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Brain Drain In Nigeria: Causes, Effects & Solutions

• Post author: Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka ACMC
• Post published: August 7, 2023
• Post category: Scholarly Articles

Brain drain in Nigeria: In Contemporary Nigeria, there is mass movement of highly skilled professionals to advanced countries such UK, USA, Germany, Canada to mention just a few. This article examined reasons behind such massive Exodus to include lack of poor working condition, lack of improvement in research and advancement of professional proficiency, poor renumeration and contemptuous treatment from the executive arm of government.

The article further examined the best approach to to put a stop to brain drain in Nigeria to include improvement in working conditions of high skilled professional, placing a high level of premium on professionals and also viewing and treating professionals as integral part of nation builders. Finally the article adopted some fields and area of specialty as a point of reference and also using some selected jurisdictions such as UK, USA and Canada as a case study.

Before we disect the issue on the table, there is need to understand in very clear terms the concept of brain drain as such knowledge will serve as an invaluable tool to derive home a point.

According to the Oxford advanced learners dictionary, brain drain refers to the emigration of highly trained or qualified people from a particular country. Furthermore, according to Wikipedia brain drain otherwise known as Human capital flight refers to the emigration or immigration of individuals who have received advanced training at home.

The net benefits of human capital flight for the receiving country are sometimes referred to as a “ brain gain ” whereas the net costs for the sending country are sometimes referred to as a “ brain drain “.

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Table of Contents

11 Major Causes of Human Capital Flight in Nigeria

1. Unemployment/Low paying jobs: Everyone wants to be employed and be paid well. However, in Nigeria jobs are very scarce. The ones that do find jobs, don’t get paid the way they would like to be paid and people end up being underemployed.

Due to lack of job opportunities, most university graduates have become bus conductors, cleaners and taxi drivers; these are jobs formerly reserved for the less educated section of the populace. You wouldn’t blame anyone for wanting more.

2. Lack of financial security: Due to the economy of the country, the way workers are being laid off, and salaries that are inadequate to cover daily expenses of workers, financial stability is now something very rare and untenable for  people in Nigeria. Thus, there is zeal to move out of the country.

3. Poor health care and facilities : The health sector of the country is a mess, low facilities and infrastructures are the order of the day. People have lost trust in the health sector and this is evident in the actions of people able to afford traveling out of the country for medical attention, our president, Mohammadu Buhari inclusive. This  is one of the reasons why people emigrate to developed countries.

4. Bad leadership: Nigeria keeps having new leaders every four to eight years and they keep promising the same thing. Most of them get into power and their manifestoes are thrown into the gutter.

People are tired  of waiting for a miracle. They are tired of dreaming that one day Nigeria would rise from being among the poorest countries to a developed country.  Dollar rate keeps increasing and the worth of the Naira is diminishing.

5. Unfavourable working conditions: Life would be easier where one works in a good working environment with good infrastructures like a clean and healthy environment, maintenance of working equipment, health of the workers and conducive working hours.

However, most companies in Nigeria don’t care for the health and comfort of their workers. Most people work in hazard areas which in turn affects their health and productivity. People want to be appreciated, people want to work in a safe and healthy environment where they won’t have to worry for their health and this informs their emigration to developed countries where there are better working conditions.

6. Corruption: The level of crime and corruption in Nigeria is getting worse by the day. To get anything done, one needs connection. That is, you need to know someone that knows somebody else that knows another that has connection. This also plays out in the job opportunities; people that are qualified for certain jobs don’t get the jobs because someone else had enough connections to get himself the job.

Furthermore, the rate of crime in the country is on the high side, there are reports of rape, kidnapping and armed robbery in various parts of the country thus, making the country unsafe for people to live in. Also, the chances of these victims getting justice is low.

People bribe themselves out of trouble as getting justice is a matter of who knows more people and who can spend more money. It is really a mess and people are hurrying to get out and live in countries where their lives and properties are not in danger.

7. High rate of poverty: A large number of people live below a dollar rate per day in this country, the standard of living is low and Like the popular saying, “ the grass is always greener on the other side”. Considering the opportunities  outside the country, people notwithstanding the challenges of starting a new life in a new place, take their chances hoping it would be a ticket out of poverty.

8. Low education standard: The educational system in Nigeria is a mess. Most teachers are not qualified enough to teach students, universities are always going on strikes and the standard of education  in Nigeria is very low compared to developed nations.

Parents now prefer to have their kids school abroad where the quality of their education is guaranteed. The interesting part is that most of these kids don’t come back to live in Nigeria after their education.

9. Incessant crises: The incessant Boko Haram bombings , civil war and killing by Fulani herdsmen in Nigeria also contributes to the causes of brain drain in the country. In effect, most Nigerians live in fear; fear of death, fear of losing properties etc . Not only does this pursue the dwellers of these communities but it also prevents investors.

You will agree with me that nobody would want to invest in a place that is not even internally secured like Nigeria because bombs could be thrown any moment. Conversely, people in search of better living conditions and safer environment, emigrate to developed countries.

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10. Greener Pastures: Search for better economic prospects, include access to better work, greater living standards, housing, and healthcare, as well as new and better jobs. Majority of skilled individuals and professionals want the best life for themselves and their families.

They have worked hard for this and Nigeria doesn’t seem to provide what they want so they decide to go where things work and they’d be better appreciated for their skill and expertise.

11. Interruptions of Educational Activities: Many Nigerian students have learned that the country’s educational system is in disarray as a result of the incessant ASUU strikes. Even though the strike was called off and the professors went back to their classes, there is no way to predict when another one may begin.

Constant strikes that have interfered with the academic calendar have plagued Nigeria’s higher education system for much of its existence. A student will spend five or more years studying for a four-year course. As a result, a large number of Nigerian students relocate abroad to pursue their academic interests using scholarships or private money.

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Below is a video from BBC explaining how brain drain has eaten up the medical sector of Nigeria:

Consequences/Effects of brain drain in Nigeria

Brain drain has been identified as one of the factors hampering the growth and development of a nation. It has been seen as a devastating blow to the economy of Nigeria. Some of the effects are discussed below: 

1) Reduction in quality of service:

Apparently, one of the major effects of brain drain or human capital flight in Nigeria is the reduction in quality of service due to the absence of skilled personnel in the health sector, tertiary institutions and research centres. This has resulted in shortage of qualified manpower in critical sectors like education, health care, technology etc.

Take for instance, due to the high level of brain drain in the education sector, Nigerian universities suffer a huge loss as a result of mass exodus of seasoned lecturers in the country. Most times, unqualified individuals are employed to fill in the gap. 

2. Decrease in the standard of Education :

The scourge of brain drain had led to the increasing fall in the standard of education. Universities, teaching hospitals are at the verge of collapsing as a result of decline in manpower and output. This has also results in production of inexperienced graduates and quack professionals.

3. Retardation in economic growth :

The continuous outflow of skilled labour, results in decline of economic growth of a country. Economic theory shows that growth can be realized in two ways namely; (1) increase in the amount of factors of production (2) increase in the efficiency with which those factors are used.

The downturn in economic growth in Nigeria can be linked to brain drain owing to several factors such as lack of investment, institutional failure, multidimensional corruption and inadequate infrastructures such as health care, education, roads, water supply, energy and other facilities that makes life worth living. 

4. Poor health services:

Due to brain drain in Nigeria, Health care professionals who should contribute to disease prevention and treatment have migrated to other countries. In light of this, there is an increase in death rate and martenal mortality.

Aljazeera also noted that due to the high rate of brain drain in Nigeria, eight out of ten Nigerians are currently receiving substandard or no medical care at all .

This clearly explains the level poor health services that are rendered in Nigeria.

5. Reduction of technological development:

What do you expect from a country where there are not little or no skilled and highly innovative experts. Undoubtedly, there will be reduction in the level of technological development because only the less skilled workers are left in the country.

This is why Nigeria despite the fact that it got independence in 1960, is still struggling to meet up with other countries in terms of technology.

The truth is that, when skilled personnels leave Nigeria for better opportunities, they do their best to prove their worth in these developed countries. In so doing, they develop these countries, leaving their country at a loss.

According to Devex , Every week, at least 12 Nigerian doctors are employed in the United Kingdom. This shows that more than 40% of students trained as medical doctors in Nigeria are not practicing in the country.

Proposed Solutions to brain drain in Nigeria

1. Creation of job opportunities with adequate remuneration:

One of the ways of curbing the menace brain drain is Creation of job opportunities with adequate remuneration. The government should also help in creating more jobs for the citizens. One of the reasons why individuals with high technical skills migrate to other countries is to seek for better jobs.

If government should create job and career opportunities for graduates, there won’t be need to travel out of their country in search of greener pastures.

2. Quality educational opportunities should be provided:

Young individuals are mostly to migrate in pursuit of higher education. Expanding educational infrastructures and offering better educational qualifications to individuals will go along way in dissuading youths from leaving their country in pursuit of education elsewhere.

3. Provision of local incentives:

Just as I noted in my article on the importance of local government, providing incentives at the local level is very important, especially in a federation because it ensures development at the local level. Consequently, there will be quicker economic and technological development.

Most times, people loose hope in Nigeria because the government do not support the little they are contributing to the country. This makes them to start searching for countries where citizens are really appreciated.

In light of this, if only the government of Nigeria can provide incentives for Nigerians, there will be a drastic reduction in the rate of brain drain in Nigeria.

4. Provision of conducive environment for workers:

A good working environment attracts more workers. In fact, one of the things most graduates in Nigeria considers before accepting any employment is the environment of their offices. Is it a place where their health is protected? Are there equipments to keep them away from harm? All these questions are very important.

When there is no good working environment, people will leave their country to other places with a better working environment. Consequently, it is evident that a good working environment can help to solve the problem of brain drain in Nigeria.

5. Funding of tertiary institutions:

Adequate funding of the educational sector is also a tentative solution to brain drain in Nigeria. This includes increase and timely payment of the salaries of lecturers. Accordingly, adequate fund should be provided to tertiary institutions by the government.

A Lecturer at the University of Nigeria noted that corruption in university settings can only be stopped when the government starts paying them (Lecturers) handsomely. This is correct to a very large extent because not everybody actually wants to indulge in corrupt practices. Some do so because they have no choice.

6. Accountability in governance:

To stop brain drain in Nigeria, people should be able to hold their government accountable. In Nigeria, corruption is no longer an evil act. Even when the leader are caught in the act of corruption, most of them are allowed to go free without any punishment.

This has undoubtedly made many Nigerian to leave the country, believing that there is no hope for Nigeria.

Trust me; If 60% of government officials in Nigeria can be truly accountable, it would go a long way in reducing the rate of brain drain in the country and in turn, revive the economy of the country.

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Topics bothering on brain drain has been a global issue over the years as it is not peculiar to Nigeria or Africa alone. Most of the world super powers thrive on affording the best brains around the world. A typical example is how formal President Good luck Jonathan convinced Mrs Ngozi Okonjo Iwaela to resign from her work in world Bank to join his carbinet as the honourable minister of finance. There is no gainsaying that Nigerian professionals are the pride of so many European firms dating to the days of Philip Emegwali the man that invented the fastest computer.

It therefore our humble submission that the idea of brain drain is a disadvantage to Nigerian as a people, it is a waste of interlectual property and human capital resources. Many countries across Europe and Asia are thriving on the global ladder using skilled personnels from our country, we therefore urge the Nigerian government to create a policy that can retain our skilled personnels and also retract those working abroad with a clear vision of coming to improve our Economy based on their long years of experience.

Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka, ACMC, is a lawyer and a certified mediator/conciliator in Nigeria. He is also a developer with knowledge in various programming languages. Samuel is determined to leverage his skills in technology, SEO, and legal practice to revolutionize the legal profession worldwide by creating web and mobile applications that simplify legal research. Sam is also passionate about educating and providing valuable information to people.

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I found this article very useful. Worth a well organized write up thanks a lot.

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Trajectory of brain-drain and quality of work-life amongst Nigeria’s university lecturers: academic staff union of universities (ASUU) incessant strike in retrospect

International Trade, Politics and Development

ISSN : 2586-3932

Article publication date: 30 May 2023

Issue publication date: 6 September 2023

Brain-drain insurgency has become pervasive amongst professionals and the last option for everyone in the country to realise a sustainable quality of work-life (QWL). All youths now in the country have perceived migrating to the international workspace as a noble idea. This study investigates the incidence of brain-drain and QWL amongst academics in Nigerian universities.

Design/methodology/approach

To sparkle a clearer understanding concerning factors preventing the QWL amongst Nigeria's lecturers, this study utilised a cross-sectional research design to survey the participants across all departments in federal institutions through an explanatory research approach. This study applied an array of adapted scales to evaluate members of academic staff track of what provoked the incidence of brain-drain amongst Nigerian lecturers and possible influence on their QWL. The study surveyed 431 members of academic staff in Nigerian universities to collect useful data and employed a structural equation model (SEM) to analyse the obtained data.

The outcome of this study highlights that there is a horrible condition of service amongst Nigerian lecturers, a poor compensation system, poor academic research funding and lack of autonomy are bane to the QWL experienced in Nigerian tertiary institutions today. This study indicates that poor staff development and inadequate university funding are part of the justification that provoked brain-drain insurgence, and allowed the government to lose their skilled and competent egg-heads in the university to other foreign nations of the world.

Originality/value

This study demonstrated that brain-drain has become part of Nigeria's national life given that all professionals are seeking better life where their skills, competence and energy would be valued. Brain-drain was not common until these days amongst academics and fewer studies were noted but this study showed a novel paradigm regarding the QWL and brain-drain trajectory.

• Brain-drain
• Quality of work-life
• Insufficient and unfair compensation
• Poor research funding
• University autonomy
• Poor staff development
• Inadequate university funding
• Nigeria's university lecturer

Akinwale, O.E. , Kuye, O.L. and Akinwale, O.E. (2023), "Trajectory of brain-drain and quality of work-life amongst Nigeria’s university lecturers: academic staff union of universities (ASUU) incessant strike in retrospect", International Trade, Politics and Development , Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 115-137. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITPD-10-2022-0021

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Olusegun Emmanuel Akinwale, Owolabi Lateef Kuye and Olayombo Elizabeth Akinwale

Published in International Trade, Politics and Development . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (forboth commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/ legalcode

1. Introduction

It has been evident that Nigerian lecturers have been experiencing poor quality of work-life (QWL) from time to time, which persists till this present time. Poor QWL amongst academic lecturers has become a recurring phenomenon amongst the lecturers who imparted knowledge to people across Nigerian universities. The implication of this is the poor quality of teaching, demotivation to work effectively and poor student performance which has led to incessant strike action of the academic staff union of universities (ASUU) from 1988 to date ( Monogbe and Monogbe, 2019 ). The reason for the industrial action embarked upon by ASUU was majorly their QWL being placed in jeopardy. They embarked on strike to agitate for fair wages, university autonomy, challenges of brain-drain and sustainability of the university systems in 1988. This is what has been the primary reason for the industrial action called strike till this present strike was organised on 14th February, 2022. The poor QWL amongst Nigerian university lecturers has rendered the academic staff profession unattractive. It has eroded the dedication and productivity of Nigerian lecturers who are in this highly revered profession. This has made the majority of the lecturers migrate to another country where their respected skills and competence will be well appreciated and rewarded ( Akinwale and George, 2022 ). QWL cannot be toyed with for everybody in any endeavour of life, especially for management whose goal is to accomplish optimum performance in a corporate environment.

Globally, QWL is important to employees everywhere, it exhibits an appealing work environment and centres on improving personnel's ability, knowledge and skills ( Akinwale and George, 2020 ). Effective QWL offers a passionate attitude, gives employees enthusiasm and drive and provokes interpersonal relationships amongst employees ( Akinwale and George, 2022 ). QWL is perceived as an umbrella under which individuals have a sense of fulfilment in their workplace and their commitment towards goal accomplishment. This spillover reflects in other life domains of employees if satisfaction is to be achieved in the workplace. Furthermore, it amplifies employees' dedicated cooperation with the management of the organisation in enhancing work performance and establishing a healthy workspace ( Suna et al. , 2022 ). QWL is multi-dimensional in nature, it is characterised by several issues of employee sufficient and fair compensation, job content, safety and security, condition of work, work engagement and promotion in the workplace setting ( Barber et al. , 2019 ). Effective QWL strategy fosters employees' ability to be actively involved and work efficiently, which assists in shaping the ecosystem, process and output across all levels of the organisation ( Mehta, 2021 ). QWL is a procedure of job in a corporate environment which affords the employee various levels and hierarchies to fully and actively make an efficient contribution to transforming the work environment, methods and work performance ( Inarda, 2022 ). QWL is a support system that focusses on a variety of factors that impact employee productivity ( Yadav, 2022 ). It indicates the degree to which the work environment is conducive, as a favourable work atmosphere boosts positive personnel spirit and optimism and aids individual empowerment and dedication ( Won and Chang, 2020 ). This is what the federal government managing Nigerian institutions are yet to provide for the academic staff in the contemporary academic industry. Consequently, the government has failed to provide deserved factors needed to boost and sustain the QWL amongst the lecturers. Unfortunately for the government, the academic personnel in Nigerian universities have migrated to other neighbouring institutions and countries to advance their QWL appropriately. Recently, pockets of Nigerian lecturers have moved to South Africa, the United Kingdom, Europe and the USA amongst other nations. This is the effect of brain-drain syndrome, which has activated poor QWL amongst Nigerian academic staff.

The implication of brain-drain to Nigerian academic education systems is poor and shortage of skilled and competent hands that will sustain Nigeria's educational systems. Therefore, this brain-drain phenomenon explains the mass movement of experts and professionals from emerging nations to developed nations for better employment engagement ( Akinwale and George, 2022 ). Brain-drain describes a state whereby professionals are migrating from their nations to other nations in search of enduring QWL. In support of this notion, Ogunode (2020) decried the effect of brain-drain and declared that several academic lecturers and researchers are resigning from their appointments at Nigerian universities to other countries for better job offers and favourable work conditions. Brain-drain appears to be a core challenge bedevilling the Nigerian educational sector ( Ogunode et al. , 2021 ; Sunmonu et al. , 2022 ). In the same line of discourse, former ASUU national president, Prof. Biodun Ogunyemi, established that Ethiopia attracted over 200 professors from Nigeria, while South Africa and other African countries have grabbed a large number of Nigerian professors ( Aondofa, 2022 ). Several years ago, this same Ethiopia amasses the competence of 600 lecturers and professors from Nigeria ( Amede et al. , 2022 ). In another antecedent of the brain-drain effect, the former ambassador to Ethiopia, Akinsanya, said above 3,000 Nigerian skilled experts across all disciplines, have moved to Ethiopia and the majority of them were excelling in their preferred career domain ( Amede et al. , 2022 ).

The issue of brain-drain is endemic in Nigeria's ecosystem to such an extent that it has affected virtually all the facets of Nigeria's work environment. It has enabled Nigerian youths to coin a peculiar word for the concept of brain-drain these days, called the “ Jaa-Paa ” theory. The meaning of this is that once you were able to embark on organised migration from Nigeria where your skill sets and competence are not valued and rewarded, never bother to come back again to your country anymore. This abnormal form of scientific exchange between nations, considered by one-way flow in favour of the highly developed nations has not only caused harm to Nigeria's educational institutions but also other fabric of Nigeria as a whole (Akinwale and George, 2022). Currently, now, this theory is pervasive amongst Nigerian youths, and every one of them is striving to run out of their country in search of sustainable QWL. Therefore, in light of this peculiarity in Nigeria where employees hardly earn the worth of their professional output, often time they owed them a large sum of their earned allowances, salaries and benefits. This study, therefore, investigates the possible adverse effect of brain-drain on the QWL amongst the academic staff in Nigerian universities.

2. Literature review

The concept of brain-drain and QWL has become a siamese-twin in the social environment. The latter reduces the adverse effect of the former if it is well managed by the management that is saddled with the responsibility of sustaining the QWL in the life of individuals at the workplace. The increasing mass exodus of employees from low and middle-income nations is a concern for policy-makers and organisational development strategists due to its negative effect on access to essential services in the country of origin ( Okunade, 2019 ). Persistently, countries are losing their best and most skilled hands to developed nations due to the poor standard of living and poor compensation packages. Recently, Ogunbodede (2020) argued that Nigeria has encountered a massive movement of trained and skilled individuals to foreign nations. Adding the majority of them are learned individuals trained in Nigerian universities which are largely subsidised by the government. This idea of exporting human capital has provoked serious concerns regarding the attendant paucity of professionals in many of Nigeria's dwindling industries, especially the educational industry which has witnessed the exit of its best hands in multitudes in recent times ( Consterdine, 2019 ).

The choice of Nigeria's continuous brain-drain behaviour is not difficult to diagnose. A severely cripplingly economy, poor infrastructure, insecurity, poor QWL, poor wages, salaries and compensation, poor work environment and high unemployment occurrence are some of the several justifications that Nigerians are bailing out themselves of the country for a better and enduring opportunity ( Perpetua et al. , 2019 ). And this behaviour seems not to come to an end soonest than envisaged. This issue is not restricted to only academics but also the information technology (IT) industry, manufacturing sectors and the health industry are sectors suffering from a drought of skilled professionals ( Singh and Maini, 2021 ). The recent research of Popogbe and Adeosun (2022) exhibited that the reason for employees migrating to other nations is not unconnected to inadequate infrastructure, a conducive work environment and reasonable compensation packages. These are also core motivating drivers for the emigration of professional scientists and lecturers in Nigeria to the international labour workspace. Nigeria's public-funded academic environment suffers poor personnel, as several of Nigeria's competent lecturers often settle for better offers in foreign countries ( Okafor and Chimereze, 2020 ). Ogunbodede (2020) shared in recent statistics that Nigeria has one of the poorest lecturer-to-student ratios in global universities' history, with worrisome figures as absurd as one lecturer to over 120 students in a classroom.

2.1 Theoretical framework

2.1.1 the change theory.

The change theory is given prominence by Lewin (1947) and it has been adopted as a framework for contribution to the field of social sciences. The study prescribes that there exist two elements that impact a certain situation or phenomenon – forces (push element) and helping (pull elements) which strengthen the achievement of a particular goal. Change theory evaluates determining factors of brain-drain amongst individuals in work organisations. The theory analyses a behavioural intention which results in struggling between satisfaction and frustration in a social environment. It illustrates that individual involvement in a certain activity or course is contingent upon the agreement or disagreement between their needs and perceived pain or gain which inform their decision in any given situation.

Change theory clarifies strategies that propel people to move from their home country to other geographical locations and regions as a result of push and pull attributes. Force and helping factors are generic two sides of a coin which is described as a carrot and stick strategy in the behavioural management domain ( Enderwick et al. , 2011 ). Force (push) and helping (pull) are social determining factors that drive individual intention to migrate out of their original socio-cultural environment to an alien region. The theory has been popularised to drive organisational change for managers to plan, investigate and manage changes using structure in response to the internal or external environment and predict the pattern of change by individuals, products, technology and market trend. The application and relevance of this theory manifest in the brain-drain variables of this study. It suitably connects with the brain-drain construct of this study.

2.1.2 Structural functionalism theory

The origin of structural functionalism theory was from a French social scientist, Durkheim (1984) , who is described as the foundation of modern reference to social structure. Durkheim (1984) argued that some portions of society are interdependent and that this symbiotic dependency places structure on the behaviour of institutions and the people therein. Structural functionalism is a theoretical viewpoint that emphasises functions performed in society by social structures like institutions, hierarchies and norms ( Archibong and Antia, 2022 ). In this theory, a function is regarded as the degree to which a particular event stimulates or inhibits the improvement of a system ( Schmitter and Lefkofridi, 2016 ). Structural functionalism considers society as a system that synergises with interrelated parts that co-exist based on a shared value. Each subsystem is conceived as useful and indispensable, contributing to the existence of the whole system ( Potts et al. , 2016 ). Therefore, if any of the subsystems or parts are deficient or malfunctions will affect others and the whole system. The theory conceives society as an autonomous system that depends on some basics for the accomplishment of directive and latent maintenance ( Nwokocha, 2016 ). Therefore, a functioning society is one in which a larger size of citizens can overcome the difficulties that may preclude access to fundamental needs of life, especially the self-realisation of certain goals and a sense of worth ( Amoah and Ayim, 2018 ). A favourable analogue is Nigeria's situation which is characterised by dysfunctional systems occasioned by inadequate infrastructure, high rate of unemployment, high incidence of lawlessness, rising inflationary trend, political instability and poor socio-economic indices amongst others are source of impediment for progress ( Nwokocha and Ajaegbu, 2014 ). The essence of this is that Nigeria's socio-cultural realities invalidate and repudiate the structural functionalist's perspective of society as a unified summation, ordered and the contributory subset of a system ( Ritzer, 2008 ). This reality of Nigeria's peculiar case is exhibited in the government's casual and unresponsive behaviour, lack of consensus at all levels of individual and group interactions, and demotivation to offer significant contributions to the improvement of the system as a whole. Hence, clear government's failure in economic and leadership, infrastructure and human capital as well as colossal poverty become part of citizens' difficult existence, and this expresses brain-drain, migration approach amongst all classes of Nigerians. This serves as a bailout mechanism for real or perceived inadequacies in Nigeria.

However, structural-functionalism theory resonates with the two constructs of this study. It speaks volumes about the inadequacies of the QWL experiences by the Nigerian institutions' lectures, as the part or subsystem failed to function effectively within the entire system. Government has exhibited many failures to enable the lecturers to function appropriately by not offering them basic things needed to perform at work, hence the sustainable QWL. At the same time, it connects to the brain-drain construct of this study. The consequence of the poor QWL experience by lecturers pushed them to foreign universities outside their domain called brain-drain. Therefore, structural functionalism theory is associated with the brain-drain syndrome of the study and the QWL of this study.

2.1.3 Spillover theory

The foundation of the spillover theory domain is situated in the seminal works of Renshaw (1976) , Kanter (1977) and Pleck (1977) . The spillover theory conceives that individual behaviour, attitude, emotions and skills in one area of life move into another domain of life for such person and vice versa, and it can exist in both positive and negative, horizontal and vertical spillover dimensions. The spillover theory is usually applicable to several areas of life in research, it is relevant and applicable to work–life balance, personnel satisfaction in the workplace, work efficiency amongst healthcare professionals as well as the QWL. The spillover idea to QWL argued that contentment or satisfaction in one aspect of life for an individual will influence contentment in another domain of life. An example is, that satisfaction with an individual's workplace and job may bring satisfaction in other areas of his life like social life, financial, health and family life domain ( Lee et al. , 2021 ; Steiner and Truxillo, 1989 ). In other words, generically, this means that contribution in one aspect of life will naturally reflect in other areas of the life of employees. This is what spillover means, it flows to other areas of the functional life sphere ( Sirgy et al. , 2001 ).

In the same line of thought, Verfuerth et al. (2019) also maintained that spillover is evident in human life when one environmentally enduring attitude extends to another, most time activated by a behavioural modified intervention. The import of situating spillover theory in the QWL concept of this study is basically about satisfaction in all domains of life amongst Nigerian lecturers. QWL does not only influence work satisfaction in the academic work environment but also experiencing delight in other spheres of life such as health, security and finances, personal life amongst others ( Nilsson et al. , 2017 ). The thrust of spillover theory is satisfaction or dissatisfaction within each of the academic staff life domains reflects their major superordinate domain, and this affects life satisfaction. Thus, the emphasis on the QWL moves beyond work satisfaction. Therefore, this has to do with the influence of the work environment on satisfaction with their job, satisfaction in non-work life areas, contentment with general life, happiness within and independent well-being ( Sintov et al. , 2017 ). This theory resonates with this study by suitably connecting to the QWL construct aspect of the study as demonstrated in the line of the discussion.

2.2 Conceptual review and hypotheses development

The following conceptualisations are envisaged from extant and current literature as the basis and instrumental for Nigerian lecturers' mass exodus to other countries, which are responsible for brain-drain syndrome.

2.2.1 Insufficient and unfair compensation package, and quality of work-life

Insufficient, and unfair compensation negatively impacts members of the ASUU’s QWL in Nigeria.

2.2.2 Poor research funding and quality of work-life

Research in higher institutions of learning is another measure of quality in academics amongst lecturers. This research gulps high funds to accomplish, usually, it takes a minimum of six to nine months for an individual to conduct meaningful research and it involves resources such as funding and expertise amongst others. Poor research funding has been another source of concern for lecturers in developing countries like Nigeria ( Adekoya, 2023 ). It has eaten deep into the QWL of members of academic staff in Nigeria. They are making effort to ensure they conduct veritable studies that will improve their community, society and economy at large, however, funds to effectively carry out these studies are lacking in greater measure. This always affects the working condition of lecturers. Members of academic staff in Nigerian tertiary institutions are saddled with three statutory responsibilities–teaching, research and community services. More emphasis and attention are devoted to the teaching ambit of tertiary institutions in Nigeria while minimum attention is given to research. This is connected to the poor funding allocation to research in the country. Former Nigerian University Commission (NUC) executive secretary, Prof. Okebukola in an interview granted to guardian correspondence, believed that Nigerian universities that serve as the nation's research hub, knowledge dissemination and creation are yet to live up to their full responsibilities in terms of research capacity building ( Lawal, 2021 ). Unfortunately, research in Nigerian universities is not prioritised due to inadequate funding of tertiary institutions. Generally, Ladipo et al. (2022) lamented that funding for Nigerian universities in particular and research precisely is insufficient. This worrisome situation largely prevents members of academic staff from the ability to access research fund in Nigeria and this calls for a great concern which by extension affect their QWL.

Poor research funding adversely affects members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria.

2.2.3 Lack of autonomy and quality of work-life

Lack of autonomy negatively influences members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria.

2.2.4 Poor staff development and quality of work-life

Poor staff development adversely influences members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria.

2.2.5 Inadequate university funding and quality of work-life

Inadequate university funding adversely influences members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria.

3. Research methods

3.1 research design.

This study utilised a cross-sectional design through an explanatory research approach to survey all the participants of this study. The rationale for choosing this research design is that explanatory research design evaluates the causes and reasons for a phenomenon, and offers evidence to buttress or negate an explanation or prediction (Saunders et al., 2019). It is employed to establish and report the relationships amongst various aspects of the variables of interest. The emphasis in explanatory research design is to appraise the trajectory of brain-drain and poor QWL to offer a meaningful explanation of the dimensions of these variables.

3.2 Population and sample size

The population otherwise called the study setting for this study is the university environment, all federal universities in Nigeria. The physical, cultural and social site for this study is an engagement amongst academic staff of universities in Nigeria. Presently Nigeria has 49 federal universities in the country and all the government federal universities are on strike. Thus, this study examined all the federal universities. Hence, obtaining the accurate number of the academic staff in all 49 universities may be a daunting effort, some lecturers have resigned from their appointment, and some are not feasible within the academic environment. Therefore, this study considered the population infinite population. To determine the sample size for this study, the study follows the formula of Westland (2010) and Soper (2022) , a-prior sample size determination for the structural equation model (SEM). This helps in determining the appropriate sample size with improved precision level and the error term. Thus, the computation of the sample size is done through Soper's online analysis. Hence, the computations taking the number of observed variables in this study, and the number of latent variables along the path of a probability level of 0.05 with a desired statistical power level of 0.5. Therefore, the sample size is 570. Thus, the total sample size for the study is 570 academic staff across federal universities in Nigeria. 570 questionnaires were distributed, 431 were collected and 139 were deleted due to mutilation and double responses.

3.3 Samples and procedures

A simple random probability sampling strategy is adopted for the study to consciously select the participants for the study. The choice of using a simple random sampling technique is to avoid the biased tendency of the researcher which may distort the result and outcome of the study if is not prevented ( Creswell and Guetterman, 2019 ). Also, the technique offers each member of the academic staff in the universities an equal opportunity of being chosen. Furthermore, the sampling technique allows the study to apply the outcome to the entire population ( Saundera et. al ., 2019 ).

3.4 Measures

A battery of measures for evaluating dimensions of lecturers' brain-drain and QWL of academic staff in Nigerian universities was adapted for this study.

3.4.1 Insufficient and unfair compensation

The insufficient and unfair compensation package scale adapted was from the study of Chen et al. (2006) who identified six dimensions to evaluate lecturers' satisfaction described as organisation vision, respect, results in feedback and motivation, management systems, pay and benefits and work environment. This study modified and adapted two of the dimensions, pay and benefits, and work environment to fit the study accordingly. It was measured on a five-point Likert rating scale.

3.4.2 Poor research funding/university autonomy/university funding/poor staff development

The measurement scales used to appraise poor research funding, poor staff development, university autonomy, as well as inadequate university funding were adapted from Oshagbemi's (1997) University professors' job satisfaction profiles scale. The scale has eight dimensions but this study utilised only research funding, funding teaching, university autonomy promotion and co-workers. The items were six, six, six and five, respectively, on a-five point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

3.4.3 Quality of work-life

This study follows the logic of Watson's (1973) study, modified and collapsed four (adequate and fair compensation, working conditions, opportunity for continued growth and security and social relevance in the work-life) of his eight dimensions to fit university lecturers' QWL. To establish the degree of satisfaction with QWL of lecturers in Nigerian universities, a Likert scale (1–5) adapted from the model established in ( Timossi et al. , 2009 ) was established in their research for evaluation of the QWL index in firms. The value of the average response for each dimension was verified by the weighted average of the responses received to the item under the QWL constructs.

3.5 Data analysis strategy

The study utilised the SEM to evaluate variables of interest in this study. The choice of this strategy is that SEM is a set of statistical techniques employed to assess and analyse the relationships of observed and latent variables. It aids to measure the linear causal relationships amongst the variables. One major reason is that in research that contains many variables, the appropriate analytic strategy is SEM. It allows the observers to establish and reliably evaluate hypothetical associations amongst theoretical constructs and those that exist between the constructs and their observed indicators ( Deng et al. , 2018 ).

4. Results and data analysis

Table 1 illustrates the lecturers' demographic distribution exhibiting sex distribution of members of ASUU, the age distribution demonstrated and educational background of the university lecturers and their work experience within the institutions and the academic industry. Position and rank of members of academic staff union from assistant lecturer to professorship rank and its corresponding compensation, wages and salaries received every month. Most importantly, the wages and salary of the respondents justify the agitation of the academic members of Nigerian universities when compared to other peers across the world.

4.1 Reliability and validity measures

The reliability and validity measurements were taken using the convergent validity and composite reliability approach as depicted from Table 2 . The measures were undertaken following the suggestions of Hair et al. (2019) , a composite reliability of 0.70 is recommended while Fornell and Larcker (1981) recommended a 0.60 value or more for composite reliability (CR). A value higher than 0.5 is recommended for average variance extracted (AVE) following the suggestion of Fornell and Larcker (1981) which is denoted in Table 3 . All the factors loadings of the dimensions of brain-drain and QWL constructs are robust values and this confirms that the model is optimally fit. Hence, the CR and convergent validity for the trajectory of brain-drain and QWL dimensions have been accomplished.

4.2 Common method variance-bias

Common method bias (CMB) is a possible serious challenge to bias in both scientific and social research, particularly when a one-informative study is involved. Therefore, it is utilised to prevent CMB or variance via processes of integrating control measures by employing statistical solutions following the suggestion of Podsakoff et al. (2012) as prescribed. Thus, solutions were introduced by ensuring the respondents' anonymity, reverse coding some items and preventing double-barrelled items, and ambiguous and abstract question items were considered. The study prevented common method variance (CMV) or bias through an unmeasured latent approach factor strategy, the study initiated a first-order construct called method factor following the recommendation of Fuller et al. (2016) . This method factor does not possess scale items of its own. Instead, the scale items of this factor are those connected with the constructs under investigation which are likely influenced by CMV ( Rodríguez-Ardura and Meseguer-Artola, 2020 ). The study inputs all the items on the constructs and then appraises the relevance of the structural indicators in the model, both with and without the method factor. Thus, the method eliminates all variance between the common method factor and the constructs, including variance that is not created by CMV ( Spector et al. , 2019 ). This approach ensured that common method bias or variance did not occur or cause a challenge to the outcome of this study.

Table 4 illustrates a fit index of the instrument and shows that all the parameters are adequately fit for this study. They are all suitable following the suggestions and recommendations of Hair and Alamer (2022) and Hu and Bentler (1999) as prescribed in the literature. Thus, the model is acceptable given the results of varying goodness of fit indices as indicated in Table 4 .

5. Discussion of findings

The analysis of this study shows a highly significant direction in terms of how lecturers' QWL suffered in Nigerian universities. As presented in Figure 1 , from the conceptual model outcome, and Table 5 , Hypothesis one of the study depicts that compensation packages offered to members of academic staff in Nigerian universities are not sufficient and mostly it is unjust compared to other professions in the country and other related significant members of academic staff globally. H1 shows that ( b  = 0.57, p  = 0.001), which supports that an insufficient and unfair compensation system has bedevilled and affected Nigeria's lecturers and this has given them an impetus to migrate from the country to search for a better opportunities. Truly, the study supports that insufficient, and unfair compensation adversely impacts members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria. This result has found a similar expression with the study of Ehichoya and Ogunode (2020) whose study discovered that an insufficient and unfair reward system amongst employees has led to several moments of dissatisfaction and consequently a poor QWL. Also, it takes a similar position with the study of Joshua et al. (2020) whose outcome illustrated that insufficient and inequitable pay amongst university lecturers in the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta in Nigeria led to moonlighting effect and brain-drain insurgency.

The second aspect of this study outcome is that poor academic research funding experienced by Nigerian lecturers is another worrisome paradigm that sent the majority of the lecturers outside the country seeking where their skills and competence would be suitably rewarded. The outcome of this study indicates that lecturers are experiencing poor research funding in the course of their job which is denoted as H2 and it shows that ( b  = 0.43, p  = 0.000). The major issue is that without lecturers conducting research, publishing their studies and amassing a large number of publications, their promotion will always be in jeopardy. This is what they encounter in the discharge of their duty and largely affected their QWL. The result portends that the government has not been given due attention to academic research funding in Nigeria's university systems. Therefore, the study affirms that poor research funding adversely affects members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria. This outcome takes a symmetrical position with the study of Ukwoma and Onyebinama (2021) , whose finding illustrates that without sufficient funding from the government, scientists and members of academic staff cannot embark on significant research and without quality research, the country may not likely make substantial progress both in terms of industrial and economic progress.

The third significant outcome of this research is the lack of autonomous power to operate University systems by academic staff members. H3 shows that ( b  = 0.62, p  = 0.002), which indicates that lecturers and academic staff are not allowed to govern the tertiary institutions using their intellectual capacity to favourably operate the system. The introduction of a federal government visiting panel and visitors to rule the affairs of Nigerian universities is a common source of challenge to all the lecturers in Nigeria. This has ever affected lecturers' QWL and their ability to deliver within the four walls of the classroom effectively. This study confirms that lack of autonomy negatively influences members of the ASUU’s QWL in Nigeria. The lack of independence and sovereignty amongst Nigeria's lecturers has led many of them to resign from their appointments at Nigerian universities. This result is akin to the current study of Ogundipe (2022) whose research demonstrated that university autonomy is not given to members and the management of universities in Nigeria. The study further elaborates that autonomy in higher institutions of learning is important to executives of tertiary institutions, whereby the management of the university is responsible for their academic community. It is a means of entrenching a democratic management style in tertiary institutions and adequately ensuring that each university allows unbridled access to be creative by its members of staff as well as students.

The fourth hypothesis is poor staff development and QWL experienced in the course of discharging their duties. H4 shows that ( b  = 0.31, p  = 0.001), this indicates government are not concerned about academic staff members' development when it comes to funding seminars, symposia, conferences and training amongst other vital developmental tools that they are required to effectively become productive. Staff development that required travelling to conferences outside the country to learn new concepts in research and interact with their foreign counterparts, sharing ideas that will elevate the society and economy is not a government priority. This has led to industrial strikes several times, yet lecturers are struggling to resume classrooms due to all the challenges faced, especially poor salary structure. The study discovered that these amongst other factors have pushed Nigerian lecturers to international universities where their hard-earned skills and competence will be valued. Hence, the study supports that poor staff development adversely influences members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria. This result is similar to the studies of Udoh and Atanda (2022) and Ogunode et al. (2021) whose research confirmed that inadequate academic staff development is another major concern that militates against the QWL of lecturers in tertiary institutions. Lectures are not enabled to access funds that will assist them in developing themselves, at the same time, the government has no provision for the development of members of academic staff in Nigerian universities. Also, the study of Awodiji et al. (2022) established the same opinion that poor performance amongst academic staff was noted because of inadequate staff development and this led to personnel demotivation, conflict, poor attitude to work and ultimately industrial action amongst university lecturers.

Finally, the fifth hypothesis ( H5 : b  = 0.35, p  = 0.001) result confirmed that inadequate university funding portends the danger of the collapse of education in Nigeria. The outcome of the study indicates that the government has shown a lackadaisical attitude towards the funding of education in Nigeria. The study provoked that this is another rationale that the majority of the citizens who can afford to send their wards and children overseas to go and study due to dilapidated facilities and lack of funding the Nigerian universities by the government. The study discovered that the Nigerian government failed to comply with UNESCO's annual budgetary allocation recommendations for education in Nigeria and this is the bane of Nigerian universities progress. Poor university funding has largely affected the QWL amongst lecturers in Nigeria and a large number of them have left in search of improved QWL in the global labour market. Indeed, this study affirmed that inadequate university funding adversely influences members of the ASUU's QWL in Nigeria. The result of this finding maintains an even position with the recent studies of Wahab (2022) and Ogunode and Abubakar (2022) whose research established that poor funding is one of the core challenges facing the management of public universities in Nigeria and it has thwarted the sustainable QWL of the lecturers in the country.

6. Conclusion and recommendations

Government should strictly adhere to the recommendations of UNESCO's 20–25% budgetary allocation of her national budget to educational systems in developing countries like Nigeria. It will enable the government to adequately finance and fund Nigerian universities and education effortlessly.

Government should ensure wages and salaries of Nigerian lecturers are reviewed triennially, every three years. This will not only prevent members of academic staff from embarking on unending industrial strike action but also will make the industry attractive to other people to join the academic environment. Therefore, it will deter brain-drain insurgency amongst academic staff members in the country.

Government should stop exhibiting negative political behaviour when it comes to funding Nigerian universities, and entrench good governance regarding necessary attention to the management of universities.

Government should provide members of academic staff with autonomy, self-determination and independence to manage the affairs of Nigerian universities. This is already enacted in the University Autonomy Act by the National Assembly. Therefore, the government should allow academics to exercise their freedom as stipulated by the laws and regulations of the country.

Government should maintain lecturers' both cognitive and social development by financing seminars, research, symposia and conferences amongst academic staff in Nigeria. This will strengthen members' capacity building and prevent the pervasive brain-drain syndrome amongst Nigerian lecturers.

Government should provide access to research grants to all members of academic staff in Nigerian universities. This will encourage lecturers to conduct research with intention of contributing to the body of knowledge and proffering solutions to Nigerian societal challenges through evidence-based research. In the same way, it will accelerate the promotions of the lecturers since they are being accessed through a large number of publications credited to their names.

7. Practical implication

The study has offered members of academic staff an insight into how their QWL will be sustained in Nigerian universities. Practically, the study has resolved the issue of capacity building amongst academics and enabled the government to entrench productive behaviour amongst the academic staff members in Nigerian universities. It will abate the preposterous neglect of the government towards academic staff members in Nigeria's higher institutions of learning. The study will make the profession to be attractive to all and sundry, even appealing to foreign and visiting lecturers from all works of life to come and engage in Nigeria's academic environment going forward.

8. Theoretical implication

The brain-drain effect and QWL have been popularised in the extant literature with notable revolution. This study has made several theoretical contributions to both previous and existing literature on migration otherwise called brain-drain. In this study, structural functionalism theory was underpinning the theoretical posture of this study. It was evaluated in-depth to fill the societal inadequacies and government failure to function and provide succour for the populace. It prescribes a functioning society as one in which a greater portion of citizens can overcome the difficulties that may preclude access to fundamental needs of life, especially the self-realisation of certain goals and a sense of worth. This theory resonates with the study, it emphasises the deficiencies in the QWL encountered by the academics being part of subsystem ineptitudes to function efficiently within the entire system. The theory shows that the poor QWL faced by lecturers pushed them away to international universities outside their region as a result of systems that are not functioning the way they ought to.

Conceptual model result

Participants' demographic distribution

Employee profile	Frequency	Percentage (100%)  = 431
Male	250	58.0
Female	181	42.0
21–25 years	85	19.7
26–30 years	102	23.6
31–35 years	109	25.3
36–40 years	81	18.8
46 years and above	54	12.6
Bachelors	95	22.0
Master’s degree	164	38.1
PhD	172	39.9
1–10 Years	125	29.0
10–20 years	143	32.2
20–30 years	139	32.3
30 years above	24	5.6
Assistant lecturer	72	16.7
Lecturer II	96	22.3
Lecturer I	80	18.6
Senior lecturer	80	18.6
Associate professor	54	12.5
Professor	49	11.4
119,000–130,000	72	16.7
129,000–155,000	96	22.3
140,000–170,000	80	18.6
231,000–250,000	80	18.6
277,000–345,000	54	12.5
332,000–350,000	49	11.4

Field Survey, 2023

Construct measurement items	β	α	CR	AVE
		0.75	0.93	0.71
IUCP1: Provision of unfair promotion system	0.83
IUCP2: An unclear reward and support system	0.89
IUCP3: Provision of a good pension scheme	0.87
IUCP4:Provision of inadequate pay	0.85
IUCP5: Non-provision of benefits	0.67
IUCP6: My salary as an academic staff is not sufficient	0.81
		0.80	0.94	0.73
PARF1: Recognition of achievements in teaching and research	0.83
PARF2: Little or no support for research funding	0.79
PARF3: Management of education paid little or no attention to research funding	0.87
PARF4: Achievement in teaching and research were encouraged	0.85
PARF5: Funding of educational facilities and infrastructural development is low	0.88
PARF6: Poor support for improvement in educational amenities	0.87
		0.78	0.92	0.69
NA1:Participation in university's major policy decisions are discouraged	0.83
NA2: Daily administration of the university is closely monitored and controlled	0.89
NA3: Visitors' interference and visitation panel are a hindrance to University autonomy	0.89
NA4: The choice of university leadership by the tertiary institution is discouraged	0.84
NA5: Universities are not allowed to make independent decisions	0.79
NA6: Universities are not empowered to set strategic tasks and establish institutional objectives and goals	0.70
		0.75	0.91	0.66
PSD1: Provision of teaching aids and supports facilities are poor	0.87
PSD2: Management of universities does not promote staff development	0.89
PSD3: Government paid lip service to the development of academic staff	0.73
PSD4: I use my fund to attend conferences and seminars for personal development	0.78
PSD5: Poor staff development reduced the quality of my teaching	0.79
		0.86	0.90	0.66
IUF1:Non-provision of good management systems	0.76
IUF2: Cooperation and funding of university systems are not enabled	0.79
IUF3:Corruption is the bane of university funding in the country	0.89
IUF4:University funding is routed via political path	0.88
IUF5: Government does not adequately plan to fund University systems	0.73
		0.82	0.92	0.67
QWL1:Work brings me worries and annoyance	0.86
QWL2: I do not enjoy being a lecturer	0.79
QWL3: My work negatively influences my family life	0.89
QWL4: My wages and salaries are not adequate	0.78
QWL5: Provisions of late earn allowances and promotions	0.74
QWL6: I have no or little access to professional career development	0.83

β =  α = Cronbach alpha; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average. Variance extracted

Field Survey, 2023

Note(s): P -value = 0.05; Insufficient and Unfair Compensation Package = IUCP; Poor Academic Research Funding = PARF; No Autonomy = NA; Poor Staff Development = PSD; Inadequate University Funding = IUFW; Quality of Work-life = QWL

Source(s): Authors' Compilation, 2023

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• Open access
• Published: 05 December 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic and health workforce brain drain in Nigeria

• Lukman Lawal 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Abdulwahab Oluwatomisin Lawal 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Opeyemi Pius Amosu 1 , 2 ,
• Abdulmujeeb Opeyemi Muhammad-Olodo 1 , 2 ,
• Nasir Abdulrasheed 1 , 2 ,
• Khalil-ur-Rahman Abdullah 1 , 2 ,
• Philemon Barnabas Kuza 1 , 3 ,
• Abdullahi Tunde Aborode 4 , 5 ,
• Yusuff Adebayo Adebisi 6 ,
• Ahmed Adeseye Kareem 1 , 2 ,
• Abdulwahab Aliu 1 , 2 ,
• Taiye Muhammed Elelu 1 , 2 &
• Tonderai Murwira 7  

International Journal for Equity in Health volume  21 , Article number:  174 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Over the years, the Nigerian healthcare workforce, including doctors, nurses, and pharmacists have always been known to emigrate to developed countries to practice. However, the recent dramatic increase in this trend is worrisome. There has been a mass emigration of Nigerian healthcare workers to developed countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. While the push factors have been found to include the inadequate provision of personal protective equipment, low monthly hazard allowance, and inconsistent payment of COVID-19 inducement allowance on top of worsening insecurity, the pull factors are higher salaries as well as a safe and healthy working environment. We also discuss how healthcare workers can be retained in Nigeria through increment in remunerations and prompt payment of allowances, and how the brain drain can be turned into a brain gain via the use of electronic data collection tools for Nigerian health workers abroad, implementation of the Bhagwati’s tax system, and establishment of a global skill partnership with developed countries.

Graphical Abstract

Introduction

Brain-drain involves the migration of skilled workers out of their countries to more developed countries in search of a better standard of living in terms of better remuneration, better working conditions, and political stability [ 1 ]. Before the pandemic, the Nigerian health system faced poor funding, poor staff remuneration, and poor working conditions [ 2 ]. However, the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has further worsened those challenges and has created an atmosphere where Nigerian healthcare workers are further exhausted and dissatisfied with their jobs [ 3 ]. This has negatively affected healthcare delivery and medical education in Nigeria; hence, the need for urgent attention. This article aims to highlight the increased health workforce brain drain in Nigeria, the implications, and provide recommendations on not only stopping the brain drain but also converting it into a brain gain.

Prior to the pandemic, 88% (almost 9 in 10) of Nigerian doctors and about 50% of Nigerian nurses considered seeking job opportunities abroad, unless their working conditions improved [ 2 , 4 ]. Unfortunately, the pandemic further strained the already fragile Nigerian healthcare system, resulting in serious negative impacts on its workforce [ 3 ].

Nigeria is reported to be the highest workforce exporting country in Africa. Topping her destination countries are the United Kingdom (UK), United States (US), Canada, Australia, and Saudi-Arabia [ 2 ]. A national statistical report published in August 2022 by the UK government revealed that 13,609 healthcare workers have left Nigeria for the UK between 2021 to 2022 [ 5 ]. This figure is second only to Indians at 42,966, while the Philippines is third with 11,021 healthcare workers.

According to the General Medical Council of the UK register, over three years preceding the pandemic (January 2017 – December 2019), the total number of doctors that left Nigeria to practice in the UK was about 2,000 in comparison to around 3,000 recorded between January 2020 to September 2022, as illustrated in Fig.  1 [ 6 ], with many others currently writing or planning to write international licensing exams such as Professional Linguistics Assessment Board (PLAB) exam and the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE). In addition, the Medical and Dental Consultants Association of Nigeria recently lamented that more than 100 medical consultants (specialists) and hundreds of junior doctors had left Nigeria for Saudi Arabia and others between 2020 to 2022 [ 7 , 8 ].

Number of Nigerian doctors on the GMC (UK) register before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Similarly, according to the Nursing and Midwifery Council of the UK data, pre-COVID-19 pandemic, the proportion of Nigerian nurses and midwives immigrants increased from 56 in March 2018 to 276 in March 2019 compared to the pandemic period. This figure declined slightly from 695 in March 2020, to 685 in March 2021, possibly due to the transnational lockdown, then steeply rose in March 2022, to an all-time high of 3,010 (> 1000% increase), as shown in Fig.  2 [ 9 ].

Top five countries’ nurses and midwives joining the UK workforce between March 2018 to March 2022

In the same vein, the National Chairman, Association of Hospital and Administrative Pharmacists of Nigeria, reported that around 200 pharmacists have left Nigeria to practice abroad [ 10 ]. These call for concern and it is unsurprising that similar trends have also been widely reported in other low and low-middle-income countries such as Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Egypt to mention but a few [ 11 , 12 ].

Major “push factors”, such as, inadequate protection against COVID-19, insecurity, and lack of death gratuity [ 13 ], in addition to pre-existing factors, like low wages and allowances (for example, monthly payment of hazard allowance of 5000 naira = US $11), lack of career growth opportunities, poorly equipped health infrastructures, etc. are the key issues needed to be addressed. The incidence of morbidity and mortality continues to rise among health workers as they continue to be in direct contact with numerous infectious cases. Over a thousand Nigerian healthcare workers had tested positive for the virus in less than a year with many mortalities [ 3 ]. This is a stark reflection of the 4% of the federal government budget allocated to healthcare. A far cry from the minimum 15% of budgetary allocation agreed upon by African leaders in the "2001 Abuja Declaration" [ 14 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic and health workforce shortage in developed countries

Developed countries aren’t unaffected by the pandemic, with overwhelming COVID-19 cases and deaths. The shortfall of physicians in the US, for example, is estimated to grow to nearly 95,000 by 2025 [ 14 ]. In the efforts of the US government to bridge this gap, the US Foreign Mission was reported to have advised medical professionals with approved immigration petitions to contact its embassies or consulates for possible visa appointments, specifying a preference for those working to combat the COVID-19 pandemic.

Likewise, the UK government implemented a new ‘Health and Care Visa’ policy, aiming to make it faster and cheaper for international medical graduates to migrate to the UK to practice [ 14 ]. Other several EU countries also waived strict immigration regulations on foreign-trained health personnel to facilitate reinforcement of their workforce.

The pull factors that drive the intention of the Nigerian health workforce to leave their jobs for greener pastures abroad have been found to include better opportunities for career advancement, better healthcare facilities, a conducive working environment, and higher remuneration [ 2 ]. For instance, Nigerian Professors of Medicine in Saudi-Arabia on average are paid between 5 and 7 million naira ($12,138—$16,994) monthly compared with 420,000 naira ($1,019) received by their counterparts in Nigeria [ 8 ].

Brain drain and healthcare delivery in Nigeria

Less than 50% (30,000) of the over 80,000 doctors registered with the Medical and Dental Council of Nigeria are currently practicing in the country. In a bid to facilitate universal health coverage, the world health organization recommends a minimum of 4.45 doctors, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 population; Nigeria has below 2.1 [ 15 ]. This critical shortage causes a delay in accessing quality healthcare, low usage of accredited health facilities, and higher patronage of unorthodox healthcare. These are key factors contributing to poor health indices of the nation [ 16 ].

Brain drain is also associated with job stress and occupational burnout, which affect health workers’ job performance, lead to low quality of service delivery to users, and fuels their intentions to leave their jobs [ 17 ]. Furthermore, the shortage of medical specialists has affected medical training in Nigeria, which translate to poor medical graduates and research output [ 18 ]. Having highlighted all these, universal health coverage, and other indicators of sustainable development goal three would be challenging to achieve by the projected year 2030 in Nigeria.

Strategies to stem the tide

In light of the above findings, it is imperative for the relevant stakeholders to urgently take steps to retain its health workforce and turn the tide against brain drain. We recommend closing the wage gap between Nigeria and recruiting countries. To achieve this, the government should increase the health budget’s allocation from the current 4% to 15% and create a new funding mechanism for the healthcare sector. For instance, tax proceeds from harmful products such as alcohol and tobacco can be allocated to the health sector [ 14 ].

Also, there should be rapid employment of qualified medical and allied-health graduates to alleviate the shortage and create career advancement opportunities for the workforce. In addition, an enabling environment for private health providers to expand their capacity to provide specialist services should be encouraged, while ensuring there is minimal wage discrepancy between government workers and private employees to prevent a risk of internal brain-drain. Furthermore, the government should implement the recommendations of the Yayale Ahmed Presidential Committee on Health and the National Act of 2014, which aim to provide a framework for the regulation, development, and management of a national health system and set the standards for rendering health service in the federation [ 19 ].

Moreover, the Nigerian national policymakers on human resources for health migration should not prohibit migration. Instead, it should call for an ethical method of migration that allows Nigeria to collaborate with recruiting countries to ensure mutual benefits [ 20 ]. This can be achieved by designing an electronic database record for Nigerian healthcare workers in diaspora and creating a similar system as implemented in the Bhagwati's tax system, which enables the collection of taxes from emigrants to their country of origin, as practiced by the US and Cuba [ 21 ]. In addition, the government should create an enabling environment for the healthcare workers of Nigerian origin in the diaspora to bring capital, management, and skills back to Nigeria, as is done by India and China.

Proactively, the policymakers should consider adopting the global skill partnership model, a bilateral labor agreement between a country of origin and a country of destination. While the country of origin trains students in skills needed to meet their specific and immediate needs and that of the country of destination, the latter provides the required finance and facility and, in turn, receives skilled migrants [ 15 ]. Multinational collaborations between Nigeria and other foreign countries would help to foster bilateral relationships and encourage the development of a model which would help to improve the health systems for all, so long the model is well designed, implemented, financed, and monitored by the relevant stakeholders (governments, workers’ and employers’ unions, civil society, financial auditors, and other public institutions) [ 22 ].

The health workforce brain drain in Nigeria is not a new phenomenon, but the current increasing trend is alarming. The worsening of the “push factors” and strengthening of the “pull factors” by the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the mass emigration of Nigerian health workers to developed countries. The negative impact on healthcare delivery and medical education in Nigeria is unprecedented. We recommend closing the gap in wage disparity between Nigeria and the recruiting countries and adopting the global partnership skills model, among others, to retain healthcare workers in Nigeria, stem the tide against brain drain, and strengthen the health system for all.

Availability of data and material

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Acknowledgements

The authors appreciate God for the inspiration. The authors also appreciate the authors of the literature they reviewed to provide information and support the writing of this manuscript.

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Lukman Lawal and Abdulwahab Oluwatomisin Lawal contributed equally to the manuscript as first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

MCON Institute of Medical Research, Ilorin, Nigeria

Lukman Lawal, Abdulwahab Oluwatomisin Lawal, Opeyemi Pius Amosu, Abdulmujeeb Opeyemi Muhammad-Olodo, Nasir Abdulrasheed, Khalil-ur-Rahman Abdullah, Philemon Barnabas Kuza, Ahmed Adeseye Kareem, Abdulwahab Aliu & Taiye Muhammed Elelu

Faculty of Clinical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Lukman Lawal, Abdulwahab Oluwatomisin Lawal, Opeyemi Pius Amosu, Abdulmujeeb Opeyemi Muhammad-Olodo, Nasir Abdulrasheed, Khalil-ur-Rahman Abdullah, Ahmed Adeseye Kareem, Abdulwahab Aliu & Taiye Muhammed Elelu

Faculty of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Philemon Barnabas Kuza

Healthy Africans Platform, Research and Development, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abdullahi Tunde Aborode

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Yusuff Adebayo Adebisi

Department of Development Studies, Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Lupane State University, 67, Mbizi Street, Mvurwi, Lupane, Zimbabwe

Tonderai Murwira

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LL and AOL developed the concept for the article; AOL, LL, K-u-RA, PBK, NA, OPA, AAK, AA, TME and AOM-O did a literature search, developed the draft and prepared the manuscript. LL, ATA, TM and YAA assisted in supervision, critical revision of the draft for important intellectual content, and language edits. All authors approved the final content of the manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Lawal, L., Lawal, A.O., Amosu, O.P. et al. The COVID-19 pandemic and health workforce brain drain in Nigeria. Int J Equity Health 21 , 174 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-022-01789-z

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-022-01789-z

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'How Many Talents Have to Leave Before We Care?': Addressing the Issue of Brain Drain and Emigration in Nigeria

4 Pages Posted: 25 Aug 2023

Morenike Oyeleke

University of Lagos

Date Written: July, 2023

“Japa” is the new buzzword among Nigerians today, which means to leave for greener pastures abroad. Over the years, Nigeria has lost some of its best talents to other developed countries due to challenges such as insecurity, mass poverty, unemployment, poor working conditions, and lack of quality education delivery. As a result, skilled professionals in the fields of medicine, law, science, and engineering are emigrating abroad for better paying jobs and other life support opportunities. Although brain drain is not a new issue in Nigeria, it has become a thing of concern in recent times due to the alarming rate at which young professionals leave the country. This “Japa” trend has serious implications on the Nigerian economy, especially in respect of the healthcare system and the general development of the nation. It is against this backdrop that this paper examines the trend of emigration of Nigerian professionals, the causative factors and effects of such emigration, and the required policy measures.

Keywords: Brain Drain, Mass Emigration, Skilled Professionals, Nigerian Policy Measures

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Morenike Oyeleke (Contact Author)

University of lagos ( email ).

Akoka, Yaba, Lagos, 100213 Nigeria

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Citation Count

Health-care provision and policy for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in sub-Saharan Africa

Social networks and skilled health worker migration in nigeria: an ego network analysis., centrifugal cause of household poverty in nigeria, statistical abstract of the united states, the modern world-system i: capitalist agriculture and the origins of the european world-economy in the sixteenth century, impact of people management practices on business performance, the impact of office environments on employee performance: the design of the workplace as a strategy for productivity enhancement, improving motivation among primary health care workers in tanzania: a health worker perspective, related papers (5), trending questions (2).

Brain drain of nurses in Nigeria's health sector is influenced by factors like inadequate remuneration, safety concerns, and lack of proper working equipment, leading to a significant impact on the health workforce.

The effects of brain drain on the performance of tertiary hospitals in northeastern Nigeria are not mentioned in the provided paper. The paper focuses on the factors contributing to brain drain in the Nigerian health sector and suggests policy reforms to address the issue.

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• January 18, 2020
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International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) | Volume VII, Issue I, January 2020 | ISSN 2321–2705

Brain Drain among Nigerian Nurses: Implications to the Migrating Nurse and the Home Country

Chiamaka J. Okafor 1 , Caleb Chimereze 2

1,2 University of Nigeria, Department of Nursing Sciences

Abstract: – There have been a reasonable number of highly skilled and educated professionals migrating from their home countries (developing countries) in search of better economic and social opportunities in developed countries. This paper discussed the concept of brain drain, the causes of brain drain among Nigerian nurses, the positive and negative implications of brain drain to the migrating nurses and the home country, and suggested ways of reversing brain drain and possibly attracting nurse migrants back to the country. The literature review shows that Nigeria has witnessed increased migration of Nurses to developed nations due to push factors (low remunerations, poor governmental policies, poor working conditions) and pull factors (such as good working conditions, better pay); which are offered by developed world. However the positive impacts of brain drain which includes remittance, improved health, quality life etc. are outweighed by the negative impacts of nurse migration as it has resulted to shortage of nurses within the country leaving its citizens to suffer poor healthcare service delivery. Therefore, following the continuous migration of nurses out of the country, it is imperative that the government adopts appropriate measures through increase in workers’ remuneration, improved working conditions, professional autonomy, and regulation policies on migration to reduce migration of Nigerian nurses to developed countries.

Key Words： Brain Drain, Nigerian nurses, Emigration, Immigration, Developed countries, Developing countries

I. INTRODUCTION

The effect of industrialization and globalization, have made the world population to witness a drastic economic growth during the recent years. For each country, economic growth is important as it not only indicates its employment rate but also its wealth and standard of living. However globalization has also forced many developed countries to increase their search for skilled intellectuals from developing countries which are of cheaper option. Unavoidably, the increased mobility has resulted in shortage of skilled personnel in the developing countries as many of them prefer to seek opportunities outside their country of origin (Yellow, 2010).

• Corpus ID: 153055847

"BRAIN DRAIN": Implication for economic growth in Nigeria

• N. Peter , C. Ekeopara
• Published 14 March 2012
• Economics, Political Science
• American Journal of Social Issues and Humanities

21 Citations

Understanding the african lions - growth traps and opportunities in six dominant african economies - understanding the relationship between growth and employment in nigeria, a review of the implications of brain drain on nigeria’s health and educational systems, the mass media, migration issues, and the brain drain nexus, towards a knowledge-based economy:challenges and opportunities for nigeria, knowledge & innovation in africa: scenarios for the future, preliminary look at the motivators and decision-making process of medical tourists from nigeria to india, bottom of pyramid 4.0: modularising and assimilating industrial revolution cognition into a 4-tiered social entrepreneurship upliftment model for previously disconnected communities, understanding police corruption and its effect on internal security in nigeria, information-seeking behaviour of science and technology researchers in nigeria: a survey of the federal institute of industrial research oshodi, policy and practical implications for future anti-corruption programs, 10 references, health and economic growth, brain drain in developing countries, on the concept of health capital and the demand for health, does the aids epidemic threaten economic growth, institutions, factor prices and taxation: virtues of strong states, private investment in developing countries: an empirical analysis, second-best institutions, the collected writings of john maynard keynes: the general theory of employment, interest and money, economic performance through time, dictionary of modern economics, related papers.

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Nigeria's Vice President, Kashim Shettima. [PHOTO CREDIT: Official Twitter handle of Mr Shettima | https://twitter.com/officialSKSM/status/1786081686087733494/photo/1]

Brain Drain: ‘Resist temptation to flee Nigeria’ – Shettima tells doctors

Mr shettima commended the significant contributions and sacrifices of nigerian doctors in repositioning healthcare delivery..

The Nigerian government has appealed to the country’s medical practitioners to resist the temptation of rendering services in foreign lands and work with the current administration to improve the nation’s situation.

Vice President Kashim Shettima, in a recent meeting with the National Executive Committee of the Nigerian Medical Association (NMA), made the appeal, assuring the doctors that the President Bola Tinubu-led administration is committed to their welfare and has empathy for those who choose to stay amid the “Japa syndrome”.

According to a statement signed by the Senior Special Assistant to the President on Media and Communications, Stanley Nkwocha, the NMA leadership, led by its President, Bala Audu, paid Mr Shettima a courtesy visit at the Presidential Villa on Tuesday.

Mr Shettima urged the Nigerian doctors not to despair and implored them to “remain steadfast,” commending them for the significant contributions and sacrifices they make towards repositioning the country’s healthcare delivery.

“Let us stay back and salvage this nation together. This is our country, the greatest black nation on earth, and a promising nation that we need to invest in,” he was quoted to have said.

“The NMA is one of the most prestigious, preeminent associations in this country. We must commend you for the sacrifices you are making and for staying put in this nation.

“All hope is not lost because Nigerian doctors are making giant strides, recording milestones in the profession and, most importantly, making tremendous sacrifices to serve this nation.”

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Mr Shettima further asked the NMA to encourage young doctors to specialise in key disciplines of medical practice and also check the activities of quacks in the profession.

NMA’s comments

In his comments, the NMA president said the executive committee members of the association were at the presidential villa to show solidarity for the Tinubu administration, particularly on account of its policies for the health sector.

Mr Audu said: “The NMA has come here today as a partner to your government and a patriotic group of Nigerians dedicated to the success of the Renewed Hope Agenda of this government and to ensure that this government delivers quality healthcare to all Nigerians.

“NMA remains patriotic to this nation and will fully support the health policies of your government to drive improvement in quality healthcare delivery and universal access to services to all Nigerians.”

He noted that the executive committee will work closely with the government in delivering and implementing the policies in the healthcare sector.

“The NMA wants to assure and reassure you that it will play a key role in ensuring stability in the health sector and by extension, stability for this government to deliver on its promises to Nigerians as it has already started doing,” he added.

Mr Audu further noted that when fully implemented, the programmes and projects of the Tinubu health policies will increase the training spaces for specialists in the country, as well as the quality of the postgraduate medical training.

“We are sure that this government will address the infrastructural needs to be able to sustain the quality of this training as well as the remuneration that will improve the wellbeing of Nigerian doctors to remain and serve in this country,” he said.

Brain Drain

Also, the Nigerian Minister of Health and Social Welfare, Muhammad Pate, recently lamented that the country’s health system remains weak partly because its trained health professionals migrated to developed countries that did not invest in their first professional education.

Hundreds of Nigerian health workers migrate annually to more advanced countries, mainly because they seek better working conditions and better quality of life.

Various statistics show that over 5,000 Nigerian medical doctors migrated to the UK between 2015 and 2022.

According to the development Research and Project Centre (dRPC), 233 Nigerian doctors moved to the UK in 2015; the number increased to 279 in 2016; in 2017 the figure was 475; in 2018, the figure rose to 852; in 2019 it increased to 1,347; in 2020, the figure was 833 and in 2021, it was put at 932.

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Africa's brain drain crisis: Stemming the trend for sustainable development

IN recent years, Africa has been grappling with a profound challenge across various sectors – a significant brain drain, with skilled professionals seeking opportunities abroad.

Reports from research firms New World Wealth and Henley & Partners illuminate the scale of this issue, revealing staggering figures of high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs) leaving the continent in pursuit of better prospects. 

With approximately 138,000-dollar millionaires calling Africa home, the departure of an estimated 18,500 HNWIs over the past decade has reverberated across multiple industries. Destinations ranging from the UK, the USA, the UAE, Australia, Canada, France, to Switzerland have become primary magnets for these individuals, lured by promises of economic prosperity and enhanced opportunities. However, this exodus isn't confined solely to the realm of affluence.

 Africa is witnessing a parallel trend of critical brain drain in sectors vital to its development, particularly in healthcare. Tanzania, for instance, stands out as a poignant example, bearing the brunt of losing a substantial portion of its skilled medical workforce. According to a joint report by Sikika and the Medical Association of Tanzania (MAT), 8.2 percent of Tanzanian doctors have sought opportunities abroad, leaving the nation grappling with a severe shortage of healthcare professionals.

 The ramifications of this medical exodus are dire, with Tanzania alone haemorrhaging over $11.22 million as 184 graduate doctors bid farewell to their homeland. Such migrations echo throughout neighbouring countries like Uganda and Kenya, exacerbating concerns about the broader brain drain phenomenon.

Beyond healthcare, this phenomenon extends its tentacles into various sectors, including engineering, academia, and technology. Skilled professionals are drawn to the allure of foreign lands, enticed by the promise of better pay, working conditions, and avenues for personal and professional growth. 

The repercussions of this exodus reverberate deeply, undermining Africa's efforts towards sustainable development and hindering progress across multiple fronts. In response to these alarming trends, stakeholders are sounding the alarm, calling for decisive action from governments and relevant authorities.

 Addressing the root causes of brain drain requires a multifaceted approach, encompassing improvements in working conditions, investment in education and infrastructure, and the creation of conducive environments for innovation and entrepreneurship. Moreover, the dearth of medical personnel exacerbates existing healthcare challenges, with Tanzania struggling to meet the World Health Organization's recommended doctor-to-population ratio of 1:1,000. 

Currently, the ratio stands at a staggering 1:30,000, posing a severe impediment to quality healthcare provision, particularly in rural areas. The strain on the healthcare system is further compounded by the concentration of medical professionals in major urban centers, leaving underserved regions grappling with inadequate medical care.

The root causes of this healthcare crisis are multifaceted. While financial incentives undoubtedly play a significant role in enticing doctors abroad, deeper issues such as demotivation during medical training and a lack of investment in healthcare infrastructure contribute to the exodus. 

Surveys indicate that a large majority of medical students’ report diminishing motivation throughout their training, raising concerns about the quality and commitment of future medical professionals.In response to this alarming trend, stakeholders urge decisive action from the Tanzanian government and relevant authorities. 

Irenei Kiria, executive director of Sikika, emphasizes the need for comprehensive reforms aimed at attracting and retaining qualified healthcare workers. Improving financial incentives, working conditions, and ensuring the availability of medical supplies and equipment are cited as crucial steps to stem the tide of medical brain drain and revitalize the healthcare sector.

A comprehensive analysis by analyst Scott Firing based in the UK delves into the broader dynamics of Africa's brain drain. Despite challenges in accurately tracking migratory numbers, estimates from the UN indicate a substantial increase in migration from the continent, with over 40 million Africans seeking better opportunities elsewhere since 2010. 

Notably, intra-African migration remains predominant, accounting for the highest percentage of this movement. The labour component of intra-African migration is substantial, with approximately 80 percent of migrants employed in various industries. Countries like South Africa, Nigeria, and Cote d'Ivoire attract migrants seeking employment opportunities.

 Meanwhile, the exodus of highly educated and skilled individuals towards destinations like France, the UK, the US, and Canada persists. Visa data from these countries reveals a notable rise in African emigration, particularly in study and work visa categories. The consequences of Africa's brain drain are profound, particularly in critical sectors such as healthcare and engineering. 

The departure of skilled professionals raises questions about the impact on Africa's socio-economic landscape. Yet, amidst these challenges, there is a glimmer of hope in the form of financial remittances, which have surged alongside migration numbers. The consequences of brain drain extend far beyond the immediate loss of skilled professionals.

 It cripples local economies, hampers innovation and development, and perpetuates a cycle of dependency on foreign expertise. In healthcare, the departure of doctors and nurses exacerbates already strained systems, leading to inadequate access to medical care, particularly in rural areas. 

This, in turn, contributes to increased morbidity and mortality rates, hindering progress towards achieving health-related Sustainable Development Goals. Furthermore, brain drain stifles innovation and hampers economic growth.

 Skilled professionals often drive technological advancements and entrepreneurial endeavors, which are essential for diversifying economies and creating sustainable livelihoods. When these individuals depart, their expertise and potential contributions to local industries are lost, stifling economic progress and perpetuating dependency on imports and foreign expertise.

To grapple with the challenge of brain drain, Africa must adopt a multifaceted approach. Firstly, there is a need to address the root causes driving professionals to seek opportunities abroad. This includes improving working conditions, offering competitive salaries, and providing opportunities for career advancement and professional development. 

Additionally, investment in education and research infrastructure is crucial to nurture local talent and encourage innovation. Fostering regional cooperation can also play a significant role in mitigating brain drain. By sharing resources, expertise, and best practices, African nations can create an environment conducive to retaining skilled professionals and fostering collaboration across borders.

 Initiatives such as joint research projects, academic exchanges, and regional accreditation frameworks can help strengthen local institutions and reduce the incentives for professionals to seek opportunities abroad. 

Furthermore, investing in sectors beyond healthcare, such as sports, can help retain talent and contribute to national pride and identity. For instance, African countries have seen a significant exodus of sports gurus to foreign leagues and teams, lured by lucrative contracts and better infrastructure. 

To address this, African nations can invest in developing local sports infrastructure, coaching programs, and talent identification systems, creating opportunities for athletes to thrive and succeed domestically. In essence, addressing brain drain requires a concerted effort from governments, institutions, and stakeholders across various sectors. 

By improving working conditions, fostering regional cooperation, and investing in education and infrastructure, African nations can stem the tide of brain drain and unlock the full potential of their human capital, ensuring the well-being and prosperity of their citizens for generations to come.

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