how to write a methodology in biology

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• Int J Endocrinol Metab
• v.17(1); 2019 Jan

The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Materials and Methods

Asghar ghasemi.

1 Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Zahra Bahadoran

2 Nutrition and Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Azita Zadeh-Vakili

3 Cellular and Molecular Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Seyed Ali Montazeri

4 Obesity Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Farhad Hosseinpanah

The materials and methods (M&M) section is the heart of a scientific paper and is subject to initial screening of the editor to decide whether the manuscript should be sent for external review. If the M&M section of a scientific paper be considered as a recipe, its ingredients would be who, what, when, where, how, and why. M&M should effectively respond to the study question/hypothesis using the following basic elements including materials, study design, study population/subjects or animals, methods of measurements/assessments, and statistical analysis. A well-organized M&M permits other scientists to evaluate the study findings and repeat the experiments. Although there are several disciplinary differences in the M&M, similar dos and don’ts may be considered to organize a well-written M&M. Briefly, authors need to provide clear-cut, adequate, and detailed information in the M&M section. In this review, the structure, the principles, and the most common recommendations for writing the M&M section are provided, both in general and study-specific; these could help authors effectively prepare the M&M section of a scientific biomedical manuscript.

The principal mission of scientific writing is to convey the researcher’s message clearly and concisely to the scientific community ( 1 ). Although publishing a scientific paper is not the ultimate goal of a research, it contributes much to the progress of science and evidence-based decision-making ( 2 ). During the last decades, efforts have continued to improve the structure and content of research papers, which have resulted in the unified structure and style of scientific writing ( 3 ), that is the IMRAD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure.

Although the materials and methods (M&M) section is the heart of a paper, it is very often poorly written ( 4 ). Despite this section seeming to be easier than other parts, the author encounters many challenges ( 5 ). Approximately 30% of rejections by journals are related to the M&M section ( 5 ). A well-written M&M helps the peer review process ( 6 ), enhancing the chances of acceptance of the manuscript ( 5 ); it also increases the chance of inclusion of study findings in secondary analysis of existing data, in systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses ( 7 ).

The M&M section of a scientific paper is a crossroads connecting the introduction to the results section to create a clear story line ( 8 ); it should clearly present the approach to answer the main study question(s) ( 9 ), i.e. questions like who, what, where, when, why, and how ( 10 ). We could also refer to this section as the Experimental section, Method description and Validation, or Patients/subjects and Methods ( 5 , 11 ).

Following our previous report about the writing of the introduction section ( 12 ), in this review, we describe the main principles, general structure and common recommendations that can help authors to prepare the M&M section of a scientific biomedical manuscript more effectively. In addition, specific recommendations will be provided regarding the M&M section of clinical, experimental, epidemiological, and genetic studies.

2. Functions of the Materials and Methods Section

The M&M section of a paper has two main functions ( 13 ): To allow readers to repeat the work and to convince them that the work has been done in an appropriate way. For hypothesis-testing papers, the most important function of the M&M section is to provide information on “what procedures were used to answer the main question(s) stated in the introduction” ( 14 ). The ultimate mission of this section is providing clear and precise descriptions to enable the readers to ascertain exactly how the authors implemented the experimental design ( 15 ). The M&M section should include sufficient details and references to allow other scientists to repeat experiments accurately ( 14 ). The M&M section provides sufficient details on when, where, why, and how the study procedures were performed, what materials were used, and who was included in the study.

Other functions of the M&M section are to facilitate interpretation of study results and convince readers regarding their validity of the results ( 8 , 15 ) and to help them to understand how the results and conclusion were derived from the experiments ( 4 ); in addition, this section must explain how the study avoided or corrected for potential bias in selecting participants/subjects, measuring variables, and estimating associations between variables ( 7 ). In observational human studies, the M&M section also provides justification on how the findings from the sample studied can be generalized to the target population ( 7 ).

3. Components of the Materials and Methods

The basic elements of the M&M section of an original quantitative manuscript include Materials, Study design, Study population/subjects or animals, Methods of measurements/assessments, and Statistical analysis ( Table 1 ). Ethical considerations of research (both for humans and animals) should also be reported in this section, and based on the journal policy, these are reported under the subheading Study population or under a separate heading. This section can be separated under corresponding subheadings to help readers to understand the various stages or components more easily ( 11 ). A common suggestion is that each paragraph or subheading in the M&M section should correspond with the related paragraph/subheading in the results section ( 5 ).

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. chemicals.

In this section, the authors should describe the chemicals (e.g., drugs, culture media, buffers, and gases) used in the research ( 14 ). Specifying the source (manufacturers) is not required for basic laboratory chemicals, but it needs to be clarified for other chemicals ( 16 ). In addition to details on the manufacturer, their location needs to be mentioned when first cited ( 16 ). These details should be used with appropriate punctuation; for example, we used N-(1-naphtyl) ethylene diamine dihydrochloride (NEDD; Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO).

For drugs, the authors need to mention some essential details including generic name, manufacturer, purity, and concentration; for solutions, the solvent, pH, temperature, total volume infused, and rate of infusion, should be specified if required ( 14 ). If the drug is placed in an organ bath or reservoir, its concentration should be calculated in fluid ( 14 ). For culture media and buffers, the components and their concentrations, temperature, volume, and pH, need to be specified if appropriate ( 14 ).

To avoid advertising, use of generic or chemical names is usually preferred to trade names ( 17 ). In contrast, it is also believed that if the name of the material is registered as trademark, the authors should include the superscript TM or ®, as provided by the supplier ( 16 ). In case of a complicated name of a chemical, its abbreviated name is suggested ( 16 ).

3.1.2. Experimental Materials/Animals/Humans

3.1.2.1. experimental materials.

Experimental materials including molecules, cell lines, and tissues should be described in this section. For plants and micro-organisms, genera, species, and strain designations should be accurately identified ( 17 ). If organisms were collected for the experiment, the dates and locations of collection should also be included.

For cell lines, the sources, species, sex, strains, race, and age of donor should be clarified; whether the cell lines were primary or established and which specific tests were used for their preparation should also be mentioned ( 17 ). Some guidelines for using cell lines are available online ( Table 2 ).

Abbreviations: RCT, randomized clinical trial; STROBE, strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology; UKCCCR, United Kingdom Coordinating Committee on Cancer Research; WMA, World Medical Association.

3.1.2.2. Experimental Animals

In case of animal studies, source of animals, species, strains, weight, sex, and the number of animals used should be mentioned; conditions of evaluation of experimental animals as well as details of their care and treatment should be specified ( 14 ). Details regarding method and agents used for anesthesia in surgical procedures should be clearly provided ( 5 , 18 ). For treatment/intervention, the authors need to clearly mention chemical names, doses, routes of administration, and duration of treatment ( 5 ). Details should be specified regarding housing of animals, including type of facility, type and size of the cage, breeding program, light/dark cycle, temperature, quality of water, type of food, access to food and water, and environmental enrichment ( 19 ). It is recommended that authors use the name of the animal (e.g., rat or mouse) and specify the type of animal model (e.g., db/db mouse) ( 14 ).

3.1.2.3. Participants/Subjects/Patients

For human observational studies, the eligibility criteria, the sources and methods of selection of participants, and methods of follow-up (in cohort studies) should be described ( 20 ). For case-control studies, the sources and methods of sampling of the control group and the rationale for the choice of cases and controls must be described ( 20 ). The number of exposed and unexposed participants (for cohort studies) and the number of controls per case and the criteria for matching (in case-control studies) should be stated ( 20 , 21 ). For molecular epidemiologic studies, further details including any habits, clinical conditions, physiological factors, working or living conditions that might affect the characteristics or concentrations of the biomarker should also be specified for study populations ( 22 ).

For clinical trials, this section is expected to include the target population, sample size and sampling method, sample representativeness, recruitment and randomization procedures, the basic demographic profile of the study population (e.g., age, gender, and the racial composition), and inclusion and exclusion criteria. Such information are needed to evaluate both the internal and external validity of the study ( 15 , 23 ). Selection criteria and rationale for enrolling patients into the study must be clearly stated ( 15 ). If the study includes a control group, more details on sampling, source of recruitment, and matching (e.g., age, ethnicity, and clinical condition) should be provided ( 24 ).

3.1.3. Ethics Statements

Ethical issues are important components of biomedical studies ( 25 ). The ethics section in a scientific biomedical paper should consist of a statement regarding obtaining approval from the ethics committee with its registration number; otherwise, they need to state that the study was conducted according to the protocols previously outlined such as the Declaration of Helsinki, a set of ethics principles developed by the World Medical Association ( Table 2 ) to provide guidance to scientists and physicians in medical research involving human subjects ( 26 ).

In case of clinical trials, the registration number of study protocol obtained from the clinical trials’ registries ( Table 2 ) should be mentioned. According to the Declaration of Helsinki-2008, “every clinical trial must be registered in an easily accessible database for the public before recruitment of the first participant” ( 27 ). This approach is believed to contribute substantially to the improvement of clinical trial transparency and reduce publication bias and selective reporting ( 28 , 29 ). Practical guidelines for the registration of a clinical trial can be found elsewhere ( 30 , 31 ).

For human studies, a statement regarding informed consent/assent forms should also be mentioned in the ethics approval section. Briefly, informed consent is a process by which an adult human subject confirms his/her willingness to participate in a research after being properly informed of the research protocol ( 25 , 32 ). General principles like potential harm/benefit of the research, study protocols and registration, use of placebo, post-trial provisions (post-trial access to treatment for patients participating in a clinical trial) ( 33 , 34 ), and research publication should be considered in written informed consent forms ( 25 , 35 ). Table 2 provides useful links regarding clinical trial regulations. Assent, as a fundamental part of pediatric research ethics, is given by children in addition to parental consent ( 36 ).

It should be noted that any information that might allow someone to identify human subjects (e.g., names, initials, or hospital identification numbers) is not allowed to be included in the M&M section ( 16 ).

In animal studies, in addition to state approval of the institutional ethics committee ( 19 ), the authors need to determine whether they have applied the 3Rs, namely, replacement, refinement, and reduction of the number of animals used in experiments ( 6 ).

3.2. Methods

3.2.1. study design.

The study design section of a scientific paper is the road map of the study method, which leads to a clear understanding of the data obtaining approach and helps the reader to interpret the results properly ( 37 ). The study design should be the first subsection of the methods in a hypothesis-testing paper ( 37 ). It provides an overview of the procedures used to answer the question(s) and is followed by the relevant details in separate subsections ( 14 ). For hypothesis-testing papers, study question(s), intervention(s), variables measured, and the order of the measurements should be explained ( 14 ). Furthermore, it is expected that this section covers the information including dependent and independent variables, controls (e.g., baseline, control group, and placebo), study duration, and sample size ( 14 ).

The authors should present the specific design of the study, for example, randomized controlled trial, prospective/retrospective cohort study, case-control study, cross-sectional survey, and experimental study, or describe its key components (interventional vs. observational study, longitudinal vs. cross-sectional design) ( 8 ). An overview on observational and interventional study designs can be found elsewhere ( 38 , 39 ).

For observational studies, study location and relevant dates (i.e., period of recruitment, period of exposure, follow-up, and data collection) should be described ( 20 ). An extension of the STROBE statement ( Table 2 ) suggests more details for the study design section in molecular epidemiologic studies ( 22 ); these details describe the specific study designs (nested case-control and case/cohort) ( 40 ) and the setting of the biological sample collection (amount of sample, nature of sample collection procedures, participant conditions, time between sample collection and relevant clinical or physiological endpoints), biological sample storage and processing until biomarker analysis (centrifugation, timing, and additives), and biomarker biochemical characteristics (half-life of the biomarker and chemical and physical characteristics).

For human clinical studies, the authors are requested to specify the trial design (e.g., parallel and factorial), phase of clinical trial (phase I, II, III, or IV), and the allocation ratio (ratio of intended numbers of participants in each of the comparison groups) ( 41 ). More information regarding common terms and designs of clinical trials are provided as useful links in Table 2 .

A further subheading entitled procedures or interventions may also be considered for clinical trials. In this section, authors need to provide detailed information for randomization procedures, including the method used to generate the random allocation sequence (computer-generated random numbers) and mechanisms used to implement the random allocation sequence (sequentially numbered containers), stratification, and random block sizes (if applicable) ( 41 ). According to the CONSORT statement ( Table 2 ), it also should be described who generated the random allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who randomly assigned participants to interventions ( 41 ).

If applicable, the authors should state which type of blinding was used (single or double) and who was blinded (participants, care providers, or data analyzer) ( 41 ). Details of interventions, including how and when the interventions were implemented for each group should be specified. Information about the assessment of compliance and adverse events throughout the study should be included ( 41 ). When applicable, it is expected that any interim analysis and cessation of the trial be clarified ( 41 ).

According to ARRIVE (Animal in Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) statement ( Table 2 ), for animal studies, the number of groups, randomization procedure, blinding, and experimental unit (i.e., single animal, group, or cage of animal) should be mentioned ( 19 ); for complex designs, a time-line diagram or flowchart can be useful ( 19 ).

For genetic studies, the authors need to consider nomenclatures of genes and variants ( Table 2 ) and follow recommendations for the description of sequence variants ( 42 ). For genetic association studies, an extension of the STROBE statement, namely STREGA, advises authors on how to provide further details in the study design section; details on the criteria and methods for the selection of subsets of participants from a larger study should also be described in this section. Furthermore, genetic exposures (genetic variants) and variables associated with population stratification should be clarified ( 43 ).

3.2.2. Methods of Measurements/Assessments

Although describing details in the M&M section depends on the type of study and the target audience, authors need to maintain a balance. As a rule of thumb, the details of the procedures should be included if the study replication would fail without them. All that reader needs to understand is how the key findings in this paper were derived. However, this section should not be like a procedure manual or a cookbook ( 4 ).

The term “condensed” or “extended” has been used to describe levels of details used in the methods section ( 44 ). In the condensed methods, little elaboration or justification is provided, whereas in the extended methods, authors need to provide a rationale of why and how the procedures were performed ( 44 ). In practice, depending on the novelty of the methods used in the study, different levels of details may need to be described ( Table 3 ). To summarize documented methods, authors may begin with “in brief”; use of “briefly” instead is a common mistake because “briefly” describes the following verb and does not indicate the author’s intention to be brief ( 16 ).

The rationale for method choices and characteristics of the study design may also be provided in the methods section ( 10 , 11 ). From an editor’s point of view, advantages and disadvantages, values and limitations of the techniques and methods, especially new ones, are better to be described using a general background of the field ( 45 ).

In this section, the authors need to clearly describe how study variables (i.e., exposures or independent variables, outcomes or dependent variables, covariates, or potential modifiers) were measured ( 8 , 15 ). If applicable, diagnostic criteria need to be clarified for the variables (i.e., exposure, outcome and/or confounder); moreover, sources of data and details of methods of assessments (measurements) should be described for each variable of interest.

In animal studies, details of how, when (time of day), where (home cage and laboratory), and why (rationale for dose and route of administration) for each procedure should be reported ( 19 ).

According to minimum information for publication of quantitative real-time PCR experiments (MIQE), details about sample processing and storage, RNA and DNA extraction and quantification, primer and probe characteristics, reverse transcription details, sample normalization, PCR efficiency, and data analysis should be provided in real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) experiments ( 46 ).

For genetic association studies, authors need to describe laboratory methods, including source and storage of DNA, genotyping methods and platforms (including the allele calling algorithm used and its version), and error and call rates. The name of the laboratory or center where genotyping was performed and comparability of laboratory methods (if there is more than one group) needs to be clarified. According to the STREGA statement, authors should specify whether genotypes were assigned using all the data from the study simultaneously or separately in smaller batches ( 43 ).

To describe instruments, the manufacturer and model as well as the calibration procedures should be described; in addition, it should be clearly described how measurements were taken ( 10 , 15 ). Details of measurement characteristics (i.e., reproducibility, validity, and responsiveness) that influence the interpretation of the main results should also be described ( 8 ); validity and reliability, key indicators of the quality of measurement instruments (e.g., equipment and questionnaires) used for data collection or measurement should be appropriately reported ( 18 ).

3.2.3. Statistical Analysis

The basic requirement of writing the statistical section is providing description and justification for the statistical approaches and selection of statistical tests ( 14 ). General considerations for preliminary, primary, and supplementary analyses derived from statistical reporting guidelines ( 47 , 48 ) and the common pitfalls ( 49 , 50 ) in writing the statistical section are provided in Box 1 . The Vancouver guideline states “describe statistical methods with enough details to enable a knowledgeable reader with access to the original data to verify the reported results” ( 51 ).

Statistical tests should be discussed in order to be applicable for data analysis ( 52 ). Typically, this section is initiated by preliminary analysis and descriptive statistics, describing the study population, and then it is followed by specific tests describing the association of variables or assessing the effect of experiments ( 52 ).

The exact value of sample size, e.g., the number of human subjects, animals, or cells for each analysis and how the data were presented (mean, median, standard deviation, standard error, or confidence intervals) should be specified. Furthermore, the statistical methods used to determine strategies for randomization/stratification and sample size estimation need to be clarified ( 14 ). Appropriate identification (i.e., name, version, company, city, state, and country) for the statistical package or program used for analysis must be mentioned.

4. General Considerations for Materials and Methods Section

4.1. length.

Typical length of the M&M section is 2 - 3 pages (each page is considered one page in a word processor, with conventional margins, 1.5 line spacing, and font size of 11), consisting of 6 - 9 paragraphs (each paragraph usually contains 100 - 200 words, not exceeding 750 words) ( 19 ); however, depending on the discipline and field of study, the length of this section may vary from the condensed to the extended form ( 44 ). Method sections of chemistry, mycology, and molecular biology may be categorized as condensed-form, whereas public health and medical research are considered as intermediate, and psychology, sociology, and education are organized in the extended-form ( 44 ). To keep the M&M more concise, some details of materials and methods may be allowed as appendix or supplementary documents that are published online ( 45 ).

To organize paragraphs, topic sentences can be used to signal the topic of a paragraph, especially when a subsection has more than one paragraph ( 14 ). Use of linking or transition phrases/clauses (purpose phrases, time-related linking phrases, or causal linking phrases) to signal the topic of a paragraph is highly recommended ( Table 4 ) ( 11 , 14 , 44 ).

The M&M section may include up to 5 - 15 references ( 19 ). Never reference a document that you have not read ( 53 ).

4.2. Tables and Figures in Methods: Yes or No?

Use of appropriate tables and figures helps authors to summarize large amounts of complex information of the study procedures; a common recommendation to reduce the word count ( 11 ). Flowchart of the study design may be a common form of figure referenced within the M&M section. Some guidelines are available to organize study flowcharts for different study designs, for instance, the CONSORT flow diagram for clinical trials ( 54 ) and the STROBE flowchart of study participants for observational designs like cohort studies ( 21 ), as shown in Table 2 . This section does not include results ( 14 , 55 ), although intermediate results such those used for calculations that are used for obtaining results for the study question such as standard curves are recommended to be included in this section ( 14 ).

4.3. Ordering Procedures in the Materials and Methods Section

Several parts of the M&M section should be written in a logical or chronological order; presenting the methods in a logical order helps the text to make complete sense; however, the actions should be mentioned in chronological order within a paragraph or sentence. Some believe that the use of numbers or bullets to describe a sequential procedure, provided that be acceptable by the journal, make the M&M section easier to read ( 11 ). As a general suggestion, no more than two actions should be presented in a sentence. To increase readability, the subject and verb in a sentence should preferably be close together ( 11 ).

4.4. Tenses and Voices

A general recommendation is that the M&M section should be written in the past tense, either in active or passive voice ( 5 ). Depending on the author’s field, the journal style, or the action described in the M&M section, the present simple tense may also be used, for example, this tense is required when a standard method is described or when the authors present their procedure, model, software, or device ( 11 ).

Although passive voice (e.g., was/were investigated, was/were evaluated, or was/were performed) is the more common form of verbs in this section, using the active voice to show the ownership of the investigators (e.g., we performed, we evaluated, or we implemented) have recently taken priority ( 5 ). However, there is a belief that the active voice is not appropriate for the M&M section because the focus would be shifted from the research to the researchers ( 11 , 56 ).

4.5. Self-Assessing the Quality of the Materials and Methods Section

Self-assessment of the quality of the M&M section may be the last, but it is certainly not the least important step in the writing of the M&M section. Authors need to ask themselves “would a researcher be able to reproduce the study with the information provided in the method section?” ( 8 ). Using this approach, the authors would be reassured that all the critical information has been included, and unnecessary and redundant data have been excluded from this section; this process is useful to keep the paper’s storyline ( 8 ). In Box 2 , a checklist comprised of the most important questions for general quality assessment of the method section is provided.

To ensure all the necessary information is included in the methods section, referring to reporting guidelines that are available for the most common study types (e.g., CONSORT for clinical trials, STROBE for observational studies, STARD for diagnostic research, PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and ARRIVE for animal studies) is highly recommended ( Table 2 ).

5. Conclusions

The M&M section is the most important part of a research paper because it provides detailed information to other scientists/researchers to reproduce the study and judge the validity of the study’s findings. In the M&M section, “materials” refers to what was examined (e.g., humans, animals, cell lines, or tissues) and various chemicals and treatments (e.g., drugs, culture media, and gases), and the instruments used in the study. “methods” presents how subjects or objects were employed to answer the study question, that is, how measurements and calculations were made and how data analysis was carried out. Useful tips and common pitfalls in the M&M section are briefly reviewed in Box 3 .

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms. Niloofar Shiva for critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.

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How to Write a Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide

A methodology is an essential part of any research project. It serves as a blueprint for your study, providing guidance on the methods you'll use to collect and analyze data. In this article, we'll take you through the process of writing a methodology for your research project, step by step.

Understanding the Importance of a Methodology

Before we dive into the details of how to write a methodology, it's important to understand why it's so crucial to have one in the first place. A good methodology can help you:

• Ensure that your research is conducted in a systematic and structured manner
• Provide a clear and comprehensive overview of your research methods
• Help you identify potential problems and limitations ahead of time
• Establish trust and credibility with your readers by demonstrating the rigor of your research process

Having a well-defined methodology can be the difference between a successful research project and one that falls short. By following a methodology, you can ensure that your research is conducted in a consistent and reliable manner, which will lead to more accurate and trustworthy results.

Defining the Purpose of Your Research

The first step in writing a methodology is to clearly define the purpose of your research. This will help you determine the most appropriate research methods to use. Ask yourself:

• What is the main goal of my research?
• What questions am I trying to answer?
• What hypotheses am I testing?

Answering these questions will give you a clear understanding of what you hope to achieve with your research, and will guide you in selecting the most appropriate research methods and techniques.

It's important to note that the purpose of your research should be well-defined and specific. A vague or overly broad research question can make it difficult to select appropriate research methods, and can lead to inconclusive or irrelevant results.

You should also consider the context of your research, such as the academic discipline you're working in, the research problem you're addressing, and the target audience for your research. Understanding these factors will help you tailor your methodology to the specific needs of your research project.

Establishing the Scope of Your Study

Once you've defined the purpose of your research, the next step is to establish the scope of your study. This involves defining the parameters of your research, such as:

• The geographic or temporal boundaries of your study
• The population or sample you'll be studying
• The variables you'll be measuring or analyzing

Defining the scope of your study is important because it helps you focus your research efforts and ensures that you collect data that is relevant to your research question. It also helps you avoid collecting unnecessary data, which can be time-consuming and costly.

When establishing the scope of your study, it's important to consider any potential limitations or biases that may affect your research results. For example, if you're conducting a survey, you may need to consider factors such as response rates and non-response bias. If you're conducting an experiment, you may need to consider factors such as sample size and randomization.

By considering these factors ahead of time, you can design a methodology that is well-suited to your research question and that will generate reliable and trustworthy results.

Choosing the Right Research Design

The research design you choose will depend on your research question and the type of data you're collecting. There are three main types of research designs:

Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods. This type of research design is often used in the natural and social sciences, where the goal is to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research involves collecting non-numerical data and analyzing it using thematic analysis or other qualitative methods. This type of research design is often used in the humanities and social sciences, where the goal is to explore complex phenomena and gain a deeper understanding of human experiences.

Mixed-Methods Research Design

Mixed-methods research involves combining quantitative and qualitative research methods within a single study. This type of research design is often used in interdisciplinary research projects, where multiple perspectives and methodologies are needed to address complex research questions.

Selecting Your Research Methods

Once you've chosen a research design, you'll need to select the specific methods you'll use to collect and analyze your data. There are two main types of data collection methods:

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods involve collecting new data directly from research participants. This can be done through surveys, interviews, focus groups, experiments, or observation.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data collection methods involve using existing data sources, such as government statistics, academic journals, or archival materials. This can be a cost-effective way to gather data, but it may not provide the exact data you need for your research question.

When selecting your research methods, it's important to consider the strengths and limitations of each method, as well as the ethical considerations involved in conducting research with human participants.

Evaluating the Suitability of Your Methods

Before you finalize your methodology, you'll need to evaluate the suitability of your methods. Consider:

• Whether your methods are appropriate for addressing your research questions
• Whether your sample size is sufficient for your research design
• Whether your methods are ethical and respectful of research participants
• Whether your methods are feasible given your research timeline and available resources

Developing a Sampling Strategy

Sampling is an important part of any research study, as it determines the group of people or objects you'll be studying. There are two main types of sampling techniques:

Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling techniques involve selecting a sample from a larger population using random selection methods. This ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling techniques involve selecting a sample from a larger population using non-random selection methods, such as convenience sampling or purposive sampling. This can be a useful approach in situations where probability sampling is not feasible or appropriate.

Determining Sample Size

Sample size refers to the number of people or objects you'll be studying in your research. The appropriate sample size will depend on the nature of your research question, the type of data you're collecting, and the statistical power you need to detect significant effects. There are various statistical methods for determining sample size, such as power analysis or sample size calculation.

ChatGPT Prompt for Writing a Methodology

Chatgpt prompt.

Please compose a detailed and comprehensive explanation of the methods and procedures that you utilized in your research or project, including the specific steps you took to collect and analyze data, as well as any tools or instruments you employed. This should provide a clear and replicable framework for others to follow in order to replicate your results.

[ADD ADDITIONAL CONTEXT. CAN USE BULLET POINTS.]

Writing a methodology for your research project can be a daunting task, but by breaking it down into these step-by-step stages, you can ensure that your methodology is clear, comprehensive, and methodologically rigorous. Remember to consider the purpose and scope of your research, choose the appropriate research design and methods, and evaluate the suitability of your methods before finalizing your methodology. By doing so, you'll be well on your way to conducting a successful and credible research study.

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How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
• Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

• The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
• Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
• Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

• What is the wider context of your study?
• What research question were you trying to answer?
• How did you perform the experiment?
• What did your results show?
• How did you interpret your results?
• What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

• Start with the broad, general research topic
• Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
• End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

• any descriptive statistics
• statistical test results
• the significance of the test results
• estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

• Interpret your results
• Compare your findings with your expectations
• Identify any sources of experimental error
• Explain any unexpected results
• Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

• Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
• Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

• Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

• Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
• How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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How to Write a Scientific Report | Step-by-Step Guide

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Is your teacher expecting you to write an experimental report for every class experiment? Are you still unsure about how to write a scientific report properly? Don’t fear! We will guide you through all the parts of a scientific report, step-by-step.

How to write a scientific report:

• What is a scientific report
• General rules to write Scientific reports
• Syllabus dot point 
• Introduction/Background information
• Risk assessment

What is a scientific report?

A scientific report documents all aspects of an experimental investigation. This includes:

• The aim of the experiment
• The hypothesis
• An introduction to the relevant background theory
• The methods used
• The results
• A discussion of the results
• The conclusion

Scientific reports allow their readers to understand the experiment without doing it themselves. In addition, scientific reports give others the opportunity to check the methodology of the experiment to ensure the validity of the results.

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A scientific report is written in several stages. We write the introduction, aim, and hypothesis before performing the experiment, record the results during the experiment, and complete the discussion and conclusions after the experiment.

But, before we delve deeper into how to write a scientific report, we need to have a science experiment to write about! Read our 7 Simple Experiments You Can Do At Home article and see which one you want to do.

General rules about writing scientific reports

Learning how to write a scientific report is different from writing English essays or speeches!

You have to use:

• Passive voice (which you should avoid when writing for other subjects like English!)
• Past-tense language
• Headings and subheadings
• A pencil to draw scientific diagrams and graphs
• Simple and clear lines for scientific diagrams
• Tables and graphs where necessary

Structure of scientific reports:

Now that you know the general rules on how to write scientific reports, let’s look at the conventions for their structure!

The title should simply introduce what your experiment is about.

The Role of Light in Photosynthesis

2. Introduction/Background information

Write a paragraph that gives your readers background information to understand your experiment.

This includes explaining scientific theories, processes and other related knowledge.

Photosynthesis is a vital process for life. It occurs when plants intake carbon dioxide, water, and light, and results in the production of glucose and water. The light required for photosynthesis is absorbed by chlorophyll, the green pigment of plants, which is contained in the chloroplasts.

The glucose produced through photosynthesis is stored as starch, which is used as an energy source for the plant and its consumers.

The presence of starch in the leaves of a plant indicates that photosynthesis has occurred.

The aim identifies what is going to be tested in the experiment. This should be short, concise and clear.

The aim of the experiment is to test whether light is required for photosynthesis to occur.

4. Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of the experiment. You have to use background information to make an educated prediction.

It is predicted that photosynthesis will occur only in leaves that are exposed to light and not in leaves that are not exposed to light. This will be indicated by the presence or absence of starch in the leaves.

5. Risk assessment

Identify the hazards associated with the experiment and provide a method to prevent or minimise the risks. A hazard is something that can cause harm, and the risk is the likelihood that harm will occur from the hazard.

A table is an excellent way to present your risk assessment.

Remember, you have to specify the  type of harm that can occur because of the hazard. It is not enough to simply identify the hazard.

• Do not write:  “Scissors are sharp”
• Instead, you have to write:  “Scissors are sharp and can cause injury”

The method has 3 parts:

• A list of every material used
• Steps of what you did in the experiment
• A scientific diagram of the experimental apparatus

Let’s break down what you need to do for each section.

6a. Materials

This must list every piece of equipment and material you used in the experiment.

Remember, you need to also specify the amount of each material you used.

• 1 geranium plant
• Aluminium foil
• 2 test tubes
• 1 test tube rack
• 1 pair of scissors
• 1 250 mL beaker
• 1 pair of forceps
• 1 10 mL measuring cylinder
• Iodine solution (5 mL)
• Methylated spirit (50ml)
• Boiling water
• 2 Petri dishes

The rule of thumb is that you should write the method in a clear way so that readers are able to repeat the experiment and get similar results.

Using a numbered list for the steps of your experimental procedure is much clearer than writing a whole paragraph of text.  The steps should:

• Be written in a sequential order, based on when they were performed.
• Specify any equipment that was used.
• Specify the quantity of any materials that were used.

You also need to use past tense and passive voice when you are writing your method. Scientific reports are supposed to show the readers what you did in the experiment, not what you will do.

• Aluminium foil was used to fully cover a leaf of the geranium plant. The plant was left in the sun for three days.
• On the third day, the covered leaf and 1 non-covered leaf were collected from the plant. The foil was removed from the covered leaf, and a 1 cm square was cut from each leaf using a pair of scissors.
• 150 mL of water was boiled in a kettle and poured into a 250 mL beaker.
• Using forceps, the 1 cm square of covered leaf was placed into the beaker of boiling water for 2 minutes. It was then placed in a test tube labelled “dark”.
• The water in the beaker was discarded and replaced with 150 mL of freshly boiled water.
• Using forceps, the 1 cm square non-covered leaf was placed into the beaker of boiling water for 2 minutes. It was then placed in a test tube labelled “light”
• 5 mL of methylated spirit was measured with a measuring cylinder and poured into each test tube so that the leaves were fully covered.
• The water in the beaker was replaced with 150 mL of freshly boiled water and both the “light” and “dark” test tubes were immersed in the beaker of boiling water for 5 minutes.
• The leaves were collected from each test tube with forceps, rinsed under cold running water, and placed onto separate labelled Petri dishes.
• 3 drops of iodine solution were added to each leaf.
• Both Petri dishes were placed side by side and observations were recorded.
• The experiment was repeated 5 times, and results were compared between different groups.

6c. Diagram

After you finish your steps, it is time to draw your scientific diagrams! Here are some rules for drawing scientific diagrams:

• Always use a pencil to draw your scientific diagrams.
• Use simple, sharp, 2D lines and shapes to draw your diagram. Don’t draw 3D shapes or use shading.
• Label everything in your diagram.
• Use thin, straight lines to label your diagram. Do not use arrows.
• Ensure that the label lines touch the outline of the equipment you are labelling and not cross over it or stop short of it
• The label lines should never cross over each other.
• Use a ruler for any straight lines in your diagram.
• Draw a sufficiently large diagram so all components can be seen clearly.

This is where you document the results of your experiment. The data that you record for your experiment will generally be qualitative and/or quantitative.

Qualitative data is data that relates to qualities and is based on observations (qualitative – quality). This type of data is descriptive and is recorded in words. For example, the colour changed from green to orange, or the liquid became hot.

Quantitative data refers to numerical data (quantitative – quantity). This type of data is recorded using numbers and is either measured or counted. For example, the plant grew 5.2 cm, or there were 5 frogs.

You also need to record your results in an appropriate way. Most of the time, a table is the best way to do this.

Here are some rules to using tables

• Use a pencil and a ruler to draw your table
• Draw neat and straight lines
• Ensure that the table is closed (connect all your lines)
• Don’t cross your lines (erase any lines that stick out of the table)
• Use appropriate columns and rows
• Properly name each column and row (including the units of measurement in brackets)
• Do not write your units in the body of your table (units belong in the header)
• Always include a title

Note : If your results require calculations, clearly write each step.

Observations of the effects of light on the amount of starch in plant leaves.

If quantitative data was recorded, the data is often also plotted on a graph.

8. Discussion

The discussion is where you analyse and interpret your results, and identify any experimental errors or possible areas of improvements.

You should divide your discussion as follows.

1. Trend in the results

Describe the ‘trend’ in your results. That is, the relationship you observed between your independent and dependent variables.

The independent variable is the variable that you are changing in the experiment. In this experiment, it is the amount of light that the leaves are exposed to.

The dependent variable is the variable that you are measuring in the experiment, In this experiment, it is the presence of starch in the leaves.

Explain how a particular result is achieved by referring to scientific knowledge, theories and any other scientific resources you find. 2. Scientific explanation: 

The presence of starch is indicated when the addition of iodine causes the leaf to turn dark purple. The results show that starch was present in the leaves that were exposed to light, while the leaves that were not exposed to light did not contain starch.

2. Scientific explanation:

Provide an explanation of the results using scientific knowledge, theories and any other scientific resources you find.

As starch is produced during photosynthesis, these results show that light plays a key role in photosynthesis.

3. Validity 

Validity refers to whether or not your results are valid. This can be done by examining your variables.

VA lidity =  VA riables

Identify the independent, dependent, controlled variables and the control experiment (if you have one).

The controlled variables are the variables that you keep the same across all tests e.g. the size of the leaf sample.

The control experiment is where you don’t apply an independent variable. It is untouched for the whole experiment.

Ensure that you never change more than one variable at a time!

The independent variable of the experiment was amount of light that the leaves were exposed to (the covered and uncovered geranium leaf), while the dependent variable was the presence of starch. The controlled variables were the size of the leaf sample, the duration of the experiment, the amount of time the solutions were heated, and the amount of iodine solution used.

4. Reliability 

Identify how you ensured the reliability of the results.

RE liability = RE petition

Show that you repeated your experiments, cross-checked your results with other groups or collated your results with the class.

The reliability of the results was ensured by repeating the experiment 5 times and comparing results with other groups. Since other groups obtained comparable results, the results are reliable.

5. Accuracy

Accuracy should be discussed if your results are in the form of quantitative data, and there is an accepted value for the result.

Accuracy would not be discussed for our example photosynthesis experiment as qualitative data was collected, however it would if we were measuring gravity using a pendulum:

The measured value of gravity was 9.8 m/s 2 , which is in agreement with the accepted value of 9.8 m/s 2 .

6. Possible improvements 

Identify any errors or risks found in the experiment and provide a method to improve it.

If there are none, then suggest new ways to improve the experimental design, and/or minimise error and risks.

Possible improvements could be made by including control experiments. For example, testing whether the iodine solution turns dark purple when added to water or methylated spirits. This would help to ensure that the purple colour observed in the experiments is due to the presence of starch in the leaves rather than impurities.

9. Conclusion

State whether the aim was achieved, and if your hypothesis was supported.

The aim of the investigation was achieved, and it was found that light is required for photosynthesis to occur. This was evidenced by the presence of starch in leaves that had been exposed to light, and the absence of starch in leaves that had been unexposed. These results support the proposed hypothesis.

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How to Write the Methods Section of a Scientific Article

What Is the Methods Section of a Research Paper?

The Methods section of a research article includes an explanation of the procedures used to conduct the experiment. For authors of scientific research papers, the objective is to present their findings clearly and concisely and to provide enough information so that the experiment can be duplicated.

Research articles contain very specific sections, usually dictated by either the target journal or specific style guides. For example, in the social and behavioral sciences, the American Psychological Association (APA) style guide is used to gather information on how the manuscript should be arranged . As with most styles, APA’s objectives are to ensure that manuscripts are written with minimum distractions to the reader. Every research article should include a detailed Methods section after the Introduction.

Why is the Methods Section Important?

The Methods section (also referred to as “Materials and Methods”) is important because it provides the reader enough information to judge whether the study is valid and reproducible.

Structure of the Methods Section in a Research Paper

While designing a research study, authors typically decide on the key points that they’re trying to prove or the “ cause-and-effect relationship ” between objects of the study. Very simply, the study is designed to meet the objective. According to APA, a Methods section comprises of the following three subsections: participants, apparatus, and procedure.

How do You Write a Method Section in Biology?

In biological sciences, the Methods section might be more detailed, but the objectives are the same—to present the study clearly and concisely so that it is understandable and can be duplicated.

If animals (including human subjects) were used in the study, authors should ensure to include statements that they were treated according to the protocols outlined to ensure that treatment is as humane as possible.

• The Declaration of Helsinki is a set of ethical principles developed by The World Medical Association to provide guidance to scientists and physicians in medical research involving human subjects.

Research conducted at an institution using human participants is overseen by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) with which it is affiliated. IRB is an administrative body whose purpose is to protect the rights and welfare of human subjects during their participation in the study.

Literature Search

Literature searches are performed to gather as much information as relevant from previous studies. They are important for providing evidence on the topic and help validate the research. Most are accomplished using keywords or phrases to search relevant databases. For example, both MEDLINE and PubMed provide information on biomedical literature. Google Scholar, according to APA, is “one of the best sources available to an individual beginning a literature search.” APA also suggests using PsycINFO and refers to it as “the premier database for locating articles in psychological science and related literature.”

Authors must make sure to have a set of keywords (usually taken from the objective statement) to stay focused and to avoid having the search move far from the original objective. Authors will benefit by setting limiting parameters, such as date ranges, and avoiding getting pulled into the trap of using non-valid resources, such as social media, conversations with people in the same discipline, or similar non-valid sources, as references.

Related: Ready with your methods section and looking forward to manuscript submission ? Check these journal selection guidelines now!

What Should be Included in the Methods Section of a Research Paper?

One commonly misused term in research papers is “methodology.” Methodology refers to a branch of the Philosophy of Science which deals with scientific methods, not to the methods themselves, so authors should avoid using it. Here is the list of main subsections that should be included in the Methods section of a research paper ; authors might use subheadings more clearly to describe their research.

• Literature search : Authors should cite any sources that helped with their choice of methods. Authors should indicate timeframes of past studies and their particular parameters.
• Study participants : Authors should cite the source from where they received any non-human subjects. The number of animals used, the ages, sex, their initial conditions, and how they were housed and cared for, should be listed. In case of human subjects, authors should provide the characteristics, such as geographical location; their age ranges, sex, and medical history (if relevant); and the number of subjects. In case hospital records were used, authors should include the subjects’ basic health information and vital statistics at the beginning of the study. Authors should also state that written informed consent was provided by each subject.
• Inclusion/exclusion criteria : Authors should describe their inclusion and exclusion criteria, how they were determined, and how many subjects were eliminated.
• Group characteristics (could be combined with “Study participants”) : Authors should describe how the chosen group was divided into subgroups and their characteristics, including the control. Authors should also describe any specific equipment used, such as housing needs and feed (usually for animal studies). If patient records are reviewed and assessed, authors should mention whether the reviewers were blinded to them.
• Procedures : Authors should describe their study design. Any necessary preparations (e.g., tissue samples, drugs) and instruments must be explained. Authors should describe how the subjects were “ manipulated to answer the experimental question .” Timeframes should be included to ensure that the procedures are clear (e.g., “Rats were given XX drug for 14 d”). For animals sacrificed, the methods used and the protocols followed should be outlined.
• Statistical analyses: The type of data, how they were measured, and which statistical tests were performed, should be described. (Note: This is not the “results” section; any relevant tables and figures should be referenced later.) Specific software used must be cited.

What Should not be Included in Your Methods Section?

Common pitfalls can make the manuscript cumbersome to read or might make the readers question the validity of the research. The University of Southern California provides some guidelines .

• Background information that is not helpful must be avoided.
• Authors must avoid providing a lot of detail.
• Authors should focus more on how their method was used to meet their objective and less on mechanics .
• Any obstacles faced and how they were overcome should be described (often in your “Study Limitations”). This will help validate the results.

According to the University of Richmond , authors must avoid including extensive details or an exhaustive list of equipment that have been used as readers could quickly lose attention. These unnecessary details add nothing to validate the research and do not help the reader understand how the objective was satisfied. A well-thought-out Methods section is one of the most important parts of the manuscript. Authors must make a note to always prepare a draft that lists all parts, allow others to review it, and revise it to remove any superfluous information.

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Home » Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

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Dissertation Methodology

In any research, the methodology chapter is one of the key components of your dissertation. It provides a detailed description of the methods you used to conduct your research and helps readers understand how you obtained your data and how you plan to analyze it. This section is crucial for replicating the study and validating its results.

Here are the basic elements that are typically included in a dissertation methodology:

• Introduction : This section should explain the importance and goals of your research .
• Research Design : Outline your research approach and why it’s appropriate for your study. You might be conducting an experimental research, a qualitative research, a quantitative research, or a mixed-methods research.
• Data Collection : This section should detail the methods you used to collect your data. Did you use surveys, interviews, observations, etc.? Why did you choose these methods? You should also include who your participants were, how you recruited them, and any ethical considerations.
• Data Analysis : Explain how you intend to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, thematic analysis, content analysis, etc., depending on the nature of your study.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your study. For instance, you could discuss measures taken to reduce bias, how you ensured that your measures accurately capture what they were intended to, or how you will handle any limitations in your study.
• Ethical Considerations : This is where you state how you have considered ethical issues related to your research, how you have protected the participants’ rights, and how you have complied with the relevant ethical guidelines.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations of your methodology, including any biases and constraints that might have affected your study.
• Summary : Recap the key points of your methodology chapter, highlighting the overall approach and rationalization of your research.

Types of Dissertation Methodology

The type of methodology you choose for your dissertation will depend on the nature of your research question and the field you’re working in. Here are some of the most common types of methodologies used in dissertations:

Experimental Research

This involves creating an experiment that will test your hypothesis. You’ll need to design an experiment, manipulate variables, collect data, and analyze that data to draw conclusions. This is commonly used in fields like psychology, biology, and physics.

Survey Research

This type of research involves gathering data from a large number of participants using tools like questionnaires or surveys. It can be used to collect a large amount of data and is often used in fields like sociology, marketing, and public health.

Qualitative Research

This type of research is used to explore complex phenomena that can’t be easily quantified. Methods include interviews, focus groups, and observations. This methodology is common in fields like anthropology, sociology, and education.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses numerical data to answer research questions. This can include statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It’s common in fields like economics, psychology, and health sciences.

Case Study Research

This type of research involves in-depth investigation of a particular case, such as an individual, group, or event. This methodology is often used in psychology, social sciences, and business.

Mixed Methods Research

This combines qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. It’s used to answer more complex research questions and is becoming more popular in fields like social sciences, health sciences, and education.

Action Research

This type of research involves taking action and then reflecting upon the results. This cycle of action-reflection-action continues throughout the study. It’s often used in fields like education and organizational development.

Longitudinal Research

This type of research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. This could involve surveys, observations, or experiments. It’s common in fields like psychology, sociology, and medicine.

Ethnographic Research

This type of research involves the in-depth study of people and cultures. Researchers immerse themselves in the culture they’re studying to collect data. This is often used in fields like anthropology and social sciences.

Structure of Dissertation Methodology

The structure of a dissertation methodology can vary depending on your field of study, the nature of your research, and the guidelines of your institution. However, a standard structure typically includes the following elements:

• Introduction : Briefly introduce your overall approach to the research. Explain what you plan to explore and why it’s important.
• Research Design/Approach : Describe your overall research design. This can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain the rationale behind your chosen design and why it is suitable for your research questions or hypotheses.
• Data Collection Methods : Detail the methods you used to collect your data. You should include what type of data you collected, how you collected it, and why you chose this method. If relevant, you can also include information about your sample population, such as how many people participated, how they were chosen, and any relevant demographic information.
• Data Analysis Methods : Explain how you plan to analyze your collected data. This will depend on the nature of your data. For example, if you collected quantitative data, you might discuss statistical analysis techniques. If you collected qualitative data, you might discuss coding strategies, thematic analysis, or narrative analysis.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your research. This might include steps you took to reduce bias or increase the accuracy of your measurements.
• Ethical Considerations : If relevant, discuss any ethical issues associated with your research. This might include how you obtained informed consent from participants, how you ensured participants’ privacy and confidentiality, or any potential conflicts of interest.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations in your research methodology. This could include potential sources of bias, difficulties with data collection, or limitations in your analysis methods.
• Summary/Conclusion : Briefly summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps answer your research questions or hypotheses.

How to Write Dissertation Methodology

Writing a dissertation methodology requires you to be clear and precise about the way you’ve carried out your research. It’s an opportunity to convince your readers of the appropriateness and reliability of your approach to your research question. Here is a basic guideline on how to write your methodology section:

1. Introduction

Start your methodology section by restating your research question(s) or objective(s). This ensures your methodology directly ties into the aim of your research.

2. Approach

Identify your overall approach: qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain why you have chosen this approach.

• Qualitative methods are typically used for exploratory research and involve collecting non-numerical data. This might involve interviews, observations, or analysis of texts.
• Quantitative methods are used for research that relies on numerical data. This might involve surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis.
• Mixed methods use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

3. Research Design

Describe the overall design of your research. This could involve explaining the type of study (e.g., case study, ethnography, experimental research, etc.), how you’ve defined and measured your variables, and any control measures you’ve implemented.

4. Data Collection

Explain in detail how you collected your data.

• If you’ve used qualitative methods, you might detail how you selected participants for interviews or focus groups, how you conducted observations, or how you analyzed existing texts.
• If you’ve used quantitative methods, you might detail how you designed your survey or experiment, how you collected responses, and how you ensured your data is reliable and valid.

5. Data Analysis

Describe how you analyzed your data.

• If you’re doing qualitative research, this might involve thematic analysis, discourse analysis, or grounded theory.
• If you’re doing quantitative research, you might be conducting statistical tests, regression analysis, or factor analysis.

Discuss any ethical issues related to your research. This might involve explaining how you obtained informed consent, how you’re protecting participants’ privacy, or how you’re managing any potential harms to participants.

7. Reliability and Validity

Discuss the steps you’ve taken to ensure the reliability and validity of your data.

• Reliability refers to the consistency of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve piloted your instruments or used standardized measures.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve ensured your measures reflect the concepts they’re supposed to measure.

8. Limitations

Every study has its limitations. Discuss the potential weaknesses of your chosen methods and explain any obstacles you faced in your research.

9. Conclusion

Summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps to address your research question or objective.

Example of Dissertation Methodology

An Example of Dissertation Methodology is as follows:

Chapter 3: Methodology

• Introduction

This chapter details the methodology adopted in this research. The study aimed to explore the relationship between stress and productivity in the workplace. A mixed-methods research design was used to collect and analyze data.

Research Design

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The rationale for this approach is that while quantitative data can provide a broad overview of the relationships between variables, qualitative data can provide deeper insights into the nuances of these relationships.

Data Collection Methods

Quantitative Data Collection : An online self-report questionnaire was used to collect data from participants. The questionnaire consisted of two standardized scales: the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to measure stress levels and the Individual Work Productivity Questionnaire (IWPQ) to measure productivity. The sample consisted of 200 office workers randomly selected from various companies in the city.

Qualitative Data Collection : Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 participants chosen from the initial sample. The interview guide included questions about participants’ experiences with stress and how they perceived its impact on their productivity.

Data Analysis Methods

Quantitative Data Analysis : Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the survey data. Pearson’s correlation was used to examine the relationship between stress and productivity.

Qualitative Data Analysis : Interviews were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo software. This process allowed for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes regarding the impact of stress on productivity.

Reliability and Validity

To ensure reliability and validity, standardized measures with good psychometric properties were used. In qualitative data analysis, triangulation was employed by having two researchers independently analyze the data and then compare findings.

Ethical Considerations

All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. They were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights as participants, and the confidentiality of their responses.

Limitations

The main limitation of this study is its reliance on self-report measures, which can be subject to biases such as social desirability bias. Moreover, the sample was drawn from a single city, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.

Where to Write Dissertation Methodology

In a dissertation or thesis, the Methodology section usually follows the Literature Review. This placement allows the Methodology to build upon the theoretical framework and existing research outlined in the Literature Review, and precedes the Results or Findings section. Here’s a basic outline of how most dissertations are structured:

• Acknowledgements
• Literature Review (or it may be interspersed throughout the dissertation)
• Methodology
• Results/Findings
• References/Bibliography

In the Methodology chapter, you will discuss the research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and any ethical considerations pertaining to your study. This allows your readers to understand how your research was conducted and how you arrived at your results.

Advantages of Dissertation Methodology

The dissertation methodology section plays an important role in a dissertation for several reasons. Here are some of the advantages of having a well-crafted methodology section in your dissertation:

• Clarifies Your Research Approach : The methodology section explains how you plan to tackle your research question, providing a clear plan for data collection and analysis.
• Enables Replication : A detailed methodology allows other researchers to replicate your study. Replication is an important aspect of scientific research because it provides validation of the study’s results.
• Demonstrates Rigor : A well-written methodology shows that you’ve thought critically about your research methods and have chosen the most appropriate ones for your research question. This adds credibility to your study.
• Enhances Transparency : Detailing your methods allows readers to understand the steps you took in your research. This increases the transparency of your study and allows readers to evaluate potential biases or limitations.
• Helps in Addressing Research Limitations : In your methodology section, you can acknowledge and explain the limitations of your research. This is important as it shows you understand that no research method is perfect and there are always potential weaknesses.
• Facilitates Peer Review : A detailed methodology helps peer reviewers assess the soundness of your research design. This is an important part of the publication process if you aim to publish your dissertation in a peer-reviewed journal.
• Establishes the Validity and Reliability : Your methodology section should also include a discussion of the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your measurements, which is crucial for establishing the overall quality of your research.

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The Ultimate Writing Guide to the QCAA Biology Student Experiment

Expected to write up a student experiment report for QCAA Biology but aren’t too sure how to approach the task?

We’re here to help you out! We’ll walk you through each of the different sections of the student experiment report for QCAA Biology, so that you’ve got a clear understanding of the structure.

What are you waiting for? Let’s get started!

What is a Student Experiment? How do you write a Student Experiment for QCAA Biology? QCAA Biology Student Experiment Report Structure

What is a student experiment?

A student experiment is simply a chance for you to showcase your ability to employ the scientific method in 1500 to 2000 words!

This assessment piece requires you to develop a research question or hypothesis, and attempt to address it through the collection and analysis of primary data. In order to do this, you will need to refine, extend, or modify a previously conducted experiment. 

Want to see how you went in the IA1? Check out our QCE Cohort Comparison Tool to show you were you sit compared to your peers!

How do you write a student experiment for QCAA Biology? 

To successfully complete this task, QCAA state that you must:

• Develop a research question to be investigated and conduct relevant background research to inform your modifications to the methodology
• Conduct a risk assessment and account for risks in the methodology
• Collect sufficient and relevant qualitative and/or quantitative data to address the research question 
• Process and present the data appropriately to allow for the analysis of trend, patterns or relationships, as well as uncertainty and limitations
• Interpret the evidence to draw conclusion/s to the research question
• Evaluate the reliability and validity of the experimental process
• Suggest possible improvements and extensions to the experiment

In short, these are the steps you will need to follow:

Below is a breakdown for how, exactly, to complete a student experiment and hit all the marks along the way. 

In the example below, the data used comes from the Moreton Bay Environmental Education Centre (MBEEC) . Learn more about their different curriculum programs! Please also keep in mind that this example has data for one particular species, and when writing up your own experiment, you will need to choose a different species to avoid any plagiarism.

Download our QCAA Biology Student Experiment structure!

QCAA Biology Student Experiment Report Structure

Step 1: write your introduction.

The bulk of your research and background theory should be contained within the rationale.

It is important that you show the development of your investigation through the rationale! You can’t simply jump straight to the crux of the investigation, as that doesn’t give any indication as to why you are doing the investigation and any important information that has informed your question.

For this reason, it can be helpful to think of your rationale as a funnel through which you are feeding the reader information .

For example , let’s look at the rationale mapping for an investigation into how climate change’s influence on water temperature impacts the abundance of a species of a fish species known as Pelates sexlineatus.  

It’s also important to make sure that your rationale addresses every component of your research question!  The purpose of your rationale is, after all, to show how the question has been developed. You should also show how you have considered your modifications to the original experiment.

To get top marks , your rationale must be “considered”. What does this mean?

Your rationale must discuss any theory that is important for the investigation. You must also show that your modifications to the methodology have been informed by theory. Using the funnel method shown above can help you produce a considered rationale. 

QCAA Biology Student Experiment example: Climate Change Impacts on Marine Ecosystems (2012), authored by Scott. C. Doney, et al., investigates the detrimental consequences marine ecosystems are facing, resultant of anthropogenic climate change. When regarding ecological timescales, a central problem posed by climate change is the rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) (Doney, et al., 2012). The significance of this issue is due to its global prevalence and damaging nature (Doney, et al., 2012). It can be noted that the primary effect increasing CO 2   levels has on the ocean is rising temperatures. Doney et al. identified that fluctuations in ocean temperatures may ultimately impact the functioning of ecosystems. Varying and heightened temperatures have the potential to alter the “physiological function, behaviour and demographic traits [for example, productivity] of organisms” in marine ecosystems (Doney, et al., 2012). Additionally, this may lead to a subsequent decrement in the abundance of organisms within species. Ultimately, ocean temperatures regulate species interactions and behaviour – particularly the behaviour of ectotherms – and fluctuations in temperature can result in changes to trophic pathways. 

Original Experiment

This does not need to be incredibly lengthy — a few sentences tacked on to the end of your rationale will suffice! All you need to do is:

• State the aim of the original experiment
• Identify some of the limitations that will be addressed by your investigation

To get top marks , you must demonstrate that your modifications to the methodology are “justified”. By identifying the limitations of the original investigation, you are making it much easier to justify your own modifications!

For example: The original investigation aimed to investigate how a multitude of abiotic factors affect the distribution of the species Chrysophry auratus in Moreton Bay. This investigation is limited in that: 1) abiotic data has been omitted for all measurements taken prior to 2015, and 2) the analysis lacks specificity since it investigates a variety of abiotic factors — thus, the data is only being examined at surface-level.

Developing a Research Question for your QCAA Biology Student Experiment

When developing your research question, the goal is to generate a question that is succinct and specific enough to provide results that can be analysed with ease . You want to ensure that both your dependent and independent variables are not only included in the question, but operationalised.

To make your research question even better, prompt the investigation to seek directionality. Instead of asking, “Does X impact Y?”, ask “ How does X impact Y?”.

By only asking “Does”, you are asking a yes or no question. The inclusion of “How” necessitates a more in-depth investigation of the relationship between the variables.

To get top marks , your research question must be “specific” and “relevant” — but what does this mean? This means that you have to really consider the variables you are exploring and make sure that your question is linked nicely to your rationale. Every aspect of your research question should be addressed in the rationale. 

For example: How has climate change’s impact on the abiotic factor of water temperature (˚C) affected the abundance of P. sexlineatus, between 2015 and 2018, at Moreton Bay? 

Step 2: Define Your Methodology

Original method.

It’s important to note that you don’t need to include a step-by-step guide on how to conduct the original experiment. You simply just need to provide a general idea of how the original methodology attempted to address the aim. 

For example: The original methodology, on which this report is based, utilised a baited remote underwater video station (BRUV) in order to attract and record marine species in the vicinity. 

Modifications to Methodology

This section should also not be mistaken for a step-by-step guide on how to conduct the new experiment. What this section should include are the ways you have changed the methodology  for your own Biology student experiment.

You can show this through the inclusion of refinements, extensions and redirections. It is also important to indicate how these modifications improved the original method and addressed any limitations. 

To get top marks , you must show that your modifications are “justified” and that your methodology allows you to collect “sufficient” and “relevant” data. This can be achieved simply by showing how your investigation is an improvement of the original. 

For example: The key refinement to the original experiment is the alteration of the species of focus … [This] refinement allow[s] for the analysis of relevant and appropriate data and ensures that the investigation is specific. Extensions include examining the links between the abiotic factors of water temperature, water depth and season … [This] extension allow[s] for the insightful analysis of data — ensuring it is assessed beyond the surface level … Redirections include … investigating the effects of climate change on the species abundance of P. sexlineatus, due to its impact on water temperature. [This] redirection allow[s] for the investigation to fill gaps in the scientific understanding presented by the original study.

Management of Risks and Ethical Considerations

In this section, you need to identify any major safety risks and ethical concerns that were posed by the investigation . It is also crucial that you elaborate on how these risks and ethical concerns were addressed. 

To get top marks , you must show that your management of risks and ethical concerns is “considered”. You can do this by showing that these risks and concerns were taken into account before you even conducted the experiment. 

For example: As the methodology consisted solely of analysing pre-collected data from a reputable source, no safety risks were identified. However, ethical considerations have been noted when examining the data collection technique implemented throughout the original study. The non-invasive nature of BRUVs ensures they do not harm organisms; although, in some instances, its deployment may cause damage to the surrounding habitats. The effects of this can be mitigated should the investigator aim to deploy the BRUV thoughtfully. 

Up until this point, the only criteria that has been assessed is:

Refer to the “To get top marks” component of each subsection to see how you can ensure you meet all of the criteria. 

Step 3: Generate Results from Your Student Experiment

Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

In this section it is imperative that you discuss any trends, patterns or relationships that you see in the data. Further, you should make an effort to link your observations back to the research question as much as possible.

You may also wish to present your data in a graphical or tabular format in this section (however, ensure you include error bars and/or uncertainty). 

Additionally, you should discuss the significance of your results. You can do this by analysing the error bars on your graph… Ask yourself, are they overlapping? If so, your data isn’t statistically significant.

You can also employ the use of inferential tests to determine statistical significance. For any calculations you do, however, you should include an example in this section. 

To get top marks, you must demonstrate the “appropriate” application of mathematical procedures, as well as “appropriate” “visual” and “graphical” presentations of the data. Additionally, you must identify trends, patterns, or relationships that are relevant to the investigation — you can do this by ensuring you link your observations back to the question. 

QCAA Biology Student Experiment example: The mean number of P. sexlineatus increases almost twofold at temperatures ≤22˚C, compared to temperatures >22˚C. With a confidence interval of 95%, it is expected that the mean number of P. sexlineatus at temperatures less than 22˚C is 22±6.94. However, at temperatures ≥22˚C this value is reduced to 10±3.76. This relationship between the abiotic factor of water temperature and the abundance of P. sexlineatus is supported by scientific literature; this marine species prefers cooler water temperatures (operationalised as temperatures below 22˚C). When comparing the abundance of P. sexlineatus at temperatures above and below 22˚C, a p-value of 0.004 was produced … As this value is less than 0.05, it can be deduced that the results are statistically significant, and that water temperature does influence the abundance of the species. 

Limitations

Here you will comment on any sources of error or uncertainty, as well as any shortcomings of the methodology that have potentially impacted your ability to accurately answer the research question or draw a conclusion.

It can help to break this section up into limitations concerning the data and limitations concerning the methodology. This will make it easier to write up the reliability and validity section, as reliability concerns data and validity concerns methodology. 

According to the QCAA, to get top marks you must demonstrate the “thorough” and “appropriate” identification of uncertainty and limitations. This means that you must comment on and acknowledge how the uncertainty and limitations impact your ability to draw causal conclusions or answer your research question. 

For example: Limitations concerning the data include: some measurements exhibited larger confidence intervals, relative to the mean (indicating uncertainty) … Limitations concerning the methodology include: the type of bait used might impact the species that are attracted to the BRUV – it has been identified that P. sexlineatus primarily feed on crustaceans; however, the bait used was not crustaceous. 

Analysis of Results

In this section of the Biology Student Experiment, you must talk about what your results mean with regard to answering the research question . You can also talk about what you expected the results to look like and compare that to what was actually seen.

If desired, you can do further research to gain any theory (that isn’t contained within the rationale) that may help you explain the results. 

To get top marks, you must draw “justified” conclusions that are “linked” to the research question. By linking your observations back to the theory and making very explicit connections to the research question , you can tick off this criteria. 

QCAA Biology Student Experiment example: Water temperature has a significant effect on the abundance of P. sexlineatus … The data shows that there is an inversely proportional relationship between water temperature and P. sexlineatus abundance. Further, water temperature is understood to be directly influenced by climate change … Upon conducting further research, it has been recognised that the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms has a directly proportional relationship with water temperature (Fondriest Environmental, Inc., 2014) … Increased metabolic rates may be detrimental to the health of aquatic organisms if maintained for extended periods of time (Fondriest Environmental, Inc., 2014). Ultimately, these physiological responses cause behavioural changes such as relocation, which impacts the measurements of species abundance. Thus, being a cold-water species, it can be deduced that climate change negatively affects the abundance of P. sexlineatus via increases in ocean temperature. 

Step 4: Interpret and Evaluate Your Investigation

Reliability and validity.

Here you must elaborate on the reliability and validity of the investigation.

Reliability relates to the data, so you can discuss things like the uncertainty of the data or any error that may impact the ability to draw a conclusion.

Validity, on the other hand, refers to the methodology. If the methodology wasn’t appropriate then you cannot draw a valid conclusion as the investigation won’t produce results that are relevant to what you are examining. 

To get top marks, you must have a “justified” discussion of the reliability and validity of the investigation. This means talking about how the limitations don’t stop you from being able to draw a causal conclusion. 

For example: It has been identified that the data lacks inter-rater reliability, due to the high degree of dispersion – indicating a lack of consistency. However, the results are reliable in that they hold statistical significance. This is observed in the t-tests and in the fact that the error bars do not overlap – furthermore, most error bars are quite infinitesimal relative to the size of the means. The validity is strong as the methodology allows for the accurate identification of fish species (ultimately ensuring the content validity of the results).

Improvements and Extensions

In this section, you address any limitations to the investigation that you identified in the limitations section. If there are any ways to improve the reliability or validity of the investigation, then you should state that here.

Further, you should discuss how this investigation can be extended further to investigate something new or fill any other gaps in knowledge that were uncovered during this investigation. 

According to QCAA, to get top marks in your Biology Student Experiment, you must suggest improvements and extensions that are “logically derived” from your analysis of the evidence. You can achieve this by ensuring each of the limitations you identify in the limitations section maps to an improvement in this section. 

QCAA Biology Student Experiment example: Suggested improvements that will enhance the reliability and validity of the data and methodology include: using crustaceous bait (in order to better attract P. sexlineatus), collecting data from various localities in Easter Australia (so as to examine whether the high level of dispersion is typical) … Extensions include: examining how other abiotic factors (also influenced by climate change) affect the abundance of species (i.e. ocean acidity), and investigating the impact climate change has on species residing in intertidal zones. 

For the sections in steps 3 and 4, the following criteria are being assessed:

Interested in what IA2 mark you need to get an ATAR 90+?

Step 5: Write Your Conclusion

Here, you simply summarise the results and your answer to the research question.

For example: Between 2015 and 2018, it can be deduced that Moreton Bay’s abundance of P. sexlineatus has been negatively impacted by climate change – due to its effects on water temperature (notably, causing increases in temperature). This is due to the fact that increased temperatures result in behavioural changes in ectothermic species. 

Step 6: Include a Reference List In Your Student Experiment

For example: 

Note: this exemplar uses APA style referencing. 

Step 7: Include an Appendix

Here you can include raw data and any calculations you have performed. This section is not marked, nor does it contribute to the word count. However, this section allows you to include any supplementary information to aid your report. 

For example:

Want to see why Term 2 is one of the most important terms of the QCE for so many students? Read why here!

There you have it!

We’ve given you a step-by-step guide on how your student experiment report for QCAA Biology should be structured. Hopefully you’re feeling way more confident to complete your task now!

If you’ve been looking for other resources to help you study for QCAA Biology, here are some you can access:

• Unit 3 Biology Data Test IA1 Practice Questions
• Unit 3 & 4 Biology External Assessment Practice Questions
• Unit 3 & 4 Biology External Assessment Multiple Choice Practice Questions
• The Essential List of QCE Biology Terms You Need to Know for Unit 3
• The Ultimate Guide to QCE Biology Unit 3: Biodiversity and the Interconnectedness of Life

Are you looking for some extra help with the Student Experiment for QCAA Biology?

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Katelyn Smith  was a pioneer in the Queensland ATAR system. After graduating in 2020 with an ATAR of 98.40, she now studies a Bachelor of Advanced Science (Honours) at The University of Queensland — majoring in Physics. Through her studies, she hopes to develop a greater appreciation for how the wonders of the universe work. When she isn’t slaving away behind her unnecessarily large textbooks, she enjoys catching up with friends, scrolling mindlessly through TikTok, and sleeping.

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Evaluating Experimental Methods ( OCR A Level Biology )

Revision note.

Biology Lead

Evaluating Experimental Methods

• Evaluating experimental methods is an important skill for a scientist
• A good way to evaluate an experimental design is by repeating the experiment yourself (using the instructions provided) and determining if you can produce similar results
• Method limitations
• Reliability
• A method limitation is any experimental design flaw or fault in the method that affects the accuracy of the results
• For example, in an experiment using a potometer to measure the rate of water uptake in plants, there could be an air bubble inside the plant xylem
• The bubble in the apparatus is a limitation as it prevents the accurate measurement of water uptake
• It can be corrected by ensuring that all plant stems are cut underwater to prevent the entry of air
• Accuracy is how close a reading/measurement is to its true value
• Faulty instruments or flaws in the experimental method produce systematic errors that are repeated consistently every time the instrument is used or the method is followed
• Unexpected environmental changes or incorrect use of equipment can produce random errors that are different every time the experiment is carried out, e.g. a breeze blowing during a potometer experiment may not blow at the same speed throughout the experiment
• Precision - how similar repeat readings/measurements are to each other
• Readings that are tightly clustered together (a small range) are described as precise
• The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded – measurements to a greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole number
• Experiments are repeated many times to ensure the reliability of results
• The other variables in the experiment are identified and controlled in order to ensure the validity of an experiment
• Ideally the design of an experiment should be evaluated at the preliminary stage , this way any corrections or adjustments can be made prior to conducting the actual experiment

The difference between accuracy and precision explained using a dartboard as a metaphor

Instructions

• Scientists always record instructions for their experiments so that they can be repeated
• The instructions should allow an individual to successfully carry out the experiment without any additional help or input
• It is very important to record all required details within these instructions
• The apparatus used
• The quantities of specific reactants/reagents used
• The species of model organism used

It is a very common mistake to confuse precision with accuracy. Precision refers to the ability to take multiple readings that are close to each other, whereas accuracy is the closeness of those measurements to the true value. Measurements can be precise but not accurate if each measurement reading has the same error.

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How to Write a Microbiology Lab Report

Last Updated: April 15, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 81,558 times.

Whether you’re studying microbiology in high school or as a college student, you’ll need to write a number of lab reports. The lab-report genre does have several sections you’ll need to meet in your report, which include: a Purpose Statement, Methods, Results, a Discussion or Conclusion, and References. Depending on your instructor's preferences, your report may also include an introduction. Scientific writing should always focus on concision and clarity. Write your lab report without any flowery or figurative language, and focus on clearly describing the experiment you’ve performed. [1] X Research source

Using Clear Scientific Writing

• So, instead of writing, “I used plastic pipettes to fill the beakers with 25 mL of water,” write “The beakers were filled with 25 mL of water using plastic pipettes.”
• Use as few pronouns as possible when writing your lab report. Pronouns to avoid using include “I,” “we,” and “they.”

• For instance, instead of saying, "The results prove the hypothesis is correct," say, "The results of the experiment proved the hypothesis was correct."
• The Introduction is one of the few parts of the lab report which can be written in the present tense.

• Add/subtract/merge certain structural elements of a report.
• Grade one part of a report more heavily than another.
• Require reports to be typed, using a specific font and size.
• Require reports to be handwritten in a research notebook.

Composing the Introduction and Purpose Statement

• For example, your Introduction could begin, “In this laboratory experiment, the ability of a lab microscope to differentiate between different species of single-cell organisms was tested.”
• Methods and Results should all be written in the past tense, since you’ll be summarizing actions that you’ve already performed as part of the lab.

• In the Purpose section you should also include background information about the experiment, including the reason that you’re performing the experiment. This information can be found in the lab manual or related microbiology textbook.
• For example, begin your Purpose statement by writing something like, “In this lab experiment, 3 different types of bacteria were separated using a nutrient agar plate.”

• For example, write: “The initial hypothesis suggested that the bacteria in group 1 would outnumber bacteria in groups 2 and 3 by a rate of 5:1.”
• Finally, the Purpose section should state, but not extrapolate on, all techniques or tests used in the experiment. Keep things cursory here, though, since you’ll give detailed information about the techniques and methods used in the Methods section.

Writing the Methods and Results Sections

• The type of agar (if agar was used).
• The type of microorganism used (if the organism types were known beforehand).
• The size of all test tubes, beakers, calipers, and any other type of science equipment.
• For example, the materials description could include a sentence like: “Five 50-mL beakers were used to contain the water and single-celled organisms. The water was applied to microscope slides using 1-mL plastic pipettes.”

• If your instructor deviated from the original experiment, make adjustments as needed.
• For example, write something like, “After a plastic pipette was used to place the single-celled organisms on the center of microscope slides, a slide cover was placed over each water sample. Organisms were then identified through the microscope using 50x and 100x magnification.”

• However, do not interpret the scientific data in the Results section. Only interpret data in the Discussion section.
• For example, write something like, “When the microscope was set to 100x magnification, single-celled organisms that were at least 0.25 mm smaller or larger than the surrounding organisms could be identified.”

• For example, if a bacteria that you were asked to observe had consistent physical traits, describe these in the Results section.
• Write something like, “The reactions of single-celled organisms to different water temperatures and chemical additives were noted. It was noted that, as less-diluted chemicals were added, the organisms acted in increasingly unpredictable ways.”

• Figures and tables should also be mentioned and explained in the main text of your Results section.

Putting Together the Discussion and References Sections

• The Discussion section is usually the most important section of the lab report. It shows that you’ve understood the experiment you just performed and are able to engage with the scientific implications.
• For example, write, “The amoebas were observed displaying consistent behavior throughout the observation period. The data suggests that the organisms were unable to detect the variety of chemicals that were added to different water samples, which the amoebas were then suspended in.”

• You could state something as simple as, “The results disproved the initial hypothesis, which failed to account for the similar sizes and colors of many of the single-celled organisms that were identified.”
• If your results do not support your hypothesis, ask questions like, was there any error during the experiment? Did you miss a step in the experiment? Did you use proper techniques? Were your results accurate?

• If you should include a References section instead of a Bibliography, you’ll only need to include citation information for sources that were cited in the lab report.
• Ask your instructor which citation style you should use when compiling your Bibliography. For example, most microbiology TAs will ask you to use Chicago style.
• Most lab reports have short Bibliographies, since very few lab reports cite more than 1 or 2 sources (if any).

Community Q&A

• Remember to always ask your instructor about correct formatting before writing a lab report if you’re confused or unsure about any aspect of the report. The instructor may have specific stylistic or content-focused requirements for the report that they can clarify to you. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Never pay a website to write a lab report for you. Not only will you be paying someone to do work that you could do for free, but your instructor will almost certainly see through the lab report and realize that you didn’t write it yourself. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ http://microbiology.science.oregonstate.edu/files/micro/Writing%20Manual%20for%20Science%20Majors_0.pdf
• ↑ https://wic.oregonstate.edu/microbiology-writing-guide-lab-report-format

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• CAREER FEATURE
• 04 December 2020
• Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Credit: Getty

Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

WENTING ZHAO: Be focused and avoid jargon

Assistant professor of chemical and biomedical engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

When I was a research student, review writing improved my understanding of the history of my field. I also learnt about unmet challenges in the field that triggered ideas.

For example, while writing my first review 1 as a PhD student, I was frustrated by how poorly we understood how cells actively sense, interact with and adapt to nanoparticles used in drug delivery. This experience motivated me to study how the surface properties of nanoparticles can be modified to enhance biological sensing. When I transitioned to my postdoctoral research, this question led me to discover the role of cell-membrane curvature, which led to publications and my current research focus. I wouldn’t have started in this area without writing that review.

Collection: Careers toolkit

A common problem for students writing their first reviews is being overly ambitious. When I wrote mine, I imagined producing a comprehensive summary of every single type of nanomaterial used in biological applications. It ended up becoming a colossal piece of work, with too many papers discussed and without a clear way to categorize them. We published the work in the end, but decided to limit the discussion strictly to nanoparticles for biological sensing, rather than covering how different nanomaterials are used in biology.

My advice to students is to accept that a review is unlike a textbook: it should offer a more focused discussion, and it’s OK to skip some topics so that you do not distract your readers. Students should also consider editorial deadlines, especially for invited reviews: make sure that the review’s scope is not so extensive that it delays the writing.

A good review should also avoid jargon and explain the basic concepts for someone who is new to the field. Although I trained as an engineer, I’m interested in biology, and my research is about developing nanomaterials to manipulate proteins at the cell membrane and how this can affect ageing and cancer. As an ‘outsider’, the reviews that I find most useful for these biological topics are those that speak to me in accessible scientific language.

Bozhi Tian likes to get a variety of perspectives into a review. Credit: Aleksander Prominski

BOZHI TIAN: Have a process and develop your style

Associate professor of chemistry, University of Chicago, Illinois.

In my lab, we start by asking: what is the purpose of this review? My reasons for writing one can include the chance to contribute insights to the scientific community and identify opportunities for my research. I also see review writing as a way to train early-career researchers in soft skills such as project management and leadership. This is especially true for lead authors, because they will learn to work with their co-authors to integrate the various sections into a piece with smooth transitions and no overlaps.

After we have identified the need and purpose of a review article, I will form a team from the researchers in my lab. I try to include students with different areas of expertise, because it is useful to get a variety of perspectives. For example, in the review ‘An atlas of nano-enabled neural interfaces’ 2 , we had authors with backgrounds in biophysics, neuroengineering, neurobiology and materials sciences focusing on different sections of the review.

After this, I will discuss an outline with my team. We go through multiple iterations to make sure that we have scanned the literature sufficiently and do not repeat discussions that have appeared in other reviews. It is also important that the outline is not decided by me alone: students often have fresh ideas that they can bring to the table. Once this is done, we proceed with the writing.

I often remind my students to imagine themselves as ‘artists of science’ and encourage them to develop how they write and present information. Adding more words isn’t always the best way: for example, I enjoy using tables to summarize research progress and suggest future research trajectories. I’ve also considered including short videos in our review papers to highlight key aspects of the work. I think this can increase readership and accessibility because these videos can be easily shared on social-media platforms.

ANKITA ANIRBAN: Timeliness and figures make a huge difference

Editor, Nature Reviews Physics .

One of my roles as a journal editor is to evaluate proposals for reviews. The best proposals are timely and clearly explain why readers should pay attention to the proposed topic.

It is not enough for a review to be a summary of the latest growth in the literature: the most interesting reviews instead provide a discussion about disagreements in the field.

Careers Collection: Publishing

Scientists often centre the story of their primary research papers around their figures — but when it comes to reviews, figures often take a secondary role. In my opinion, review figures are more important than most people think. One of my favourite review-style articles 3 presents a plot bringing together data from multiple research papers (many of which directly contradict each other). This is then used to identify broad trends and suggest underlying mechanisms that could explain all of the different conclusions.

An important role of a review article is to introduce researchers to a field. For this, schematic figures can be useful to illustrate the science being discussed, in much the same way as the first slide of a talk should. That is why, at Nature Reviews, we have in-house illustrators to assist authors. However, simplicity is key, and even without support from professional illustrators, researchers can still make use of many free drawing tools to enhance the value of their review figures.

Yoojin Choi recommends that researchers be open to critiques when writing reviews. Credit: Yoojin Choi

YOOJIN CHOI: Stay updated and be open to suggestions

Research assistant professor, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon.

I started writing the review ‘Biosynthesis of inorganic nanomaterials using microbial cells and bacteriophages’ 4 as a PhD student in 2018. It took me one year to write the first draft because I was working on the review alongside my PhD research and mostly on my own, with support from my adviser. It took a further year to complete the processes of peer review, revision and publication. During this time, many new papers and even competing reviews were published. To provide the most up-to-date and original review, I had to stay abreast of the literature. In my case, I made use of Google Scholar, which I set to send me daily updates of relevant literature based on key words.

Through my review-writing process, I also learnt to be more open to critiques to enhance the value and increase the readership of my work. Initially, my review was focused only on using microbial cells such as bacteria to produce nanomaterials, which was the subject of my PhD research. Bacteria such as these are known as biofactories: that is, organisms that produce biological material which can be modified to produce useful materials, such as magnetic nanoparticles for drug-delivery purposes.

Synchronized editing: the future of collaborative writing

However, when the first peer-review report came back, all three reviewers suggested expanding the review to cover another type of biofactory: bacteriophages. These are essentially viruses that infect bacteria, and they can also produce nanomaterials.

The feedback eventually led me to include a discussion of the differences between the various biofactories (bacteriophages, bacteria, fungi and microalgae) and their advantages and disadvantages. This turned out to be a great addition because it made the review more comprehensive.

Writing the review also led me to an idea about using nanomaterial-modified microorganisms to produce chemicals, which I’m still researching now.

PAULA MARTIN-GONZALEZ: Make good use of technology

PhD student, University of Cambridge, UK.

Just before the coronavirus lockdown, my PhD adviser and I decided to write a literature review discussing the integration of medical imaging with genomics to improve ovarian cancer management.

As I was researching the review, I noticed a trend in which some papers were consistently being cited by many other papers in the field. It was clear to me that those papers must be important, but as a new member of the field of integrated cancer biology, it was difficult to immediately find and read all of these ‘seminal papers’.

That was when I decided to code a small application to make my literature research more efficient. Using my code, users can enter a query, such as ‘ovarian cancer, computer tomography, radiomics’, and the application searches for all relevant literature archived in databases such as PubMed that feature these key words.

The code then identifies the relevant papers and creates a citation graph of all the references cited in the results of the search. The software highlights papers that have many citation relationships with other papers in the search, and could therefore be called seminal papers.

My code has substantially improved how I organize papers and has informed me of key publications and discoveries in my research field: something that would have taken more time and experience in the field otherwise. After I shared my code on GitHub, I received feedback that it can be daunting for researchers who are not used to coding. Consequently, I am hoping to build a more user-friendly interface in a form of a web page, akin to PubMed or Google Scholar, where users can simply input their queries to generate citation graphs.

Tools and techniques

Most reference managers on the market offer similar capabilities when it comes to providing a Microsoft Word plug-in and producing different citation styles. But depending on your working preferences, some might be more suitable than others.

Reference managers

Here is a comparison of the more popular collaborative writing tools, but there are other options, including Fidus Writer, Manuscript.io, Authorea and Stencila.

Collaborative writing tools

*Markdown and LaTex are code-based formatting languages favoured by physicists, mathematicians and computer scientists who code on a regular basis, and less popular in other disciplines such as biology and chemistry.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03422-x

Interviews have been edited for length and clarity.

Updates & Corrections

Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

Article   Google Scholar  

Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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How to Format a Biology Lab Report

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If you are taking a general biology course or AP Biology , at some point you will have to do biology lab experiments. This means that you will also have to complete biology lab reports .

The purpose of writing a lab report is to determine how well you performed your experiment, how much you understood about what happened during the experimentation process, and how well you can convey that information in an organized fashion.

Lab Report Format

A good lab report format includes six main sections:

• Introduction
• Materials and Methods

Keep in mind that individual instructors may have a specific format that they require you to follow. Please be sure to consult your teacher about the specifics of what to include in your lab report.

Title:  The title states the focus of your experiment. The title should be to the point, descriptive, accurate, and concise (ten words or less). If your instructor requires a separate title page, include the title followed by the name(s) of the project participant(s), class title, date, and instructors name. If a title page is required, consult your instructor about the specific format for the page.

Introduction:  The introduction of a lab report states the purpose of your experiment. Your hypothesis should be included in the introduction, as well as a brief statement about how you intend to test your hypothesis.

To be sure that you have a good understanding of your experiment, some educators suggest writing the introduction after you have completed the methods and materials, results, and conclusion sections of your lab report.

Methods and Materials:  This section of your lab report involves producing a written description of the materials used and the methods involved in performing your experiment. You should not just record a list of materials, but indicate when and how they were used during the process of completing your experiment.

The information you include should not be overly detailed but should include enough detail so that someone else could perform the experiment by following your instructions.

Results:  The results section should include all tabulated data from observations during your experiment. This includes charts, tables, graphs, and any other illustrations of data you have collected. You should also include a written summary of the information in your charts, tables, and/or other illustrations. Any patterns or trends observed in your experiment or indicated in your illustrations should be noted as well.

Discussion and Conclusion:  This section is where you summarize what happened in your experiment. You will want to fully discuss and interpret the information. What did you learn? What were your results? Was your hypothesis correct, why or why not? Were there any errors? If there is anything about your experiment that you think could be improved upon, provide suggestions for doing so.

Citation/References:  All references used should be included at the end of your lab report. That includes any books, articles, lab manuals, etc. that you used when writing your report.

Example APA citation formats for referencing materials from different sources are listed below.

• Book Name of author or authors (last name, first initial, middle initial) Year of publication Title of book Edition (if more than one) Place where published (city, state) followed by a colon Publisher name For example: Smith, J. B. (2005). Science of Life. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Thompson Brooks.
• Journal Name of author or authors (last name, first initial, middle initial) Year of publication Article title Journal title Volume followed by issue number (issue number is in parenthesis) Page numbers For example: Jones, R. B. & Collins, K. (2002). Creatures of the desert. National Geographic. 101(3), 235-248.

Your instructor may require that you follow a specific citation format. Be sure to consult your teacher concerning the citation format that you should follow.

What Is an Abstract?

Some instructors also require that you include an abstract in your lab report. An abstract is a concise summary of your experiment. It should include information about the purpose of the experiment, the problem being addressed, the methods used for solving the problem, overall results from the experiment, and the conclusion drawn from your experiment.

The abstract typically comes at the beginning of the lab report, after the title, but should not be composed until your written report is completed. View a sample lab report template .

Do Your Own Work

Remember that lab reports are individual assignments. You may have a lab partner, but the work that you do and report on should be your own. Since you may see this material again on an exam , it is best that you know it for yourself. Always give credit where credit is due on your report. You don't want to plagiarize the work of others. That means you should properly acknowledge the statements or ideas of others in your report.

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• Thesis Guidelines

A thesis for Distinction in Biology is a wonderful way for you to close the loop on your undergraduate research experience and showcase your scientific scholarship. Your thesis will be evaluated by the Faculty in Biology and answers the following questions: What did you do? Why did you do it? What is the significance of your results? What else would you do, were you to continue the project?

In answering the above questions, you have an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding and intellectual ownership of a project; not simply your productivity in the lab. The volume of results or completeness of the study is not critical for a successful thesis. Instead, we will be looking for the following:

• An argument for the significance of your research, contextualized within the scientific literature;
• A review of appropriate literature as evidence in support of claims you make in your argument;
• A statement of your research goals, i.e., a meaningful question of biological importance;
• A description of experimental approaches and methods ;
• Appropriate presentation of results through tables, figures, and images;
• A discussion of the meaning and significance of your results;
• A description of limitations and future directions for the project.

Expanded guidelines can be found in the Biology Thesis Assessment Protocol (BioTAP):

Format of the Thesis

The basic format of the thesis should resemble that of any scientific journal article that is common in your subdiscipline. It generally includes the following sections: Introduction & Background; Methods; Results; Discussion; Acknowledgements; and References. In some instances, it may be useful to sub-divide the Methods & Results section to correspond to multiple aims. However, if you chose to take this route, remember that there should still be a general Introduction and Discussion sections that address the project as a whole. The thesis should not consist of several "mini-papers" that are unconnected.  

Submission Guidelines

The format of the final copy should follow these guidelines:

• Cover Page ( sample ): Title; student's name; supervisor's name; date of submission; 3 signature lines at bottom right (Research Supervisor, DUS, Reader). Please follow the format and language of the sample.
• Abstract Page: single-spaced, roughly 250 words.
• Thesis should be double-spaced
• Pages should be numbered at the top right corner of the page
• It is preferred that figures are embedded within the document instead of all at the end
• There is no minimum page requirement or limit, although most are approximately 25 pages. 

Sample Theses

Examples of Distinction papers from previous years are available for examination in the Undergraduate Studies Office (Rm 135 BioSci).  Several samples are also available below as PDF files.

• Tracing the origins of antimalarial resistance in Plasmodium vivax
• Interaction network optimization improves the antimicrobial efficacy of phage cocktails
• Identifying how ufmylation of RAB1B regulates IFN-β signaling

Additional Resources

• Library Resources for Students Writing Theses
• How to write and publish a scientific paper by Barbara Gastel and Robert A. Day
• Biology 495(S): Scientific Argument in Writing . This course is particularly appropriate for seniors working on an undergraduate thesis or major research paper and is recommended, although not required, for all candidates for Graduation with Distinction in biology. The course is writing intensive and carries a “W” designation and, in the fall semester only, is a seminar and carries an “S” designation.
• Biology Writes  offers writing resources, feedback, one-on-one consultations, and more.  
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