powerpoint presentation on the brain

Ch. 7 – The Nervous System

• Overview & Organization of the Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

The master controlling & communicating system of the body…

• Sensory input —gathering information
• To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
• Changes = stimuli
• Integration
• To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
• Motor output
• A response to integrated stimuli
• The response activates muscles or glands
• Structural Classification �of the Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS) – dorsal body cavity; integrating and command centers; interpret sensory information & give out instructions

Spinal cord

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – outside of CNS
• Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
• Spinal nerves – carry impulses to and from spinal cord
• Cranial nerves – carry impulses to and from brain
• Functional Classification of �the Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory (afferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry information to the CNS
• Somatic sensory fibers – deliver impulses from skin, skeletal muscle, and joints
• Visceral sensory fibers (afferents) – deliver impulses from viscera
• Motor (efferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS
• Somatic (voluntary) NS – voluntary control of skeletal muscles
• Autonomic (involuntary NS – involuntary control of smooth & cardiac muscle and glands
• Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

Answer Did You Get It? #1

• Structure & Function of Nervous Tissue
• Support Cells
• Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as neuroglia (AKA glia or glial cells ) = “nerve glue”
• Functions: support, insulate, and protect neurons
• Cannot transmit nerve impulses (as can neurons)
• Never lose their ability to divide (as neurons do)
• Most brain tumors are gliomas
• Glia of the Central Nervous System:
• Ependymal cells
• Oligodendrocytes
• Glia of the Peripheral Nervous System:
• Schwann cells
• Satellite cells

Support Cells, continued…

• Abundant (~1/2 of neural tissue)
• Star-shaped cells
• Brace & anchor neurons to capillaries
• Form living barrier between capillaries and neurons (exchange) (blood-brain barrier)
• Control brain’s chemical environment
• Absorb leaked K + ions
• Absorb released neurotransmitters
• Spiderlike phagocytes
• Protect from infection
• Dispose of debris
• Dead brain cells & bacteria
• Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
• Beating cilia circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• CSF fills brain & spinal cord cavities & serves as cushion
• Wrap around nerve fibers in the CNS
• Produce fatty insulating coverings = myelin sheaths
• Protect neuron cell bodies
• Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 2-3

• Neurons = nerve cells
• Cells specialized to transmit nerve impulses from one part of body to another
• Two major regions of neurons:
• Metabolic center: contains nucleus, large nucleolus
• No centrioles = no mitosis
• Nissl substance = specialized RER
• Neurofibrils (intermediate cytoskeleton)
• Maintain cell shape

Neurons, continued…

• Processes outside the cell body
• Microscopic to 3-4 ft in length
• Longest = from lumbar region of spine to great toe
• Dendrites —conduct impulses toward the cell body
• A neuron may have hundreds
• Axons —conduct impulses away from the cell body
• Arises from cone-like region of cell body called axon hillock
• Collateral branches
• End in highly branched axon terminals
• Axon terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
• Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a synaptic cleft
• Synapse —junction between nerves ( syn = clasp/join)

Neuron processes, continued…

• Myelin sheath —whitish, fatty material covering axons
• Protects & insulates fibers
• Increases rate of nerve impulse transmission
• Schwann cells —produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll–like fashion
• Schwann cells in the PNS; oligodendrocytes in the CNS
• Neurilemma – portion of cell membrane on outer layer of coil where most of its cytoplasm resides
• Nodes of Ranvier —gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
• Aid in speeding up nerve impulses – saltatory conduction
• Homeostatic imbalance – multiple sclerosis = gradual destruction of myelin sheaths (become hardened = sclerosis), autoimmune disease (sheath protein)
• Visual & speech disturbances, loss of muscle control, increasingly disabled
• Interferon injections provide relief; no cure
• Terminology of Neurons
• Most neuron cell bodies are found in the CNS
• Nuclei —clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the CNS (protected within the brain case and vertebral column)
• Ganglia —small collections of cell bodies in the PNS
• Tracts = bundles of nerve fibers in CNS
• White matter – myelinated tracts in CNS
• Gray matter —cell bodies and unmyelinated tracts in CNS
• Nerves = bundles of nerve fibers in PNS
• Functional Classification of Neurons

Direction of nerve impulse with respect to CNS

• Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
• Ganglion outside of CNS
• Dendrite endings associate with receptors
• Cutaneous sense organs in muscles and tendons
• Proprioceptors —detect stretch or tension

Naked nerve ending; pain/temp

Meissner’s corpuscule: touch

Pacinian corpuscule: deep pressure

Golgi tendon organ & muscle spindle;: proprioception

Functional Classification of Neurons, continued…

• Motor (efferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera, muscles, or glands
• Cell bodies always in CNS
• Interneurons (association neurons)
• Connect sensory and motor neurons in neural pathways
• Structural Classification of Neurons
• Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body
• most common
• Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite
• Rare in adults
• Act in sensory processing – eye, nose
• Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body
• Divides into proximal (central) and distal (peripheral) processes
• Dendrites only at peripheral end
• Conducts action potentials both ways
• Found in sensory neurons of PNS ganglia

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 4-7

• Physiology of the Nervous System
• Functional Properties of Neurons
• Irritability - ability to respond to stimuli and convert to nerve impulses
• Conductivity - ability to transmit an impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands
• Nerve Impulses
• Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
• Polarized – resting/inactive neuron
• Fewer positive ions on inner face of plasma membrane than on outer face
• Depolarized – stimulated neuron
• More positive ions inside the cell than outside

Nerve Impulses, continued…

• Action Potential Initiation and Generation
• Stimuli excite neurons: light, sound, pressure, mostly neurotransmitters released by other neurons
• Cause a temporary change in the cell membrane’s permeability
• Stimulus causes sodium channel gates to open, and sodium to rush in
• Causes depolarization of the neuron’s membrane
• Inside more positive, outside less positive = graded/local potential
• If stimulus is strong enough, a long distance signal called an action potential or nerve impulse occurs
• Nerve impulses are all-or-nothing responses – they are either propagated over the entire axon or not at all
• Repolarization
• Membrane immediately becomes impermeable to sodium, but permeable to potassium ions
• K + ions rush out of the neuron, restoring electrical conditions to polarized = repolarization
• Repolarization must occur before another impulse can be conducted
• The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original concentrations of Na + and K + .
• Saltatory conduction = In myelinated fibers, propagation occurs more quickly since the nerve impulse jumps from node to node.
• Homeostatic imbalance: factors that impair impulse conduction:
• Sedatives & anesthetics block sodium entry
• Cold & continuous pressure interrupt blood circulation (nutrients & O 2 ) – e.g. ice creates numbness, foot “goes to sleep”; prickly feeling caused by impulse transmission starting back up
• Transmission of the Signal at Synapses
• Neurotransmitter is released from vesicles within the axon terminal
• Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synapse
• Neurotransmitters bind to receptors in the membrane of the next neuron
• If enough neurotransmitters are released, another nerve impulse will be generated in this neuron
• Enzymes remove the neurotransmitters from the receptors
• Impulse transmission is an electrochemical event – electrical along the neuron’s membrane; chemical within the synapses

Axon�terminal

Synaptic�cleft

Action�potential�arrives

Axon of�transmitting�neuron

Receiving�neuron

Neurotrans-�mitter is re-�leased into�synaptic cleft

Neurotrans-�mitter binds�to receptor�on receiving�neuron’s�membrane

Vesicle�fuses with�plasma�membrane

Synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter�molecules

Ion channels

Receiving neuron

Transmitting neuron

Neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter�broken down�and released

Ion channel opens

Ion channel closes

• Reflex — rapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus
• Always travel in one direction
• Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs
• Reflex arc — direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
• Neural pathway involving the CNS and PNS

Stimulus at distal�end of neuron

(in cross section)

Interneuron

Sensory neuron

Motor neuron

Integration�center

Reflexes, continued…

• Types of Reflexes
• Somatic reflexes
• Reflexes which stimulate the skeletal muscles
• Example: moving hand away from a hot stove
• Autonomic reflexes
• Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, heart, and glands
• Examples: salivary reflex, pupillary reflex
• Regulate: digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating
• Parts of a reflex arc
• Sensory receptor – reacts to a stimulus
• Integration center
• Effector organ – muscle or gland which is stimulated
• Patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is an example of a two-neuron reflex arc

Figure 7.11d

Figure 7.11b–c

Sensory (afferent)�neuron

Motor�(efferent)�neuron

Sensory receptors�(stretch receptors�in the quadriceps�muscle)

Effector�(quadriceps�muscle of�thigh)

Synapse in�ventral horn�gray matter

Inter-�neuron

Sensory receptors�(pain receptors in�the skin)

Effector�(biceps�brachii�muscle)

• Flexor (withdrawal) reflex is an example of a three-neuron reflex arc
• Withdrawal reflex arc has an interneuron
• The more neurons involved, the slower the communication because of the time it takes for neurotransmitters to diffuse
• Many spinal reflexes do not involve the brain
• Other reflexes require the brain to evaluate different types of information
• Reflex testing evaluates condition of the nervous system
• Exaggerated, distorted, and absent reflexes indicate nervous system disorders

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 8-11

• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
• Runs along the dorsal median plane
• 4 th week – anterior end expands = brain formation
• Rest of tube = spinal cord
• The central canal of the neural tube enlarges into 4 chambers = ventricles
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Functional Anatomy of the Brain
• ~3 lbs, wrinkled, texture similar to cold oatmeal
• 4 major regions:
• Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
• Diencephalon

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum

• Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)
• Paired, superior parts of the brain
• Includes more than half of the brain mass; obscures most of the brain stem
• The surface is made of ridges ( gyri = “twisters”) and grooves ( sulci = “furrows”)
• Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe

Figure 7.13b

• Cerebral Cortex
• Functions : speech, memory, logic, emotion, consciousness, sensation interpretation, & voluntary movement
• Cell bodies of neurons in cerebral cortex in outermost gray matter
• Primary somatic sensory area
• In parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
• Receives & interprets impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
• Detects: pain, cold, light touch

Sensory & motor homunculus – the more neurons there are for a function, the larger the area represented by that body region

Figure 7.14

• Visual area in occipital lobe
• Auditory area in temporal lobe
• Olfactory area deep in temporal lobe
• Primary motor area in frontal lobe
• Conscious movement of skeletal muscle
• Axons of these motor neurons form the corticospinal or pyramidal tract
• Descends to spinal cord
• Broca’s area at base of precentral gyrus
• Involved in our ability to speak
• Only located in one (usually left) hemisphere
• Damage here can cause inability to speak – conscious of what you want to say, but unable to do it
• Frontal association areas – higher intellectual reasoning & socially acceptable behavior
• Complex memories stored in temporal and frontal lobes
• Speech/language (Wernicke’s) area – junction of temporal, parietal, & occipital lobes
• Allows us to sound out words
• Usually in just one hemisphere
• Damage: Wernicke’s aphasia – lack of language comprehension; clear speaking though
• Frontal lobes – language comprehension (word meaning)
• Gustatory area – taste – base of primary somatic sensory area (parietal)
• General interpretation area – temporal & parietal
• Cerebral White Matter
• White matter—fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, and within the cortex
• Corpus callosum – large tract connecting hemispheres; allows hemispheres to communicate with one another
• Called commisures
• Association fiber tracts connect areas within hemispheres ; projection fiber tracts connect cerebrum to lower CNS centers
• Basal nuclei (basal ganglia ) — islands of gray matter buried within the white matter
• Regulate voluntary

motor activities

• Homeostatic Imbalance:
• Problems with basal

nuclei cause difficulty in

walking or other voluntary

movements: Huntington’s

disease & Parkinson’s

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 12-13

• Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon (Interbrain)
• Sits on top of brain stem; enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Made of three parts: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus
• Thalamus – relay station for sensory impulses traveling up to sensory cortex
• Crude awareness of a pending sensation being pleasant or not
• Hypothalamus – floor of diencephalon
• Autonomic NS center: helps body temp, water balance, & metabolism
• Limbic system – “emotional-visceral brain” where thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure centers are
• Regulates the pituitary gland ; secretes hormones
• Mammillary bodies – reflex centers involved in olfaction

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon

• Epithalamus
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
• Includes the choroid plexus —complex of capillaries which form cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem

• Small: ~thumb in diameter & ~3” long
• 3 regions: midbrain, pons, & medulla oblongata
• Provides a pathway for ascending & descending tracts
• Contains nuclei with rigidly programmed autonomic behaviors necessary for survival
• Some connected to cranial nerves controlling breathing & blood pressure
• From mammilary bodies to pons
• Cerebral aqueduct – canal connecting 3 rd ventricle of diencephalon to 4 th ventricle
• Has two bulging fiber tracts — cerebral peduncles : convey ascending & descending impulses
• Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
• Has four rounded protrusions— corpora quadrigemina (“gemini” = twins)
• Reflex centers for vision and hearing
• Pons (“bridge”)
• Rounded part of brain stem just below midbrain
• Mostly composed of fiber tracts
• Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
• Medulla Oblongata
• Most inferior part of the brain stem
• Merges into the spinal cord
• Includes important fiber tracts
• Contains nuclei which control:
• Blood pressure
• Fourth ventricle
• Reticular Formation
• Diffuse mass of gray matter along the length of the brain stem
• Involved in motor control of visceral organs
• Reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
• Damage here can cause a coma (permanent unconsciousness)
• Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum
• Cauliflower-like, dorsally projecting from under the occipital lobe
• Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
• Outer cortex composed of gray matter; inner region composed of white matter
• Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls balance & equilibrium
• “Automatic pilot” – compares brain’s intentions with body’s actual performance; initiates appropriate corrective measures
• Ataxia – damage to cerebellum can result in clumsy & disorganized movements; appear to be drunk

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 14-16

• Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Nervous tissue is soft and delicate; neurons injured easily
• Brain and spinal cord protected by
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges (membranes)
• Cerebrospinal fluid (watery cushion)
• Blood-brain barrier – protection from harmful substances in the blood

Figure 7.17b

• Connective tissue membranes which cover & protect the CNS
• Double-layered, outermost layer; leathery
• Periosteal layer (periosteum)—attached to inner surface of the skull
• Meningeal layer —outer covering of the brain; fuses with the dura mater of the spinal cord
• Layers are fused except in dural venous sinuses where venous blood is collected
• Inward folds attach brain to cranial cavity
• Falx cerebri & tantorium cerebelli
• Arachnoid mater (“spider”)
• Middle layer
• Attached to the pia mater, forming the subarachnoid space
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Arachnoid villi – projections of arachnoid mater; protrude through dura mater
• CSF passes into dural sinuses through these structures
• Pia mater (“gentle mother”)
• Innermost membrane
• Clings tightly brain and spinal cord surfaces
• Epidural injections – “upon the dura”
• Homeostatic Imbalance :
• Meningitis – inflammation of the meninges
• Bacterial or vial infections
• Serious threat to brain if spreads into CNS
• Encephalitis – inflammation of the brain
• Diagnosed by sampling CSF

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Similar to blood plasma composition
• Less protein, more vitamin C, different ion composition
• Formed from blood by choroid plexuses
• Clusters of capillaries hanging from each of brain’s ventricles
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain from trauma
• Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
• CSF continually circulates in brain
• From two lateral ventricles, to 3 rd ventricle, through cerebral aqueduct, to 4 th ventricle
• Some CSF continues to spinal cord
• Normally circulates at a constant rate
• Changes to CSF composition may indicate meningitis, tumors, or MS
• Lumbar/spinal tap – sample the CSF
• Remain lying down for 12 hrs or “spinal headache”
• Homeostatic Imbalance - Hydrocephalus
• If something obstructs CSF drainage, it accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain
• “Water on the brain”
• Results in enlarged head in newborns with increasing brain size
• Would cause brain damage in adults
• Treated by surgically inserting a shunt (plastic drain); drains excess fluid into a vein
• Blood-Brain Barrier
• Brain is super sensitive to having a constant internal environment
• Neurons kept separated from bloodborne substances by the blood-brain barrier
• Composed of least permeable capillaries of the body
• Bound by tight junctions
• Allowed to enter:
• Water, glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily through
• Metabolic wastes (urea, toxins, proteins, most drugs), nonessential amino acids, K +
• Useless as a barrier against some substances
• Fats and fat soluble molecules
• Respiratory gases

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 17-19

• Traumatic Brain Injuries
• Head injuries are leading cause of accidental death in US; caused by damaging blow to head
• Further damage caused by brain ricocheting on opposite end of skull
• Slight brain injury
• Dizzy/”see stars,” briefly lose consciousness
• No permanent brain damage
• Marked tissue destruction occurs
• May remain conscious if cerebral cortex injury; may be in coma if brain stem is injured severely (especially RAS)
• Nervous tissue does not regenerate
• Intracranial hemorrhage
• Bleeding from ruptured vessels
• May cause death
• Cerebral edema
• Brain swelling from the inflammatory response
• May compress and kill brain tissue – neurological deterioration
• Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA/Stroke)
• 3 rd leading cause of death in US
• Blood circulation to brain is obstructed by a blood clot or ruptured blood vessel
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
• Loss of some functions or death may result; undamaged neurons can spread into damaged areas and take over some lost functions (= neuroplasticity )
• Hemiplegia – one-sided paralysis ( e.g. right-sided paralysis = damage to left motor cortex)
• Apahsia – damage to language areas
• Motor/Broca’s aphasia – loss of ability to speak
• Sensory/Wernicke’s aphasia – loss of ability to understand written & spoken language
• Transient ischemic attack (ITA) – temporary restriction of blood flow (ischemia) to brain
• Last 5-50 min; numbness, temporary paralysis; impaired speech
• Warning of impending, more serious CVA

Answer Did You Get It #20

• The Terrible Three
• Alzheimer’s Disease
• Progressive degenerative brain disease, results in dementia (mental deterioration)
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
• Victims experience: memory loss, short attention span, disorientation, eventual loss of language, irritability, moodiness, confusion, sometimes violent, and ultimately, hallucinations.
• Structural changes in the brain include: low Ach, shrinking gyri, brain atrophy (especially in areas of thought and memory), abnormal protein (senile plaque – beta amyloid peptide ) deposits, and twisted tau fibers within neurons
• Treat with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
• Parkinson’s Disease
• Problem associated with basal nuclei; cause not known
• Typically affects people in 50’s-60’s
• Degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons in the substantia nigra, causing basal nuclei to become overactive
• Symptoms: persistent tremor (even at rest), head nodding, “pill-rolling” of fingers, forward-bent walking posture, shuffling gait, stiff facial expressions, difficulty in initiating movements
• Treatments: L-dopa for some symptoms (bad side effects); deprenyl to slow degeneration; thalamic stimulation via electrodes alleviates tremors; implants of embryonic tissue promising
• Huntington’s Disease
• Genetic disorder (dominant) – typically occurs at middle-age
• Massive degeneration of basal nuclei and later of the cerebral cortex
• Progressive symptoms: wild, jerky movements ( chorea ), later marked mental deterioration
• Typically fatal within 15 years
• Overstimulation of motor cortex
• Treat with drugs that block dopamine; fetal tissue implants are promising
• Spinal Cord
• 2-way conduction pathway to and from the brain
• Major reflex center (spinal reflexes)
• Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra
• Cushioned & protected by meninges
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord
• Cervical & lumbar enlargements – origin of upper & lower limb nerves
• Cauda equina (horse’s tail) is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end

Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Gray matter of Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
• Gray matter surrounds the central canal (filled with CSF)
• Dorsal (posterior) horns – project posteriorly
• Contain interneurons
• Sensory neuron cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia ; enter spinal cord through dorsal root
• Anterior (ventral) horns – project anteriorly
• Motor neuron cell bodies in ventral horns; axons exit spinal cord through ventral root
• Homoeostatic imbalance – flaccid paralysis – damage to ventral root = no stimulation of muscles
• Spinal nerves – fusion of dorsal and ventral roots
• White matter of the Spinal Cord
• Myelinated fiber tracts (see 7.22)
• Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
• Sensory/afferent tracts – conduct sensory impulses to brain
• Motor/efferent tracts – conduct impulses from brain to skeletal muscles
• Dorsal column tracts are all ascending carrying sensory input to brain
• Lateral & ventral tracts contain both ascending & descending tracts
• Homeostatic imbalance – spastic paralysis : transected (cut crosswise) or crushed spinal cord – affected muscles stay healthy b/c still stimulated, but moments become spastic; loss of feeling below injury
• Quadriplegic = 4 limbs affected
• Paraplegic = legs only

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 21-23

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Nerves and ganglia outside CNS
• Structure of a Nerve
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers outside the CNS
• Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
• Delicate endoneurium surrounds each fiber
• Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by coarser perineurium
• Fascicles are bound together by tough, fibrous epineurium
• Forms cordlike nerve

Structure of a Nerve, continued…

• Nerves are classified according to the direction in which they transmit impulses:
• Mixed nerves – nerves with both sensory and motor fibers
• Sensory (afferent) nerves – nerves carrying impulses toward the CNS
• Motor (efferent) nerves – nerves carrying impulses away from the CNS
• Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Numbered in order; names typically match the structures they control
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only (optic, olfactory, & vestibulocochlear)

Cranial Nerves, continued…

• Olfactory nerve — sensory for smell
• Optic nerve — sensory for vision
• Oculomotor nerve — motor fibers to eye muscles (most movements, lens shape, & pupil size)
• Trochlear nerve — motor fiber to eye muscle (superior oblique)
• Trigeminal nerve — sensory for the face, nose, & mouth; motor fibers to chewing muscles
• Abducens nerve — motor fibers to eye muscles (lateral movement)
• Facial nerve — sensory for anterior taste buds; motor fibers for facial expression and lacrimal & salivary glands
• Vestibulocochlear nerve — sensory for balance and hearing
• Glossopharyngeal nerve — sensory for posterior taste buds; motor fibers to the pharynx (swallowing & saliva production); carotid artery pressure sensors
• Vagus nerves — sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and thoracic & abdominal viscera (mostly parasympathetic = promote digestion & regulate heart activity)
• Accessory nerve — motor fibers to sternocleidomastoid & trapezius
• Hypoglossal nerve — motor fibers for tongue movements; sensory impulses from tongue
• O h O nce O ne T akes T he A natomy F inal V ery G ood V acations A re H eavenly.
• O nly O wls O bserve T hem T raveling A nd F inding V oldemort G uarding V ery S ecret H orcruxes
• Spinal Nerves & Nerve Plexuses
• There are 31 pairs formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
• Named for the region from which they arise
• Spinal nerves divide after leaving the spinal cord
• Dorsal rami — serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
• Ventral rami — for nerves T 1 -T 12 forms intercostal nerves (muscles between ribs & skin and muscles of anterior trunk); for rest of nerves forms a nerve networks ( plexus ) for limb sensory & motor

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 24-27

Spinal Nerves & Nerve Plexuses, continued…

• Cervical plexus – from C 1 –C 5 ventral rami
• Phrenic nerve – diaphragm; shoulder/neck muscles
• Brachial plexus – from C 5 –C 8 and T 1 ventral rami
• Axillary nerve – deltoid muscle, shoulder skin; superior thorax muscles & skin
• Radial nerve – triceps & extensor muscles; upper limb posterior skin
• Median nerve – flexor muscles; forearm skin; some hand muscles
• Musculocutaneous nerve – arm flexor muscles; lateral forearm skin
• Ulnar nerve – some forearm flexor muscles; wrist & hand muscles; hand skin
• Lumbar plexus – from L 1 –L 4 ventral rami
• Femoral nerve – lower abdomen , hip flexors & knee extensors; leg & thigh anteromedial skin
• Obturator nerve – adductor & small hip muscles; medial thigh & hip joint skin
• Sacral plexus – from L 4 –L 5 and S 1 –S 4 ventral rami
• Sciatic nerve – largest nerve in body; splits into two nerves; lower trunk & posterior thigh surface (hip extensors & knee flexors)
• Common fibular nerve – lateral leg & foot
• Tibial nerve – posterior leg & foot
• Superior & inferior gluteal nerves – gluteal muscles

Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the �Upper and Lower Limbs

Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Autonomic Nervous System (AKA Involuntary NS)

• Motor subdivision of the PNS
• Controls body activities automatically
• Special neurons that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle (visceral organs & blood vessels), and glands
• Helps to maintain homeostasis – constantly makes adjustments to keep internal conditions stable
• Consists only of motor nerves

Note the differences between ANS & SNS

Autonomic Nervous System, continued…

• Somatic vs. Autonomic nervous systems (both PNS)
• Different effector organs and neurotransmitters
• Somatic NS has cell bodies in CNS and an axon that extends to the effector organ
• Autonomic NS has a chain of two motor neurons
• Preganglionic axon – 1 st neuron; in the CNS (“before the ganglion”)
• Postganglionic axon – 2 nd neuron; outside of CNS; goes to organ
• Two divisions of ANS
• Sympathetic & parasympathetic division
• Regulate the same organs, but with opposite effects (counterbalance one another)
• Sympathetic division – mobilizes body during extreme situations (“fight vs. flight”)
• Parasympathetic division – rest and digest; unwind & conserve

Brain & Spinal Cord Cranial & Spinal Nerves

Sensory Division Motor Division

(Periphery → CNS) (CNS → Periphery)

Afferent/Incoming Efferent/Outgoing

Cranial Spinal Somatic Motor NS Autonomic NS

Nerves Nerves Voluntary Involuntary

Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

Stimulatory Inhibitory GI

• Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
• Originates from brain nuclei of cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, & X) and S 2 -S 4
• AKA craniosacral division
• Cranial neurons synapse with ganglionic motor neuron in terminal ganglia (basically are at the effector organs)
• Sacral preganglionic neurons form pelvic splanchnic nerves (pelvic nerves) – pelvic cavity
• Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
• Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
• Originates from gray matter in spinal cord from T 1 through L 2
• AKA thoracolumbar division
• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord)
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long post-ganglionic neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector
• Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs
• Sympathetic Functioning —“fight or flight”
• Response to unusual stimulus
• Takes over to increase activities
• Remember as the “E” division
• Exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
• Homeostatic Imbalance – excessive sympathetic NS stimulation
• Type A personality – never slows down; may be susceptible to heart disease, high blood pressure, ulcers
• Parasympathetic Functioning —“housekeeping” activites
• Conserves energy (rest & digest)
• Maintains daily necessary body functions
• Remember as the “D” division
• digestion, defecation, and diuresis

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 28-30

• Tracking Down CNS Problems
• EEG – electroencephalography
• Recording of brain neuron’s electrical impulse transmission
• Attach electrodes on scalp
• Record speed of brain waves (unique to each individual)
• Alpha = awake, relaxed state
• Beta = awake, alert state
• Theta = common in children, not normal adults
• Delta = deep sleep

Tracking Down CNS Problems, continued…

• CT, MRI & PET scans
• CT (computed axial tomography) & MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – easily identify tumors, intracranial lesions, MS plaques & areas of dead brain tissue (infarcts)
• PET scans – localize lesions that cause epileptic sezures; used for Alzheimer’s diagnosis, and in cancer tumor activity

CT Scan: normal vs. tumor

PET Scan: normal vs. Alzheimer’s disease

• Cerebral angiography
• Used to visualize arteries in brain
• Used to guide a catheter carrying clot-busting drugs (tPA)

Cerebral angiogram showing an aneurism

87-year-old man with acute onset left hemiplegia. . The image on the left (A) obtained preoperatively. The image on the right (B) was obtained after intra-arterial thrombolysis.

• Development Aspects of the Nervous System
• The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development; therefore, any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
• Maternal measles (rubella) = deafness
• Lack of O 2 for minutes can cause neuron death
• Smoking decreases amount of O 2 in blood; less O 2 to developing fetus’s brain (potentially brain damage)
• Radiation & drugs (alcohol, opiates, cocaine, etc.) can all damage fetal nervous system development
• Homeostatic imbalances :
• Cerebral palsy – poor control and spastic movements of voluntary muscles, seizures, mental retardation, impaired hearing & vision
• Can be caused by lack of O 2 during difficult delivery
• Anencephaly – failure of the cerebrum to develop; cannot hear, see, or process sensory inputs
• Spina bifida – “forked spine”; vertebra fail to completely form; can result in varying degrees of paralysis & loss of bowel and bladder control

Development Aspects of the Nervous System, cont’d

• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop (regulates body temperature_
• Premature babies can’t thermoregulate well
• Continued growth & maturation of nervous system through childhood
• Myelination: cranial to caudal; proximal to distal
• Brain is maximum weight as young adult
• Neurons then continue to get damaged and die
• Steady decline of brain weight and volume
• Can still learn throughout life; unlimited neural pathways available
• Sympathetic NS becomes less efficient (especially in constricting blood vessels)
• Orthostatic hypotension – pooling of blood in the feet due to lack of activation of vasoconstrictor fibers and lightheadness; common in elderly when they stand up quickly
• Arteriosclerosis (plaque build up in arteries) and high blood pressure result in less O 2 supply to brain
• Can causes senility – forgetfulness, irritability, confusion, and difficulty in concentrating and thinking clearly
• Some drugs, low blood pressure, constipation, poor nutrition, depression, dehydration, and hormone imbalances can cause “reversible senility”
• Professional boxers (& other high impact sports) and chronic alcoholics hasten the effects of aging on the brain
• “Punch drunk” – slurred speech, tremors, abnormal gait, dementia in retired boxers
• Reduced brain size in both

Answer Did You Get It? #’s 31-32

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The Human Brain: Anatomy, and Functions,

Published by Lydia Daniel Modified over 9 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "The Human Brain: Anatomy, and Functions,"— Presentation transcript:

The Brain is a highly organized ORGAN that contains approximately 100 billion neurons and has a MASS of 1.4 Kilograms. The Brain is Protected by a BONY.

NERVOUS SYSTEM MCGONIGLE Intro to Psychology. Nervous System  Made up of the spinal cord and the brain  Neurons : Nerve cell – the neurons transmit.

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Overview The Nervous System. The nervous system of the human is the most highly organized system of the body. The overall function of the nervous system.

And Brain Organization

Major Brain Structures and Functions Made by Ms. Collins Unscrupulously used by Mr. McNalis.

The Meninges Dura mater - outermost layer Arachnoid mater - no blood vessels, in between layer (resembles a spider web) Pia mater -inner membrane, contains.

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ANATOMY NERVOUS SYSTEM OVERVIEW. Nervous System  The nervous system of the human is the most highly organized system of the body.  The overall function.

Unit 1D: The Central Nervous System

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The Human Brain Presentation Template

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The human brain is arguably one of the most complex entities in the entire universe. Even though it sits right behind our eyes, we know only a fraction of what this incredible machine is capable of. Recent advancements in science, medicine and technology have offered us a slight understanding of our brain. And to help your brain focus on the important tasks, this amazing slide deck comes with the Left-Brain Right-Brain slide, the Brain Understanding Timeline and the Brain Processes Matrix to give your audience an introduction into this wonderful biological structure.

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Left-brain right-brain slide.

The differences between the left brain and right brain have been a topic brought up very often in personality tests and pop culture, but the science is very real. The analytical and creative sides, even though these terms are overly-simplistic to describe the process, perform different functions of the mind that together make you the whole person that you are.

Brain Understanding Timeline

Ancient Egyptians did not think a lot of the brain. They would just scoop it out through the nostrils and discard of it. Thankfully, now we know better, and this process has been ongoing for hundreds of years. Who knows how many hundreds more until we fully understand this complex machine.

Brain Processes Matrix

Different processes are handled in various areas of the brain. This matrix can help you explain how the amygdala differs from the frontal lobe. It can visually represent the distributions of tasks throughout the brain.

Learn about yourself

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Ever wondered what’s going on inside that noggin of yours? The brain, a marvel of nature, is the epicenter of our thoughts, emotions, and bodily functions. Let’s dive deep into its intricate anatomy.

The brain isn’t just a lump of gray matter; it’s an intricate network of billions of neurons, working in harmony to make you, well, you. Imagine it as the world’s most advanced supercomputer, but instead of circuits and wires, it’s made of cells and neurotransmitters.

Major Parts of the Brain Anatomy – Free Download PPT Slide

When preparing a powerpoint presentation on the intricate details of brain anatomy, it’s essential to understand the structure and physiology of the central nervous system. This presentation will guide viewers through the various parts of the brain, ensuring a comprehensive understanding.

The Cerebrum: The Largest Part of the Brain

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, housing over 100 billion neurons. It’s divided into two hemispheres: left and right, connected by the corpus callosum. This part of the brain is responsible for higher cognitive functions and voluntary activities. Imagine it as the CEO of a company, overseeing everything.

Lobes of the Cerebrum

• Frontal Lobe: This lobe manages skills like reasoning, planning, and problem-solving. It’s also home to the Broca’s area, which is crucial for speech production.
• Parietal Lobe: Responsible for processing sensory information, such as touch and temperature. Its surface area is marked by sulci and gyri, increasing the cortex’s capacity to house neuron cell bodies.
• Temporal Lobe: This is the brain’s auditory area, serving as a memory bank and processing sounds.
• Occipital Lobe: The primary visual processing center, akin to the graphics card of a computer. It interprets images from the optic nerves.

The Cerebellum: The Brain’s Coordinator

The cerebellum, part of the hindbrain, is essential for muscle co-ordination and maintaining posture and balance. With its white matter tracts resembling a tree, it connects to the brainstem and ensures smooth movements.

The Brainstem: The Bridge to the Spinal Cord

The brainstem is a crucial structure, connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It’s divided into three main parts:

• Midbrain: This section controls reflex movements of the eyes and head.
• Pons: Located below the midbrain, the pons plays a role in controlling breathing and relaying signals between different parts of the brain. Ever wondered about the function of the pons? It’s also involved in functions like swallow, cough, and sneeze.
• Medulla Oblongata: This part controls vital functions like heart rate and blood pressure. It’s also the point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.

Additional Resources

For those interested in diving deeper, there are pdf files, google slides, and PPT presentations available for download. These resources include detailed diagrams, images, and specific functions of each brain part. Whether you’re preparing for a class or just curious, these resources are invaluable.

Related Content: Viewers also liked our segments on the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the cerebral cortex. The cortex contains layers, with the outermost layer being crucial for sensory perception and voluntary motor functions. Don’t miss our recently uploaded content on the peripheral nervous system, cranial nerves, and the brain’s blood supply.

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The brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and soul. Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many things governed by the brain. Protected within the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing – often many at one time. It assembles the messages in a way that has meaning for us, and can store that information in our memory. The brain controls our thoughts, memory and speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the function of many organs within our body. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement. Cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance. Brainstem acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres. They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or paralyzed. Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92% of people.

Brain Diagrams Templates consists of four slides that have beautiful infographics and a modern style. The first slide is a brain infographic divided into six main parts – cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, pons, mesencephalon, thalamus. This slide will primarily be useful to medical professionals and teachers of medical universities. You will be able to use this slide when preparing training courses. Doctors can also prepare their brain studies using this slide. The third slide allows you to display information on the left and right hemispheres of the brain in detail. This slide will be useful in preparing a general biology course for high school students. Also, startups can use this slide when preparing an analytical report on how the brain perceives a new product or technology. The next two slides can be helpful in preparing a course on leadership, memory optimization, or rapid reading. All slides in this template are editable and can be used with any of your other presentations.

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Brain Presentation Templates

Hi dear neurologists, doctors, physicians, and teachers trying to make professional presentations on brain themes stay tuned with slide egg to explore the gallery of free brain powerpoint templates and google slides themes. get slides here to make informative presentations..

Make your presentations bright and engaging with our unique collection of Free Brain PowerPoint Templates and Google Slides Themes!

• Science: These templates are ideal for students, teachers, and scientists who want to explain how the brain works.
• Healthcare: Doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals can use these templates to educate patients about brain health and disorders.
• Psychology: These templates are great for psychologists, therapists, and counselors who want to talk about the brain and behavior.
• Business: Use these slides to present ideas about creativity, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Themes: Explore a wide range of topics, including the human brain, brain anatomy, specific brain regions like the frontal lobe, brain tumor detection, brain differences (left vs right brain), brain injury, brain activity (metabolism), and more!
• Colorful & Clear: Our slides feature eye-catching brain diagrams that are easy to understand. They'll make your presentation informative and visually appealing.
• Easy Customization: All of our slides are 100% editable. You can change the colors, text, and graphics to perfectly match your presentation style.
• Multiple Choices: No matter what screen size you prefer, we've got you covered. Our slides come in both 4:3 and 16:9 formats, and you can choose portrait or landscape orientation.
• Free & Paid Options: We provide both free and paid template options to accommodate your budget.
• Teachers & Students: Engage young minds with bright visuals and clear explanations.
• Professors & Researchers: Present complex brain science concepts in an easy-to-understand format.
• Doctors & Healthcare Professionals: Educate patients about their brains in a clear, professional way.
• Business Professionals: Capture attention and boost creativity with unique brain-themed slides.

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What are brain powerpoint templates.

Brain PowerPoint templates come with images of a neuron and depictions of the brain as the background of the presenting concept.

Where can we use these Brain Templates?

With the aid of these templates, brain researchers can merge data from numerous subjects to create cohort signals and the anatomical organization of neurons.

How can I make a Brain Template in a presentation?

Create a slide containing images of the human brain using the insert option. You can also browse pre-made collections of brain slides and presentation themes for styles and visuals.

Who can use these Brain Templates?

These templates can help neuroscientists comprehend how the brain functions when ill. Teachers and scientists can also use these layouts.

Why do we need to use the Brain slides?

Brain models can describe how neurons function and the body's overall control system. These visuals will help you keep the show interesting and appealing.

Where can I find Brain templates for free?

You may obtain free slides from a number of places. Right away, go to Slide Egg to obtain the trendiest designs for free.

Brain Slide Template for PowerPoint

The Brain Slide Template for PowerPoint is an editable slide with brain illustrations. Using PowerPoint shapes and shadow effects, we have created this customizable brain diagram representing multiple brain lobes and sections. The curvatures of the brain are shown as dark lines, and four labeling lines are added to the four major parts of the brain: the forebrain (occipital lobe and cerebrum), midbrain, and brain stem. Users can apply this template in educational presentations, as the mentor can discuss the structure or brain functions with proper labeling. Also, brain infographics are used in brainstorming sessions to demonstrate the conclusions of brainstorming with different teams. The brain illustrations can also be used as a metaphor to discuss the quorum of any organization or business where different parts are shown as teams or executives.

Our Brain Slide Template for PowerPoint can be customized for any application according to the requirements. Presenters can change the tags and add the relevant descriptions. The font styles, colors, and placement of the description text boxes can be modified to fit any use case. Users can duplicate the labels and place them to display more than four sections. The slide is provided in two background color variants; presenters can choose between the two and incorporate the presentation points. Professionals can use the template slide in their presentations or the brain infographic diagram on other slides. The background of our brain slide template for PowerPoint also reacts to the design changes. This template is fully compatible with all PowerPoint versions, Apple Keynote, and Google Slides.

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Neurology Presentation templates

The nervous system is quite complex. the brain, the skin, the muscles, there's not a single part of our body that doesn't play a part let's see what the reaction of your audience is when exposed to an stimulus such as that from witnessing these google slides themes & powerpoint templates about neurology..

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Parts of the Human Brain and their functions

Jul 24, 2014

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Parts of the Human Brain and their functions. The Human Brain. The human brain is the most complex structure in the known universe. It is the organ that allows you to think, have emotions, move, and even dream – representing the real “you.”

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The Human Brain • The human brain is the most complex structure in the known universe. • It is the organ that allows you to think, have emotions, move, and even dream – representing the real “you.” • It is made up of protein, fat, fluid, and weighs approximately 3 pounds. • Traditionally, the brain has been divided into 3 major subdivisions: • The Hindbrain • The Midbrain • The Forebrain

The Hindbrain • The oldest and most primitive level of the brain. • Responsible for our primal instincts and most basic functions. • Damage to this part of the brain will result in death or the need to be sustained on life support.

Brainstem • As the spinal cord enters the brain, it enlarges to form the brainstem. • Attached to the brainstem are the major portions of the hindbrain: the cerebellum, the pons, and the medulla oblangata.

Medulla Oblongata • The medulla is the first structure encountered after leaving the spinal cord. • Plays an important role in vital body functions such as heart rate, respiration and blood pressure which allow you to live. • Functions occur automatically (involuntarily) • A two-way thoroughfare for all sensory and motor nerve tracts between spinal cord and brain • Most of these tracts cross over within the medulla resulting in a crossover of sensory input and motor control

PONS • Meaning ‘bridge’ in Latin, the pons lies above the medulla. • It serves as a bridge carrying nerve impulses between higher and lower levels of the nervous system. • Contains clusters of neurons that help regulate sleep and are involved in dreaming. • Contains motor neurons that control muscles and glands in the face and neck. • Also helps control vital functions, especially respiration.

CEREBELLUm • Meaning ‘little brain’ in Latin, the cerebellum does indeed look like a mini-brain attached to the rear of the brainstem. • The motor coordination centre of the brain – controls muscular movement and coordination. • Specific motor movements are initiated in higher brain centres, but their timing and coordination depend on the cerebellum. • Cats have an especially well-developed cerebellum, helping to account for their graceful and agile movements. • The cerebellum also plays a role in certain types of learning and memory.

Alcohol easily disrupts the coordination of the cerebellum (hence the use of roadside sobriety tests by police). • Physical damage results in severe motor disturbances characterized by jerky, uncoordinated movements, as well as an inability to perform habitual movements such as walking. • Conditions that affect the cerebellum: • Multiple Sclerosis • Stroke • Concussions • Vertigo

The Midbrain • The smallest part of the brain. • Lies just above the hindbrain. • Contains clusters of sensory and motor neurons, as well as many sensory and motor fibre tracts that connect higher and lower portions of the nervous system.

Reticular formation • The brain’s gatekeeper. • Located inside the brainstem, the reticular formation is a finger-shaped structure that extends from the hindbrain up into the lower portions of the forebrain. • The reticular formation acts as a sentry, both alerting higher centres of the brain that messages are coming (the ascending portion) and then either blocking those messages or allowing them to go forward (the descending portion). • Affects consciousness, sleep/wakefulness, and attention.

Some general anaesthetics work by deactivating neurons in the ascending reticular formation, producing a state of unconsciousness in which the sensory impulses that ordinarily would be experienced as pain never register in the sensory areas of the brain involved in pain perception. • In a set of classic experiments in the 1940s, researchers discovered that electrical stimulation of different portions of the reticular formation can produce instant sleep in a wakeful animal and sudden wakefulness in a sleeping animal. • Severe damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent coma.

The Forebrain • The largest and most recently developed part of the brain. • The most profound biological difference between your brain and that of a lower animal is the size and complexity of your cerebrum. • Consists of 2 large cerebral hemispheres – left and right. • Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 regions, or lobes. • Frontal • Parietal • Temporal • Occipital

Corpus Callosum • Bridge that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, passing information from one half of the brain to the other. • Seen as a mass of white matter.

Thalamus • The brain’s sensory switchboard. • Located above the midbrain, the thalamus resembles a pair of egg-shaped structures (one within each cerebral hemisphere). • An important sensory relay station that receives information from all of the senses (except smell) and routes it to higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting and touching. • Also receives some of the higher brain’s replies and directs it to the cerebellum and medulla.

Because of its key role in routing sensory information, disrupted thalamic functioning can produce a highly confusing world for its victims. • Conditions that affect the thalamus: • Schizophrenia

Basal Ganglia • Surrounding and enveloping the thalamus are a group of at least 5 distinct features that are collectively called the basal ganglia. • Whereas the cerebellum is critical for reflexive, automatic, and rapid movements, the basal ganglia plays a critical role in the deliberate and voluntary control of movement. • Conditions that affect the basal ganglia: • Parkinson’s Disease • Tourette’s Disorder • Cerebral Palsy • Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Hypothalamus • Meaning literally “under the thalamus.” • Plays a major role in controlling many different basic biological drives, including sexual behaviour, body temperature regulation, eating/drinking, aggression, and the expression of emotion. • Takes order from other parts of the brain. • Through its connection with the pituitary gland, directly controls many hormonal secretions that regulate sexual development and behaviour, metabolism, and reactions to stress.

Pituitary GLand • Master gland that exerts control over the other glands of the endocrine system. • Tear-shaped structure connected to the hypothalamus. • Releases hormonal secretions to the hypothalamus.

Limbic System • Is made up of a set of structures including the hippocampus, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens. • Helps to coordinate behaviours needed to satisfy motivational and emotional urges that arise in the hypothalamus. • Also plays a role in memory.

Hippocampus • Acts much like a computer processing and storing information. • Involved in forming and retrieving memories. • Processes and stores new and temporary memory information for long-term storage. • Damage can result in severe memory impairment for recent events, and an inability to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory. • Conditions that affect the hippocampus: • Amnesia

Amygdala • Means ‘almond’ in Latin (for its shape). • Plays a large role in the production of our emotions, especially aggression and fear. • Its been found to trigger responses to strong emotions such as sweaty palms, chills, increased heart rate and breathing, and stress hormone release.

Nucleus Accumbens • The pleasure centre of the brain. • Rewards and motivation play an important role. • Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine, amphetamines, opiates, nicotine, and alcohol, all stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, as do naturally occurring rewards such as food and sexual behaviour.

Cerebral Cortex • Outermost layer of the brain (1 cm thick sheet of grey cells); represents 80% of brain tissue. • The crowning achievement of brain evolution as no fish or amphibian has one. • Progression from more primitive to more advanced mammals is marked by a dramatic increase in the proportion of cortical tissue. • the cortex makes up 80% of the human brain. • The CEO of the brain. • Not essential for physical survival, but is essential for quality of living. • Deep fissures (folds) within it are what help divide the brain into left and right hemispheres, and lobes.

Association Cortex • Found within all lobes of the brain. • Referred to as “silent areas” because electrically stimulating them does not give rise to either sensory experiences or motor responses. • Critically involved in the highest level of mental functions including perception, language, and thought.

Frontal Lobe • Located behind your eyes and forehead. • Responsible for speech, emotion, behaviour, movement, decision-making, problem-solving, and planning. • MOTOR CORTEX • Located at the rear of the frontal lobe • Out-going messages • Controls over 600 muscles involved in voluntary body movements • Each cerebral hemisphere governs movement on the opposite side of the body • Specific body areas are represented in different parts of the motor cortex, and the amount of cortex devoted to each area depends on the complexity of the movements that are carried out by the body part

Motor and somatic sensory cortices

Parietal Lobe • Located at the top and to the rear of your head. • Concerned with the reception and processing of sensory information from the body. • Allows us to process pain, pressure, and other physical sensations and identify objects. • SOMATIC SENSORY CORTEX • Located at the front of the parietal lobe • Incoming messages • Receives sensory input that gives rise to our sensations of heat, cold, touch, and our senses of balance and body movement • As in the case of the adjacent motor cortex, each side of the body sends sensory input to the opposite cerebral hemisphere • Likewise, the amount of cortex devoted to each body areas is directly proportional to that region’s sensory sensitivity

Temporal Lobe • Located just above the ears. • Controls memory, personality, hearing, and language. • WERNICKE’S AREA • Located in the temporal lobe • Named for Carl Wernicke who discovered that damage to this cortical region left patients unable to understand written or spoken speech • Involved in language and comprehension • BROCA’S AREA • Located in the frontal lobe • Named for Paul Broca who discovered that damage to this cortical region left patients with the ability to comprehend speech but not to express themselves in words or sentences • Necessary for normal speech production

Occipital Lobe • Located at the back of your head. • Processes visual stimuli and allows the brain to process light and objects.

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