and body no more becoming, rebirth). This was the third knowledge attained by him in the last watch of the night. This is known as tevijjaa (Skt. trividyaa), threefold knowledge. Gotama at the age of thirty-five, on another full moon of May (vesaakha, vesak), attained Supreme Enlightenment by comprehending in all their fullness the Four Noble Truths, the Eternal Verities, and he became the Buddha, the Great Healer and Consummate Master-Physician who can cure the ills of beings. This is the greatest unshakeable victory. , a human being. Yes, the Buddha was a human being but not just another man. He was a marvellous man. Let the Blessed One receive us as his followers." They became his first lay followers (upaasakas). . This first discourse, this message of the Deer Park, is the core of the Buddha’s Teaching. As the footprint of every creature that walks the earth could be included in the elephant’s footprint, which is pre-eminent for size, so does the doctrine of the Four Noble Truths embrace the entire teaching of the Buddha. , this is my last birth, there is no more becoming (rebirth)." Thus spoke the Buddha, and the five monks, glad at heart, applauded the words of the Blessed One. ( ). To understand this unequivocal saying is to understand Buddhism; for the entire teaching of the Buddha is nothing else than the application of this one principle. What can be called the discovery of a Buddha is just these Four Noble Truths. This is the typical teaching of the Buddhas of all ages. ), the supreme surgeon ( ). He indeed, is an unrivalled healer. ) is the illness; craving ( ) is the arising or the root cause of the illness ( ); through the removal of craving, the illness is removed, and that is the cure ( ); the Noble Eightfold Path ( ) is the remedy. ) and of his Community of Monks ( ). at the Deer Park at Isipatana, sacred this day to over 600 million of the human race. During these three months of "rains" fifty others headed by Yasa, a young man of wealth, joined the Order. Now the Buddha had sixty disciples, all arahats who had realized the Dhamma and were fully competent to teach others. When the rainy season ended, the Master addressed his immediate disciples in these words: ), he generally stayed in one place. Here follows a brief sketch of his retreats gathered from the texts: at Isipatana, Vaaraanasi. ) in the Teacher, the Teaching, and the Taught (the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha), attained the first stage of sainthood ( ). He was renowned as the chief supporter ( ) of the Master. Anaathapindika had built the famous Jetavana monastery at Saavatthi, known to day as Sahet-mahet, and offered it to the Buddha and his disciples. The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen. ). It was at this time that King Suddhodana fell ill. The Master visited him and preached the Dhamma, hearing which the king attained perfect sanctity ( ), and after enjoying the bliss of emancipation for seven days, passed away The Order of Nuns was also founded during this time. ). He did the same for the first time at Kapilavatthu to overcome the pride of the Sakyas, his relatives. ) headed by his mother Mahaamaayaa, who had passed away seven days after the birth of Prince Siddhattha, and was reborn as a deva in the Taavatimsa. , their dispute settled, the monks came to Saavatthi and begged pardon of the Buddha by this author (BPS).) ) at his village Verañja. At that time there was a famine. The Buddha and his disciples had to be satisfied with very coarse food supplied by horse merchants. As it was the custom of the Buddha to take leave of the inviter before setting out on his journeying, he saw the brahmin at the end of the . The latter admitted that though he had invited the Buddha and his disciples to spend the retreat at Verañja, he had failed in his duties towards them during the entire season owing to his being taxed with household duties. However, the next day he offered food and gifts of robes to the Buddha and the Sangha. ), received higher ordination ( ). According to the Vinaya, higher ordination is not conferred before the age of twenty; Ven. Raahula had then reached that age. , p.81 by this author (BPS).) ). On another occasion she answered correctly all the four questions put to her by the Master, because she often pondered over the words of the Buddha. Her answers were philosophical, and the congregations who had not given a thought to the Buddha word, could not grasp the meaning of her answers. The Buddha, however, praised her and addressed them in verse thus: ). But unfortunately she died an untimely death. (For a detailed account of this interesting story and the questions and answers, see the , Vol. III, p.170, or Burlingame, , Part 3, p.14.) , eighteen were spent at Jetavana Monastery the rest at Pubbaaraama. Anaathapi.n.dika and Visaakhaa were the chief sup porters. ) before the commencement of the rains. ) Cunda attended upon him, though not regularly However, after the twentieth year, the Buddha wished to have a regular attendant. Thereon all the great eighty arahats, like Saariputta and Moggallaana, expressed their willingness to attend upon their Master. But this did not meet with his approval. Perhaps the Buddha thought that these arahats could be of greater service to humanity , the perfections which are the requisites of Buddhahood, and the Noble Eightfold Path. There have been Buddhas in the dim past and there will be Buddhas in the future when necessity arises and conditions are favourable. But we need not think of that distant future; now, in our present days, the "doors to the Deathless" are still wide open. Those who enter through them, reaching perfect sanctity or arahatship, the final liberation from suffering (Nibbaana), have been solemnly declared by the Buddha to be his equals as far as the emancipation from defilements and ultimate deliverance is concerned: the accomplished saints: : "There can never be a war of Buddhism. No ravished country has ever borne witness to the prowess of the followers of the Buddha; no murdered men have poured out their blood on their hearth-stones, killed in his name; no ruined women have cursed his name to high heaven. He and his faith are clean of the stain of blood. He was the preacher of the Great Peace, of love of charity of compassion, and so clear is his teaching that it can never be misunderstood." ) in preference to many arahats who belonged to the class of the nobles and warriors ( ). Saariputta and Moggallaana, brahmins by birth, because of their longstanding aspirations in former lives, became the chief disciples of the Buddha. The former excelled in wisdom ( ) and the latter in supernormal powers ( ).   "Bestir yourselves, rise up,  ) washed away in the river Baahuka." ), brahmin, give security to all beings. If you do not speak falsehood, or kill or steal, if you are confident, and are not mean, what does it avail you to go to Gayaa (the name of a river in India during the time of the Buddha)? Your well at home is also a Gayaa." )... who leave the household and become homeless recluses under the Doctrine and Discipline declared by the Tathaagata, lose their previous names and identities and are reckoned as recluses who are sons of Saakya" (Udaana 55). ). Convinced, the haughty brahmin took refuge in the Buddha. (See , p.91.) jaya; and among his retinue of two hundred and fifty followers were Upatissa and Kolita, who were later to become Sariputta and Mahaa Moggallaana, the two chief disciples of the Buddha. ). jaya and asked him to follow the Buddha. But afraid of losing his reputation as a religious teacher, he refused to do so. Upatissa and Kolita then left Sañjaya—much against his protestations—for the Veluvana monastery and expressed their wish to become followers of the Buddha. The Buddha gladly welcomed them saying, "Come, monks, well proclaimed is the Dhamma. Live the holy life for the complete ending of suffering." He admitted them into the Order. They attained deliverance and became the two chief disciples. ), who called up the convocation of arahats (the First Council), at the Sattapa.n.ni Cave near Raajagaha under the patronage of King Ajaatasattu, to collect and codify the Dhamma and Vinaya. , . revealing how great her virtue had been in that former life, he made her an adherent to the Doctrine. Later when the Buddha was induced to establish an Order for women, Yasodharaa became one of the first nuns and attained arahatship, highest sanctity In the Majjhima Nikaaya, one of the five original collections in Paali containing the Buddha’s discourses, there are three discourses (Nos. 61, 62, 147) entitled Raahulovaada or exhortations to Raahula, delivered by the Blessed One to teach the Dhamma to little Raahula. The discourses are entirely devoted to advice on discipline and meditation. Here is an extract from the Master’s exhortation in the Mahaa Raahulovaada Sutta: ), Raahula; for by cultivating loving-kindness, ill will is banished. Cultivate the meditation on compassion ( ), Raahula, for by cultivating compassion, cruelty is banished. Cultivate the meditation on appreciative joy ( ), Raahula, for by cultivating appreciative joy aversion is banished. Cultivate the meditation on equanimity ( ), Raahula, for by cultivating equanimity hatred is banished. Cultivate the meditation on impurity ( ), Raahula, for by meditating on impurity lust is banished. Cultivate the meditation on the concept of impermanence ( ), Raahula, for by meditating on the concept of impermanence, pride of self (asmi-maana) is banished. Cultivate the meditation on mindfulness of in-and-out-breathing (aanaapaana sati), Raahula, for mindfulness of breathing, cultivated and frequently practised, bears much fruit and is of great advantage." was of bad repute. Whatever food she offered he accepted, and in return, gave her the , the gift of truth. She was immediately convinced by the teaching and leaving aside her frivolous lay life, she entered the Order of Nuns. Ardent and strenuous in her religious practices, she then became an arahat. or loving-kindness was all pervading and immeasurable. His earnest exhortation to his disciples was: or love is the best antidote for anger in oneself. It is the best medicine for those who are angry with us. Let us then extend love to all who need it with a free and boundless heart. The language of the heart, the language that comes from the heart and goes to the heart, is always simple, graceful, and full of power. —the Buddha never wavered. He was firm as a solid rock. Touched by happiness or by pain he showed neither elation nor depression. He never encouraged wrangling and animosity Addressing the monks he once said: "I do not quarrel with the world, monks. It is the world that quarrels with me. An exponent of the Dhamma does not quarrel with anyone in the world." ). Later, however, he began to harbour thoughts of jealousy and ill will toward his kinsman, the Buddha, and his two chief disciples, Saariputta and Mahaa Moggallaana, with the ambition of becoming the leader of the Sangha, the Order of Monks. the discourse on the passing away of the Blessed One, records in moving detail all the events that occurred during the last months and days of the Buddha’s life. ) concentration of mind, and dwells in it—it is only then that the body of the Tathaagata is at ease. ), Subhadda, the Noble Eightfold Path is not found, neither in it is there found a man of true saintliness of the first, or of the second, or of the third, or of the fourth degree. And in whatsoever Doctrine and Discipline, Subhadda, the Noble Eight fold Path is found, in it is found the man of true saintliness of the first, and the second, and the third, and the fourth degree. Now, in this Doctrine and Discipline, Subhadda, is found the Noble Eightfold Path, and it too are found the men of true saintliness of all the four degrees. Void are the systems of other teachers—void of true saints. And in this one, Subhadda, may the brethren live the life that is right, so that the world be not bereft of arahats." ) or method ( ). Inquire, monks, freely Do not have to reproach yourselves afterwards with the thought: ‘Our teacher was face to face with us, and we could not bring ourselves to inquire of the Exalted One when we were face to face with him.’ " )." ) which are of increasing sublimity: first the four finematerial absorptions ( ), then the four immaterial absorptions ( ), and finally the state where perceptions and sensations entirely cease ( ). Then he returned through all these stages to the first fine-material absorption and rose again to the fourth one. Immediately after having re-entered this stage (which has been described as having "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity"), the Buddha passed away ( ). He realized Nibbaana that is free from any substratum of further becoming ( ). , "I take refuge in the Buddha." His greatness yet glows today like a sun that blots out lesser lights, and his Dhamma yet beckons the weary pilgrim to Nibbaana’s security and peace. 1. Jawaharlal Nehru, (Calcutta: Signet Press, 1946)  2. Ibid.,  3. In Sanskrit, Siddhaartha Gautama. 4. The warrior class. 5. Edwin Arnold, 6. Ibid. 7. A.I,146. 8. For a detailed account see M. No. 36, trans. by I.B. Horner in , Vol. I (PTS ). See also R. Abeysekara, "The Master’s Quest for Light" (Kandy BPS) BL A7.  9. Mahaa Saccaka Sutta, M. No. 36. 10. Elsewhere we see the defilement of false view ( ) added to these as the fourth taint. 11. M. No. 36; I,249. 12. Dhp 153-154. Trans. by Ña.namoli Thera. 13. A bodhisatta (Skt. ) is one who adheres to or is bent on ( ) the ideal of enlightenment, or knowledge of the Four Noble Truths ( ). In this sense, the term may be applied to anyone who is bent on supreme enlightenment ( ). A Bodhisatta fully cultivates ten perfections or , which are essential qualities of an extremely high standard initiated by compassion, and ever tinged with understanding, free from craving, pride, and false views ( , and ) that qualify an aspirant for Buddhahood. They are: —generosity morality renunciation, wisdom, effort, forbearance, truthfulness, deter 14. , Foreword, p ix, Government of India, 1971. 15. Vin.I,10; V 420. 16. S III,66. 17. Ud.1. See too the author’s (Wheel No.15). 18. At this time there was as yet no Order ( ). 19. Vin.I,4. 20. M. No. 26; I,167-68. 21. For a comprehensive explanation of these truths, see the author’s ; Bhikkhu a.namoli, (Wheel No. 17); Francis Story (Wheel No. 34/35); Nyanatiloka Thera, . All published by BPS 22. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, S V 420. 23. (Vol. 5, No.I, 1942), Vajirarama, Colombo, p 8. 24. S V 437. 25. M. No. 22; I,140. 26. S V 588; M. No. 92; Vin.I,45; Thag. 828. 27. In 273 B.C. Emperor Asoka came on pilgrimage to this holy spot and caused a series of monuments and a commemorative pillar with the lion capital to be erected. This capital with its four magnificent lions upholding the , "the Wheel of Dharma," now stands in the museum of Sarnath, Benares, and is today the official crest of India. The festival is still held in Sri Lanka.  , p 44.) 28. The "rains" is the three months of seclusion during the rainy season, i.e. from July to October in India. 29. Vin.I,21. 30. It is interesting to note that this greatest of Indian rishis (seers) was born under a tree in a park, attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, set in motion the Wheel of Dhamma at the Deer Park under trees, and finally passed away under the twin saala trees. He spent most of his time in the open in forests and in the villages of India. The south branch of the Bodhi Tree was brought to Sri Lanka by the arhat nun Sanghamittaa, daughter of Asoka the Great of India, in the third century B.C. The oldest recorded tree in the world, it still flourishes at Anuradhapura. 31. The whole of this discourse is at A.IV 354, Ud.3437, and in brief at , I,287. In the elder’s verse (66) in , it is said that Venerable Meghiya was of a Saakyan raajaa’s family The Dhammapada verses  32. Ariya-pariyesana Sutta, M.No. 26; I,264. 33. The word is applied only to those who have fully destroyed the taints. In this sense the Buddha was the first arahat in the world, as he himself revealed to Upaka. 34. S III,66. 35. Mahaa Parinibbaana Sutta, D. No. 16; II,100. 36. M. No. 38; I,264. 37. Dhp 276.   38. S I,156. 39. Vatthuupama Sutta, M. No. 7. See Nyanaponika Thera, (Wheel No. 61/62). 40. PD. Premasiri, "The Buddhist Concept of A Just Social and Political Order," ,  Singapore. 41. Sn. 455, 456; Chalmer’s translation (Harvard Oriental Series). 42. See G.P Malalasekera and K.N. Jayatilleke, (Wheel 200/201). 43. - , trans. by C.A.F Rhys Davids (PTS Translation Series). 44. Jaataka No. 485. 45. Vin.I,82-83. See Piyadassi Thera and J.F Dickson, Wheel No.56 46. M. No. 62. For a full translation see (Wheel No. 33). 47. C.A.F Rhys Davids, - , p 120. 48. Vin.I,302. 49. "To the north-east of the monastery of Jetavana," wrote General Alexander Cunningham in his , 1862-3, "there was a built on the spot where the Buddha had washed the hands and feet of a sick monk.... The remains of the still exist in a mass of solid brick work at a distance of 550 feet from the Jetavana Monastery "  (Simla 1871), p 341. 50. Metta Sutta, , 149, 149; Chalmer’s trans. 51. Edwin Arnold, 52. These are the , the eight vicissitudes of life. 53. S II,138. 54. D.I,3. 55. Dhammapada, 310. 56. Comy on the Dhammapada, Vol. I, p 147. 57. D No 16, translated as (BPS). 58. These four stages are: (stream-entry); , (once-return); (non-return); and (the final stage of sainthood). Arahatship is the stage at which fetters are severed and taints rooted out. 59. The Mahaa Parinibbaana Sutta (D. No. 16) records in moving detail all the events that occurred during the last months and days of the Master’s life. 60. The passages in quotations are taken with slight alterations from the "Book of the Great Decease" in , Digha Nikaaya, Part II.     10 Wise Life Lessons from the Buddha Post author: Anna LeMind, B.A. Post published: May 28, 2012 Reading time: 4 mins read Post category: Personal Development / Self-Improvement Siddhartha Gautama was a great spiritual leader and founder of Buddhism in ancient India. In most Buddhist traditions is considered the Supreme Buddha . In translation, the word “Buddha” means “ awakened one ” or “ enlightened one “. Siddhartha is the main figure in Buddhism, and information about his life, teachings, and monastic principles after his death was cataloged and immortalized by his followers. Today, I want to discuss some important life lessons we could learn from the Buddha’s teachings. 1. don’t hesitate to start small. All people start out small. If you are determined and patient, you will reach success. No one can succeed overnight: success comes to those who are ready to start small and work hard . Don’t wait for some “magical” way to make your dreams come true. Instead, be persistent and willing to work to achieve the life of your dreams. 2. Your thoughts create your reality The Buddha said: “ The mind is everything. What you think you become “. In order to live a happy life, you should fill your mind with “right” thoughts. Your thinking determines your actions, and your actions determine the result. The right thinking will help you get everything you want while the wrong thinking damages you and can ruin your life. By changing your mindset, you change your life . For this reason, watch your thoughts and make a conscious effort to combat negative thinking patterns and unproductive mindsets. 3. Learn to forgive When you release those imprisoned in your mental prison of unforgiveness, you release yourself too. Learn to forgive . Learn to forgive faster. It’s not an easy task to do, but by forgiving others and making a firm decision to move on, you actually restore your own peace of mind. 4. Action is what counts Words are worthless. In order to improve your life, you have to act every day . Success does not just fall on your head! Success comes to those who are constantly working . The Buddha said: “ I do not believe in a fate that falls on men however they act, but I do believe in a fate that falls on them unless they act .” 5. Try to understand others You should make every effort to understand the point of view of other people . Listen to others, understand their point of view, and you will find peace of mind. Be more focused on how to be happy than on how to be right. 6. Conquer yourself The one who conquers himself is stronger than anyone. In order to do it, you have to control your thoughts. Get rid of the thoughts that are not in accordance with the life principles you want to follow. 7. Live in harmony Do not look outside for something that can be found only in your heart. The harmony you find outside can only distract you from the true reality. True harmony and happiness can be found only inside. 8. Be grateful There are always things that are worthy to be thankful for , even though we often take them for granted. Be optimistic and learn to recognize thousands of things that you should be grateful for . 9. Act as you know Sometimes you fail not because you did not know what to do but because you did not do what you knew. Act as you know . Focus on who you want to be until you have a strong desire to prove it. Life is a journey . Do not put your happiness off for an indefinite period willing to reach a goal that you think will make you happy. Travel today and enjoy the journey. These are just some lessons from the Buddha. Regardless of what your spiritual views are, these truths can improve your life and make you a wiser and more balanced human being. Like what you are reading? Subscribe to our newsletter to make sure you don’t miss new thought-provoking articles! Share this story share this content. Opens in a new window Facebook Opens in a new window X Opens in a new window LinkedIn Opens in a new window Reddit Opens in a new window Tumblr This Post Has 4 Comments okay the first thing i notice was how you said “Words are Worthless,” im no buddhist monk but a wise man said saying everyday what your going to do then keeping your promise to yourself will make the world go round. So its thoughts, words or promise, then action. And the second thing i know wrong is you have to change the way you feel to change the way you think. Your heart speaks to you brain, thats how feelings work. So change the way you feel to change the way you think because if youre around here loving everyone from the heart you wont think to murder (murdering is faulshood) or hurting people because it an illustion. Well he is from Nepal rather than India. good article You are amazing, Anna! Thank you very much for your work. You have explained the lessons in a very easy way to understand. Also, after reading your profile, I found it such a great inspiration for me to pursuit my life goal. I hope to see more of your work like this. Much respect! Lien, from Vietnam Leave a Reply Cancel reply Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Paragraph on Buddhism Buddhism is a way of life; it is one of the oldest beliefs practiced by a large population. Religions and beliefs are faith in society. For a better understanding of this ancient religion and belief, we have created some of the important paragraphs mentioned in the below section. Kindly read it as per your need. Short and Long Paragraphs on Buddhism Paragraph 1 – 100 words. Buddhism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It’s a faith, a way of life, and a religion of peace. Buddhism was founded before more than 2,500 years ago in India. Lord Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, it is said that his teachings were the foundation of Buddhism. The path of self-enlightenment can be achieved by meditation and insight. Lord Buddha showed the world path of spirituality and self-help. He was born as Siddhartha. After his spiritual awakening and a journey of enlightenment he called “Buddha”. The Buddhist devotees focus on the path of enlightenment. They mediate and remind the Buddha and his sermons. Buddhism is an old religion that was evolved in modern-day. Paragraph 2 – 120 Words Buddhism is lenient religion; the teachings of Buddha are the base of religion. The Logical teachings given by Lord Buddha is worldwide famous. The devotees of Buddhism practice deep meditation. Buddhism is different from other religions, as Buddhists believe that there is no personal creator. The individuals should make their own path for their best they can. The Buddhist teachings for life say that: There are three marks of existence i.e., the concept of impermanent, unsatisfactory, and interdependent. It means that nothing is permanent, nothing can make human tendency truly happy and all things are related to each other. The concept of the Middle way, meditation, Nirvana is the base of Buddhism. Buddhists believe in the path of self-enlightenment and thus they worship Lord Buddha and remember his teachings. However, most of Buddhism ideas are very similar to Hinduism. Paragraph 3 – 150 Words Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. The roots of Buddhism are from India. It is widely practiced in the Asian region. Buddhism evolved from the ancient period to modern-day. Buddhism is a philosophy a sect that covers the way of spiritual awakening. In Asian subcontinent countries, people follow it religiously. The way of practicing religion might differ in countries. Lord Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in the royal family of Kapilvastu (current day Indo-Nepalese Border). When prince Siddhartha (Young Buddha) confronted the realities of the world like old age, sickness, birth, death, and rebirth, he concluded that these are the reality of humankind. He became curious to find these answers of truth. He also felt that the caste system and ruling of the upper caste in society slowly taking over humanity. He decided to leave the luxurious life for finding these answers of truth. He spent 45 years of life in exile. Paragraph 4 – 200 Words Buddhism is a belief of self-awakening and spirituality. Buddhists believe that there are three jewels of life that are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. “Buddha” means the awakened one. Buddhist devotees say “I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha”. They find calmness in these jewels. Tripitaka is the religious Book of Buddhism. It is written in ancient Indian language Pali. Pali is similar to the language that Buddha used to speak. Buddhists worship in temples, Pagodas, or in Buddhist Monastery. Devotees also worship in homes in front of Lord Buddha statue. They meditate in front of the Lord Buddha statue. Wheel, White lotus, and Lord Buddha images are the symbo0ls of Buddhism. Buddhism followers worship Lord Buddha and meditate. They make floral offerings, candles, incense sticks, holy water at Buddhist temples. They prefer meditating in peace and they chant verses from their holy book. Buddhists visit temples often on Full Moon day (Purnima). Vesak or Buddha Purnima is the most important festival of Buddhism. Lord Buddha has a divine aura; he was an extraordinary man who was born for a special purpose. According to scholars, Buddhism is not actually a religion or sect but it is a way of life or a spiritual tradition. Paragraph 5 – 250 Words Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. He was born in the 6th century in an aristocratic family of Kapilvastu. When he was 21 years old, he left his family and went to spend the rest of life in exile. He traveled across India for finding the real meaning of truth, happiness, and the path of self-awakening. After spending six years in exile, He attained self-enlightenment while meditating under Mahabodhi tree. Gautama Buddha attains Nirvana; his disciples began a religious movement across the world. There are three types of Buddhism, divided by the cultures of different countries. Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism are the type of Buddhism practiced in the world. Buddhism prohibits the killing of living things, lying, consuming drugs or alcohol, etc. Common Buddhist Practices includes the hearing and learning the Dharma. Buddhism tells us that one should follow the path of humanity and concentrate on the path of self-enlightenment. Buddhism says that anyone can be Buddha, who is achieved enlightenment. The teachings of Buddhism are different and interpreted differently in different parts of the world. Buddhism states that the sufferings of the world are unavoidable. By following the noble path, one can found a way from these sufferings of the world. The wheel of Dharma represented in Buddhism depicts the eightfold paths of Buddhism i.e. “Right View, Right Thinking, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Diligence, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration”. By that specialize in these paths one should attain enlightenment. Buddhism also says that everyone has an eternal power that can lead them to be their own enlightenment. FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions Ans. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama. Ans. Buddhism was founded in the late 6th century. Ans. The population of Buddhists in the World is 535 millions. Ans. Buddha gave his first sermon in Sarnath Varanasi? Ans. Bodhi tree is named after Buddha. 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CORE - Early Buddhism and Gandhara Age of the Sage - Transmitting the Wisdoms of the Ages - Buddhism World History Encyclopedia - Buddhism IndiaNetzone - Buddhism Stanford University - Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies - Introduction to Buddhism Asia Society - The Origins of Buddhism Brown University Library - Basic Concepts of Tibetan Buddhism Cultural India - Indian Religions - Buddhism Buddhism - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11) Buddhism - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Table Of Contents Recent News Buddhism , religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: “Awakened One”), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries bce (before the Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia , China , Korea , and Japan , Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia , and, beginning in the 20th century, it spread to the West. Ancient Buddhist scripture and doctrine developed in several closely related literary languages of ancient India, especially in Pali and Sanskrit . In this article Pali and Sanskrit words that have gained currency in English are treated as English words and are rendered in the form in which they appear in English-language dictionaries. Exceptions occur in special circumstances—as, for example, in the case of the Sanskrit term dharma (Pali: dhamma ), which has meanings that are not usually associated with the term dharma as it is often used in English. Pali forms are given in the sections on the core teachings of early Buddhism that are reconstructed primarily from Pali texts and in sections that deal with Buddhist traditions in which the primary sacred language is Pali. Sanskrit forms are given in the sections that deal with Buddhist traditions whose primary sacred language is Sanskrit and in other sections that deal with traditions whose primary sacred texts were translated from Sanskrit into a Central or East Asian language such as Tibetan or Chinese . The foundations of Buddhism Buddhism arose in northeastern India sometime between the late 6th century and the early 4th century bce , a period of great social change and intense religious activity. There is disagreement among scholars about the dates of the Buddha’s birth and death. Many modern scholars believe that the historical Buddha lived from about 563 to about 483 bce . Many others believe that he lived about 100 years later (from about 448 to 368 bce ). At this time in India, there was much discontent with Brahmanic ( Hindu high-caste) sacrifice and ritual . In northwestern India there were ascetics who tried to create a more personal and spiritual religious experience than that found in the Vedas (Hindu sacred scriptures). In the literature that grew out of this movement, the Upanishads , a new emphasis on renunciation and transcendental knowledge can be found. Northeastern India, which was less influenced by Vedic tradition, became the breeding ground of many new sects. Society in this area was troubled by the breakdown of tribal unity and the expansion of several petty kingdoms. Religiously, this was a time of doubt, turmoil, and experimentation. A proto-Samkhya group (i.e., one based on the Samkhya school of Hinduism founded by Kapila ) was already well established in the area. New sects abounded, including various skeptics (e.g., Sanjaya Belatthiputta), atomists (e.g., Pakudha Kaccayana), materialists (e.g., Ajita Kesakambali), and antinomians (i.e., those against rules or laws—e.g., Purana Kassapa). The most important sects to arise at the time of the Buddha, however, were the Ajivikas (Ajivakas), who emphasized the rule of fate ( niyati ), and the Jains , who stressed the need to free the soul from matter. Although the Jains, like the Buddhists, have often been regarded as atheists, their beliefs are actually more complicated. Unlike early Buddhists, both the Ajivikas and the Jains believed in the permanence of the elements that constitute the universe, as well as in the existence of the soul. Despite the bewildering variety of religious communities , many shared the same vocabulary— nirvana (transcendent freedom), atman (“self” or “soul”), yoga (“union”), karma (“causality”), Tathagata (“one who has come” or “one who has thus gone”), buddha (“enlightened one”), samsara (“eternal recurrence” or “becoming”), and dhamma (“rule” or “law”)—and most involved the practice of yoga. According to tradition, the Buddha himself was a yogi—that is, a miracle-working ascetic . Buddhism, like many of the sects that developed in northeastern India at the time, was constituted by the presence of a charismatic teacher, by the teachings this leader promulgated , and by a community of adherents that was often made up of renunciant members and lay supporters. In the case of Buddhism, this pattern is reflected in the Triratna —i.e., the “Three Jewels” of Buddha (the teacher), dharma (the teaching), and sangha (the community). In the centuries following the founder’s death, Buddhism developed in two directions represented by two different groups. One was called the Hinayana (Sanskrit: “Lesser Vehicle”), a term given to it by its Buddhist opponents. This more conservative group, which included what is now called the Theravada (Pali: “Way of the Elders”) community, compiled versions of the Buddha’s teachings that had been preserved in collections called the Sutta Pitaka and the Vinaya Pitaka and retained them as normative. The other major group, which calls itself the Mahayana (Sanskrit: “Greater Vehicle”), recognized the authority of other teachings that, from the group’s point of view, made salvation available to a greater number of people. These supposedly more advanced teachings were expressed in sutras that the Buddha purportedly made available only to his more advanced disciples . As Buddhism spread, it encountered new currents of thought and religion. In some Mahayana communities, for example, the strict law of karma (the belief that virtuous actions create pleasure in the future and nonvirtuous actions create pain) was modified to accommodate new emphases on the efficacy of ritual actions and devotional practices. During the second half of the 1st millennium ce , a third major Buddhist movement, Vajrayana (Sanskrit: “Diamond Vehicle”; also called Tantric, or Esoteric , Buddhism), developed in India. This movement was influenced by gnostic and magical currents pervasive at that time, and its aim was to obtain spiritual liberation and purity more speedily. Despite these vicissitudes , Buddhism did not abandon its basic principles. Instead, they were reinterpreted, rethought, and reformulated in a process that led to the creation of a great body of literature. This literature includes the Pali Tipitaka (“Three Baskets”)—the Sutta Pitaka (“Basket of Discourse”), which contains the Buddha’s sermons; the Vinaya Pitaka (“Basket of Discipline”), which contains the rule governing the monastic order; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (“Basket of Special [Further] Doctrine”), which contains doctrinal systematizations and summaries. These Pali texts have served as the basis for a long and very rich tradition of commentaries that were written and preserved by adherents of the Theravada community. The Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions have accepted as Buddhavachana (“the word of the Buddha”) many other sutras and tantras , along with extensive treatises and commentaries based on these texts. Consequently, from the first sermon of the Buddha at Sarnath to the most recent derivations, there is an indisputable continuity—a development or metamorphosis around a central nucleus—by virtue of which Buddhism is differentiated from other religions. Essay on Buddhism in India After Mahavir Jina, another spiritual guru who appeared in the religious firmament of India to rectify the extreme dominance of the Brahmanical class was Gautama Buddha. Like his predecessor he too raised his voice against the ritualistic practices and tried to purify and simplify the existing religious system. Thus in course of time there grew a new religion called Buddhism. image source: 435729.medialib.glogster.com/thumbnails/d961947d43fe548ee7fc0e38b0e8ea26930317d587a88b27c1109ea89eeefbff/cameron-buddhism-poster-source.jpg ADVERTISEMENTS: Among all the protestant religions, Buddhism became very popular for its mass appeal with its message of compassion, love, self-restraint and non-violence. It extended practically all over Asia and still continues to be a great force in the Far East. Unlike the Jains, the Buddhists never claim a remote antiquity behind their religion. Rather this religion with its strong social base and rational philosophy played a dominant role in the 6th century B.C. Life of Gautama (566 B.C.-486 B.C.): Gautama, who later became famous as Buddha, was born at Lumbini garden (Modern Rumnhndei or Rupan-dehi). His childhood name was Siddhartha. His father, Suddliodan, was the chief of the Sakya republican clan. His mother, Mayadevi, passed away few days after his birth. He was brought up by his step mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami. Though born in an aristocratic family, right from his childhood, Gautama exhibited signs of detachment towards worldly affairs. Rather he developed a contemplative bent of mind and a deep compassionate nature. Observing these peculiar trends in the son’s personality, Suddhodan arranged for his marriage. He got him married to a beautiful princess named Yasodhara. A son was born to them named Rahul. But no such worldly attachments could make the prince happy. The cause of his unhappiness lay in his realization that the sufferings of the mankind were due to old age, disease and death. Therefore, at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama left home leaving his wife and son behind to realize and understand the ultimate end of human life. This departure is known as the Great Renunciation. He first became the disciple of two distinguished teachers named Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. He learnt several sliastras and philosophy from them. But he did not find the real knowledge he was searching for. Then he led the life of an ascetic and practiced severe penance. This effort also ended in failure as he found no answer therein. He spent nearly six years in his futile effort to find the Truth. Then Gautama went to Uruvela near modern Bodhgaya and sat in deep contemplation under a peepal tree. At last the light dawned on him. He found the Truth he was seeking for. He received the light of knowledge – the means of salvation from human sufferings. His name was changed from Gautama to Buddha, the Perfectly Enlightened One, at the age of thirty-five. The tree under which he got the light of knowledge became famous as Bodhi tree. Buddha was now prepared to spread the light of knowledge that he had acquired. He delivered his first sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath near Benares. People flocked to join him and became his disciples. For the next forty-five years Buddha journeyed to different parts of India to spread his message of salvation. People from every walk of life became his disciples. His long journey came to an end when he breathed his last under a sal tree at Kusinagar in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh at the age of eighty in 486 B.C. His final departure from this mortal world is known as Mahaparinirvana – the Great Salvation – in Buddhist scriptures. Teachings of Lord Buddha: The teachings of Buddha were extremely simple and practical, ne fundamental principles of Buddha’s teachings are represented this Four Noble Truths. Buddha keenly felt about the pain and sufferings of human beings. So in his very first sermon he mainly addressed to the basic causes of such sufferings and to a way out for their end. Four Noble Truths: The Four Noble Truths constitute the very essentials of his teachings illustrated by these four terms: (i) Sufferings—that the world is full of sufferings. (ii) Its Causes—that there are causes of sufferings. (iii) Cessation of Sufferings—that these sufferings can be stopped. (iv) The Way—that there is a path leading to the cessation of sufferings. For Lord Buddha, the root of all sufferings lies in desire. Sufferings can stop with the annihilation of all desires. Those who want to get out of the clutches of suffering and want to achieve the ultimate end of human life, i.e., Nirvana, must follow a path. Aryan Eight-fold path: The path advocated by Lord Buddha to reach Nirvana is known as the Aryan Eight-fold path that comprises of eight important ways of life. 1. Right Speech 2. Right Action 3. Right Means of livelihood 4. Right Exertion 5. Right Mindfulness 6. Right Meditation 7. Right Resolution 8. Right View Buddha then summarized the whole process by dividing the human body into three parts – Sila, Chitta and Prajna. The observance of the first three principles lead to the physical (Sila) development. By observing the second three, there occurs mental (chitta) development. The last two principles of right resolution and right view bring about the development of intellect (Prajna). Thus, an all-round development of the human being can be made by following the above eight-fold principles. Then only can Nirvana be achieved – the eternal state of peace and bliss which means freedom from birth and death. Doctrine of Karma: The philosophy of Buddhism was extremely rationalistic. It believed in the law of Karma and re-birth. One’s present stage is determined by his past action. Otherwise he reaps the consequences of his own actions done in his previous birth. Since birth is the cause of all human sufferings and sorrows, it is by virtue of one’s own Karma or action that man should try to get rid of birth. In fact, the Buddhist theory of Karma is like that of the Hindus and it contradicts the philosophy of Jainism which refutes the theory of action. Doctrine of an-atta or No Soul: One of the specific contributions of Buddhism is its doctrine of an-atta or no-soul. Dualistic Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and even Jainism postulate the existence of a soul behind the changing states of consciousness in every individual. This soul is the I-making principle in every person that differentiates him from others. According to Buddha, as it is impossible to locate the flame of the lamp after the wick and oil have been consumed, it is similarly impossible to search for a soul after the dissolution of the human body. The concepts of continuity and transmigration can be better explained without postulating anything like soul or ego. Doctrine of non-existence of God: Buddha is silent about the existence of the Creator or God. For this he is sometimes regarded as an atheist. He was primarily concerned with the sufferings of human beings. So he thought it futile to ponder much about the mystery of creation and it’s Creator. Rather like a rationalist he paid more emphasis on the good and evil deeds of human beings. For him, vices and sufferings, virtues and happiness were related to the performance of one’s duty or deed. Emphasis on practical moralities: Because of its practical and pragmatic approach Buddhism had a mass appeal. It was regarded as a welcome relief from the priest-dominated and caste-ridden rigors of Brahmanism. Buddha freed religion from the elaborate and costly rituals and opposed the infallibility of the Vedas. Further, he made religion more lively and acceptable by laying stress on practical moralities of life that were essential for a common householder. It included the following: 1. Ahimsa or abstinence from killing. 2. Respect for animal life. 3. Reverence for the superiors. 4. Service to the humanity. 5. Relieving the sufferings of mankind. Further, Buddha made the life of the community happier by abolishing caste-systems. The status of those belonging to the lower orders was raised for attainment of social and spiritual freedom. These are in brief the main teachings of Lord Buddha. A critical analysis of the doctrines reveals that Buddhism, like Jainism, was originally a moral code rather than a metaphysical or religious system in the western sense of the term. The dying words of Lord Buddha to his disciples, “To be lamps unto themselves as there is no other light”, reveal the very essence of his simple teachings. Cultural Contribution: Buddhism remained a powerful force in the socio-cultural set up of India for almost one and a half thousand years. It was not merely confined to India. Within a short span of time it reached the soil of various Asian countries like Myanmar, China, Japan, Indonesia, Cambodia etc. During its long journey over the Indian sub-continent itself, Buddhism influenced the Indian cultural heritage to a remarkable extent. The cultural assimilation of Hinduism and Buddhism has been manifested in different manners. The following accounts of the Buddhist cultural contributions speak for themselves. Simplicity and Neutrality: Buddhism presented itself in a simple and natural manner. Common people could understand the essence of religion in a very lucid style. It was devoid of Vedic complexity, complicated and meaningless rituals and the predominance of the Brahmanical class. The very simple ethical code of the religion, emotional elements, popular methods of teachings, natural way of worship and prayer etc. introduced a personal element to the religious belief of the people. People liked it and appreciated it and there arose a natural tendency among them to accept the religion without any external force. Influence on Hinduism: Although it may sound strange, Buddhism has influenced Hinduism in a number of ways, especially in lie fashion of image-worship of the Hindus. As a matter of fact, after the departure of Buddha, Buddhism was divided into Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism. The Mahayana Buddhists developed the system of the worship of the image of Buddha. Inspired by this Mahayana practice the Hindus too developed the system of worshipping different images of gods and goddesses. They began to erect temples in the honour of these deities. Prior to Buddhism, Vedic Hinduism consisted mainly of sacrifices and yajnas in the open air. Further the complex rituals of Hinduism admitted into their fold the Buddhist way of prayer and meditation. In addition, the doctrine of ahimsa or non-violence which constitutes a very important aspect of Buddhism became a part of Hindu religion. The emphasis on the life of animals, pity, compassion and respect for life in all forms, negative attitude towards animal sacrifices had made Buddhism more popular and acceptable. These lofty ideals were highly appreciated by the scholars and pundits of Hinduism. They incorporated these ideals into their writings. Gradually this led to the rise of a particular phase of Bhagavad-Gita religion which completely believed in the principle of non-violence. Monastic System: A new feature of Buddhism was its monastic system that later became a part of our culture. Monastery is an organisation of devotees of a particular order based on discipline and community life. The monastic order is built around a democratic system. When the number of Buddhist monks, nuns and followers increased they used to stay in various monasteries in groups called Sangha. In due course these Buddhist Sanghas became a very important part of Buddhism for general spiritual uplift. The Hindu saints and sages of later years were much influenced by this monastic system. The growth of Hindu Mathas owes their origin to this Buddhist concept. Like Buddhist monasteries, these Mathas were actively engaged in moral and Language and Literature: The birth and growth of Buddhism have left behind it a rich heritage in the field of language and literature. In the initial stage, Lord Buddha used to preach in Prakrit, Magadhi and other dialects for the general public to understand his teachings. Later he also used Pali. Therefore, the Buddhist literature that came into existence were in Pali and other dialects. During the reign of Kanishka Sanskrit became the medium of preaching. But only the Pali version of Buddhist literature has survived in its entirety. All the postulates of Buddhism have been recorded in the Pali version of Tripitaka. They are Vinaya (Conduct) Pitaka, Sutta (Sermon) Pitaka and Abhidhamma (Metaphysics) Pitaka. Besides these Tripitakas, a vast non-canonical literature developed mostly as commentaries to explain the canonical texts of the Buddhist monks outside India. The Sri Lankan monks took the lead in producing vast volumes of such non-canonical texts. Both these canonical and non-canonical texts were written in Pali language. In the Buddhist monasteries and viharas the beginnings of vernacular Pali literature were made which later developed into lengthy volumes. The attempt of the Buddhists to spread their messages through various languages has not only enriched the literary heritage of the country but has also set the academic tradition on proper footing. Buddhist literature like Jataka stories, scriptures like the Pitakas, philosophy of Nagarjuna, Asvaghosh, Tantric texts of Vajrayan, logic of Mahayana Buddhism, chronicles of Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa are invaluable gems of Indian culture. Indeed, Buddhist philosophers and writers added a new and glorious feather to the cultural spirit of our country. Art and Architecture: Apart from literature, Buddhism also left its indelible mark on Indian art tradition. Prior to the birth of Buddhism the Indian art tradition was confined to the construction of pandals and mandaps, yajnasala (place for fire sacrifice), yajnavedi or altars etc. In other words, Indian architecture was at its rudimentary stage. Under the patronage of Buddhism different areas of art like architecture, sculpture and painting began to prosper. From the time of the Buddhist king, Ashoka, stones began to be used in sculptural works. The early Buddhist monuments at Sanchi, Bharut, Bodhgaya, Amravati, Dhauli, Jaugad, Rumindei etc. are examples of Buddhist art treasures. The system of making stambhas or pillars bearing religious emblem was a novel concept. Further, construction of stupas over the relics of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas added a new artistic dimension. A number of viharas came into existence as a heritage of Buddhist art for giving permanent abode to Buddhist monks. These different manifestations of Buddhist art had its reflection on the continuing Indian style. Ashokan pillars, stupas at Sanchi, cave temples of Kanheri and Karle are brilliant specimens of Buddhist architecture. Two masterpieces of Buddhist sculpture, the standing Buddha statue of Mathura and the seated Buddha of Sarnath, show the sculptural excellence of Buddhist artists. Even painting did not lag behind. The cave paintings of Karle, Bagh, Ajanta and Ellora display the maturity in style and finish of the Indian painters. The subject matter of Buddhist art revolved around themes of compassion for nature, attachment for the life of animals and love for mankind. The current of life flows in a majestically lively way in these artistic works that the artists had left for posterity. Buddhist art of Gandhara and Mathura have left behind an everlasting impression on Indian culture. Political Unity: Buddhism has come a long way in establishing itself in the pages of Indian history. Its cardinal concept of non-violence profoundly influenced Ashoka, the third king of the Mauryan dynasty. After the horrors of Kalinga War in 261 B.C., he was converted from Ashoka, the Ogre, to Ashoka, the Virtuous, from Chandashoka to Dharmashoka, under the influence of Buddhism. The violent march of Indian history not only received a jolt but it also changed its course in a non-violent, pious and benevolent way. Ashokan policy of winning human hearts by love and compassion, paternal form of governance, charity for all forms of life added new dimensions to the rich cultural heritage of the country. Even in the colonial period the great exponent of truth and non-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, gave a fresh orientation to this age-old Buddhist concept which went a long way in achieving freedom from the British. Buddhism spread to every nook and corner of the land. The very spread of Buddhism within one geographical unit of Bharatavarsha created a sense of unity among its followers. The idea of national unity, solidarity and integrity of the soil was thus facilitated by this religion. The message of equality, fraternity, the voice of protest against caste-system, emancipation of women as nuns of the Buddhist order, literary awakening etc. were hugely responsible for the growth of political unity over this vast land. Messenger of Universality: Buddhism became the cultural messenger of India to China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Burma, Indonesia and Ceylon since the days of Ashoka. In the words of Arnold Toynbee, “… at the religious level, India has not been a recipient, she has been a giver. About half the total of the number of the living higher religions are of Indian origin. About half the human race today adheres to either Hinduism or Buddhism.” Thus not only in India but also abroad Buddhism took a leading role in spiritual awakening which constitutes the very essence of Indian culture. The vastness and richness of Indian culture and its universal appeal were reflected in Buddhist way of life and were made known to the outsiders. They came to know about India through Buddhism, saw India through Buddha and realised the Indian spirit with their grasp of Indian culture. As a religion, Buddhism had a widespread influence on different aspects of Indian culture. It manifested itself in various ways – paleographic, linguistic, literary, religious, philosophical, social, ethical, artistic etc. Patient study, careful observation and prudent judgement are required to understand the vast significance of this religion. Buddhism has remained a vital force, an inspiration and above all, a guidance to our traditions and customs. In sum, its unique contributions in the various fields of culture has greatly enriched Indian cultural heritage, apart from adding to the religious diversity of the land. Related Articles: Essay on Hinduism and Buddhism Influence of Buddhism on Indian Culture Essay on the Buddhism: Features, Causes of Decline and Significance Comparison: Jainism and Buddhism | Indian History 211 COMMENTS Gautam Buddha Essay for Students in English Gautam Buddha is popularly called Lord Buddha or The Buddha. He was a great and religious leader of ancient India. ... The long and short essay on Gautam Buddha will help students of Class 5 and above to write one on their own. These essays are specially designed so that you can have all the needed information about Gautam Buddha. This essay ... Buddha Buddha (born c. 6th-4th century bce, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Shakya republic, Kosala kingdom [now in Nepal]—died, Kusinara, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom [now Kasia, India]) was the founder of Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophical systems of southern and eastern Asia and of the world. Buddha is one of the many epithets of a teacher who lived in northern India sometime ... Life of the Buddha According to tradition, the historical Buddha lived from 563 to 483 B.C., although scholars postulate that he may have lived as much as a century later. He was born to the rulers of the Shakya clan, hence his appellation Shakyamuni, which means "sage of the Shakya clan.". The legends that grew up around him hold that both his conception and ... Siddhartha Gautama Siddhartha Gautama (better known as the Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) was, according to legend, a Hindu prince who renounced his position and wealth to seek enlightenment as a spiritual ascetic, attained his goal and, in preaching his path to others, founded Buddhism in India in the 6th-5th centuries BCE.. The events of his life are largely legendary, but he is considered an actual ... Life of Gautama Buddha and the origin of Buddhism Buddha , orig. Siddhartha Gautama, (born c. 6th-4th century bce, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Shakya republic, Kosala kingdom—died, Kusinara, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom), Spiritual leader and founder of Buddhism.The term buddha (Sanskrit: "awakened one") is a title rather than a name, and Buddhists believe that there are an infinite number of past and future buddhas. The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha ('the awakened'), was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.According to Buddhist legends, he was born in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal, to royal parents of the Shakya clan, but renounced his home life to live as a wandering ascetic. The life of the Buddha Suddenly, at age 29, he was confronted with impermanence and suffering. On a rare outing from his luxurious palace, he saw someone desperately sick. The next day, he saw a decrepit old man, and finally a dead person. He was very upset to realize that old age, sickness and death would come to everyone he loved. The Life of the Buddha The story of the Buddha is an ode to the almost superhuman effort the Buddha made to achieve his liberation, the almost infinite patience it took, and the deep love and compassion that led him to share this path with others. The emphasis is on 'almost' because his life story is ultimately a human story. The Buddha was not a god, not a being ... Who Is The Buddha? The Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama, was born around 567 B.C.E., in a small kingdom just below the Himalayan foothills. His father was a chief of the Shakya clan. It is said that twelve years before his birth the brahmins prophesied that he would become either a universal monarch or a great sage. To prevent him from becoming an ascetic, his ... Buddhism Buddhism - Enlightenment, Dharma, Four Noble Truths: The teacher known as the Buddha lived in northern India sometime between the mid-6th and the mid-4th centuries before the Common Era. In ancient India the title buddha referred to an enlightened being who has awakened from the sleep of ignorance and achieved freedom from suffering. According to the various traditions of Buddhism, buddhas ... Essay On Gautam Buddha in English for Class 1, 2 & 3: 10 Lines, Short Short Essay On Gautam Buddha A short paragraph on Gautam Buddha is a good exercise for the brief narration of a story. Children can learn from this essay on Gautama Buddha in 150 words: Gautam Buddha is one of the most well-known spiritual leaders in history. He started Buddhism in the 6th century BC. Buddha The Buddha (fl. circa 450 BCE) is the individual whose teachings form the basis of the Buddhist tradition. These teachings, preserved in texts known as the Nikāyas or Āgamas, concern the quest for liberation from suffering.While the ultimate aim of the Buddha's teachings is thus to help individuals attain the good life, his analysis of the source of suffering centrally involves claims ... Buddha Buddha was born in the 6th century B.C., or possibly as early as 624 B.C., according to some scholars. Other researchers believe he was born later, even as late as 448 B.C. And some Buddhists ... The Buddha's Life Story in Brief The Birth. The Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived over 2,500 years ago and is known as Siddhattha Gotama. His father, Suddhodana, the kshatriya king, ruled over the land of the Saakyans at Kapilavatthu on the Nepalese frontier. As he came from the Gotama family he was known as Suddhodana Gotama. Life of Gautama Buddha and his Teachings Buddha, the light of Asia, was one of the greatest men of all times. Great was his teaching which the mightiest religion of humanity became. The name, of Gautama Buddha has enriched the history of India more than any other name. The founder of the largest religion on earth, he was the only man in history to be regarded as God by a larger part of mankind. Birth: Gautama was born in the ... Short Biography of Gautama Buddha The below mentioned article provides a short biography of Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavira. Gautama Buddha's royal name was Siddhartha. He was the son of Suddhodhana, the Chief of Sakya clan of Kapilvastu in the Nepal Tarai area. He was born in 566 B.C. in the village of Lumbini a few miles from Kapilvastu. Siddhartha lost his mother at the time of his birth and ... A Short Study on the Life of Gautama Buddha Gautama Buddha was born in the province of Lumbini, located in Southern Nepal, in 623 BC. He was born into a noble family of the Shakya Clan residing in the Himalayan foothills. The head of the Shakya clan, Suddhodana, was his father, while his mother Maya was a Koliyan princess. It is said that the court astrologers predicted that he would ... An Essay On Lord Buddha Essay on Lord Buddha. Essay on. Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha was one of the greatest religious teachers who ever lived in the world. He was born in India. Before he became Buddha, his name was Siddhartha. His parents were kind Suddhodana and queen Mahamaya. King Suddhodana ruled at Kapila Wasthupura. A few days after price Siddartha's queen ... 10 Wise Life Lessons from the Buddha Be more focused on how to be happy than on how to be right. 6. Conquer yourself. The one who conquers himself is stronger than anyone. In order to do it, you have to control your thoughts. Get rid of the thoughts that are not in accordance with the life principles you want to follow. 7. Live in harmony. Short and Long Paragraph on Buddhism in English for Students Paragraph 1 - 100 Words. Buddhism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It's a faith, a way of life, and a religion of peace. Buddhism was founded before more than 2,500 years ago in India. Lord Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, it is said that his teachings were the foundation of Buddhism. The path of self-enlightenment can be ... Buddhism Buddhism, religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: "Awakened One"), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries bce (before the Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia, and ... Teachings of Lord Buddha The following points highlight the five important teachings of Lord Buddha. The teachings are: 1. Prominence to Character 2. Belief in Karma and Re-Birth 3. Disbelief in the Existence of God 4. Ahimsa 5. Caste System. Teaching # 1. Prominence to Character: Buddha laid great emphasis on moral life rather than worship. He attached too much importance to the building of the moral character and ... Essay on Buddhism in India Teachings of Lord Buddha: The teachings of Buddha were extremely simple and practical, ne fundamental principles of Buddha's teachings are represented this Four Noble Truths. ... Taj Mahal: Short Essay on Taj Mahal. May 24, 2018 Short Essay on Jodh Bai's Palace. May 24, 2018 Tombs in India: 9 Ancient Tombs in India. May 24, 2018 Mosques in ... essay homework paper phd project resume review speech study thesis