types of chemistry assignment

The 5 Main Branches of Chemistry

One of several ways chemistry can be divided into categories

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There are many branches of chemistry or chemistry disciplines. The five main branches are organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.

Branches of Chemistry

• Traditionally, the five main branches of chemistry are organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry. However, sometimes biochemistry is considered a subdiscipline of organic chemistry.
• The branches of chemistry overlap those of physics and biology. There is also some overlap with engineering.
• Within each major discipline, there are many subdivisions.

What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry, like physics and biology, is a natural science. In fact, there is considerable overlap between chemistry and these other disciplines. Chemistry is a science that studies matter. This includes atoms, compounds, chemical reactions, and chemical bonds. Chemists explore the properties of matter, its structure, and how it interacts with other matter.

Overview of the 5 Branches of Chemistry

• Organic Chemistry : Organic chemistry is the study of carbon and its compounds . It is the study of the chemistry of life and reactions occurring in living organisms. An organic chemistry student might study organic reactions, the structure and properties of organic molecules, polymers, drugs, or fuels.
• Inorganic Chemistry : Inorganic chemistry is the study of compounds not covered by organic chemistry. It is the study of inorganic compounds or compounds that don't contain a C-H bond. A few inorganic compounds do contain carbon, but most contain metals. Topics of interest to inorganic chemists include ionic compounds, organometallic compounds, minerals, cluster compounds, and solid-state compounds.
• Analytical Chemistry : Analytical chemistry is the study of the chemistry of matter and the development of tools to measure the properties of matter. Analytical chemistry includes quantitative and qualitative analysis, separations, extractions, distillation, spectrometry and spectroscopy, chromatography, and electrophoresis. Analytical chemists develop standards, chemical methods, and instrumental methods.
• Physical Chemistry: Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies physics to the study of chemistry, which commonly includes the applications of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to chemistry.
• Biochemistry : Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur inside living organisms. Examples of key molecules include proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, drugs, and neurotransmitters. Sometimes this discipline is considered a subdiscipline of organic chemistry. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, and genetics.

Other Branches of Chemistry

There are other ways chemistry can be divided into categories. Depending on who you ask, other disciplines might be included as a main branch of chemistry. Other examples of branches of chemistry include:

• Astrochemistry : Astrochemistry examines the abundance of elements and compounds in the universe, their reactions to each other, and the interaction between radiation and matter.
• Chemical Kinetics : Chemical kinetics (or simply "kinetics") studies the rates of chemical reactions and processes and the factors that affect them.
• Electrochemistry : Electrochemistry examines the movement of charge in chemical systems. Often, electrons are the charge carriers, but the discipline also investigates the behavior of ions and protons.
• Green Chemistry : Green chemistry looks at ways of minimizing the environmental impact of chemical processes. This includes remediation as well as ways of improving processes to make them more eco-friendly.
• Geochemistry : Geochemistry examines the nature and properties of geological materials and processes.
• Nuclear Chemistry : While most forms of chemistry mainly deal with interactions between electrons in atoms and molecules, nuclear chemistry explores the reactions between protons, neutrons, and subatomic particles.
• Polymer Chemistry : Polymer chemistry deals with the synthesis and properties of macromolecules and polymers.
• Quantum Chemistry : Quantum chemistry applies quantum mechanics to model and explore chemical systems.
• Radiochemistry : Radiochemistry explores the nature of radioisotopes, the effects of radiation on matter, and the synthesis of radioactive elements and compounds.
• Theoretical Chemistry : Theoretical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies mathematics, physics, and computer programming to answer chemistry questions.
• Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
• Laidler, Keith (1993). The World of Physical Chemistry . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-855919-4.
• Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2007). Principles of Instrumental Analysis . Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Thomson. ISBN 978-0-495-01201-6.
• Sørensen, Torben Smith (1999). Surface Chemistry and Electrochemistry of Membranes . CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-1922-0.
• Streitwieser, Andrew; Heathcock, Clayton H.; Kosower, Edward M. (2017). Introduction to Organic Chemistry . New Delhi: Medtech. ISBN 978-93-85998-89-8.
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Types of Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction is a process or chemical change that transforms one set of substances ( the reactants ) into another set of substances (the products ). The process involves breaking chemical bonds between atoms and forming new bonds, so the number and type of atoms are the same for both reactants and products. The chemical change is described by a chemical equation . There are several types of chemical reactions. Here is look at the four main types of chemical reactions, plus additional key reaction types.

4 Main Types of Chemical Reactions

Keep in mind, there are different names for the reaction types. The four main types of chemical reactions are:

• Synthesis or combination reactions
• Decomposition or analysis reactions
• Single replacement, single displacement , or substitution reactions
• Double replacement , double displacement, or metathesis reactions

There are many other types of reactions, though. This table summarizes some key points of the main types of chemical reactions:

Let’s take a closer look at the types of reactions and get examples:

Synthesis or Direct Combination Reaction

In a synthesis, direct combination, or composition reaction, two (or more) reactants combine to form a more complex product. The general form of the reaction is: A + B → AB An example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide: 8 Fe + S 8  → 8 FeS

Here are other examples of synthesis reactions:

• 2 Na(s) + Cl 2 (g) → 2 NaCl(s)
• C(s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g)
• S(s) + O 2 (g) → SO 2 (g)
• 2 Fe(s) + O 2 (g) → 2 FeO(s)
• 2 SO 2  + O 2  → 2 SO 3
• 6 C + 3 H 2  → C 6 H 6
• 4 Na + 2 C + 3 O 2  → 2 Na 2 CO 3

Decomposition or Analysis Reaction

A compound breaks or decomposes into smaller pieces in a chemical decomposition or analysis reaction. The general form of the reaction is: AB → A + B An example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to form oxygen and hydrogen: 2 H 2 O → 2 H 2  + O 2

Here are additional examples of decomposition reactions:

• CaCO 3  → CaO + CO 2
• 2 KClO 3  → 2 KCl + 3 O 2
• Na 2 CO 3  → Na 2 O + CO 2

Single Replacement, Single Displacement, or Substitution Reaction

A single replacement, single displacement, or substitution reaction is when one element is displaced from a reactant to form a compound with another element. The reaction has the general form: A + BC → AC + B An example of a single replacement reaction is when zinc combines with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen. The zinc replaces or displaces the hydrogen in hydrochloric acid: Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl 2  + H 2

Double Replacement, Double Displacement, or Metathesis Reaction

When the reactant cations and anions “swap partners” the reaction is called a double replacement, double displacement, or metathesis reaction. The general form for a double replacement reaction is: AB + CD → AD + CB An example of a double replacement reaction is the reaction between sodium chloride and silver nitrate to yield sodium nitrate and silver chloride: NaCl(aq) + AgNO 3 (aq) → NaNO 3 (aq) + AgCl(s)

Combustion Reaction

A combustion reaction is the reaction between a fuel and oxygen to form one or more oxides. Because many fuels are carbon-based, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is often a product. Sometimes water (H 2 O) is a product.

Here are examples of combustion reactions and their balanced equations :

• C 10 H 8  + 12 O 2  → 10 CO 2  + 4 H 2 O
• H 2  + O 2  → 2 H 2 O
• C 6 H 12 O 6  + 6 O 2  → 6 CO 2  + 6 H 2 O
• 2 Fe 2 S 3  + 9 O 2  → 2 Fe 2 O 3  + 6 SO 2
• 2 Al 2 S 3  + 9 O 2  → 2 Al 2 O 3  + 6 SO 2
• P 4  + 5 O 2  → 2 P 2 O 5

Acid-Base or Neutralization Reaction

An acid-base reaction is a type of double replacement reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. The H +  ion in the acid reacts with the OH –  ion in the base to form water and an ionic salt: HA + BOH → H 2 O + BA The reaction between hydrobromic acid (HBr) and sodium hydroxide is an example of an acid-base reaction: HBr + NaOH → NaBr + H 2 O

Oxidation-Reduction or Redox Reaction

Redox stands for reduction and oxidation . The two processes occur together. This type of reaction involves electron transfer between reactants and a change in oxidation number. An example is the reduction of I 2 to form  I –  and oxidation of S 2 O 3 2-  (thiosulfate anion) to form S 4 O 6 2- :

2 S 2 O 3 2− (aq) + I 2 (aq) → S 4 O 6 2− (aq) + 2 I − (aq)

Isomerization Reaction

In an isomerization reaction, the structural arrangement of a compound is changed but its net atomic composition remains the same.

For example:

CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 (n-butane) → CH 3 CH(CH 3 )CH 3 (i-butane)

Hydrolysis Reaction

A hydrolysis reaction is a reaction in which one or more water molecules is added to a substance. In some cases, this causes both the substance and water molecule to split. The general form of a hydrolysis reaction is: X – (aq) + H 2 O(l) ↔ HX(aq) + OH – (aq)

The reverse reaction is a condensation reaction. In a condensation reaction, water is removed from a substance.

How Many Types of Chemical Reactions Are There?

Technically, there are hundreds or even thousands of different types of chemical reactions. However, chemistry students usually learn to classify them as 4 main types, 5 main types, or 6 main types. The four main types of chemical reactions are synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, and double displacement. But, remember, some people use different names for these reactions. Other important types of reactions are combustion, acid-base, redox reactions, and condensation reactions . It gets even more complicated in organic chemistry, where many reactions have special names. However, these other types of reactions also fit into one of the four main categories!

Types of Chemical Reactions Worksheet

Practice identifying the four main types of chemical reactions with this worksheet. Download and print the PDF worksheet and answer key.

[ Types of Chemical Reactions Worksheet ] [ PDF Answer Key ]

• Atkins, Peter W.; Julio de Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry (4th ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31546-8.
• IUPAC (1997). “Chemical Reaction”. Compendium of Chemical Terminology (2nd ed.) (the “Gold Book”). doi: 10.1351/goldbook.C01033
• Myers, Richard (2009). The Basics of Chemistry . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-31664-7.
• Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic Chemistry . Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9.

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Chemical Bonding

What is chemical bonding.

Chemical bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms, molecules or ions to give rise to a chemical compound. These chemical bonds are what keep the atoms together in the resulting compound.

Download Complete Chapter Notes of Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Download Now

JEE Main 2021 LIVE Chemistry Paper Solutions 24 Feb Shift-1 Memory-based

Table of Contents

• Lewis Theory
• Kossel’s Theory

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Lewis Structures

Bond Characteristics

Resonance in chemical bonding, london dispersion forces.

The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together and stabilises them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding.  Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between their constituents; the stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound will be.

The opposite also holds true; if the chemical bonding between the constituents is weak, the resulting compound would lack stability and would easily undergo another reaction to give a more stable chemical compound (containing stronger bonds). To find stability, the atoms try to lose their energy.

Whenever matter interacts with another form of matter, a force is exerted on one by the other. When the forces are attractive in nature, energy decreases. When the forces are repulsive in nature, energy increases. The attractive force that binds two atoms together is known as a chemical bond.

Important Theories on Chemical Bonding

Albrecht Kössel and Gilbert Lewis were the first to explain the formation of chemical bonds successfully in the year 1916. They explained chemical bonding on the basis of the inertness of noble gases.

Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding

• An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the inner  electrons ) and the outer shell.
• The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
• The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube which surround the ‘Kernel’.
• The atoms have an octet configuration, i.e., 8 electrons in the outermost shell, thus symbolising a stable configuration.
• Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with other atoms. This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an electron(s) (NaCl, MgCl2) or, in some cases, due to the sharing of an electron (F2).
• Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the  valence electrons , take part in the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used specific notations, better known as Lewis symbols, to represent these valence electrons.
• Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in the corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence electrons).

Lewis symbols for lithium (1 electron), oxygen (6 electrons) and neon (8 electrons) are given below.

Here, the number of dots that surround the respective symbol represents the number of valence electrons in that atom.

Kossel’s Theory of Chemical Bonding

• Noble gases separate the highly  electronegative  halogens and the highly electropositive alkali metals.
• Halogens can form negatively charged ions by gaining an electron. Whereas alkali metals can form positively charged ions by losing an electron.
• These negatively charged ions and positively charged ions have a noble gas configuration, that is, 8 electrons in the outermost shell. The general electronic configuration of noble gases (except helium) is given by ns 2 np 6 .
• As unlike charges attract each other, these unlike charged particles are held together by a strong force of electrostatic attraction existing between them. For example, MgCl2 – magnesium ions and chlorine ions – are held together by the force of electrostatic attraction. This kind of chemical bonding existing between two, unlike charged particles, is known as an electrovalent bond.

Explanation of Kossel-Lewis Approach

In 1916, Kossel and Lewis succeeded in giving a successful explanation based upon the concept of an electronic configuration of noble gases about why atoms combine to form molecules. Atoms of noble gases have little or no tendency to combine with each other or with atoms of other elements. This means that these atoms must have stable electronic configurations.

Due to the stable configuration, the noble gas atoms neither have any tendency to gain nor lose electrons and, therefore, their combining capacity or valency is zero. They are so inert that they do not even form diatomic molecules and exist as monoatomic gaseous atoms.

⇒ Also Read

• Fajan’s rule
• VSEPR Theory

When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the stability of the resulting compound can be gauged by the type of chemical bonds it contains.

The type of chemical bonds formed varies in strength and properties. There are 4 primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to yield compounds. These types of chemical bonds include

• Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Hydrogen Bonds
• Polar Bonds

These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain or sharing of electrons between two atoms/molecules.

Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or molecule to another. Here, an atom loses an electron, which is, in turn, gained by another atom. When such an electron transfer takes place, one of the atoms develops a negative charge and is now called the anion.

The other atom develops a positive charge and is called the cation. The ionic bond gains strength from the difference in charge between the two atoms, i.e., the greater the charge disparity between the cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic bond.

Types of Chemical Bonds – Ionic bonding

Covalent Bonding

A  covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons between atoms. Compounds that contain carbon (also called organic compounds) commonly exhibit this type of chemical bonding. The pair of electrons which are shared by the two atoms now extend around the nuclei of atoms, leading to the creation of a molecule.

Polar Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds can be either polar or non-polar in nature. In polar covalent chemical bonding, electrons are shared unequally since the more electronegative atom pulls the electron pair closer to itself and away from the less electronegative atom. Water is an example of such a polar molecule.

A difference in charge arises in different areas of the atom due to the uneven spacing of the electrons between the atoms. One end of the molecule tends to be partially positively charged, and the other end tends to be partially negatively charged.

Hydrogen Bonding

Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of chemical bonding. It is a type of polar covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen, wherein the hydrogen develops a partial positive charge. This implies that the electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom.

This creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted towards the negative charges of any neighbouring atom. This type of chemical bonding is called a hydrogen bond and is responsible for many of the properties exhibited by water.

What Is Ionic Bond?

The bond formed as a result of strong electrostatic forces of attraction between a positively and negatively charged species is called an electrovalent or ionic bond . The positively and negatively charged ions are aggregated in an ordered arrangement called the crystal lattice, which is stabilised by the energy called the Lattice enthalpy.

Conditions for the Formation of an Ionic Bond

• The low ionisation energy of the atom forming the cation.
• High electron gain enthalpy of the atom forming the anion.
• High negative lattice enthalpy of the crystal formed.

Generally, the ionic bond is formed between a metal cation and a non-metal anion.

Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Rapid Revision

Writing Lewis Structures

The following steps are adopted for writing the Lewis dot structures or Lewis structures:

Step 1: Calculate the number of electrons required for drawing the structure by adding the valence electrons of the combining atoms. For example, in methane, a CH 4 molecule, there are 8 valence electrons (of which 4 belong to carbon while the other 4 to H atoms).

Step 2: For each negative charge, i.e., for anions, we add an electron to the valence electrons, and for each positive charge, i.e., for cations, we subtract one electron from the valence electrons.

Step 3:  Using the chemical symbols of the combining atoms and constructing a skeletal structure of the compound, divide the total number of electrons as bonding shared pairs between the atoms in proportion to the total bonds.

Step 4:  The central position in the molecule is occupied by the least electronegative atom . Hydrogen and fluorine generally occupy terminal positions.

Step 5 : After distributing the shared pairs of electrons for single bonds, the remaining electron pairs are used for multiple bonds, or they constitute lone pairs.

The basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons .

Example 1: Lewis formula for carbon monoxide, CO.

Step 1:  Counting the total number of valence electrons of carbon and oxygen atoms: C (2s 2 2p 2 ) + O (2s 2 2p 4 ) 4 + 6 = 10 that is, 4(C) + 6(O) = 10

Step 2:  The skeletal structure of carbon monoxide is written as CO.

Step 3:  Drawing a single bond between C and O and a complete octet on O, the remaining two electrons are lone pairs on C.

Step 4: This does not complete the octet of carbon, and hence, we have a triple bond.

Example 2:  Lewis Structure of nitrite, NO 2 –

Step 1:  Count the total number of valence electrons of one nitrogen atom, two oxygen atoms and the additional one negative charge (equal to one electron). Total number of valence electrons is N (2s 2 2p 3 ) + 2O (2s 2 2p 4 ) + 1 (negative charge) => 5+ 2(6) +1=18e –

Step 2:  The skeletal structure of nitrite ion is written as O-N-O

Step 3: Drawing a single bond between nitrogen and each oxygen atom O – N – O

Step 4:  Complete the octets of atoms.

This structure does not complete octet on N, if the remaining two electrons constitute a lone pair on it. Therefore, we have a double bond between one N and one of the two O atoms. The Lewis structure is

• Write the Lewis structure for the following.
• CO 3 2- b) CN – c) SO 5 2-

Bond Length

During chemical bonding, when the atoms come closer to each other, the attraction takes place between them, and the potential energy of the system keeps on decreasing till a particular distance at which the potential energy is minimum. If the atoms come closer, repulsion starts, and again, the potential energy of the system begins to increase.

At equilibrium distance, the atoms keep on vibrating about their mean position. The equilibrium distance between the centres of the nuclei of the two bonded atoms is called its bond length.

It is expressed in terms of an angstrom (A 0 ) or picometer (pm). It is determined experimentally by x-ray diffraction or electron diffraction method, or spectroscopic method. The bond length in chemical bonding is the sum of the ionic radii in an ionic compound. In a covalent compound , it is the sum of its covalent radii. For a covalent molecule AB, the bond length is given by d = r a  + r b

Factors Affecting the Bond Length

• Size of the atoms:  The bond length increases with an increase in the size of the atom. HI > HBr > HCl > HF
• The multiplicity of bond: The bond length decreases with an increase in bond order.
• Type of hybridization:  A‘s’ orbital is smaller in size; the greater the ‘s’ character, the shorter the bond length.

Bond Enthalpy

When atoms come close together, energy is released due to the chemical bonding between them. The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of a type so as to separate the molecule into individual gaseous atoms is called bond dissociation enthalpy or bond enthalpy. Bond enthalpy is usually expressed in KJ mol -1.

The greater the bond dissociation enthalpy, the greater the bond strength. For diatomic molecules , like H 2 , Cl 2 , O 2 , N 2 , HCl, HBr and HI, the bond enthalpies are equal to their dissociation enthalpy.

In the case of polyatomic molecules, bond enthalpies are usually the average values because the dissociation energy varies with each type of bond.

In H 2 0, first O-H bond enthalpy = 502 KJ/mol; Second bond enthalpy = 427 KJ/mol Average bond enthalpy = (502 + 427) / 2 = 464.5 KJ/mol

Factors Affecting Bond Enthalpy in Chemical Bonding

Size of the Atom

The greater the size of the atom, the greater the bond length, and the less the bond dissociation enthalpy , i.e., less the bond strength during chemical bonding.

Multiplicity of Bonds

The greater the multiplicity of the bond, the greater the bond dissociation enthalpy.

Number of Lone Pair of Electrons Present

The more the number of lone pairs of electrons present on the bonded atoms, the greater the repulsion between the atoms, and thus, less is the bond dissociation enthalpy of the chemical bond.

A bond is formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals. The direction of overlap gives the direction of the bond. The angle between the lines representing the direction of the bond, i.e., the orbitals containing the bonding electrons, is called the  bond angle.

In Lewis representation, the number of bonds present between two atoms is called the  bond order . The greater the bond order, the greater the stability of the bond during chemical bonding, i.e., the greater the bond enthalpy. The greater the bond order, the shorter the bond length.

There are molecules and ions for which drawing a single Lewis structure is not possible. For example, we can write two structures of O 3 .

In (A), the oxygen-oxygen bond on the left is a double bond, and the oxygen-oxygen bond on the right is a single bond. In B, the situation is just the opposite. The experiment shows, however, that the two bonds are identical.

Therefore, neither structure A nor B can be correct. One of the bonding pairs in ozone is spread over the region of all three atoms rather than localised on a particular oxygen-oxygen bond. This delocalised bonding is a type of chemical bonding in which bonding pair of electrons are spread over a number of atoms rather than localised between two.

Structures (A) and (B) are called resonating or canonical structures , and (C) is the resonance hybrid. This phenomenon is called resonance, a situation in which more than one canonical structure can be written for a species. The chemical activity of an atom is determined by the number of electrons in its valence shell. With the help of the concept of chemical bonding, one can define the structure of a compound, which is used in many industries for manufacturing products in which the true structure cannot be written at all.

Here are some other examples.

• CO 3 2–  ion

• Vinyl chloride

The difference in the energies of the canonical forms and resonance hybrid is called resonance stabilisation energy.

Recommended Videos

Kossel Lewis Theory

Another form of chemical bonding is caused by London dispersion forces. These forces are weak in magnitude.

Chemical Bonding – London Dispersion Forces

These forces occur due to a temporary charge imbalance arising in an atom. This imbalance in charge of the atom can induce dipoles in neighbouring atoms. For example, the temporary positive charge on one area of an atom can attract the neighbouring negative charge.

FAQs on Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Why do atoms react, and how.

Atoms having eight electrons in their last orbit are stable and have no tendency to react. Atoms having less than eight electrons then react with other atoms to get eight electrons in their outermost orbit and become stable. Atoms having slightly excess than eight electrons may lose them to atoms which are short of eight. Atoms that cannot either lose or gain may share to get octet configuration. Molecules short of octet configuration, even after the reaction, may accept lone pairs of electrons present in other atoms or molecules.

Name the forces that keep reacting atoms together.

In metals, the outer orbitals of atoms overlap, and so the electrons present in them do not belong to any particular atom but flow over to all atoms, as well and bind them all together (metallic bonding). Atoms that have to lose and gain electrons become ions and are held together by the electrostatic forces of attraction (ionic bond). When atoms equally give and share electrons, the shared electrons become the unifying force between them (covalent bond). Electron-deficient and free lone pair-containing molecules may again and satisfy the octet thirst of the electron-deficient atom. The shared electron bridges the electron-rich atom with the electron-deficient atom (coordinate bond).

What are hybridized orbitals? What are their uses?

Relatively similar energy sub-orbitals may merge and form a new set of the same number of orbitals, having the property of all the contributing orbitals in proportion to their numbers. These orbitals are hybridized orbitals . They are useful in explaining the similarity in bond length, bond angles, structure, shape and magnetic properties of molecules.

sp3 and dsp2 are four hybridized orbitals. But one is a tetrahedral shape, and the other is square planar. Why?

sp3 orbitals are formed from the s -subshell with uniform electron distribution around the nucleus and from the p-subshell with distribution in the three vertical axes. Hybridized orbitals, hence have their electron distribution in three dimensions, as tetrahedral directions.

In dsp2, all the orbitals involved in hybridization have their electron distribution around the same plane. Hence, the hybridized orbitals also are in the same plane giving rise to square planar geometry.

The oxygen molecule is paramagnetic. Is there an explanation?

An oxygen atom shares two electrons, each with another oxygen atom, to form the oxygen molecule. Oxygen molecule exhibits paramagnetic nature indicating unpaired electrons. A molecular orbital theory has been proposed to explain this. According to this theory, atoms lose their orbitals and rather form an equal number of orbitals covering the entire molecule and hence, the name molecular orbital. Filling up of these orbitals in increasing energy order leaves unpaired electrons explaining the paramagnetic behaviour of oxygen molecules.

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Unit 3: Chemical reactions and stoichiometry

About this unit.

This unit is part of the Chemistry library. Browse videos, articles, and exercises by topic.

Balancing chemical equations

• Chemical reactions introduction (Opens a modal)
• Balancing chemical equations (Opens a modal)
• Balancing more complex chemical equations (Opens a modal)
• Visually understanding balancing chemical equations (Opens a modal)
• Balancing another combustion reaction (Opens a modal)
• Balancing chemical equation with substitution (Opens a modal)
• Balancing chemical equations 1 Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!

Stoichiometry

• Stoichiometry (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Calculating amounts of reactants and products (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Relating reaction stoichiometry and the ideal gas law (Opens a modal)
• Converting moles and mass Get 3 of 4 questions to level up!
• Ideal stoichiometry Get 5 of 7 questions to level up!

Limiting reagent stoichiometry

• Limiting reactant and reaction yields (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Calculating the amount of product formed from a limiting reactant (Opens a modal)
• Introduction to gravimetric analysis: Volatilization gravimetry (Opens a modal)
• Gravimetric analysis and precipitation gravimetry (Opens a modal)
• 2015 AP Chemistry free response 2a (part 1 of 2) (Opens a modal)
• 2015 AP Chemistry free response 2a (part 2/2) and b (Opens a modal)
• Limiting reagent stoichiometry Get 5 of 7 questions to level up!

Molecular composition

• Empirical, molecular, and structural formulas (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Calculating mass percent (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Determining an empirical formula from percent composition data (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Determining an empirical formula from combustion data (Opens a modal)

Types of chemical reactions

• Oxidation–reduction (redox) reactions (Opens a modal)
• Worked example: Using oxidation numbers to identify oxidation and reduction (Opens a modal)
• Balancing redox equations (Opens a modal)
• Dissolution and precipitation (Opens a modal)
• Precipitation reactions (Opens a modal)
• Double replacement reactions (Opens a modal)
• Single replacement reactions (Opens a modal)
• Molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations (Opens a modal)
• 2015 AP Chemistry free response 3a (Opens a modal)

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• Chemistry /

Branches of Chemistry

• Updated on  
• Nov 23, 2022

Were you one of those kids who used to wander in the chemistry lab of the school looking at the beakers filled with different chemicals? Were you curious about various chemical explosions and dreamt of making this your career? Every year thousands of students enrol in various Chemistry courses at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. There are several international universities offering quality degree programs in Chemistry. But before moving forward with the course of your choice, it is important to know every detail associated with it. Here’s an insightful blog to walk you through the main branches of Chemistry which constitute all the chemical and reactive compounds in the subject.

This Blog Includes:

What is chemistry, relationship between chemistry and other branches of science, understanding chemistry, popular branches of chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, biochemistry , environmental chemistry , industrial chemistry, polymer chemistry.

• Nuclear Chemistry

Geochemistry

More branches of chemistry, branches of chemistry ppt, career prospects in chemistry, branches of chemistry with examples , branches of chemistry with real life examples, top 5 branches of chemistry for masters, branches of chemistry class 11 pdf, branches of chemistry class 9 pdf, major universities for chemistry courses, major colleges in india for chemistry.

The study of matter and the chemicals that make it up is the focus of the scientific subdiscipline of chemistry. The characteristics of these chemicals and the processes they go through to produce new compounds are also covered. Atoms, ions, and molecules, which in turn make up elements and compounds, are the main subjects of chemistry. Through chemical bonding, these chemical species frequently communicate with one another. It is essential to remember that the study of chemistry also examines how matter and energy interact.

Science is the methodical study of the natural world, including its composition and all of its constituent parts. The vastness of the natural world has led to the division of science into several fields that focus on different facets of the cosmos. These three main branches of science can be divided into these disciplines:

• The Formal Sciences: involves studying the linguistic fields related to formal systems. This group of scientific fields includes logic and mathematics , as examples. regarded as the “language of science.”
• The Natural Sciences: involves doing experiments and making observations to learn about natural events. These sciences include biology , physics , and chemistry.
• The Social Sciences: involves researching human cultures and the interactions between the people who live in them. This group of scientific fields includes sociology , psychology , and economics as examples.

Chemistry is the study of chemical reactions taking place between the different elements and compounds . This is one of the major branches of Science stream after Physics and Biology . Everything around us that takes up space and mass is known as ‘matter’ which is primarily made of the tiny particles known as ‘ atoms ’. A study of chemistry provides scientists with insights into other aspects of Physical Science and to develop powerful analytical tools for scientific applications. Due to a wide scope of the study, the subject has been organized into the following distinct branches of Chemistry that emphasize on the subsets of chemical concepts.

Organic Chemistry is one of the most important branches of chemistry that studies chemical compounds containing carbon elements combined with ‘carbon-hydrogen’ bonds (hydrocarbons). It is often known as the ‘Chemistry of Life’ that deals with the structure, properties and reactions of organic compounds. A study of Organic Chemistry helps students to identify and classify the various naturally occurring compounds and to create one with desired properties and functions. Graduates can work in several industries such as pharmaceuticals, fuel, rubber, cosmetics , plastic, detergents, agrochemicals and coating industries. 

Inorganic Chemistry studies the structure, properties and reactions of noncarbon chemical compounds or those that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. In other words, it is one of the branches of Chemistry which deals with chemicals that are ‘non-organic’ in nature. The subject includes the synthesis and behaviour of inorganic or organometallic chemical compounds found in the earth’s crust and non-living matter.

Physical Chemistry covers the ‘physical properties’ of chemical compounds using law and various concepts of Physics , such as motion , energy , force , time, statistical mechanics, quantum chemistry and thermodynamics. This is one of the most exciting branches of Chemistry which allows students to understand the physical characteristics of chemical compounds like temperature, volume, pressure, conductivity, plasticity, strength, surface tension in liquids, solubility, viscosity, boiling point, melting point and colour. The subject is studied using various mathematical models and formulas.

Analytical Chemistry is one of the quantitative branches of Chemistry that deals with the ‘identification, separation and quantification’ of chemical substances. The knowledge of Analytical Chemistry enables chemists and scientists to determine the amount of chemical substances in a given material. The subject has been further classified into the following two categories:

• Qualitative Analysis: It involves processes that are carried out to identify a chemical substance in a given sample.
• Quantitative Analysis. It involves finding out the concentration or amount of the substance in the given sample. 

Known to be one of the most important branches of Chemistry, Biochemistry studies the biological structure, composition and chemical reactions at the cellular and molecular level. This covers a range of living organisms such as planta, insects, viruses, microorganisms, etc. Biochemistry is an amalgamation of Biology with Organic, Inorganic and Physical Chemistry. Various topics covered in this subject include issues related to diseases, the chemical basis of heredity and how living organisms derive energy from food .

It is a study of biochemical processes that occur in the natural environment. Environmental chemistry is a mixture of various subjects such as biology , maths , toxicology to find out the ways for sustainable development . Environment chemistry is an essential branch of chemistry because it deals with environmental functions.

Industrial Chemistry is important to manufacture new products. Raw products are dissolved, heated, filtering and various other techniques to form a new product. Examples of industrial chemistry are petrochemicals – ethylene, propylene, benzene, styrene, Ceramic products – silica brick, frit, etc.

Also Read: Top 5 Countries to Study Chemistry

It focuses on polymers and macromolecules. Polymer structures are present in organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and physical chemistry as well. It can also be included in nanotechnology . It can further be classified into thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, and synthetic fibers.

Also Read: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Class 11

As the name implies, it is the study of nuclear reactions. It is vividly used in various treatments and cures. It revolves around radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations. 

Geochemistry is an in-depth study of Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences . Geochemistry is important to understand the mineral , weathering agents, and other environmental aspects. Earth is composed to various chemicals and geochemistry is the study of all those chemical processes

• Agrochemistry 
• Astrochemistry
• Coordination Chemistry
• Forensic Chemistry 
• Geochemistry 
• Medicinal Chemistry 
• Organometallic Chemistry 
• Petrochemistry 
• Phytochemistry 
• Polymer Chemistry 
• Radiochemistry
• Solid-State Chemistry 
• Spectroscopy 
• Stereochemistry 
• Surface Chemistry
• Thermochemistry 
• Quantum Chemistry

Also Read : Chemistry Project for Class 12: Topics & Sample Projects

Owing to the diverse branches of Chemistry and its emerging interdisciplinary specializations, there are numerous career opportunities available for those interested in making a career in this field. Take a look at the some of the popular and top chemistry jobs you must know about:

• Analytical Chemist
• Pharmacologist
• Water Chemist
• Toxicologist
• Materials Scientist
• Chemical Engineer
• Forensic Scientist
• Hazardous Waste Chemist

Now that you are aware of the all 10 branches of chemistry. Let us understand the concept better with the help of examples:

Also Read : Courses after BSc Chemistry

  Chemistry involves the study of how different substances change colours, shape, size and their forms when reacted with another material or a set of substances. Furthermore, the application of various branches of chemistry across different fields has led to many discoveries and high-end innovations which has helped mankind in one or the other way. Understanding Chemistry in everyday life is important because, The food we eat, the cosmetics we use or the medicines we take, all of these undergo chemical reactions. It can help you make decisions related to a wide range of things like watering plants based on seasons, setting the temperature to bake a cake, choosing the right medicine for acidity, applying a particular SPF sunscreen, etc. To know more, read our blog on – Examples of Chemistry in Everyday Life

We are surrounded by chemistry from studying in school to masters chemistry has wider scope. Many students choose to build a career in chemistry major and even choose to puruse masters. Masters is great way to push your limits and gain in-depth knowledge on the subjects. Let us explore the branches of chemistry for Masters:

• MSc Organic Chemistry
• MSc Medicinal Chemistry
• MSc Analytical Chemistry
• MSc Molecular Chemistry
• MSc Biochemistry

Now that you are familiar with the major branches of chemistry, here are the top-ranked universities in the world offering a plethora of specialised and varied programs in Chemistry:

If you are planning to study in India. Here is the list of best universities and colleges offering a major in chemistry:

• Indian Institute of Science
• Banaras Hindu University
• Indian Institute of Technology Bomba y
• Jadavpur University
• Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) – Roorkee
• Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
• Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
• University of Delhi
• Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Chemistry is often called the ‘Central Science’ as it provides a framework for understanding both fundamental and applied scientific disciplines of Science. We hope that this blog helped you to become familiar with some of the main branches of Chemistry. You can also reach out to our experts at Leverage Edu and get the best guidance in choosing the right university to kick-start your career in the field of Chemistry.

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10 comments

It is interesting

Thanks, Kwaghiv! You can also read: Scope of Chemistry Surface Chemistry Basic Chemistry

Very informative

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Thank you for liking our blog, Sir! Here are some related topics for you to read: Chemistry Project for Class 12: Topics & Sample Projects BSc Chemistry Syllabus Chemistry Reference Books for Class 12

The best that I have read THANKS ☺️☺️☺️

The best that I read THANKS ☺️☺️☺️

Thank you for the comment! Here are some blogs for you to explore- https://leverageedu.com/blog/bipc-subjects/ https://leverageedu.com/blog/branches-of-mathematics/

Very informative and please include what is the scope of computational chemistry?

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Physical/Chemical Properties and Changes Periodic Table and Bohr-Rutherford Diagram Lesson Lewis Structures Ions Ionic Compounds Polyatomic Ions and Compounds Molecular Compounds Chemical Reactions Balancing Chemical Chemical Equations Types of Chemical Reactions Acid Base Chemistry Neutralization Reactions

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1. Define your topic

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Use dictionaries and encyclopedias to find definitions and background information. Articles from specialised subject encyclopedias are authoritative and often substantial

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What Jobs Can You Get With A Chemistry Degree - A New Scientist Careers Guide

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Chemistry is broadly divided into organic chemistry , inorganic chemistry , biochemistry , physical chemistry and analytical chemistry . But what can you do with a chemistry degree, you may wonder?

According to the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC), chemistry graduates have a broad range of career options. Popular industries include pure chemistry, engineering and manufacturing, medicine and healthcare, and the environment sector. 

Many scientific breakthroughs and technological advancements across these disciplines can be attributed to the innovative work of chemical scientists. 

The best universities for chemistry in the UK, according to The Complete University Guide , include the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, Imperial College London, St Andrews University and Durham University, which have an impressive record of generating brilliant chemical scientists.

This article provides insight into the three highest-paying jobs for those with a chemistry degree for each category listed above.

Pure Chemistry

Working in the purely chemistry-based sector primarily involves teaching and research. You may teach at a school or at university level. Alternatively, you may wish to do lab-based work only, where you use advanced techniques to analyse substances for various purposes in different industries.

• Senior Lecturer

Job role: This is a highly prestigious position to hold, particularly at a top university. Other than teaching and inspiring the next generation of chemical scientists, senior lecturers also conduct cutting-edge research and are leading experts in their field.

Route: As this is an academic career, chemistry graduates will need to complete a PhD, often preceded by a master’s degree. You may start off as a laboratory technician, but once you have gained substantial research and teaching experience as a postdoc , you could apply for professorship. You will typically focus on a specific area within chemistry.

Average salary (experienced): £55,000; £100,000+ at institutions such as the University of Cambridge

• Chemical Research Scientist   

Job role: As a research scientist working in chemistry, you will be designing and executing experiments at academic institutions. Your tasks will include data analysis along with presentation of your findings in scientific journals and at conferences. Even if you choose to exclusively conduct research without commiting to lecturing, you may still need to supervise students in the lab.

Route: Although it is possible to work as a junior scientist or technician with only a master’s degree after your BSc, many complete a PhD to work in competitive fields. With experience, you could become a senior researcher or even manage your own laboratory. If you wish to get involved with teaching, you could apply for professorship. Some may wish to pursue Chartered Scientist status (CSci) to have their skills and expertise recognised.

Average salary (experienced): £48,000  

• Forensic Scientist

Job role: Forensic science makes use of various analytical chemistry principles and techniques to aid the justice system. Forensic scientists typically specialise in different areas, such as forensic chemistry , DNA analysis or toxicology . 

Route: You can get this role by either studying a chemistry degree followed by a master’s degree in forensic sciences, or by starting off with a specialised undergraduate forensic science course. Since it is a competitive field, a master’s degree is usually a requirement. Ensure your programme is accredited by the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences (CSoFS). 

If you solely want to focus on the chemical aspect of crime scene investigation rather than legislation, your degree should also be accredited by the RSC so you can work as a chartered chemist. With experience or a PhD, you could manage forensic departments or become a senior lecturer.

Average salary (experienced): £45,000

Engineering and Manufacturing

Chemistry is integral to engineering and manufacturing, and plays a major role in disciplines such as materials science , chemical engineering and nanotechnology . Chemistry graduates often acquire additional engineering skills and technical aptitude to enter this field.  

• Chemical Engineer

Job role: Chemical engineers transform raw substances into various everyday products. They make sure this is done safely, cost-effectively and with minimal environmental waste. Their job scope is incredibly diverse, ranging from the pharmaceutical industry to construction and transportation. 

Route: Although a degree in chemical engineering is preferred, a chemistry graduate can either gain work experience in this field or complete a master’s degree. Postgraduate qualifications will enhance your job prospects because they often allow you to specialise in specific technologies. With more experience, you could take on senior roles, manage a plant or move into academia.

Average salary (experienced): £65,000

• Nuclear Engineer

Job role: Nuclear engineering is an interdisciplinary area that combines knowledge of chemistry and physics to run nuclear power plants safely. Nuclear engineers help maintain safe radiation levels, ensure the continued operation of the plant and develop new theoretical models and technologies.

Route: Along with a degree in chemistry, physics, maths or engineering, most employers desire postgraduate qualifications in nuclear physics or engineering. With some experience, you could move into managerial or academic roles, or even apply your knowledge in other fields, such as medicine or manufacturing.

Average salary (experienced): £50,000  

• Food Scientist

Job role: Food scientists research and develop new foods and make sure they are safe and appetising. They find ways to improve the efficiency of the food-making process and create new recipes or improve existing ones. They typically work in laboratories for food companies.

Route: Most companies will accept chemistry graduates who have evidence of relevant work experience through internships or placements. Some employers may prefer specialised courses in food science or food technology, so a master’s degree in food science may be beneficial. In a senior role, you could lead a research and development or quality control department. 

Medicine and Healthcare

Chemical scientists contribute greatly to the field of medicine and healthcare , particularly when it comes to drug development , diagnostics and biotechnology . Biochemistry is especially relevant in clinical science as healthcare moves towards personalised and precision medicine.  

• Clinical Scientist

Job role: Clinical scientists are vital in the delivery of healthcare as they help develop and test new diagnostic and treatment techniques for diseases. Clinical sciences comprise healthcare professions for which you don’t need a formal medical degree. Chemistry-based jobs include clinical biochemistry, microbiology , genomics and more.

Route: If you wish to pursue chemistry-related jobs in a clinical setting, you will need a degree in a relevant science, which would include chemistry or biochemistry. If you wish to work in the NHS, you must complete the NHS Scientist Training Programme (STP) and register with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). You can additionally do the Higher Specialist Scientist Training (HSST) programme to receive a doctorate and qualify as a consultant.

Average salary (experienced): £68,000  

Job role: Genetics involves the study of genes in living organisms. Due to advancements over the past few decades, it has become an increasingly molecular discipline requiring a good understanding of the biochemical properties of genes. With gene therapies and other genetic medications becoming more prevalent, geneticists are in great demand.

Route: With a degree in chemistry, you should aim to complete at least a master’s degree in genetics. It is a highly academic field with most research roles and even industrial jobs often requiring PhDs. If you wish to work in the NHS, you must follow the STP pathway. With experience, you could become a clinical trials director.

Average salary (experienced): £58,000  

Job role: Biochemists study chemical processes in living organisms. Due to the relevance of this discipline across industries, biochemists can work in pharmaceuticals, food, agriculture and several other sectors. Medicine, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, however, remain the most lucrative sectors for biochemists.

Route: After your initial degree in chemistry or biochemistry, you will usually require at least a master’s degree in a specialised area, such as biopharmaceuticals, depending on the industry you wish to work in. With experience, you can work in consulting or academia. Working in the NHS will require following the STP pathway.

Average salary (experienced): £50,000

Environmental

Environmental chemists study chemical processes that occur around us in the atmosphere, in soil or in water. They play a vital role in tackling pollution, global warming and hazardous waste management. As such, there is a great need for professionals working in environmental science to address rising concerns regarding the future of the planet.  

Job role: An agronomist is an expert in the biology and chemistry of soil. They consult farmers on soil health and provide methods to improve crops. Agronomists may work across diverse settings, such as on farms, in labs or in offices. Agronomists are often involved in the innovation of new farming techniques. 

Route: Chemistry, biology or agriculture are acceptable degrees for most entry-level positions. Employers may occasionally expect a postgraduate qualification in specialised areas such as crop technology. Agronomy has witnessed significant advancements over the years, such as precision farming, and specialising in such technologies could help you reach consultant level. 

Average salary (experienced): £60,00  

• Climate Scientist

Job role: Climate scientists analyse changes in Earth’s climate over long periods of time. Their work includes data collection, for example of sea level or temperature readings, with the aim of establishing trends to better understand the climate. Although this is an academic field, some climate scientists find opportunities in other places, such as with broadcasters.

Route: You will usually require a postgraduate degree in climate science after a relevant degree such as chemistry. You could specialise in certain aspects of climatology such as polar research. With a PhD you have the option to move into academia. Training for chartered status will further enhance your CV.

Average salary (experienced): £55,000

• Environmental Consultant

Job role: Eco consultants specialise in assessing the harmful effects of human activity, primarily industrial processes, on ecosystems. They help companies improve waste management and sustainability. You could also become involved in contributing to environmental policies by working in the government.

Route: A chemistry degree teaches you key concepts that are relevant for this role. An additional specialised master’s degree in environmental science could further enhance your suitability for a junior job. After working for several years at your organisation, be it government or environmental firms, you could move up to becoming an independent consultant.

Chemistry graduates possess versatile knowledge and skills that make them highly employable. Their analytical thinking, attention to detail, problem-solving and knowledge of laboratory techniques are invaluable for different types of chemistry jobs across various sectors. Chemical scientists have what it takes to face complex challenges and drive innovation, no matter which area they work in.

• Royal Society of Chemistry. Chemistry Careers support [Internet]. Royal Society of Chemistry. Available from: https://www.rsc.org/careers/
• Explore careers | National Careers Service [Internet]. Available from: https://nationalcareers.service.gov.uk/explore-careers
• Chemistry Rankings 2024 [Internet]. The Complete University Guide. Available from: https://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/league-tables/rankings/chemistry
• Home | Advance HE [Internet]. Available from: https://www.advance-he.ac.uk/
• Academic jobs - Job Opportunities - University of Cambridge [Internet]. Available from: https://www.jobs.cam.ac.uk/job/?category=1
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