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122 Civil Rights Movement Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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The Civil Rights Movement is a pivotal period in American history that brought about significant social and political changes. It is a topic that has captivated scholars, researchers, and students alike, as its impact on society continues to reverberate today. If you are tasked with writing an essay on the Civil Rights Movement and are struggling to find the perfect topic, look no further. In this article, we have compiled 122 essay topic ideas and examples that will help you explore different aspects of this influential movement.

• The role of grassroots organizations in the Civil Rights Movement.
• Examining the impact of Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat on the bus.
• The significance of the Montgomery Bus Boycott in the Civil Rights Movement.
• Analyzing the leadership styles of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X.
• The nonviolent philosophy of the Civil Rights Movement and its effectiveness.
• The influence of the Harlem Renaissance on the Civil Rights Movement.
• Investigating the role of women in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on American society.
• The role of media coverage in shaping public opinion during the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Brown v. Board of Education decision on school desegregation.
• The Freedom Rides and their contribution to the Civil Rights Movement.
• Comparing and contrasting the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement.
• The role of music in inspiring and mobilizing the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of the Black Panther Party on the Civil Rights Movement.
• The Civil Rights Movement's impact on other social justice movements.
• The experiences of African American soldiers in World War II and their influence on the Civil Rights Movement.
• Examining the role of white allies in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the feminist movement.
• The role of the Supreme Court in advancing civil rights.
• The Civil Rights Movement's impact on voting rights and political participation.
• The role of churches and religious leaders in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the LGBTQ+ rights movement.
• Investigating the role of non-African American activists in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The role of education in promoting civil rights and equality.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the criminal justice system.
• The Civil Rights Movement's influence on the disability rights movement.
• The role of student activists in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on immigration policies.
• The role of grassroots journalism in documenting the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of international events on the Civil Rights Movement.
• The Civil Rights Movement's impact on affirmative action policies.
• Examining the role of the National Urban League in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on housing segregation.
• The role of boycotts in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The Civil Rights Movement's influence on the labor movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on Native American rights.
• The role of local activists in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the fight against poverty.
• Examining the role of children and youth in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on public transportation policies.
• The role of the Black Church in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of international figures, such as Nelson Mandela, on the Civil Rights Movement.
• Examining the role of African American athletes in the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African Americans in the media.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging stereotypes and promoting cultural pride.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the decolonization movement in Africa.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in the fight against apartheid in South Africa.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the desegregation of public spaces.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging discriminatory employment practices.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of Black Studies programs in universities.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in promoting multiculturalism and diversity.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African American history in textbooks.
• The role of community organizing in the success of the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of ethnic studies programs.
• Examining the role of women in the leadership of the Civil Rights Movement.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the fight against police brutality.
• The role of literature and poetry in capturing the spirit of the Civil Rights Movement.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of Black-owned businesses.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in the fight against environmental racism.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African Americans in politics.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging discriminatory housing practices.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of multicultural education.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in promoting interracial relationships.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of African American arts and culture.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging discriminatory healthcare practices.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of African American studies programs.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in promoting restorative justice practices.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African Americans in the military.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging discriminatory lending practices.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of Black feminist theory.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in promoting inclusive immigration policies.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African Americans in Hollywood.
• The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging discriminatory healthcare access.
• The influence of the Civil Rights Movement on the development of African American museums and cultural institutions.
• Examining the role of the Civil Rights Movement in promoting LGBTQ+ rights.
• The impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the representation of African Americans in sports.

These essay topic ideas provide a wide range of avenues for exploration within the Civil Rights Movement. Whether you are interested in the experiences of specific individuals, the impact on various social issues, or the movement's influence on other movements, you are sure to find a topic that suits your interests. Remember to conduct thorough research, cite reliable sources, and present a well-structured argument in your essay to effectively delve into the complexities of the Civil Rights Movement.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — History of the United States — Civil Rights Movement

Essays on Civil Rights Movement

Hook examples for civil rights movement essays, anecdotal hook.

Imagine standing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963, listening to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. deliver his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech. This moment in history epitomized the Civil Rights Movement's power and importance.

Question Hook

What does it mean to fight for civil rights? Explore the complex history, key figures, and lasting impact of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.

Quotation Hook

"Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter." — Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. How did civil rights activists like King refuse to stay silent and ignite change?

Statistical or Factual Hook

Did you know that in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was signed into law, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin? Dive into the facts and milestones of the Civil Rights Movement.

Definition Hook

What defines a civil rights movement? Explore the principles, goals, and strategies that distinguish civil rights movements from other social justice movements.

Rhetorical Question Hook

Was the Civil Rights Movement solely about racial equality, or did it pave the way for broader social change and justice? Examine the movement's multifaceted impact.

Historical Hook

Travel back in time to the mid-20th century and uncover the roots of the Civil Rights Movement, from the Jim Crow era to the landmark Supreme Court decisions.

Contrast Hook

Contrast the injustices and systemic racism faced by African Americans prior to the Civil Rights Movement with the progress made through protests, legislation, and activism.

Narrative Hook

Meet Rosa Parks, a seamstress who refused to give up her bus seat, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Follow her courageous journey and the ripple effect it had on the Civil Rights Movement.

Controversial Statement Hook

Prepare to explore the controversies within the Civil Rights Movement, such as differing strategies among activists and debates over nonviolence versus militancy.

The History of The Civil Rights Movement in The United States of America

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History of The Civil Rights Movement in America

Civil rights movement and the struggles of african americans during those times, the impact of martin luther king on civil rights movements, the contradicting outcome of the civil rights movement in america, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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The Role of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X in Civil Rights Movement

How the civil rights movement helped african americans achieve their rights, martin luther king jr: influential figure in the civil rights movement, how martin luther king jr, rosa parks and malcolm x organized the civil rights movement, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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The Role of The Media in Ushering The Civil Rights Movement

Development of racial tendencies in the united states, the civil rights movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s, a deeper look at the civil rights movement in america, generation of the civil rights movement, black lives matter in the civil rights movement, the civil rights movement about african american people, the civil rights movement and african american discriminations, a report on the events that helped martin luther king jr.'s prominence in america to push the civil rights movement, the civil rights movement about national indentify, the influence of jazz musicians on the civil rights movement, rosa parks and the civil rights movement, the contribution of local grass-roots activists to the civil rights movement, rosa parks: the lady of the civil rights, brown vs board of education, the way rosa parks leadership style changed the history, rosa parks: how one bold decision made a world leader, reason of the black lives matter movement, rosa parks - the face of pure humility, rosa parks - the face of the african-american rights movement.

United States

Racism, segregation, disenfranchisement, Jim Crow laws, socioeconomic inequality

W.E.B. Du Bois, Jesse Jackson, Martin Luther King, Jr., Henry MacNeal Turner, John Oliver Killens

Civil rights movement was a struggle of African Americans and their like-minded allies for social justice in United States that came to national prominence during the mid-1950s. The purpose was to end legalized racial discrimination, disenfranchisement and racial segregation in the United States.

“Jim Crow” laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century with a purpose to separate Black people from white people. Black people couldn’t use the same public facilities as white people or go to the same schools. Although, Jim Crow laws weren’t adopted in northern states, Black people still experienced discrimination.

Forms of protest and civil disobedience included boycotts, such as the most successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) that lasted for 381 days in Alabama; mass marches, such as the Children's Crusade in Birmingham in 1963 and Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama; "sit-ins" such as the Greensboro sit-ins (1960) in North Carolina and Nashville sit-ins (1960) in Tennessee.

The Great March on Washington was held in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963. The purpose was to advocate for the civil and economic rights of African Americans. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King, Jr., who delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech.

On July 2, 1964, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, and later sexual orientation and gender identity. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history".

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders. On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally and Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room’s balcony on April 4, 1968.

The Civil Rights Act of 1968 was signed into law by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during the King assassination riots. It prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin.

The 20th-century civil rights movement produced an enduring transformation of the legal status of African Americans and other victims of discrimination.

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Civil Rights in the United States

Civil rights movement, government materials related to the civil rights era, primary sources: general.

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(Also see Africana Studies Primary Sources )

• History Vault: Civil Rights and the Black Freedom Struggle This link opens in a new window Manuscript and archival collections focusing on civil rights and the Black Freedom Movement of the 20th Century. Contains records of four of the most important civil rights organizations of the 1950s and 1960s: NAACP, SCLC, SNCC, and CORE.
• Black Life in America This link opens in a new window The experience and impact of African Americans, as recorded by the news media.
• The Black Panther (Newspaper) The newspaper of the Black Panther Party. Twenty issues of the Black Panther Party newspaper from between 1968-1973. The papers are posted on Libcom.org.
• Civil Rights (National Archives)
• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Library of Congress) Exhibition commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the history that led up to it, and its immediate impact.
• Civil Rights Digital Library: Topics (Digital Library of Georgia) Select a topic to see archival collections and reference resources, many of which are available online.
• Civil Rights History Project (Library of Congress) Oral interviews and collections of people who participated in the Civil Rights movement.
• FBI Records: The Vault - Civil Rights FBI records included in the FOIA (Freedom of Information Act) Library.
• Freedom Summer Collection (Wisconsin Historical Society) Manuscript collections documents the Mississippi Freedom Summer Project of 1964
• Hispanic Life in America This link opens in a new window The experience and impact of Hispanic Americans, as recorded by the news media.
• Historical Publications of the United States Commission on Civil Rights Documents from this commission, which have been at the forefront of federal and state efforts for civil rights.
• Jim Crow and Segregation (Library of Congress) Set of primary sources that reflects popular views of and causes and affects of racial segregation.
• The Krueger-Scott Oral History Project The Krueger-Scott oral histories is the largest collection of oral history interviews conducted with African-American residents of Newark who came to the city during the Great Migration, as well as those whose local roots stretch back generations. The faculty, staff and graduate students at Rutgers University-Newark who have worked on the collection in collaboration with local cultural institutions are proud to have helped preserve, archive, and make public these remarkable oral narratives that describe an as yet unwritten history of 20th-century African-American life. (source: website)
• Land of (Unequal) Opportunity: Documenting the Civil Rights Struggle in Arkansas From the University of Arkansas
• The NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom The story of America's oldest and largest civil rights organization, told through letters, photographs, maps, and more. Part of the Library of Congress Primary Source sets.
• National Archives Civil Rights Records
• National Museum of African American History & Culture: Collections (Smithsonian) The National Museum of African American History and Culture is the only national museum devoted exclusively to the documentation of African American life, history, and culture.
• Voices of Civil Rights (Library of Congress) Exhibition that includes personal accounts and oral hstories. A collaboration of AARP, the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, and the Library of Congress.
• Seminal Documents of the Civil Rights Movement

Civil Rights Data Collection

From the U.S. Department of Education

Illustrates that Civil Rights is not a historical phenomenon but an ongoing issue in the United States.

Library of Congress: Civil Rights Resource Guide

Links to over forty sites related to civil rights, library of congress: american memory, an important site from the library of congress. use the search box to find matches to terms such as civil rights, jim crow, martin luther king, etc., national museum of african american history and culture, a comprehensive smithsonian museum website.

In history and the humanities a primary source is a item produced from the time you are researching. Examples include a photograph, a letter, a newspaper article, and government documents.  Looking at actual sources from a specific time helps you get a firsthand account of what was happening then.

These resources will help you locate relevant primary sources. (See Primary Source Research for more guidance.)

Archives of searchable historical primary source materials. Note: This content has moved to the History Commons platform, but still contains the Accessible Archives collections subscribed to by Rowan University.

• African American Newspapers, Series 1 This link opens in a new window African American newspapers published in the U.S. from 1827-1998. more... less... Provides access to U.S. newspapers chronicling a century and a half of the African American experience.

Digital collection of historical documents from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.

Collections cover a broad range of topics from the Middle Ages forward-from Witchcraft to World War II to twentieth-century political history.

• Historic Documents This link opens in a new window Primary source documents from 1972 forward in U.S. government and politics.

National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)

New york public library digital collections.

Online access to back issues of the Wall Street Journal, 1889 - 1999.

Newspaper coverage is from 1889 through 1996. For more recent issues of the Wall Street Journal, select the Wall Street Journal (current) link.

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The Civil Rights Movement in the United States Essay

The “I Have a Dream” speech by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is a powerful message that remains relevant to both the United States and the world even today. The speech is full of outrage, contains allusions to the Bible and the US Declaration of Independence. It is considered one of the best in the history of mankind. The main theses of King’s political speeches were not only the equalization of the rights of Whites and Blacks, but also a more global idea – world peace for the sake of the prosperity of humanity. According to Corbett et al. (2017), King’s speech became the peak of the Civil Rights Movement, legitimizing its goals.

The March was organized by Philip Randolph and Bayard Ruston to advocate for the civil and economic rights of the blacks in the United States. In the United States, the 1960s was characterized by the rise of Civil Rights Movements, the aim of which was to suppress and end discrimination and racial segregation against African Americans.

It was during the 1960s that the African Americans began realizing accomplishments in their struggle for civil rights, and using them as a base for fighting further. Galvin (2020) states that “the basic narrative of justice is of a brutally oppressed people who took the initiative, defined their own needs, and demanded freedom” (p. 1). The most used strategies by the Civil Rights Movement included freedom rides, boycotts, voter registration drives, marches, and sit-ins. This article seeks to discuss the impact of the 1960s Civil Rights Movements on the nation and minority groups and whether the ideas of the 1960s still have relevance today.

The Civil Rights Movements of the 1960s did not effectively change the nation. Some might argue that African Americans did not benefit that much from the new regulations brought by the movement. According to Bloom and Hatcher (2019), “the Civil Rights Movement confronted the denial of political rights to Blacks, forced segregation, and the degradation of Blacks to second-grade class citizenship” (p. 5). However, the White people were still significantly more privileged than the Black Americans, remaining on top of society. The biggest failure of the Civil Rights Movement was in relation to poverty and economic discrimination.

There was still a high prevalence of discrimination in employment and housing despite the laws being passed. Further, the business owned by minority groups were still denied equality in regards to access to financing, markets, and capital. As a result, many African Americans and other minority groups remained poor and further frustrated by never-ending police harassment, discrimination, and low standards of living. From these, many boycott groups arose, such as, for example, Black Panthers.

The Civil Rights Act had a large impact on the minority groups across the continent. The action initiated a greater federal role in protecting the rights of the minorities by increasing the protection of their voting rights. The Jim Crow laws ended with the establishment of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. Moreover, federal penalties for those who violated the civil rights of people, especially working class, were established by the Civil Rights Act of 1968. It further outlawed discrimination of minorities in the sale and rental of about eighty percent of housing in the United States.

The tactics and strategies that were used in the 1960s by civil rights activists would not apply to today’s racial and ethnic conflicts. As stated earlier, some of the popular strategies adopted by the Civil Rights Movement in their fight against racial and ethnic conflicts were based on the notion of non-violent civil disobedience. Pineda (2021) claims that “the Civil Rights Movement is not only a powerful example of civil disobedience, but also a horizon of judgement of all civil disobedience” (p. 1). These methods of protests included freedom rides, boycotts, sit-ins, voter registration drives, and marches. As we are aware by now, these strategies by Civil Rights Movements were not effective in regards to implementation. Therefore, since it was not successfully implemented in the 1960s, then there are higher chances that it may not be effective in solving the racial and ethnic conflicts of today.

It is worth mentioning that racial and ethnic conflicts are on the rise today in the United States and other parts of the world. In order to effectively reduce the racial and ethnic prejudice experienced today, the strategies to be applied needs to address both institutional and individual sources of prejudice. Further, the strategies should receive the support and active participation of those with authority and power in any given setting. In addition, these strategies need to examine similarities and differences across and within racial and ethnic groups. This includes differences related to gender, social class, and language.

The ideas of the 1960s still have relevance in the current era despite the tremendous progress witnessed in the United States since then. For example, African-American students still experience racial discrimination in the field of education even today. According to the U.S Department of Education’s Civil Rights office, there is still opportunity gaps existing in public schools across the United States. In addition, there are some discriminatory policies and practices that still exist in schools that prevent students of color from accessing quality education. In addition, racial inequality and poverty among African Americans are still prevalent.

One relevant example is that Hurricane Katrina mainly affected the African Americans who were concentrated in poor neighborhoods, as was still the case in the 1960s. There have been activities in the current era which have been inspired by the Civil Rights Movements, including the immigrant rights demonstrations and the formation of various Latino civil rights and women’s rights movements.

Although this historical event happened a long time ago, the general idea of the Civil Rights Movement is modern and relevant to this day. As stated by Martin Luther King, it is impossible to win by responding with violence to violence. Martin Luther King’s insistent calls for unity and nonviolent action in response to oppression and brutality are worthy of deep respect and long memory. His speeches have become key moments in American history in the struggle for racial justice. The Civil Rights Movement can also have a major impact on diversity in America today. Civil rights vary greatly over time, culture, and form of government.

Therefore, they tend to follow societal trends that condemn particular types of discrimination. For example, the LGBTQ+ community, which has been actively advocating for the rights of all queer people for the last fifty years. Aside from fighting against discrimination in the LGBTQ society, the Civil Rights Movement can help fight the discrimination against Arab Americans, which rose after the terror attacks of the 11th of September, 2001, otherwise known as 9/11.

Bloom, J. M., & Hatcher, R. G. (2019). Class, race, and the Civil Rights Movement . Indiana University Press.

Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T. J., & Vickery, P. S. (2017). U.S. history. OpenStax, Rice University.

Galvin, R. (2020). “ Let justice roll down like waters”: Reconnecting Energy Justice to its roots in the Civil Rights Movement . Energy Research & Social Science , 62 , 101385. Web.

Pineda, E. R. (2021). Seeing like an activist: Civil disobedience and the Civil Rights Movement . Oxford University Press.

• Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Leader of the Civil Rights Movement
• Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Steve Jobs: Comparison
• Cleveland Sellers on Nonviolent Civil Rights Activities
• When are electoral boycotts successful in inducing regime change?
• Reducing the Number of Call-Ins in the Hospital
• Rosa Parks and Act of Civil Rights Defiance
• The Fighter for Equality: Nelson Mandela
• Louis Armstrong as Civil Right Activist
• “The Souls of Black Folk” and the Civil Rights Movement
• The Souls of Black Folk: Problems and Solutions
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Members of the “Washington Freedom Riders Committee,” en route to Washington, D.C., hang signs from bus windows to protest segregation, New York, 1961. Copyprint. New York World-Telegram and Sun Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress. Digital ID # cph 3c25958

The Relocation of Japanese-Americans, 1942-1946. Crowd behind barbed wire fence at the Santa Anita Assembly Center in California, wave to friends on train departing for various relocation centers located throughout the United States, 1942. Photograph by Julian F. Fowlkes. Copyprint. U.S. Signal Corps, Wartime Civil Control Administration, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (3) Digital ID# cph 3b07599

One of the thousands of marchers who participated in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, in Washington, DC.  Source:  National Archives, Records of the U.S. Information Agency; Link: http://www.digitalvaults.org/record/1482.html?print=1

President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 while Dr. King and others look on. Photo from the Congress on Racial Equality's website: http://www.core-online.org/History/voting_rights.htm

Brown v. Board of Education, 1954. George E.C. Hayes, Thurgood Marshall, and James M. Nabrit, following Supreme Court decision ending segregation. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (9) Reproduction # LC-USZ62-111236 (b&w film copy neg.)

Community and human rights activist, Harvey Milk, was the first openly gay person elected to public office in 1977.

A telephone switchboard during World War II.  Source: National Archives, Records of the Women’s Bureau; Link:  http://www.digitalvaults.org/record/2786.html?print=1

Father James Groppi with protestors, at Wisconsin State Capital during welfare protests.  Wisconsin Historical Society, Father Groppi and Protestors, 4934. Viewed online at http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Content.aspx?dsNav=N:4294963828-4294955414&dsRecordDetails=R:IM4934

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Civil Rights during the Bush Administration  Civil Rights during the Bush Administration: Subject File of the White House Office of Records Management, 1989-1993, documents civil rights legislation and other human rights issues from 1989-1993. The collection is organized according to the White House Office of Records Management filing system. The documents cover the following categories: human rights, equality, education, employment, ethnic origin groups, right to housing, voting rights, women, freedoms, civil disturbances, genocide, and ideologies. 

Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section A   Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section A, compiles a large set of documents on significant civil rights issues, events, and personalities during the 1977-1981 presidency of Jimmy Carter. Reflecting the concern by both administration officials and minority group leaders that economic discrimination had become the most important manifestation of racial prejudice, the collection includes as much material on employment and minority business as on social topics like education and housing. 

Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section B   Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section B compiles a large set of documents on significant civil rights issues, events, and personalities during the 1977-1981 presidency of Jimmy Carter. The focus of the documents is on both positive and negative aspects: equal opportunity on the one side, entrenched discrimination on the other. 

Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section C   Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section C brings together a large set of documents on significant civil rights issues, events, and personalities during the 1977-1981 presidency of Jimmy Carter. 

Civil Rights during the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section D   Civil Rights During the Carter Administration, 1977-1981, Part 1: Papers of the Special Assistant for Black Affairs, Section D compiles a large set of documents on significant civil rights issues, events, and personalities during Jimmy Carter's presidency. Reflecting the concern by administration officials and minority group leaders that economic discrimination had become the leading manifestation of racial prejudice, the collection includes as much material on employment and minority business as on social topics like education and housing. 

Civil Rights during the Eisenhower Administration, Part 1: White House Central Files, Series A, School Desegregation   Civil Rights During the Eisenhower Administration, Part 1: White House Central Files, Series A: School Desegregation brings together a large amount of material on the civil rights issues, events, and personalities that rose to prominence during the 1953-1961 presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower, a critical period in the history of the civil rights movement in the United States. 

Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part I: The White House Central Files   The purpose of the new series, Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, is to gather a selection of major documents from three key types of records at the Johnson Library--White House Central Files and Aides Files, the Administrative History of an important agency, and oral histories--and to make these readily available to scholars everywhere. 

Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part II: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: Administrative History   Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part II: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: Administrative History consists of two sets of files on the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library: administrative history files and White House Central Files. The White House Central Files are further broken down into federal correspondence, files of Bill Moyers, and files of George Reedy. The collection contains mainly reports, correspondence, studies, and hearing transcripts. 

Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part III: Oral Histories   Interviews with a large number of civil rights advocates--including Charles Evers, James Farmer, Aaron Henry, Clarence Mitchell, Joseph Rauh, Bayard Rustin, Roy Wilkins, Andrew Young, and Whitney Young--portray events from a vantage point away from Washington and provide a measure of Johnson's performance by representatives of the civil rights movement which stirred presidential action in the first place. 

Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part IV. Papers of the White House Conference on Civil Rights   The White House Conference on Civil Rights occurred at a crossroads for the civil rights movement and the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson. Originally conceived in mid-1965 by the president and his advisers at the height of cooperation between civil rights workers and the federal government, the conference was held a year later during deteriorating relations between activists and Washington.  

Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969, Part V: Records of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission)   Records of the National Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission) include transcripts and background material of Commission meetings and Commission and staff subject [office] files. The addenda includes a copy of the Final Report, copies of Army After Action Reports, and previously restricted material from the Office of Investigations--City Files on Detroit. 

Civil Rights during the Kennedy Administration, 1961-1963, Part 1: The White House Central Files and Staff Files and the President's Office Files   The White House Central Files were designed as a reference service for the president and his staff to document White House activities. The Central Files consist of four major components: the Subject File, the Name File, the Chronological File, and the Confidential File. The Name File is essentially an index to the Subject File. The Chronological File contains only copies of outgoing correspondence.  

Civil Rights during the Kennedy Administration, 1961-1963, Part 2: The Papers of Burke Marshall, Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights   This collection includes the following files: Chronological Correspondence File (February 1961-January 1965), Alphabetical Correspondence File and General Correspondence File (January 1961-December 1964), Special Correspondence File (July 1961-September 1964), Telephone Logs (February 1961-May 1965), Civil Rights Division Reports (1961-1964), Alabama File (1962-1964), Mississippi File (1962-1964), School File (1961-1964), Case Documents File, Civil Rights Act of 1964 File, and Subject File. 

Civil Rights during the Kennedy Administration, 1961-1963, Part 3: The Civil Rights Files of Lee C. White   This series deals with both civil rights in general and specific topics such as education, equal employment opportunity, and housing. It also contains material relating to activities of the Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights and meetings of various citizens' groups concerning civil rights. 

Civil Rights during the Nixon Administration, 1969-1974, Part 1: The White House Central Files   The Subject File of the White House Central Files contains correspondence and reports pertaining to the functions and operations of the White House; the federal government; and state, local, and foreign governments.  

Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government: Records of the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division, 1958-1973   The Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government: Records of the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division, 1958-1973 highlights attempts by the federal government to combat civil rights infringements and violations from 1958 to 1973, with some files dating back to 1918. 

Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government, Records of the Interstate Commerce Commission on Discrimination in Transportation, 1961-1970   This collection includes more than 300 case files of informal complaints that the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) investigated and in many cases sought to remedy through the Commission's Bureau of Enforcement.  

Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government: Records of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Police-Community Relations in Urban Areas, 1954-1966   The collection includes reports on police brutality, false arrests, police inaction, race relations, and police training programs in cities including Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, and St. Louis. Organizations represented in the documents include the Congress of Racial Equality, NAACP, and American Civil Liberties Union.  

Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government: Records of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, School Desegregation in the South, 1965-1966 .   This collection brings together a large number of documents on the implementation of "freedom of choice" school desegregation plans in the South and bordering states. 

Civil Rights Movement and the Federal Government: Records of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Special Projects, 1960-1970   This collection brings together a large set of Commission on Civil Rights documents on significant civil rights issues mainly during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson administrations. 

Department of Justice Classified Subject Files on Civil Rights, 1914-1949   This collection of Department of Justice files on civil rights offers a glimpse into the minds of ordinary men and women, both black and white, in the first half of the twentieth century. Ranging from 1911 until 1943, the documents center broadly on the practice of lynching and specifically upon the thousands of letters written to protest this form of extralegal "punishment." The core of the collection consists of two bundles of letters to the president, covering 1911-1941 and 1921-1940.

Fannie Lou Hamer: Papers of a Civil Rights Activitist, Political Activitist, and Woman   Fannie Lou Hamer was an voting rights activist and civil rights leader. She was instrumental in organizing Mississippi Freedom Summer for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and later became the Vice-Chair of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, attending the 1964 Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in that capacity. Her plain-spoken manner and fervent belief in the Biblical righteousness of her cause gained her a reputation as an electrifying speaker and constant activist of civil rights.

Fight for Racial Justice and the Civil Rights Congress  The Civil Rights Congress (CRC) was established in 1946 to, among other things, "combat all forms of discrimination against…labor, the Negro people and the Jewish people, and racial, political, religious, and national minorities." The CRC arose out of the merger of three groups with ties to the Communist Party, the International Labor Defense (ILD), the National Negro Congress, and the National Federation for Constitutional Liberties. CRC campaigns helped pioneer many of the tactics that civil rights movement activists would employ in the late 1950s and 1960s. The CRC folded in 1955 under pressure from the U.S. Attorney General and the House Un-American Activities Committee, which accused the organization of being subversive.

James Meredith, J. Edgar Hoover, and the Integration of the University of Mississippi   In the fall of 1962 the college town of Oxford, Mississippi, erupted in violence. At the center of the controversy stood James Meredith, an African American who was attempting to register at the all-white University of Mississippi, known as "Ole Miss." Meredith had the support of the federal government, which insisted that Mississippi honor the rights of all its citizens, regardless of race. Mississippi’s refusal led to a showdown between state and federal authorities and the storming of the campus by a segregationist mob. Two people died and dozens were injured. In the end, Ole Miss, the state of Mississippi, and the nation were forever changed. 

Papers of the NAACP, Part 01: Meetings of the Board of Directors, Records of Annual Conferences, Major Speeches, and Special Reports   This collection consists of six sections: the Minutes of the Board of Directors Meetings, 1909-1950; Monthly Reports of NAACP Officers, 1918-1950; Annual Conference Proceedings, 1910-1950; Proceedings of the Annual Business Meetings, 1912-1950; and Special Correspondence, 1910-1939. 

Papers of the NAACP, Part 03: The Campaign for Educational Equality, Series A: Legal Department and Central Office Records, 1913-1940   The documents in this collection are organized into three sections: Administrative File (three series), Legal File (five series), and Addendum File (five series). Material in the Administrative File deals with discrimination in education, discrimination in teachers' salaries, and other general educational issues. 

Rosa Parks Papers    Approximately 7,500  items  as well  as  2,500 photographs, with the bulk of the material dating from 1955 to 2000, documenting many aspects of Parks's private life and public activism on behalf of civil rights for African Americans. 

President Truman's Committee on Civil Rights   President Truman's Committee on Civil Rights spans the period from late 1946, leading up to President Truman's creation of the President's Committee on Civil Rights, established by Executive Order 9808 of December 6, 1946, through completion of the Committee's final report, "To Secure These Rights," in late 1947. 

Ralph J. Bunche Oral Histories Collection on the Civil Rights Movement   The Ralph J. Bunche Oral History Collection from the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center is a unique resource for the study of the era of the American civil rights movement. Included here are transcriptions of close to 700 interviews with those who made history in the struggles for voting rights, against discrimination in housing, for the desegregation of the schools, to expose racism in hiring, in defiance of police brutality, and to address poverty in the African American communities. 

The Bush Presidency and Development and Debate Over Civil Rights Policy and Legislation   This collection contains materials on civil rights, the development of civil rights policy, and the debate over civil rights legislation during the administration of President George H.W. Bush and during his tenure as vice president. Contents of this collection includes memoranda, talking points, correspondence, legal briefs, transcripts, news summaries, draft legislation, statements of administration policy (SAP’s), case histories, legislative histories and news-clippings covering a broad range of civil rights issues.

• We Were Prepared for the Possibility of Death:" Freedom Riders in the South, 1961  

Freedom Riders were civil rights activists that rode interstate buses into the segregated South to test the United States Supreme Court decision in  Boynton v. Virginia.  Boynton had outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines. Five years prior to the Boynton ruling, the Interstate Commerce Commission had issued a ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company that had explicitly denounced the Plessy v. Ferguson doctrine of separate but equal in interstate bus travel, but the ICC had failed to enforce its own ruling, and thus Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South.  Date range: 1961

• The North: Civil Rights and Beyond in Urban America Interactive "living archive" that preserves the stories of the "foot soldiers" of the Civil Rights and other Movements in the North. The first module presents stories from Newark, N.J.

American Civil Liberties Union Archives, 1917-1950

MC001 Seeley G. Mudd Library           Finding Aid

Consists of the records of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), documenting its activities in protecting individual rights under the leadership of Roger Baldwin. Its primary aims have been the defense of free speech and press, separation of church and state, free exercise of religion, due process of law, equal protection of the law, and privacy rights of all citizens. The collection contains primarily correspondence and clippings. Also included are the records of the ACLU’s predecessor organization, the National Civil Liberties Bureau (1917-1920) of the American Union Against Militarism (AUAM) and some material documenting a 1912 Industrial Workers of the World free speech trial.

American Civil Liberties Union Archives, 1950-1995

Documents the activities of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) in protecting individual rights between 1950 and 1995. The collection contains correspondence, clippings, court documents, memoranda, printed matter, minutes, reports, briefs, legal files, exhibit materials, and audio-visual materials. Also included are materials from ACLU affiliate organizations, the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee and national office legal department records (1945-1960).

Bayard Rustin Papers  

RECAP Microfilm 11662                       Printed guide (Film B) E185.97.R93 B392    23 reels

Reproduces the papers of noted civil rights leader and political activist Bayard Rustin.  The originals are in the A. Philip Randolph Institute, New York N.Y., which were later transferred by the Institute to the Library of Congress.

Civil Rights and Social Activism in the South, Series 1-3

RECAP Microfilm 12030           Printed guide (FilmB) E185.6.C585 2007          104 reels

Online guide  to Series 1, Parts 1-2            Online guide  to Series 2

Series 1, Civil rights and social activism in Alabama. Part 1, The John L. LeFlore papers, 1926-1976 (15 reels); Part 2: Records of the Non-Partisan Voters League, 1956-1987 (29 reels) -- Series 2, The Legal Battle for Civil Rights in Alabama. Part 1, Vernon Z. Crawford reords, 1958-1978 (6 reels); Part 2: Selctions from the Blacksher, Menefee & Stein records (37 reels) -- Series 3: James A. Dombrowski and the Southern Conference Educational Fund (17 reels).

Civil Rights During the Bush administration: subject file of the White House Office of Records Management, 1989-1993

RECAP Microfilm 12460          Printed Guide: (FilmB) E185.615 .B87 2008     23 reels

"Microfilmed from the holdings of the George Bush Presidential Library, College Station, Texas."  “The documents reproduced in this publication are records of the Bush Administration, 1989-1993, in the custody of the National Archives."

Civil rights During the Carter administration, 1977-1981

RECAP Microfilm 12451          Printed guide (FilmB) E185.615 .C3518 2006 

Part I, Sections A-D  

Reproduces document files collected by the office of Louis E. Martin, special assistant to the president, whose primary focus was on civil rights issues and minority affairs. Documents include internal White House memoranda, correspondence between White House and federal agency officials, government reports, invitation lists for major events, correspondence from individuals and organizations, and newspaper articles and editorials.

Civil Rights During the Eisenhower Administration

RECAP Microfilm 12450          Printed guide (FilmB) E185.61.C483 2006          14 reels

Part 1. White House central files.  Series A, School desegregation.

Civil Rights During the Kennedy Administration, 1961-1963

RECAP Microfilm 05859                     Printed guide (FilmB) JC599.U5 C59                47 reels

A collection from the holdings of the John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, Massachusetts. Part 1. The White House Central Files and Staff Files and the President’s office Files.  Part 2. The Papers of Burke Marshall, Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights.

Civil Rights During the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969

RECAP Microfilm 05445                     Printed guide (FilmB) JK1717.L38          69 reels

Part 1. White House Central Files.  Part 2. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Administrative History.  Part 3. Oral Histories.  Part 4. Records of the White House Conference on Civil Rights, 1965-1966.  Part 5. Records of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission).

Civil Rights During the Nixon Administration, 1969-1974   

RECAP Microfilm 09172                     Printed guide (FilmB) E185.615. C587          46 reels

Part 1. White House Central Files.

Detroit Urban League Papers, 1916-1950, at the University of Michigan

RECAP Microfilm 09607                     Printed guide (FilmB) F574.D49 N454          35 reels

Fannie Lou Hamer Papers, 1966-1978

RECAP Microfilm 11839                       Printed guide (Film B) E185.97.H35 A3 2005a          17 reels

Noted civil rights activist and co-chair of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. 

FBI file on the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

RECAP Microfilm 09178          Printed guide (FilmB) E185.61 .F355          2 reels

Franklin D. Roosevelt and Race Relations

RECAP Microfilm 12390                     Printed guide: (FilmB) E806 .F6917 2008          18 reels

This is a collection of essential materials for the study of the early development of the Civil Rights Movement--concerned with the issues of lynching, segregation, race riots, and employment discrimination.

Papers of the Civil Rights Congress

Microfilm 11925                     Printed guide (FilmB) E185.61.C59 1988          125 reels

Part 1. Case Files.  Part 2. Files of William Patterson and the National Office.  Part 3. Publications.  Part 4. Communist Party USA files.  Part 5. Citizens Emergency Defense Conference.

“The Civil Rights Congress (CRC) was established in 1946, and fought for the protection of the civil rights and liberties of African Americans and suspected communists primarily through litigation, political agitation, and the mobilization of public sentiment.  African American lawyer and Communist leader William Patterson served as executive secretary of the organization throughout its existence.”

Papers of the Congress of Racial Equality, 1941-1967

RECAP Microfilm 04276           Printed guide (FilmB) Z1361.N39 M46 1980     49 reels

Founded in 1942 by a group of interracial pacifists, CORE was one of the most important national organizations of the African American freedom movement.

Papers of the Congress of Racial Equality: Addendum, 1944-1968

RECAP Microfilm 04562                     Printed Guide (FilmB) E185.61.P36

Papers of the NAACP

RECAP Microfilm 05354                     Printed guide (FilmB) Z1361.N39 G84          1001+ reels

Organization records of America’s oldest and largest civil rights organization.

President Truman’s Commission on Civil Rights

RECAP Microfilm 05573                     Printed guide (FilmB) E813.J84           10 reels

Public Housing, Racial Policies, and Civil Rights : The Inter-Group Relations Branch of the Federal Public Housing Administration, 1936-1963

RECAP Microfilm 0000      Printed guide: NA           31 reels

Records of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1954-1970

RECAP Microfilm 10096                     Printed guide (FilmB) E185.61.S687      61 reels

pt. 1. Records of the President’s office (21 reels) -- pt. 2. Records of the Executive Director and Treasurer (22 reels) -- pt. 3. Records of the Public Relations Dept. (10 reels) -- pt. 4. Records of the Program Dept. (29 reels).

Southern Civil Rights Litigation Records for the 1960s

RECAP Microfilm 05448                    Printed guide (FilmB) KF4756.A1 G84 or (SF) KF4756.A1 G84     170 reels

Contains the records of major civil rights cases from the archives of the Legal Defense Fund of the NAACP, the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law, the Lawyers Constitution Defense Committee, and individual attorneys.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Papers, 1959-1972

Microfilm 04530           Printed guide (FilmB) E185.5.xS78          73 reels

Covers the activities of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) founded in 1960 at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina. The organization was known for staging nonviolent protests and sit-ins. 

      See also   Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee of California, The Movement

Microfilm S00846        Underground press collection. Listing of contents ((Film B) Z6951.U4)

William H. Hastie Papers.  Part 2. Civil Rights, Organizational, and Private Activities

RECAP Microfilm 11824                       Printed guide (FilmB) KF373.H38A25          42 reels

Attorney William Henry Hastie was the first African American appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit by President Truman in 1949.  Part 2 of the collection documents his activities as a civil rights lawyer, educator, and judge.  Part I, covering his opinions are available in the Federal Reporter in print, LexisNexis and Westlaw (online in both the academic and law school versions).

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Civil Rights Movement

By: History.com Editors

Updated: May 14, 2024 | Original: October 27, 2009

The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War officially abolished slavery , but it didn’t end discrimination against Black people—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans, along with many other Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.

Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction , Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they’d once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they’d made during Reconstruction, “ Jim Crow ” laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn’t use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn’t vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.

Jim Crow laws weren’t adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be “separate but equal."

World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II , most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren’t given better-paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with—to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn’t find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the “mother of the modern-day civil rights movement.” Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr ., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks’ courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system . The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional. 

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education . In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 4, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine , arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.

Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Sit-In at Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth’s lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth’s lunch counter where they’d first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael , who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power.”

Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 “ Freedom Riders ”—seven Black and six white activists–mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C. , embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother’s Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy ) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders—and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.—by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a “whites-only” facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals

March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington . It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph , Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King’s speech in which he continually stated, “I have a dream…”

King’s “ I Have a Dream” speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 —legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination —into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.

Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama Governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as “ Bloody Sunday .” Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions. 

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.

Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King’s assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.

Six Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement

Though their stories are sometimes overlooked, these women were instrumental in the fight for equal rights for African‑Americans.

How the Black Power Movement Influenced the Civil Rights Movement

With a focus on racial pride and self‑determination, leaders of the Black Power movement argued that civil rights activism did not go far enough.

8 Key Laws That Advanced Civil Rights

Since the abolishment of slavery, the U.S. government has passed several laws to address discrimination and racism against African Americans.

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library. Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives. Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey. Little Rock School Desegregation (1957).  The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford . Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford . Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks. Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org. The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center. The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site. Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

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Civil Rights, Research Paper Example

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Introduction

There are numerous human rights. Among is a civil right. Civil right is a right that enables a person to be treated equally regardless of the differences in gender, race, and religion. Brown (1968) on the other hand defines civil rights movement as a mass popular movement aimed at securing African American similar access to and chances for fundamental rights and privileges of American citizenship. Civil right is an enforceable privilege or right, which suppose interfered with causes an action for injury (Hutchinson 15). Examples of civil rights entail freedom of assembly, press, speech, the right to vote and the right to be considered equal in public places. Suppose the civil rights of a person is interfered with or denied, then discrimination occurs. Statutes have been enacted to minimize discrimination based on one’s religion, sex, age, physical limitations, national origin and former condition of servitude. In this regard, various civil Rights Movements have been formed. The paper therefore explores the goals of civil rights Movements in America, civil right legislation, political impact of civil rights and affirmative actions.

The Goals of the Civil Rights Movement

The African-American Civil Rights Movement existed amid 1955 and 1968. It refers to the movement in US targeted at eliminating discrimination based or race against African Americans. It was also aimed at reinstating suffrage in south states of US. The other objectives included racial dignity, political self-sufficiency and economic, and freedom from oppression by Whites. In other words, Civil Right Movements was formed to end the racial discrimination and segregation is South America (Hutchinson 16). Africans (slaves by then) had top fight for freedom from enslavement, living right, poses job and land, have similar justice, quality education as whites, to escape from oppression, and an end to stereotyping. Blacks were tired of harsh treatment by their by then masters (whites) and so the formation of the civil rights movement. They were treated like slaves or inferior beings and so they struggled to end this. Civil Rights movement supporters targeted at fairness and equality in America (Brown 40).

Pieces of Landmark Civil Rights Legislation

There were several civil Rights legislations that were passed to provide inclusion for African-American. Fair housing, Americans with Disabilities (1990) and Executive order 13166 among many more are some of the Civil Rights legislations. Fair Housing was to prevent discrimination in terms of color, religion, race, sex, national origin, familial status among others when providing housing services (Borkin 11). The legislations made it unlawful to represent any person due to color, race, religion, sex, familial status, handicap, or national origin that any house/dwelling isn’t available for sale, inspection, or rent when in real it is. This ensured that both Americans and African had equal opportunities. Americans with Disabilities (1990) was to establish plain and complete discrimination prohibition on disability basis. All the people had to have similar access to employments opportunities, public accommodations, transport, voting, education and the likes regardless of his/her physical status (Hutchinson 19). Executive order was to ensure that no one is discriminated against language used. The order clearly stated that all people are created equal and should be considered so. Human treatments should be uniform regardless of the language one speaks, whether German, English, Swahili, Spanish, all are of similar value.

Impacts of Civil Rights

Civil rights movement brought a lot of impacts to America politics such as voting patterns, elections among other issues. The blacks who were not allowed to cast their votes were allowed (Hutchinson 16). The American politic changed and political parties began to be formed. Africans Americans had not only got freedom to express themselves but to lead as well. The civil rights movement however brought political turbulence in America at that time. Some of the leaders were fighting against and some for. Americans had perceived slavery in various forms and so had various views. It has enabled a number of civil Right statutes eliminating discrimination in educational programs as well (Borkin 21). Discrimination based on education was eliminated by the emergence of civil rights movement. Many barriers that did not enable Africans to be regarded as similar as whites were broken as a result. As a consequence, many African American students resulted. Though discrimination against color, and origin did not terminate but reduced. All people were once considered of equal significance and contribution to American economy (Tucker 10).

Affirmative Action

Affirmative actions refer to the positive steps taken to increase minorities and women representation in education, business and employment. Affirmative action was aimed at representing people equally in all life aspects and avoiding discrimination on basis of wealth and position and hence equal opportunity promoted (Hutchinson 17). Affirmative action is often instituted in educational and government settings to make sure that minority groups in a community are not excluded in any program. Its justification is to compensate for past discrimination, exploitation or persecution by ruling of culture. It is also aimed at addressing present discrimination (Brown 44).

Equality of Opportunity and Opportunity of Results

Equality of opportunity can be defined as political ideal opposed to class hierarchy but never hierarchy for itself. The assumption is that community contains hierarchy consisting of less or more desirable and superior positions. In other definitions, equality of opportunity means that each individual is afforded similar benefit access. On the other hand, equality of results means that each person get similar benefit as any other person. Equality of outcomes is better than equality of opportunity. When equality of opportunity is employed, in the end, some people end up without a share while in equality of outcomes, every person regardless of the status, and financial condition receives equal share (Tucker 09). Equality of opportunity simply uses survival for the fittest notion while equality of outcome considers that all people are equal and so equality in share (Borkin 18).

Groups That Have Fought for Civil Rights in America

Among the groups that fought for Civil rights is Malcon X.  Its objective was to end discrimination against African Americans. Malcon X apart from helping in law improvements, it also made Americans view how the laws were consistently ignored. For example, in many cases, Malcon X reminded the nation of the existence of laws that were prohibiting raping, killing and lynching (Brown 45).  Among the groups are some individual like Martin Luther King who fought for civil Right. Martin Luther Kings still stands out to be the known person in civil Rights fighting. The efforts are highly appreciated by numerous scholars and laymen. He had been touched by how the Americans were treating Africans. They were considered slaves. In the end, Luther was assassinated due to his reaction (Tucker 05).

Borkin. Times of Martin Luther King :  New York:  Free Press, 1978, pp 11-22.

Brown.  Civil Rights and World War II :  Princeton University Press, 1968, pp 33-44.

Hutchinson. Weapons of mass destruction :  London:  Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, pp 07-14

Tucker.  World War II and its consequences :  New York:  Pantheon Books, 2006, pp 04-09.

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Collection Civil Rights History Project

Women in the civil rights movement.

Many women played important roles in the Civil Rights Movement, from leading local civil rights organizations to serving as lawyers on school segregation lawsuits. Their efforts to lead the movement were often overshadowed by men, who still get more attention and credit for its successes in popular historical narratives and commemorations.  Many women experienced gender discrimination and sexual harassment within the movement and later turned towards the feminist movement in the 1970s.  The Civil Rights History Project interviews with participants in the struggle include both expressions of pride in women’s achievements and also candid assessments about the difficulties they faced within the movement.

Gwendolyn Zoharah Simmons was a member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and one of three women chosen to be a field director for the Mississippi Freedom Summer Project.  She discusses the difficulties she faced in this position and notes that gender equality was not a given, but had to be fought for:  “I often had to struggle around issues related to a woman being a project director.  We had to fight for the resources, you know.  We had to fight to get a good car because the guys would get first dibs on everything, and that wasn’t fair…it was a struggle to be taken seriously by the leadership, as well as by your male colleagues.” She continues, “One of the things that we often don’t talk about, but there was sexual harassment that often happened toward the women.  And so, that was one of the things that, you know, I took a stand on, that ‘This was not – we’re not going to get a consensus on this.  There is not going to be sexual harassment of any of the women on this project or any of the women in this community.  And you will be put out if you do it.’”

Lonnie King was an activist with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Atlanta. He remembers meeting other students from the Nashville movement when SNCC became a nationwide organization in 1960. He recalls his surprise that Diane Nash was not elected to be the representative from Nashville, and echoes Simmons’ criticisms about male privilege and domination: “Diane Nash, in my view, was the Nashville movement and by that I mean this:  Others were there, but they weren’t Diane Nash. Diane was articulate; she was a beautiful woman, very photogenic, very committed. And very intelligent and had a following. I never did understand how, except maybe for sexism, I never understood how [James] Bevel, Marion [Barry], and for that matter, John Lewis, kind of leapfrogged over her. I never understood that because she was in fact the leader in Nashville. It was Diane. The others were followers of her… I so never understood that to be honest with you. She’s an unsung... a real unsung hero of the movement in Nashville, in my opinion.”

Ekwueme Michael Thewell was a student at Howard University and a leader of the Nonviolent Action Group, an organization that eventually joined with SNCC. He reflects on the sacrifices that women college students at Howard made in joining the struggle, and remarks on the constraints they faced after doing so: “It is only in retrospect that I recognize the extraordinary price that our sisters paid for being as devoted to the struggle as they were. It meant that they weren’t into homecoming queen kind of activities. That they weren’t into the accepted behavior of a Howard lady. That they weren't into the trivia of fashion and dressing up. Though they were attractive women and they took care of themselves, but they weren’t the kind of trophy wives for the med school students and they weren’t—some of them might have been members of the Greek letter organizations, but most of them I suspect weren’t. So that they occupied a place outside the conventional social norms of the whole university student body. So did the men. But with men, I think, we can just say, ‘Kiss my black ass’ and go on about our business. It wasn’t so clear to me that a woman could do the same thing.”

Older interviewees emphasize the opportunities that were available to an earlier generation of women. Mildred Bond Roxborough , a long-time secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, discusses the importance of women leaders in local branches: “Well, actually when you think about women's contributions to the NAACP, without the women we wouldn't have an NAACP.  The person who was responsible for generating the organizing meeting was a woman.  Of course, ever since then we've had women in key roles--not in the majority, but in the very key roles which were responsible for the evolution of the NAACP.  I think in terms of people like Daisy Lampkin, who was a member of our national board from Pittsburgh; she traveled around the country garnering memberships and helping to organize branches.  That was back in the '30s and '40s before it became fashionable or popular for women to travel.  You have women who subsequently held positions in the NAACP nationally as program directors and as leaders of various divisions.” She goes on to discuss the contributions of many women to the success of the NAACP.

Doris Adelaide Derby , another SNCC activist, remembers that the challenge and urgency of the freedom struggle was a formative experience for young activist women, who had to learn resourcefulness on the job:   “I always did what I wanted to do.  I had my own inner drive.  And I found that when I came up with ideas and I was ready to work to see it through, and I think that happened with a lot of women in SNCC.  We needed all hands on deck, and so, when we found ourselves in situations, we had to rely on whoever was around.  And if somebody had XYZ skills, and somebody only had ABC, we had to come together. We used to joke about that, but in reality, the women, you know, were strong.  In the struggle, the women were strong.”

Ruby Nell Sales , who later overcame psychological traumas from the racial violence she witnessed in the movement, encourages us to look beyond the simplistic story of Rosa Parks refusing to move to the back of the bus in Montgomery. As she explains, Parks was a long-time activist who had sought justice for African American women who were frequently assaulted—both verbally and physically-- in their daily lives: “…When we look at Rosa Parks, people often think that she was – she did that because of her civil rights and wanting to sit down on the bus.  But she also did that – it was a rebellion of maids, a rebellion of working class women, who were tired of boarding the buses in Montgomery, the public space, and being assaulted and called out-of-there names and abused by white bus drivers. And that’s why that Movement could hold so long.  If it had just been merely a protest about riding the bus, it might have shattered.  But it went to the very heart of black womanhood, and black women played a major role in sustaining that movement.”

The Civil Rights History Project includes interviews with over 50 women who came from a wide range of backgrounds and were involved in the movement in a myriad of ways. Their stories deepen our understanding of the movement as a whole, and provide us with concrete examples of how vital they were to the gains of the Civil Rights Movement.

Civil Rights Movement Essays

Rosa parks’ act of deviance, research topic summary & reflection papers, the historical and contemporary experiences of african americans in the united states, “the sixties” & beyond, fannie lou hamer: beacon of hope in the civil rights movement, civil rights movement and black freedom struggles that changed the lives of african americans between 1954 to the present, dc between the years 1950 and 1975, the impacts of change on the world, cultural identity, historical and contemporary factors which have shaped the culture., the great depression, cold war tensions, and social movements in american history, latino community and civil rights movement, the help film analysis, examine how slavery or another event in black histories, such as emancipation, the great migration, or the civil rights movement, shaped american music, history of the united states from reconstruction to the present time, struggle for civil rights among african and latino americans, essays about civil rights movement.

The Civil Rights Movement has affected politics in the United States at a fundamental level. It showed the oppressed black community that joining forces and making an effort could lead to success. Additionally, it allowed social protests to become respectable because they can generate significant change.

As a result of the Civil Rights Movement, the scope of politics was broadened. It also inspired a great variety of movements to seek social justice and citizenship rights, not just in the United States, but also abroad. Before the movement, many oppressed groups didn’t know how to resist that oppression or garner support.

In other words, the Civil Rights Movement provided a model for social protest and new tactics to achieve successful social change. Additionally, the movement had a worldwide influence and influenced struggles for freedom all over the world. More specifically in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, China, and Eastern Europe.

The Civil Rights Movement is quite relevant today as oppressed groups all over the world continue to protest and use other strategies to garner support and seek freedom. As such, writing a Civil Rights Movement essay is as important as ever and it allows you to provide something of value, not just to the overall conversation, but also to your community.

Now, the Civil Rights Movement is a complex topic and there are many ways you can approach it in your essay. We recommend you explain the revolution itself very well and also talk about Malcolm X, the most prominent and brilliant figure in the movement against discrimination.

You can also talk about discrimination itself and, though it’s still an issue today, how the movement managed to make a big difference. Not just for the black community, but also other minorities.

You must do your research and read as much as possible so you can choose the main topic for the essay and explore it well. You should also strive to be engaging and make sure your essay is organized so your ideas are easy to follow to get your point across. Also, don’t hesitate to bring your own perspective!

And if you don’t know how to finish your essay, samples on this page may give you an idea on how to complete your paper with an outstanding conclusion.

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History: Primary Sources in the Civil Rights Movement in America

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Civil Rights

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Excerpts) From Encyclopedia of Race and Racism Sec. 201. (a) All persons shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations of any place of public accommodation, as defined in this section, without discrimination or segregation on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin.
• Civil Rights in Mississippi Digital Archives From the University of Southern Mississippi. Use the search tool to find several examples of oral history transcripts as well as other primary sources.
• Rosa Parks Papers Spanning the years 1866-2006, with the bulk of the material dating from 1955 to 2000, this collection contains documents about many aspects of Parks's private life and public activism on behalf of civil rights for African Americans.
• Civil Rights History Project at the Library of Congress An ongoing oral history collection with relevance to the Civil Rights movement to obtain justice, freedom and equality for African Americans conducted through the Library of Congress
• Civil Rights History Collections around the Country from the American Folklife Center A list of online collections related to the Civil Rights movement across the country organized by the American Folklife Center
• Print Culture of the Civil Rights Movement, 1950-1980 his project highlights the newspapers, posters, broadsides, pamphlets, fliers, and other printed ephemera produced by student and community groups, leading civil rights organizations, and individuals, which documented a revolutionary era.

Secondary Resources for Civil Rights Research

• Civil rights: Topic Page "Civil rights are guarantees of equal social opportunities and equal protection under the law regardless of race, religion, or other personal characteristics. "
• Civil Rights Movement: Topic Page US movement especially active during the 1950s and 60s that aimed to end segregation and discrimination against blacks, as well as affirm their constitutional rights and improve their status in society.
• Civil Rights Resource Guide (Library of Congress) The digital collections of the Library of Congress contain a wide variety of material related to civil rights, including photographs, documents, and sound recordings.

Primary Sources on Debates on Race

• Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• California Proposition 209 and Arguments Pro and Con (1996) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• Amicus Brief for Respondent in Fisher v. University of Texas, U.S. Justice Department (2012) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• “Ethnic Profiling: A Rational and Moral Framework,” Robert A. Levy, Cato Institute (2001) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• Racial Profiling Policy, State of New Jersey (2005) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• Testimony on “Stop-and-Frisk” Policy to New York City Council, New York Civil Liberties Union (2012) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• African Activist Archive The records of activism in the United States to support the struggles of African peoples against colonialism, apartheid, and social injustice from the 1950s through the 1990s including pamphlets, newsletters, leaflets, buttons, posters, T-shirts, photographs, and audio and video recordings, personal remembrances and interviews with activists, and an international directory of collections deposited in libraries and archives

Civil Rights Speeches

• Martin Luther King Jr: Montgomery Bus Boycott, December 5, 1955 From Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches "Like African-American leaders before him, Martin Luther King, Jr., was, above all, “fundamentally a clergyman.” His great grandfather, Willis Williams, preached in antebellum Georgia; his grandfather led Ebenezer Baptist Church, a bedrock institution in Atlanta; his father, “Daddy King,” guided that church through trying times and later shared the pulpit with his son, Martin Luther."
• Martin Luther King Jr: I Have a Dream, August 28, 1963 From Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches "On August 28, 1963, before a crowd of nearly 300,000, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered what is arguably the most celebrated civil rights speech in American history. Forming a half-mile blanket over both sides of the Lincoln Memorial, singing “We Shall Overcome,” crowds flocked in trains and buses from all over the country for the historic March on Washington—'the first and essentially last mass meeting to ever reach the national airwaves.'"
• Martin Luther King Jr: I’ve Been to the Mountaintop, April 3, 1968 From Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches "By the late 1960s, as with other early activists, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s nonviolent, incrementalist approach to civil rights fell under the harsh criticism of those in the black power movement. Despite Dr. King’s successes, de facto discrimination remained a bitter reality, even for those in the “old guard.” At the risk of being marginalized, King responded by expanding his scope of issues to include economic—not just racial—discrimination and inequality. His Poor People’s Movement joined in common cause with hard-pressed Americans of all races and backgrounds, from African-American custodians to Hispanic migrant workers."
• Thurgood Marshall: Dismantling Segregation: Brown v. Board of Education, December 8, 1953 From Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches On the long road from his childhood home in Baltimore, Maryland, Thurgood Marshall vaulted economic and social barriers to become one of the most celebrated lawyers in American history. After graduating with honors from Howard University Law School in 1920, Marshall began a twenty-year tenure with the NAACP Legal Defense Fund. With mentor Charles Hamilton Houston, Marshall attacked the primary root of racial disparity, America’s education system, by organizing a long-term legal campaign to eradicate segregation in the nation’s schools.

More Civil Rights Primary Sources

• Brown V. Board of Education (Excerpt) From Encyclopedia of Race and Racism The plaintiffs contend that segregated public schools are not “equal” and cannot be made “equal,” and that hence they are deprived of the equal protection of the laws.
• Executive Order 10925, President John F. Kennedy (1961) From Culture Wars in America: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices
• Plessy V. Ferguson (Excerpts) From Encyclopedia of Race and Racism This case turns upon the constitutionality of an act of the General Assembly of the state of Louisiana, passed in 1890, providing for separate railway carriages for the white and colored races….
• W. E. B. Du Bois's “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” From Encyclopedia of Race and Racism There are in the United States some four million Negroes of school age, of whom two million are in school, and of these, four-fifths are taught by forty-eight thousand Negro teachers in separate schools.
• W. E. B. Du Bois: A Negro Nation Within a Nation, June 26, 1934 (1868–1963) From Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches Although W. E. B. Du Bois was a fierce champion of racial integration, there were periods in his career when he favored economic and political separatism as the best means to African-American dignity and equality. By the late 1920s, he called not only for economic, political, and educational parity, but also a separate Negro “nation within a nation”—a marked departure from statements and remarks made earlier in his life. In fact, Du Bois’s call for “race pride” has been credited by some as the forerunner to the Black Power movement.
• Walter Pantovic Artifact Collection Historically known as "The Walter Pantovic Slavery Collection," these artifacts span the African American experience from slavery to the Civil Rights era to the rise of African Americans in popular culture. Walter Pantovic was born in Yugoslavia in 1965 and immigrated to the United States at the age of two. He became interested in African-American history in elementary school and in his adult life began collecting artifacts related to the subject. Highlighted items in his assembled collection include shackles, slave tags, and manillas along with 1960s Civil Rights ephemera and 1970s African-American pop culture memorabilia.
• The Long Civil Rights Movement: Photographs from the Ronnie Moore Papers, 1964 -1972 The Ronnie Moore digital collection captures the political and social empowerment of African Americans in the South during the 1960s.
• Southern Journey Oral History Collection This collection of oral histories, completed from 1991 to 1994, contains narratives of 119 individuals describing the activities and people involved in the Civil Rights Movement in the southern states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi.
• Black Natchez Black Natchez (1967) charts early attempts to organize and register Black voters and the formation of a self defense group in the Black community. In 1965, filmmaker Ed Pincus and David Neuman spent ten weeks in Natchez, Mississippi, filming the lives of ordinary people with unedited coverage of public and private civil rights organizational meetings, street demonstrations, and contests of power between young militants and the old guard, as well as secret meetings of African American self-defense organizations and interaction among the Black community. Interviewees range from prominent civil rights leaders, including Charles Evers, to more representative residents, and they are asked to express their thoughts and feelings about racial tensions and violence in the city. The film also chronicles the tensions between the NAACP and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, both of which were operating in Natchez.
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