maturation psychology experiment

Arnold Gesell’s Theory Of Maturation: What It Is And What It Proposes

At the beginning of the last century, the American psychologist and pediatrician Arnold Gesell proposed a theory about how boys and girls developed behaviorally, which has been of great importance in the field of educational psychology and pediatrics.

Arnold Gesell’s theory of maturation  It tries to explain the order in which the main learning and development of skills occur during childhood, in addition to giving an explanation, from a physiological point of view, why this specific order occurs.

This theory, like many others in developmental psychology, has not been exempt from criticism, although it must be said that almost a hundred years after it was formulated it still has a lot of weight in this field. Let’s see in greater detail what it is about.

Table of Contents

Arnold Gesell’s theory of maturation

The theory of maturation was introduced in 1925 by the American psychologist Arnold Lucius Gesell, who was also a pediatrician and educator. The studies carried out by Gesell focused on find out how development occurred during childhood and adolescence both in children without any psychopathology and those who showed a pattern of learning and development different from that expected.

During the more than fifty years in which Gesell carried out his observational research, carried out mostly at the Yale Clinic of Child Development, this American psychologist and his collaborators described a series of more or less predictable behaviors in childhood.

According to his theory of maturation, All boys and girls go through the same stages of development in the same order but not necessarily presenting them at the same time. That is, each child goes at their own pace, but what is expected is that they carry out their learning following the same sequence.

This theory, although quite classic considering that it was presented almost a hundred years ago, has had a profound impact on many aspects of educational psychology, especially with regard to parenting methods.

Arnold Gesell was a pioneering psychologist known for his theory of maturation, which emphasizes the role of biological growth and development in shaping human behavior and milestones. Gesell’s theory posits that children go through a predictable sequence of developmental stages, guided primarily by genetic factors and physiological maturation.

Definition and direction of maturation

Arnold Gesell considered that genetics and the environment play a very important role in development of the person, however his research focused especially on the physiological part of development. Using his language, the term ‘maturation’ for Gesell refers to a process that is more biological than social, in which greater weight is given to the influence of genes than to the environmental factors to which the person is exposed.

In the research carried out by this psychologist, he was able to observe that development occurred following a fixed sequence in terms of the formation of organs and physical development that occurred both while an embryo and during childhood. Physiological development always occurred from head to toe (cephalocaudal direction), both before and after childbirth.

When you are still an embryo, the first organ to develop is the heart, followed by the central nervous system and then the more peripheral organs, such as lungs, liver, intestines and others. Once the world has arrived, the first thing babies do is learn to control their mouth, lips and tongue. Later they begin to acquire better control of their saccadic movements, movements of the neck, shoulders, arms, hands, fingers, legs and feet.

As for more complex behavior, babies first learn to sit, then stand without the need for adult support, walk, and finally run. All babies learn these abilities in this same order according to theory, and the basis for this is that it is because the nervous system develops in the same way in all people, although at different rates.

There are multiple environmental factors to which the child is exposed throughout his development such as the socioeconomic status of their family, relationships with their parents, types of diet, among others.

However, the theory maintains that each baby has its own pace of maturation, which will be optimized if the social environment is aware of how the child is developing and gives him the necessary social stimuli given in due time. From the theory it is extracted that Once the child has acquired the full development of his nervous system, he will be able to master multiple abilities both individual and social.

Highlights of the theory

A series of aspects can be highlighted from Arnold Gesell’s theory of maturation that, although they have already been introduced in previous sections of the article, will be described in greater detail below.

1. Study of behavioral patterns

Throughout his professional career, Gesell studied the motor behaviors of babies Based on what he observed, he concluded that behavior was best studied not quantitatively but in terms of behavioral patterns.

Behavioral pattern refers to any behavior that is defined as having shape or size. That is, basically whatever the baby does, from a simple blink of an eye to throwing a ball with a baseball bat.

Thus, Gesell observed a series of behaviors that all babies manifest sooner or later following the same pattern and sequence.

This is quite remarkable in comparison to development models such as those of Jean Piaget and Erikson, who although they carried out part of their research observationally, most of the stages they proposed were more theoretical.

2. Reciprocal interleaving

This term proposed by Gesell, in English ‘reciprocal interweaving’, refers, both at a motor and personality level, to how the baby behaves in a way that appears to follow two opposing tendencies with the intention of finally finding balance.

That is to say, if we observe young children, they are still in a state of personality formation, which makes their relationship with others ambivalent in many contexts. their treatment being more extroverted with some people while with others they become more closed

Thus, progressively, throughout development, the child’s personality reaches a balance between both extremes and his personality traits are finally established.

This can also be seen at a motor level, with many children in the first months of life making fairly balanced use of both hands, without being completely ambidextrous. Subsequently, greater lateralization is achieved in terms of their actions, definitively becoming right- or left-handed.

3. Self-regulation

This is possibly the most striking aspect of Arnold Gesell’s theory, given that came to ensure that newborns are capable of regulating their own behavior and are even able to determine their own sleeping and eating schedules.

His research suggests that you can also control your personality and behavioral and motor balance.

4. Generalization and individuality

The theory of maturation maintains, as has already been said, that all children develop following the same sequence in terms of their behavioral and physiological development; however, it also points out that each one does so at their own pace.

Thus, there is a generalization regarding how the main behavioral milestones are acquired during childhood, but It is taken into account that each individual, due to individual differences does so following its own maturation.

Key Principles of Gesell’s Theory

Maturation as a guiding force.

Gesell believed that maturation, defined as the unfolding of genetically programmed behaviors and abilities, serves as the primary driving force behind development. According to his theory, children progress through a series of predetermined stages, each characterized by specific milestones and behaviors.

Developmental Norms and Sequences

Gesell emphasized the importance of understanding developmental norms and sequences, which refer to the typical patterns of growth and progression observed in children. He conducted extensive observational studies to document the sequential unfolding of motor, cognitive, and social skills in infants and young children.

Universality of Developmental Stages

Gesell proposed that the sequence of developmental stages is universal, meaning that children across cultures and backgrounds follow a similar progression of growth and development. While the rate of development may vary among individuals, the sequence of milestones remains relatively consistent.

Stages of Maturation

Motor development.

Gesell’s research focused extensively on motor development, including gross motor skills (such as crawling, walking, and running) and fine motor skills (such as grasping and manipulating objects). He observed a predictable sequence of motor milestones, with each stage building upon previous achievements.

Cognitive Development

In addition to motor skills, Gesell explored cognitive development, including perceptual abilities, language acquisition, and problem-solving skills. He observed how children’s cognitive abilities matured over time, leading to increasingly complex thinking and reasoning abilities.

Social and Emotional Development

Gesell also studied social and emotional development, including attachment patterns, social interactions, and emotional regulation. He observed how children’s relationships with caregivers and peers evolved over time, influencing their social and emotional well-being.

Implications and Applications

Parental guidance and education.

Gesell’s theory of maturation has practical implications for parents, educators, and caregivers. By understanding the predictable sequence of developmental stages, adults can provide appropriate support and stimulation to facilitate children’s growth and learning.

Early Intervention and Assessment

Gesell’s developmental norms and milestones serve as valuable tools for assessing children’s progress and identifying potential developmental delays or disorders. Early intervention programs can help address developmental challenges and promote optimal outcomes for children.

Research and Theory Development

Gesell’s theory laid the groundwork for subsequent research in child development and psychology. His emphasis on the role of maturation in shaping behavior paved the way for further exploration of genetic, biological, and environmental influences on development.

How should children be cared for?

Arnold Gesell considered that each child had his own pace of development, although the main learning was developed based on the development of the nervous system, which followed the same pattern and order in all individuals.

However, despite generalizing about the acquisition of the main abilities during childhood, Gesell maintained that the closest environment must become aware of the rhythm of its own child in addition to understanding that the fact that your son or daughter did not develop at the same rate as other children of his or her age did not necessarily mean a pathology or a delay.

The best way to guarantee that satisfactory maturation is acquired and that the individual acquires the behaviors that allow him to fully develop both socially and intellectually is make the family realize the speed that this same maturation is acquiring Parents must learn to recognize how their children’s development is biologically programmed.

Criticisms of the theory

Although today Gesell’s theory of maturation is quite widespread and applied in the field of educational psychology, there are many critical voices who have pointed out some limitations of the model.

The main one is that Arnold Gesell He focused too much on what he himself understands as physiological maturation leaving aside aspects more related to the environment and the multiple social stimuli that the infant will receive throughout its development.

A very notable environmental aspect that Gesell ignores in his theory is teaching, both at school and in the family, a very powerful stimulus in terms of the formation of the child’s personality and intelligence.

Another aspect that is also quite criticized is that generalizes too much regarding the order in which this maturation occurs It also does not specify what variability is expected for each behavior and learning, nor if there is the possibility that some of them can change their order of acquisition.

It should be said that Arnold Gesell’s research has a very striking limitation, which is the fact that having investigated only children from white, middle-class American families This means that his observations cannot be generalized to other socioeconomic statuses or to other cultures.

From Gesell’s model it can be mistakenly interpreted that all children, sooner or later, will end up developing in the same way, so it is not necessary to give them educational support if they are not developing in the same way as the rest of the children. their fellow humans. This is very harmful in case the child has a real disorder in which early intervention is necessary to guarantee that it develops as completely as possible.

Arnold Gesell’s theory of maturation revolutionized our understanding of child development, highlighting the importance of biological factors and innate processes in shaping human behavior. By documenting the predictable sequence of developmental stages and milestones, Gesell provided invaluable insights into the complexities of human growth and maturation.

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Maturation effects and internal validity

If the experiment in your dissertation focuses on people (i.e., people are the population you are interested in), maturation is likely to threaten the internal validity of your findings. This has to do with time and the effect that time has on people. After all, experiments do not happen overnight, but often over a period of time, whether days, weeks, a few months, or in some cases, years. Whilst experiments at the undergraduate and master's dissertation level tend to last no longer than 2-3 months (at least the data collection phase), there are a number of changes that can take place within such short timeframes. During such periods of time, people change, and such change can affect your findings. This is the case for all types of experiment, whether in the physical or social sciences, psychology, management, education, or another field of study. Let's look at some examples of maturation effects in the short-term and long-term :

Short-term changes and their effects There are a number of maturation effects that can occur during the very short term ; that is, within a few hours or days . People's behaviour can change. For example, they can go from being in a good mood or a bad one. Factors such as subject tiredness , boredom , hunger and inattention can also occur. These factors can be driven by the research participant or the experiment. The participant may have stayed up late the night before an experiment, causing tiredness; the participant may be thinking about an upcoming coursework deadline or exam, causing inattention; and so forth. Such participant-led factors can be difficult to control, reducing the internal validity of an experiment. However, sometimes these factors (i.e., tiredness, boredom, hunger, inattention, etc.) are the result of the experiment.

Longer-term changes and their effects Other maturation effects can result from longer term changes, such as getting older , becoming better educated , become more affluent , and so forth. However, even within experiments lasting less than a year , and perhaps even just a few months , it is possible for these factors to affect your findings. For example, people can get a new job with a relatively significant pay rise, or they may come into some inheritance money. They may start taking some form of further education, whether within the classroom, at home, or in work. At the same time, getting older can be an issue. Indeed, experiments that focus on people that are elderly, as well as those that involve young children have the potential to suffer from maturation effects because small changes in age can have a particularly marked impact on a range of physical, social, behavioural, and psychological factors. For example, as people become elderly, there can be a more rapid deterioration in certain physical characteristics such as vision, hearing, taste, and even memory. This may negatively impact their performance during an experiment. Amongst young children, there is a greater propensity for learning to take place (acquiring new knowledge and skills), as well as becoming stronger, stronger, and tasting in a short space of time. Such maturation effects, in addition to (or rather than) the treatment condition, may change the performance of participants in the post-test relative to the pre-test.

The question arises: How confident are you that the observed changes in the dependent variable are due to the treatment (i.e., intervention) and not maturation? In principle, such confidence will decrease as the experiment goes on. However, it is not as simple as saying that the longer an experiment, the greater the potential maturation effect. You need to look at the nature of your research, and examine whether maturation is likely to be a problem.

Testing effects and internal validity

Testing effects, also known as order effects , only occur in experimental and quasi-experimental research designs that have more than one stage; that is, research designs that involve a pre-test and a post-test. In such circumstances, the fact that the person taking part in the research is tested more than once can influence their behaviour/scores in the post-test, which confounds the results; that is, the differences in scores on the dependent variable between the groups being studied may be due to testing effects rather than the independent variable. Some of the reasons why testing effects occur include learning effects (practice or carry-over effects) and experimental fatigue . Each is discussed in turn:

Learning effects (practice or carry-over effects)

Understand the format of the experiment

Understand the purpose of the experiment

Become familiar with the testing environment

Develop a strategy/approach to do better/worse in the experiment (or moderate their outcome)

Become less anxious about the experiment

Where learning effects relate to the measurement procedure (e.g., a , b and c above), this is often called habituation . Where such learning effects relate to memory effects (e.g., d and e above), this is often called sensitization .

Experimental fatigue / General experiences during the experiment

Experimental fatigue reflects general experiences that take place during the experiment that lead to physical and/or mental fatigue . This could be due to a particular treatment, which may be physical and/or mentally demanding, or simply due to the fact that being part of a research project, which is unusual for most participants, can be tiring.

Testing effects are not a problem in all studies. For example, as a "general rule of thumb", testing effects are less likely to be a threat to internal validity where there has been a large time period between the pre-test and post-test compared with experiments having a short interval between tests. You need to ask yourself: To what extent are learning effects a problem for the post-test in my experiment?

Instrumentation and internal validity

Instrumentation can be a threat to internal validity because it can result in instrumental bias (or instrumental decay ). Such instrumental bias takes place when the measuring instrument (e.g., a measuring device, a survey, interviews/participant observation) that is used in a study changes over time. Instrumentation becomes a threat to internal validity when it reduces the confidence that the changes (differences) in the scores on the dependent variable may be due to instrumentation and not the treatments (i.e., the independent variable). It sometimes helps to think about instrumental bias arising either because of the use of a physical measuring device or the actions of the researcher . Each is discussed in turn:

A physical measurement device

The measurement device in your experiment may be a piece of equipment or some other physical device (e.g., a stopwatch, weighing scales, a speedometer, etc.). Let's look at any example of how such a measurement device can decay over time.

Study #3 How do different types of tennis serve impact on the speed of the tennis ball? Imagine that we were interested in examining how different types of tennis serve (i.e., the independent variable) impacted on the speed of the tennis ball (i.e., the dependent variable). We choose to compare two types of tennis serve (e.g., slice and top spin), measuring the speed of the tennis ball using a speedometer (i.e., the speed is calculated in miles per hour, mph). For the sake of this example, let's imagine that (a) the amount of power that goes into the serve is the same every time, with the balls shot out from a ball machine, and (b) the speedometer is accurate and automatic (i.e., doesn't rely on a human to operate it, like a speed camera on the road). However, there is still one part of the measurement device that can gradually change over the course of the experiment, creating instrumental bias . This is the gradual wear and tear of the tennis ball as it deteriorates with every serve of the ball. If you've ever watched Wimbledon or the US Open, you'll see the tennis balls being replaced every few games. We may not think about the tennis ball as a specific measurement device such as the speedometer that measures the speed of the ball, but it is part of the measurement device for the experiment. The ball machine and the speedometer cannot record how worn out the ball is, and it may be very difficult to measure this accurately. As the tennis ball wears, especially if the amount of wear is different when performing one type of serve (e.g., a slice service) compared to the another type of serve (e.g., a top spin serve), the amount of difference in the scores on the dependent variable (i.e., the speed of the tennis ball) will not only be due to the difference in the type of serve, but also the amount of wear and tear on the ball (i.e., the extent of the wear and tear on a ball may vary depending on the type of serve (e.g., a top spin serve wearing out a ball faster than a slice serve). This instrumental bias becomes a threat to the internal validity of the experiment, creating another possible explanation (i.e., the wear, or relative wear of the tennis ball) for the differences in the scores on the dependent variable (i.e., the speed of the ball) other than just the differences in the independent variable (i.e., the differences between the two types of tennis serve).

Furthermore, measurement devices do not always the same level of measurement precision . For example, when we think about a speedometer, we would expect it to be as accurate when recording a speed of 100mph as 20mph. However, for some measurement devices, this is not the case. They can be less precise when recording some values compared with others. When a measurement device is thought to have low precision for values that are high, this is known as a ceiling effect . When the level of precision is low for values that are low on the measurement device, this is called a floor effect . Both ceiling effects and floor effects are types of instrumental bias that can threaten the internal validity of your study.

The actions of the researcher

Sometimes, we can think of the measurement device as the researcher collecting the data, since it is the researcher that is making the assessment of the measurement. This is more likely to occur in qualitative research designs than quantitative research because qualitative research generally involves less structured and less standardised measurement procedures, such as unstructured and semi-structured interviews and observations. However, quantitative research also involves research methods where the score that is given on a particular measurement instrument is determined by the researcher.

For example, let's imagine that a researcher is using structured , participant observation , to assess social awkwardness (i.e., the dependent variable) in two different types of profession (i.e., the independent variable). For simplicity, let's imagine that the researcher monitors these two different groups of employees, and scores their level of social awkwardness on a scale of 1-10 (e.g., 10 = extremely socially awkward).

The way that a researcher scores may change during the course of an experiment for two reasons: First, the researcher can gain in experience (i.e., become more proficient) or become fatigued during the course of the experiment, which affects the way that observations are recorded. This can happen across groups, but also within a single group (even pre- and post-tests). Second, a different researcher may be used for the pre-test and post-test measurement. In quantitative research using structured, participant observation, it is important to consider the ability/experience of the researchers, and how this, or other factors relating to the researcher's scoring, may change over time. However, this will only lead to instrumental bias if the way that the researcher scores is different for the groups that are being measured (e.g., the control group versus the treatment group).

Instrumentation is more likely to become an issue over time since there is greater potential for instrumental decay to occur.

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Maturation: Psychology Definition, History & Examples

In the field of psychology, maturation refers to the process through which individuals develop and reach their full potential, guided predominantly by genetic factors. This process unfolds naturally over time, influencing various attributes such as cognitive abilities, emotional capacities, and physical growth.

Historically, the concept of maturation has been intertwined with developmental theories, with early thinkers like G. Stanley Hall laying the groundwork for understanding age-related changes. Subsequent scholars, including Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, expanded on these ideas, exploring the interplay between maturation and environmental influences.

Examples of maturation are evident in milestones such as language acquisition in children and adolescent brain development. Understanding maturation is crucial for psychologists and educators in supporting individual developmental trajectories.

This article delves into the intricacies of maturation, tracing its theoretical evolution and illustrating it through practical instances.

Table of Contents

Maturation in psychology refers to the natural process of individuals growing and developing their skills and abilities according to their biological stages. It involves the progression of cognitive, emotional, and physical capabilities, which are influenced by genetics .

Maturation is different from learning , as it focuses on the innate timetable of development and the sequential emergence of abilities. This process shapes an individual’s capacity for future learning and adaptation.

The concept of maturation has its origins in the field of developmental psychology, which emerged in the early 20th century. During this time, psychologists began to differentiate between innate developmental processes and acquired learning, leading to a deeper understanding of the interplay between nature and nurture in human development.

One of the key figures associated with the development of the concept of maturation is G. Stanley Hall. Often referred to as the father of developmental psychology, Hall proposed that development unfolds in a series of predetermined and natural stages. He believed that these stages are universal and follow a set sequence, irrespective of environmental influences.

Another influential theorist in the study of maturation was Arnold Gesell. Building upon Hall’s ideas, Gesell formulated a maturation theory which emphasized the role of biological unfolding in determining developmental milestones. He argued that there is a fixed sequence of milestones that individuals pass through as a result of their innate maturation process.

These foundational ideas set the stage for subsequent research and studies on maturation. Researchers began to explore the biological and environmental factors that influence the process of maturation, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of its complexities.

Significant events and studies further contributed to the evolution of the concept of maturation. For instance, the work of Jean Piaget, a renowned developmental psychologist, focused on cognitive development and how it progresses through different stages. Piaget’s research provided valuable insights into the cognitive maturation process.

In addition, longitudinal studies conducted by researchers such as Lewis Terman and Robert Havighurst helped to uncover the typical patterns and sequences of development across different domains, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. These studies provided empirical evidence supporting the concept of maturation and its influence on various aspects of human development.

While developmental theories have laid the groundwork for understanding maturation, let’s explore some real-life examples that can help us better understand its practical manifestations in human growth.

One common example of maturation is the development of language skills in young children. Imagine a baby who starts babbling around the age of 6 months. This babbling is not explicitly taught, but it emerges naturally as the child’s brain matures. As time goes by, typically between the ages of two to three, most children have mastered the basic rules of their native language syntax. This development occurs regardless of formal education and represents a complex cognitive milestone that is driven by maturation.

Another example of maturation can be seen during adolescence. During this stage, the brain undergoes a process called synaptic pruning. This process involves the refinement of neurological pathways, which enhances cognitive efficiency. To put it in simpler terms, imagine a garden where unnecessary branches are pruned so that the remaining ones can grow stronger and more efficient. In the same way, the brain’s synaptic pruning during adolescence helps to sculpt the architecture of the developing brain, allowing it to function more effectively.

These examples highlight how maturation is observed in everyday life. They demonstrate that certain developmental milestones, such as language acquisition and cognitive refinement, occur naturally as a result of maturation, rather than being solely influenced by external factors or formal education.

Related Terms

Understanding maturation necessitates delving into associated concepts such as ‘developmental milestones’, ‘critical periods’, and ‘neuroplasticity’ that intertwine with its core principles. Developmental milestones are specific functional capacities and skills that most individuals attain at certain ages, providing a framework for assessing normative growth. They serve as important markers to track the progress and pace of an individual’s maturation. While maturation focuses on the overall biological and psychological changes that occur with age, developmental milestones highlight specific achievements that are expected to occur within certain age ranges.

Critical periods, on the other hand, refer to sensitive windows in an individual’s development during which the nervous system is particularly receptive to certain environmental stimuli. These periods are crucial for the acquisition of certain functional capabilities, such as language acquisition or the development of visual perception . Unlike maturation, which refers to the overall process of growth and development, critical periods emphasize the specific time frames during which certain skills or abilities can be acquired more easily or optimally.

Neuroplasticity, another closely associated term, denotes the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. It highlights the brain’s adaptability and capacity for change in response to experiences and environmental influences. While maturation focuses on the natural progression of biological and psychological processes, neuroplasticity emphasizes the brain’s potential for learning, rehabilitation, and adaptation. It complements the concept of maturation by highlighting the dynamic interplay between an individual’s inherent developmental processes and their experiences and interactions with the environment .

Given the complex nature of maturation, a thorough review of reputable sources, studies, and publications has been undertaken to ensure accurate and comprehensive coverage of the topic. The references compiled serve as a foundation for understanding maturation, drawing from interdisciplinary fields such as developmental psychology, neurobiology, and education.

Each source cited has been carefully selected for its academic credibility and contribution to the understanding of maturation. Special attention has been given to seminal works that have shaped current perspectives in the field of psychology. The analytical rigor applied in the selection process reflects a commitment to scholarly precision.

These references not only provide historical context but also offer insights into the latest empirical research, ensuring that the discussion of maturation is grounded in well-established theories and contemporary findings. Scholars and researchers interested in further exploring the topic of maturation can refer to these academically credible references as a starting point for further reading and study.

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Genetic blueprint ; Growth

Maturation is the predetermined unfolding of genetic information.

Description

The concept of maturation was pioneered by the American psychologist Arnold Gesell [ 3 ]. Maturation stresses the importance of nature or genetics in human development, as opposed to nurture or environment. Maturational development occurs in fixed sequences or stages that are governed by genes. This “genetic blueprint” for development determines the sequence, timing and form of emerging action-patterns [ 4 ].

Relevance to Childhood Development

Gesell observed that the motor skills of children developed in a fixed, or stage-like, pattern that were mostly unaffected by external influences. He called this process maturation. Maturation can first be seen in the developing embryo , where development occurs in the same pattern for every human without variation. In the embryo, the heart and cardiovascular system develop first, quickly followed by the central nervous system...

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MacDonald, P.M. (2011). Maturation. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_1730

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Developmental Psychology Studies: 10 Examples

Discover ten classic developmental psychology experiments that study how children’s self, memory, language, learning and more emerge.

Once upon a time, although it seems barely credible to us now, we were all children.

We gurgled, we cried, we laughed, we explored, we fell down, and we had very little idea about the journey on which we had just embarked.

Barring mishap, over the first few years of our lives we developed memory, language, self-concept, cognitive, social and emotional abilities.

We took our first steps towards our future selves.

Child psychology — or, more broadly, developmental psychology — is not just the study of children, it is the study of you and me and how we came to be this way.

Just as discovering your history can teach you about the future, so developmental psychology shows us what we once were and even what we will become.

Here are 10 classic developmental psychology studies that have illuminated crucial areas of childhood development.

Each one is a piece in the jigsaw puzzle that is ourselves, and each one reminds us, through examining just one piece, how aspects of experience we now take for granted were once so complex.

Click the links for a more extensive description of each developmental psychology experiment.

1. Infant memory develops very early on

Some argue it’s impossible for us to remember anything much from before around two to four years of age.

Others think our memories can go way back – perhaps even to before birth.

The question of infant memory is thorny because it’s hard to test whether adults’ earliest memories are real or imagined.

What psychologists have done, though, is examine the emergence of memory in our first few years with a series of now classic experiments in developmental psychology.

These have found that our memory systems actually work quite well from very early on.

Infants’ memories also seems to work in much the same way as adult memories – it’s just that infant memories are much more fragile.

2. Developmental psychology: when the self emerges

To this day the ‘mirror test’ remains the best developmental psychology experiment yet developed for examining the emergence of self-concept in infants using the mirror test .

Most people look out for number one, themselves, which makes it strange to think that there was ever a time when we had no concept of ‘me’.

A simple study dating from the early 70s suggests that before the age of around two years old we can’t recognise ourselves in the mirror.

Because of this study, and the many variations in developmental psychology that have followed, some claim that it isn’t until our second birthday that our self-concept emerges.

3. How children learn

A classic study of childhood learning suggests true understanding comes from letting go of established preconceptions.

How children revise their understanding of the world is one of the most fascinating areas of developmental psychology.

But it is not just relevant to children; we all have to take on new concepts from time-to-time – even though they may not be as profound as the origin of the species.

It’s tempting to think that learning is largely about memory – especially since in the bad old days of education learning was largely accomplished by rote.

However, the idea of ‘mental models’ suggests children create, and then test, mental models of the way the world works in order to build up our understanding, and that is how children learn.

4. Attachment styles in developmental psychology

Attachment styles analyse how people respond to threats and problems in their personal relationships.

People who find relationships difficult often become unable to participate in the ordinary give-and-take of everyday life.

They may become hostile towards others, have problems in education as well as a greater chance of developing psychiatric disorders later in life.

These difficulties sometimes have their roots in the most important early relationships, evidenced in attachment styles.

It’s no wonder that developmental psychologists are so interested in the first relationships we build with our primary caregivers.

These attachment styles are likely to prove a vital influence on all our future relationships, including those with our spouse, our workmates and our own children.

While you can’t blame everything on your parents, early relationship attachment styles are like a template that we take forward with us in life.

5. Infants imitate others when only weeks old

One of the most basic forms of social behaviour is copying another person.

Although imitation is something we adults take for granted, it’s actually a pretty demanding process for a young infant.

At the heart of imitation is understanding the difference between yourself and others – something that famous Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget thought didn’t emerge immediately in infants.

Consequently, he argued that infants could not imitate others until they were 8 to 12 months of age.

However, now some researchers think tiny infants who are between 12- and 21-days-old can imitate others.

6. When children can simulate other minds

Theory of mind is when we can put ourselves in other people’s shoes to try and imagine their thoughts, intentions and possible actions.

Without the ability to simulate what other people are thinking we would be lost in the social world.

The emergence of theory of mind in children is a vital developmental milestone; some psychologists think that a failure to develop a theory of mind is a central component of autism.

Some developmental psychology experiments suggest that at about 4- to 6-years old a range of remarkable skills start to emerge in young children that are vital for their successful functioning in society.

They begin to understand that others can hold false beliefs, they themselves can lie, and that others can lie to them — they have a theory of mind.

7. Object permanence in developmental psychology

Object permanence , or object constancy, in developmental psychology is understanding that things continue to exist, even if you cannot seem them.

Research in developmental psychology has found that infants as young as 3.5 months seem to have a basic grasp of object permanence.

It appears that young infants are not necessarily trapped in a world of shapes which have little meaning for them.

Instead, they seem to be intuitive physicists who can carry out rudimentary reasoning about physical concepts like gravity, inertia and object permanence.

8. How infants learn their first word

An infant’s very first step in their year-long developmental journey to their first word is perhaps their most impressive.

This first step is discriminating and categorising the basic sound components of the language they are hearing.

To get an idea how hard this might be think about listening to someone speaking a language you don’t understand.

Foreign languages can sound like continuous streams of noise in which it’s very hard to pick up where one word starts and another word begins.

Research in developmental psychology finds that until about 11 months of age infants are masters of discriminating phonemes used in all different types of languages.

But after 11 months infants settle down with one set of phonemes for their first language, and lose the ability to discriminate the phonemes from other languages.

9. Play and developmental psychology

The pioneering developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky thought that, in the preschool years, play is the leading source of development.

Through play children learn and practice many basic social skills.

They develop a sense of self, learn to interact with other children, how to make friends, how to lie and how to role-play.

The classic developmental psychology study of how play develops in children was carried out by Mildred Parten in the late 1920s at the Institute of Child Development in Minnesota ( Parten, 1933 ).

She closely observed children between the ages of 2 and 5 years and categorised the types of play.

She found six different types of play , ranging from solitary, through associative to cooperative

10. Piaget’s developmental psychology theory

Jean Piaget was a developmental psychologist whose four-stage theory, published in 1936, has proved extremely influential.

Piaget’s four stages of development theory  has the dubious claim to fame of being one of the most criticised psychological theories ever.

From the sensorimotor stage, through the pre-operational stage, the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage, his theory attempts to describe how childhood development progresses.

However, Piaget’s experiments and theories about how children build up their knowledge of the world have faced endless challenges, many of them justified.

Read on about them here .

Author: Dr Jeremy Dean

Psychologist, Jeremy Dean, PhD is the founder and author of PsyBlog. He holds a doctorate in psychology from University College London and two other advanced degrees in psychology. He has been writing about scientific research on PsyBlog since 2004. View all posts by Dr Jeremy Dean

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Maturation is the process of growth and development, both physically and mentally, that occurs naturally as a person ages. It's largely driven by genetics rather than learning or experience.

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• The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

While each year thousands and thousands of studies are completed in the many specialty areas of psychology, there are a handful that, over the years, have had a lasting impact in the psychological community as a whole. Some of these were dutifully conducted, keeping within the confines of ethical and practical guidelines. Others pushed the boundaries of human behavior during their psychological experiments and created controversies that still linger to this day. And still others were not designed to be true psychological experiments, but ended up as beacons to the psychological community in proving or disproving theories.

This is a list of the 25 most influential psychological experiments still being taught to psychology students of today.

1. A Class Divided

Study conducted by: jane elliott.

Study Conducted in 1968 in an Iowa classroom

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise, or better yet, a psychological experiment, to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

For more information click here

2. Asch Conformity Study

Study conducted by: dr. solomon asch.

Study Conducted in 1951 at Swarthmore College

Experiment Details: Dr. Solomon Asch conducted a groundbreaking study that was designed to evaluate a person’s likelihood to conform to a standard when there is pressure to do so.

A group of participants were shown pictures with lines of various lengths and were then asked a simple question: Which line is longest? The tricky part of this study was that in each group only one person was a true participant. The others were actors with a script. Most of the actors were instructed to give the wrong answer. Strangely, the one true participant almost always agreed with the majority, even though they knew they were giving the wrong answer.

The results of this study are important when we study social interactions among individuals in groups. This study is a famous example of the temptation many of us experience to conform to a standard during group situations and it showed that people often care more about being the same as others than they do about being right. It is still recognized as one of the most influential psychological experiments for understanding human behavior.

3. Bobo Doll Experiment

Study conducted by: dr. alburt bandura.

Study Conducted between 1961-1963 at Stanford University

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups:

• one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll
• another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll
• the third formed a control group

Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves. The other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104. This is compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models.

While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7. This is compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models. The Bobo Doll Experiment showed a groundbreaking way to study human behavior and it’s influences.

4. Car Crash Experiment

Study conducted by: elizabeth loftus and john palmer.

Study Conducted in 1974 at The University of California in Irvine

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique. This means that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

5. Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

Study conducted by: leon festinger and james carlsmith.

Study Conducted in 1957 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: The concept of cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting:

This conflict produces an inherent feeling of discomfort leading to a change in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to minimize or eliminate the discomfort and restore balance.

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, after an observational study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood. Out of this study was born an intriguing experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith where participants were asked to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). Participant’s initial attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a participant waiting in the lobby that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the next participant that the boring experiment would be fun. When the participants were later asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that cognitive dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

6. Fantz’s Looking Chamber

Study conducted by: robert l. fantz.

Study Conducted in 1961 at the University of Illinois

Experiment Details: The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye. On the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

7. Hawthorne Effect

Study conducted by: henry a. landsberger.

Study Conducted in 1955 at Hawthorne Works in Chicago, Illinois

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light in a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity. The workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa.

The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out. They increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon.

The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.

8. Kitty Genovese Case

Study conducted by: new york police force.

Study Conducted in 1964 in New York City

Experiment Details: The murder case of Kitty Genovese was never intended to be a psychological experiment, however it ended up having serious implications for the field.

According to a New York Times article, almost 40 neighbors witnessed Kitty Genovese being savagely attacked and murdered in Queens, New York in 1964. Not one neighbor called the police for help. Some reports state that the attacker briefly left the scene and later returned to “finish off” his victim. It was later uncovered that many of these facts were exaggerated. (There were more likely only a dozen witnesses and records show that some calls to police were made).

What this case later become famous for is the “Bystander Effect,” which states that the more bystanders that are present in a social situation, the less likely it is that anyone will step in and help. This effect has led to changes in medicine, psychology and many other areas. One famous example is the way CPR is taught to new learners. All students in CPR courses learn that they must assign one bystander the job of alerting authorities which minimizes the chances of no one calling for assistance.

9. Learned Helplessness Experiment

Study conducted by: martin seligman.

Study Conducted in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania

Seligman’s experiment involved the ringing of a bell and then the administration of a light shock to a dog. After a number of pairings, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened. As soon as the dog heard the bell, he reacted as though he’d already been shocked.

During the course of this study something unexpected happened. Each dog was placed in a large crate that was divided down the middle with a low fence. The dog could see and jump over the fence easily. The floor on one side of the fence was electrified, but not on the other side of the fence. Seligman placed each dog on the electrified side and administered a light shock. He expected the dog to jump to the non-shocking side of the fence. In an unexpected turn, the dogs simply laid down.

The hypothesis was that as the dogs learned from the first part of the experiment that there was nothing they could do to avoid the shocks, they gave up in the second part of the experiment. To prove this hypothesis the experimenters brought in a new set of animals and found that dogs with no history in the experiment would jump over the fence.

This condition was described as learned helplessness. A human or animal does not attempt to get out of a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.

10. Little Albert Experiment

Study conducted by: john b. watson and rosalie rayner.

Study Conducted in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University

The experiment began by placing a white rat in front of the infant, who initially had no fear of the animal. Watson then produced a loud sound by striking a steel bar with a hammer every time little Albert was presented with the rat. After several pairings (the noise and the presentation of the white rat), the boy began to cry and exhibit signs of fear every time the rat appeared in the room. Watson also created similar conditioned reflexes with other common animals and objects (rabbits, Santa beard, etc.) until Albert feared them all.

This study proved that classical conditioning works on humans. One of its most important implications is that adult fears are often connected to early childhood experiences.

11. Magical Number Seven

Study conducted by: george a. miller.

Study Conducted in 1956 at Princeton University

Experiment Details:   Frequently referred to as “ Miller’s Law,” the Magical Number Seven experiment purports that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This means that the human memory capacity typically includes strings of words or concepts ranging from 5-9. This information on the limits to the capacity for processing information became one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.

The Magical Number Seven Experiment was published in 1956 by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University’s Department of Psychology in Psychological Review .  In the article, Miller discussed a concurrence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory.

In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (such as 10 different tones varying only in pitch). The person responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before).

Performance is almost perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli is increased. This means that a human’s maximum performance on one-dimensional absolute judgment can be described as an information store with the maximum capacity of approximately 2 to 3 bits of information There is the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.

12. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Study conducted by: ivan pavlov.

Study Conducted in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia

Pavlov began with the simple idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. He observed that dogs do not learn to salivate when they see food. This reflex is “hard wired” into the dog. This is an unconditioned response (a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Pavlov outlined that there are unconditioned responses in the animal by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and then measuring its salivary secretions. In the experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. What he found was that the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. The dog had learned to associate the bell and the food. This learning created a new behavior. The dog salivated when he heard the bell. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

This theory came to be known as classical conditioning.

13. Robbers Cave Experiment

Study conducted by: muzafer and carolyn sherif.

Study Conducted in 1954 at the University of Oklahoma

Experiment Details: This experiment, which studied group conflict, is considered by most to be outside the lines of what is considered ethically sound.

In 1954 researchers at the University of Oklahoma assigned 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys from similar backgrounds into two groups. The two groups were taken to separate areas of a summer camp facility where they were able to bond as social units. The groups were housed in separate cabins and neither group knew of the other’s existence for an entire week. The boys bonded with their cabin mates during that time. Once the two groups were allowed to have contact, they showed definite signs of prejudice and hostility toward each other even though they had only been given a very short time to develop their social group. To increase the conflict between the groups, the experimenters had them compete against each other in a series of activities. This created even more hostility and eventually the groups refused to eat in the same room. The final phase of the experiment involved turning the rival groups into friends. The fun activities the experimenters had planned like shooting firecrackers and watching movies did not initially work, so they created teamwork exercises where the two groups were forced to collaborate. At the end of the experiment, the boys decided to ride the same bus home, demonstrating that conflict can be resolved and prejudice overcome through cooperation.

Many critics have compared this study to Golding’s Lord of the Flies novel as a classic example of prejudice and conflict resolution.

14. Ross’ False Consensus Effect Study

Study conducted by: lee ross.

Study Conducted in 1977 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: In 1977, a social psychology professor at Stanford University named Lee Ross conducted an experiment that, in lay terms, focuses on how people can incorrectly conclude that others think the same way they do, or form a “false consensus” about the beliefs and preferences of others. Ross conducted the study in order to outline how the “false consensus effect” functions in humans.

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In the first part of the study, participants were asked to read about situations in which a conflict occurred and then were told two alternative ways of responding to the situation. They were asked to do three things:

• Guess which option other people would choose
• Say which option they themselves would choose
• Describe the attributes of the person who would likely choose each of the two options

What the study showed was that most of the subjects believed that other people would do the same as them, regardless of which of the two responses they actually chose themselves. This phenomenon is referred to as the false consensus effect, where an individual thinks that other people think the same way they do when they may not. The second observation coming from this important study is that when participants were asked to describe the attributes of the people who will likely make the choice opposite of their own, they made bold and sometimes negative predictions about the personalities of those who did not share their choice.

15. The Schacter and Singer Experiment on Emotion

Study conducted by: stanley schachter and jerome e. singer.

Study Conducted in 1962 at Columbia University

Experiment Details: In 1962 Schachter and Singer conducted a ground breaking experiment to prove their theory of emotion.

In the study, a group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that induces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. The research participants were told that they were being injected with a new medication to test their eyesight. The first group of participants was informed the possible side effects that the injection might cause while the second group of participants were not. The participants were then placed in a room with someone they thought was another participant, but was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

What Schachter and Singer were trying to understand was the ways in which cognition or thoughts influence human emotion. Their study illustrates the importance of how people interpret their physiological states, which form an important component of your emotions. Though their cognitive theory of emotional arousal dominated the field for two decades, it has been criticized for two main reasons: the size of the effect seen in the experiment was not that significant and other researchers had difficulties repeating the experiment.

16. Selective Attention / Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Study conducted by: daniel simons and christopher chabris.

Study Conducted in 1999 at Harvard University

Experiment Details: In 1999 Simons and Chabris conducted their famous awareness test at Harvard University.

Participants in the study were asked to watch a video and count how many passes occurred between basketball players on the white team. The video moves at a moderate pace and keeping track of the passes is a relatively easy task. What most people fail to notice amidst their counting is that in the middle of the test, a man in a gorilla suit walked onto the court and stood in the center before walking off-screen.

The study found that the majority of the subjects did not notice the gorilla at all, proving that humans often overestimate their ability to effectively multi-task. What the study set out to prove is that when people are asked to attend to one task, they focus so strongly on that element that they may miss other important details.

17. Stanford Prison Study

Study conducted by philip zimbardo.

Study Conducted in 1971 at Stanford University

The Stanford Prison Experiment was designed to study behavior of “normal” individuals when assigned a role of prisoner or guard. College students were recruited to participate. They were assigned roles of “guard” or “inmate.”  Zimbardo played the role of the warden. The basement of the psychology building was the set of the prison. Great care was taken to make it look and feel as realistic as possible.

The prison guards were told to run a prison for two weeks. They were told not to physically harm any of the inmates during the study. After a few days, the prison guards became very abusive verbally towards the inmates. Many of the prisoners became submissive to those in authority roles. The Stanford Prison Experiment inevitably had to be cancelled because some of the participants displayed troubling signs of breaking down mentally.

Although the experiment was conducted very unethically, many psychologists believe that the findings showed how much human behavior is situational. People will conform to certain roles if the conditions are right. The Stanford Prison Experiment remains one of the most famous psychology experiments of all time.

18. Stanley Milgram Experiment

Study conducted by stanley milgram.

Study Conducted in 1961 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: This 1961 study was conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. It was designed to measure people’s willingness to obey authority figures when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. The study was based on the premise that humans will inherently take direction from authority figures from very early in life.

Participants were told they were participating in a study on memory. They were asked to watch another person (an actor) do a memory test. They were instructed to press a button that gave an electric shock each time the person got a wrong answer. (The actor did not actually receive the shocks, but pretended they did).

Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” every time they answered a question incorrectly. The experimenters asked the participants to keep increasing the shocks. Most of them obeyed even though the individual completing the memory test appeared to be in great pain. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to. They increased the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks.

This experiment showed that humans are conditioned to obey authority and will usually do so even if it goes against their natural morals or common sense.

19. Surrogate Mother Experiment

Study conducted by: harry harlow.

Study Conducted from 1957-1963 at the University of Wisconsin

Experiment Details: In a series of controversial experiments during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Harry Harlow studied the importance of a mother’s love for healthy childhood development.

In order to do this he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be raised by two “surrogate mothers.” One of the surrogates was made of wire with an attached bottle for food. The other was made of soft terrycloth but lacked food. The researcher found that the baby monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother, thereby proving that affection plays a greater role than sustenance when it comes to childhood development. They also found that the monkeys that spent more time cuddling the soft mother grew up to healthier.

This experiment showed that love, as demonstrated by physical body contact, is a more important aspect of the parent-child bond than the provision of basic needs. These findings also had implications in the attachment between fathers and their infants when the mother is the source of nourishment.

20. The Good Samaritan Experiment

Study conducted by: john darley and daniel batson.

Study Conducted in 1973 at The Princeton Theological Seminary (Researchers were from Princeton University)

Experiment Details: In 1973, an experiment was created by John Darley and Daniel Batson, to investigate the potential causes that underlie altruistic behavior. The researchers set out three hypotheses they wanted to test:

• People thinking about religion and higher principles would be no more inclined to show helping behavior than laymen.
• People in a rush would be much less likely to show helping behavior.
• People who are religious for personal gain would be less likely to help than people who are religious because they want to gain some spiritual and personal insights into the meaning of life.

Student participants were given some religious teaching and instruction. They were then were told to travel from one building to the next. Between the two buildings was a man lying injured and appearing to be in dire need of assistance. The first variable being tested was the degree of urgency impressed upon the subjects, with some being told not to rush and others being informed that speed was of the essence.

The results of the experiment were intriguing, with the haste of the subject proving to be the overriding factor. When the subject was in no hurry, nearly two-thirds of people stopped to lend assistance. When the subject was in a rush, this dropped to one in ten.

People who were on the way to deliver a speech about helping others were nearly twice as likely to help as those delivering other sermons,. This showed that the thoughts of the individual were a factor in determining helping behavior. Religious beliefs did not appear to make much difference on the results. Being religious for personal gain, or as part of a spiritual quest, did not appear to make much of an impact on the amount of helping behavior shown.

21. The Halo Effect Experiment

Study conducted by: richard e. nisbett and timothy decamp wilson.

Study Conducted in 1977 at the University of Michigan

Experiment Details: The Halo Effect states that people generally assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to:

• be intelligent
• be friendly
• display good judgment

To prove their theory, Nisbett and DeCamp Wilson created a study to prove that people have little awareness of the nature of the Halo Effect. They’re not aware that it influences:

• their personal judgments
• the production of a more complex social behavior

In the experiment, college students were the research participants. They were asked to evaluate a psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group was shown one of two different interviews with the same instructor. The instructor is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke English with a noticeable accent. In the first video, the instructor presented himself as someone:

• respectful of his students’ intelligence and motives
• flexible in his approach to teaching
• enthusiastic about his subject matter

In the second interview, he presented himself as much more unlikable. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

After watching the videos, the subjects were asked to rate the lecturer on:

• physical appearance

His mannerisms and accent were kept the same in both versions of videos. The subjects were asked to rate the professor on an 8-point scale ranging from “like extremely” to “dislike extremely.” Subjects were also told that the researchers were interested in knowing “how much their liking for the teacher influenced the ratings they just made.” Other subjects were asked to identify how much the characteristics they just rated influenced their liking of the teacher.

After responding to the questionnaire, the respondents were puzzled about their reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items. The students had no idea why they gave one lecturer higher ratings. Most said that how much they liked the lecturer had not affected their evaluation of his individual characteristics at all.

The interesting thing about this study is that people can understand the phenomenon, but they are unaware when it is occurring. Without realizing it, humans make judgments. Even when it is pointed out, they may still deny that it is a product of the halo effect phenomenon.

22. The Marshmallow Test

Study conducted by: walter mischel.

Study Conducted in 1972 at Stanford University

In his 1972 Marshmallow Experiment, children ages four to six were taken into a room where a marshmallow was placed in front of them on a table. Before leaving each of the children alone in the room, the experimenter informed them that they would receive a second marshmallow if the first one was still on the table after they returned in 15 minutes. The examiner recorded how long each child resisted eating the marshmallow and noted whether it correlated with the child’s success in adulthood. A small number of the 600 children ate the marshmallow immediately and one-third delayed gratification long enough to receive the second marshmallow.

In follow-up studies, Mischel found that those who deferred gratification were significantly more competent and received higher SAT scores than their peers. This characteristic likely remains with a person for life. While this study seems simplistic, the findings outline some of the foundational differences in individual traits that can predict success.

23. The Monster Study

Study conducted by: wendell johnson.

Study Conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa

Experiment Details: The Monster Study received this negative title due to the unethical methods that were used to determine the effects of positive and negative speech therapy on children.

Wendell Johnson of the University of Iowa selected 22 orphaned children, some with stutters and some without. The children were in two groups. The group of children with stutters was placed in positive speech therapy, where they were praised for their fluency. The non-stutterers were placed in negative speech therapy, where they were disparaged for every mistake in grammar that they made.

As a result of the experiment, some of the children who received negative speech therapy suffered psychological effects and retained speech problems for the rest of their lives. They were examples of the significance of positive reinforcement in education.

The initial goal of the study was to investigate positive and negative speech therapy. However, the implication spanned much further into methods of teaching for young children.

24. Violinist at the Metro Experiment

Study conducted by: staff at the washington post.

Study Conducted in 2007 at a Washington D.C. Metro Train Station

During the study, pedestrians rushed by without realizing that the musician playing at the entrance to the metro stop was Grammy-winning musician, Joshua Bell. Two days before playing in the subway, he sold out at a theater in Boston where the seats average $100. He played one of the most intricate pieces ever written with a violin worth 3.5 million dollars. In the 45 minutes the musician played his violin, only 6 people stopped and stayed for a while. Around 20 gave him money, but continued to walk their normal pace. He collected $32.

The study and the subsequent article organized by the Washington Post was part of a social experiment looking at:

• the priorities of people

Gene Weingarten wrote about the social experiment: “In a banal setting at an inconvenient time, would beauty transcend?” Later he won a Pulitzer Prize for his story. Some of the questions the article addresses are:

• Do we perceive beauty?
• Do we stop to appreciate it?
• Do we recognize the talent in an unexpected context?

As it turns out, many of us are not nearly as perceptive to our environment as we might like to think.

25. Visual Cliff Experiment

Study conducted by: eleanor gibson and richard walk.

Study Conducted in 1959 at Cornell University

Experiment Details: In 1959, psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk set out to study depth perception in infants. They wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behavior or if it is something that we are born with. To study this, Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment.

They studied 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl. The infants were placed one at a time on a visual cliff. A visual cliff was created using a large glass table that was raised about a foot off the floor. Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a ‘shallow side.’

In order to create a ‘deep side,’ a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff. The placement of the checker pattern on the floor creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off. Researchers placed a foot-wide centerboard between the shallow side and the deep side. Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the centerboard.
• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.
• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.
• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

What this study helped demonstrate is that depth perception is likely an inborn train in humans.

Among these experiments and psychological tests, we see boundaries pushed and theories taking on a life of their own. It is through the endless stream of psychological experimentation that we can see simple hypotheses become guiding theories for those in this field. The greater field of psychology became a formal field of experimental study in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Since 1879, psychology has grown into a massive collection of:

• methods of practice

It’s also a specialty area in the field of healthcare. None of this would have been possible without these and many other important psychological experiments that have stood the test of time.

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After earning a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology from Rutgers University and then a Master of Science in Clinical and Forensic Psychology from Drexel University, Kristen began a career as a therapist at two prisons in Philadelphia. At the same time she volunteered as a rape crisis counselor, also in Philadelphia. After a few years in the field she accepted a teaching position at a local college where she currently teaches online psychology courses. Kristen began writing in college and still enjoys her work as a writer, editor, professor and mother.

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Definition:

Maturation is a complex biological and psychological process through which an individual undergoes a series of progressive changes, both physical and cognitive, that enable them to reach an advanced level of development and function.

Biological Maturation:

The biological aspect of maturation refers to the physical changes and developments that occur within the body, including growth, sexual maturation, and the attainment of physical abilities necessary for survival and reproduction.

Psychological Maturation:

Psychological maturation pertains to the mental and emotional changes that take place as an individual grows older. This includes the development of cognitive abilities, emotional regulation, social skills, moral reasoning, and the acquisition of knowledge and wisdom .

Factors Affecting Maturation:

Several factors influence the rate and trajectory of maturation, including genetics, nutrition, environmental factors, social interactions, and experiences. These factors can either enhance or hinder the process of maturation.

Importance of Maturation:

Maturation is crucial for individuals to adapt and thrive within their environment, as it equips them with the necessary physical, intellectual, and emotional capacities to navigate life’s challenges. It plays a vital role in shaping an individual’s identity, abilities, and overall development.

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Ideas for Psychology Experiments

Inspiration for psychology experiments is all around if you know where to look

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Psychology experiments can run the gamut from simple to complex. Students are often expected to design—and sometimes perform—their own experiments, but finding great experiment ideas can be a little challenging. Fortunately, inspiration is all around if you know where to look—from your textbooks to the questions that you have about your own life.

Always discuss your idea with your instructor before beginning your experiment—particularly if your research involves human participants. (Note: You'll probably need to submit a proposal and get approval from your school's institutional review board.)

At a Glance

If you are looking for an idea for psychology experiments, start your search early and make sure you have the time you need. Doing background research, choosing an experimental design, and actually performing your experiment can be quite the process. Keep reading to find some great psychology experiment ideas that can serve as inspiration. You can then find ways to adapt these ideas for your own assignments.

15 Ideas for Psychology Experiments

Most of these experiments can be performed easily at home or at school. That said, you will need to find out if you have to get approval from your teacher or from an institutional review board before getting started.

The following are some questions you could attempt to answer as part of a psychological experiment:

• Are people really able to "feel like someone is watching" them ? Have some participants sit alone in a room and have them note when they feel as if they are being watched. Then, see how those results line up to your own record of when participants were actually being observed.
• Can certain colors improve learning ? You may have heard teachers or students claim that printing text on green paper helps students read better, or that yellow paper helps students perform better on math exams. Design an experiment to see whether using a specific color of paper helps improve students' scores on math exams.
• Can color cause physiological reactions ? Perform an experiment to determine whether certain colors cause a participant's blood pressure to rise or fall.
• Can different types of music lead to different physiological responses ? Measure the heart rates of participants in response to various types of music to see if there is a difference.
• Can smelling one thing while tasting another impact a person's ability to detect what the food really is ? Have participants engage in a blind taste test where the smell and the food they eat are mismatched. Ask the participants to identify the food they are trying and note how accurate their guesses are.
• Could a person's taste in music offer hints about their personality ? Previous research has suggested that people who prefer certain styles of music tend to exhibit similar  personality traits. Administer a personality assessment and survey participants about their musical preferences and examine your results.
• Do action films cause people to eat more popcorn and candy during a movie ? Have one group of participants watch an action movie, and another group watch a slow-paced drama. Compare how much popcorn is consumed by each group.
• Do colors really impact moods ? Investigate to see if the  color blue makes people feel calm, or if the color red leaves them feeling agitated.
• Do creative people see  optical illusions  differently than more analytical people ? Have participants complete an assessment to measure their level of creative thinking. Then ask participants to look at optical illusions and note what they perceive.
• Do people rate individuals with perfectly symmetrical faces as more beautiful than those with asymmetrical faces ? Create sample cards with both symmetrical and asymmetrical faces and ask participants to rate the attractiveness of each picture.
• Do people who use social media exhibit signs of addiction ? Have participants complete an assessment of their social media habits, then have them complete an addiction questionnaire.
• Does eating breakfast help students do better in school ? According to some, eating breakfast can have a beneficial influence on school performance. For your experiment, you could compare the test scores of students who ate breakfast to those who did not.
• Does sex influence short-term memory ? You could arrange an experiment that tests whether men or women are better at remembering specific types of information.
• How likely are people to conform in groups ? Try this experiment to see what percentage of people are likely to conform . Enlist confederates to give the wrong response to a math problem and then see if the participants defy or conform to the rest of the group.
• How much information can people store in short-term memory ? Have participants study a word list and then test their memory. Try different versions of the experiment to see which memorization strategies, like chunking or mnemonics, are most effective.

Once you have an idea, the next step is to learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

Psychology Experiments on Your Interests

If none of the ideas in the list above grabbed your attention, there are other ways to find inspiration for your psychology experiments.

How do you come up with good psychology experiments? One of the most effective approaches is to look at the various problems, situations, and questions that you are facing in your own life.

You can also think about the things that interest you. Start by considering the topics you've studied in class thus far that have really piqued your interest. Then, whittle the list down to two or three major areas within psychology that seem to interest you the most.

From there, make a list of questions you have related to the topic. Any of these questions could potentially serve as an experiment idea.

Use Textbooks for Inspiration for Psychology Experiments

Your psychology textbooks are another excellent source you can turn to for experiment ideas. Choose the chapters or sections that you find particularly interesting—perhaps it's a chapter on  social psychology  or a section on child development.

Start by browsing the experiments discussed in your book. Then think of how you could devise an experiment related to some of the questions your text asks. The reference section at the back of your textbook can also serve as a great source for additional reference material.

Discuss Psychology Experiments with Other Students

It can be helpful to brainstorm with your classmates to gather outside ideas and perspectives. Get together with a group of students and make a list of interesting ideas, subjects, or questions you have.

The information from your brainstorming session can serve as a basis for your experiment topic. It's also a great way to get feedback on your own ideas and to determine if they are worth exploring in greater depth.

Study Classic Psychology Experiments

Taking a closer look at a classic psychology experiment can be an excellent way to trigger some unique and thoughtful ideas of your own. To start, you could try conducting your own version of a famous experiment or even updating a classic experiment to assess a slightly different question.

Famous Psychology Experiments

Examples of famous psychology experiments that might be a source of further questions you'd like to explore include:

• Marshmallow test experiments
• Little Albert experiment
• Hawthorne effect experiments
• Bystander effect experiments
• Robbers Cave experiments
• Halo effect experiments
• Piano stairs experiment
• Cognitive dissonance experiments
• False memory experiments

You might not be able to replicate an experiment exactly (lots of classic psychology experiments have ethical issues that would preclude conducting them today), but you can use well-known studies as a basis for inspiration.

Review the Literature on Psychology Experiments

If you have a general idea about what topic you'd like to experiment, you might want to spend a little time doing a brief literature review before you start designing. In other words, do your homework before you invest too much time on an idea.

Visit your university library and find some of the best books and articles that cover the particular topic you are interested in. What research has already been done in this area? Are there any major questions that still need to be answered? What were the findings of previous psychology experiments?

Tackling this step early will make the later process of writing the introduction  to your  lab report  or research paper much easier.

Ask Your Instructor About Ideas for Psychology Experiments

If you have made a good effort to come up with an idea on your own but you're still feeling stumped, it might help to talk to your instructor. Ask for pointers on finding a good experiment topic for the specific assignment. You can also ask them to suggest some other ways you could generate ideas or inspiration.

While it can feel intimidating to ask for help, your instructor should be more than happy to provide some guidance. Plus, they might offer insights that you wouldn't have gathered on your own. Your instructor probably has lots of ideas for psychology experiments that would be worth exploring.

If you need to design or conduct psychology experiments, there are plenty of great ideas (both old and new) for you to explore. Consider an idea from the list above or turn some of your own questions about the human mind and behavior into an experiment.

Before you dive in, make sure that you are observing the guidelines provided by your instructor and always obtain the appropriate permission before conducting any research with human or animal subjects.

Frequently Asked Questions

Finding a topic for a research paper is much like finding an idea for an experiment. Start by considering your own interests, or browse though your textbooks for inspiration. You might also consider looking at online news stories or journal articles as a source of inspiration.

Three of the most classic social psychology experiments are:

• The Asch Conformity Experiment : This experiment involved seeing if people would conform to group pressure when rating the length of a line.
• The Milgram Obedience Experiment : This experiment involved ordering participants to deliver what they thought was a painful shock to another person.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment : This experiment involved students replicating a prison environment to see how it would affect participant behavior. 

Jakovljević T, Janković MM, Savić AM, et al. The effect of colour on reading performance in children, measured by a sensor hub: From the perspective of gender .  PLoS One . 2021;16(6):e0252622. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0252622

Greenberg DM, et al. Musical preferences are linked to cognitive styles . PLoS One. 2015;10(7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131151

Kurt S, Osueke KK. The effects of color on the moods of college students . Sage. 2014;4(1). doi:10.1177/2158244014525423

Hartline-Grafton H, Levin M. Breakfast and School-Related Outcomes in Children and Adolescents in the US: A Literature Review and its Implications for School Nutrition Policy .  Curr Nutr Rep . 2022;11(4):653-664. doi:10.1007/s13668-022-00434-z

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

8 Classic Psychological Experiments

Categories History

Psychological experiments can tell us a lot about the human mind and behavior. Some of the best-known experiments have given us insights into topics such as conformity, obedience, attachment, and learning.

There are many famous (and sometimes infamous) psychological experiments that have helped shape our understanding of the human mind and behavior. Such experiments offered insights into how people respond to social pressure and how they develop associations that lead to fear. 

While many of these psychological experiments are well known even outside of psychology, it is important to recognize that many of them could not be performed today.

In many instances, these experiments would never receive institutional review board approval due to ethical concerns and the potential harm to participants.

In this article, learn more about some of the most famous psychological experiments and discover why some of them are considered so controversial.

Table of Contents

Pavlov’s Dog Experiments, 1897

While not set up as a psychological experiment, Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive systems of dogs had a tremendous impact on the field of psychology. During his research, he noticed that dogs would begin to salivate whenever they saw the lab assistant who provided them with food.

By pairing a previously neutral stimulus (a sound) with a naturally occurring stimulus that automatically produces a response (food), Pavlov discovered that he could condition the dogs to salivate when they heard the sound.

The discovery of the classical conditioning process played a pivotal role in the formation of the behavioral school of psychology and has continued to influence our understanding of how learning can occur through associations.

Little Albert Experiment, 1920

Anyone who has ever taken an introductory course in psychology is probably familiar with the Little Albert experiment. In the famous experiment conducted in the 1920s by behaviorists John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner, an infant was exposed to a white rat to which he initially exhibited no fear. The researchers then presented the rat accompanied by a loud clanging noise. 

After repeated pairings, the child began to cry when the rat alone was presented. This fear was even generalized to objects that resembled the rat such as fluffy white toys.

Watson’s research played an important role in the development of the school of thought known as behaviorism . It also provided evidence of the power of classical conditioning , which involves learning by association. 

The findings also had implications for our understanding of how fears can form, including phobias and irrational fears that sometimes develop early in life or after a single frightening experience.

Asch Conformity Experiment, 1951

The Asch conformity experiments were a series of psychological experiments conducted by psychologist Solomon Asch during the 1950s. The purpose of the experiments was to determine how much a person’s opinions were influenced by the opinions of the rest of the group.

In the study, participants were told that they were taking a “vision test” along with several other participants. In reality, the other individuals in the room were actors who were following the instructions provided by the experimenters.

When shown several line segments, the participants were supposed to select the one that matched a sample line segment in length.

In some cases, those who were in on the study would pick the obvious match. In other cases, however, the study confederates would unanimously pick the wrong line segment. 

The results of Asch’s experiments found that people tended to conform when other people unanimously picked the wrong answer.

Across the 12 trials he conducted, Asch found that around 33% of the naive participants conformed to the group and picked the wrong answer. In a control group, for comparison, less than 1% of the participants ever chose the wrong answer. 

The experiments revealed how group pressure can cause people to change their own behavior in order to fit in with the rest of the group.

Robbers Cave Experiment, 1954

In the Robbers Cave psychological experiment , researcher Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues used a summer camp setting to look at how factors such as competition and prejudice influenced conflict between groups. 

In the experiment, boys attending a summer camp were randomly assigned to two groups. The groups were then placed in situations where they had to compete with one another. Such competition led to conflicts, competition, and hostility between the two groups.

Later, the experiments attempted to reconcile the groups and eliminate the tensions that the previous competitive tasks had created. Bonding activities had little impact, but the researchers found that situations that required members of the two groups to work together in order to overcome a problem were effective at reducing tensions.

The study had implications for how different social groups create their own norms and hierarchies and then use those rules to exclude outsiders.

Harlow’s Rhesus Monkey Experiments, 1958

Psychologist Harry Harlow conducted a series of experiments during the 1950s and 1960s that demonstrated how important love and affection were in the course of child development. In his experiments, he placed infant monkeys in an environment where they had access to two different surrogate “mothers.”

One was a wire mother who held a bottle and provided food, while the other was a soft surrogate mother who was covered in a terry cloth fabric. 

While the cloth mother did not provide nourishment, the experiments demonstrated that the baby monkeys preferred the soft mother over the wire mother. When they were frightened and needed comfort, they would turn to the cloth mother for security.

Milgram Obedience Experiment, 1963

The Milgram experiment was one of the most famous and controversial psychological experiments ever performed. The experiments involved an experimenter ordering participants to deliver electrical shocks to other people.

While the people who were supposedly receiving the shocks were actors who pretended to be in pain, the participants fully believed that they were delivering painful, and even dangerous shocks. 

Milgram’s findings suggested that up to 65% of the participants were willing to deliver potentially fatal shocks to another person simply because an authority figure ordered them to do so. 

Based on these findings, Milgram proposed that people were willing to follow orders from an authority figure if they think that person will take responsibility for the results and is qualified to give orders. 

Bobo Doll Experiment, 1961-1963

In this experiment, Albert Bandura investigated the effects of observational learning by having young children witness acts of aggression and then observing them to see if they copied the behavior.

Children in the study observed adults act aggressively toward a Bobo doll, a large inflatable doll resembling a bowling pin. When hit or kicked, the doll tips sideways and then returns to an upright position.

Bandura found that children who watched an adult act aggressively were more likely to imitate those behaviors later when they were allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll.

The study played an important role in our understanding of social learning theory and how kids learn by watching others. 

Stanford Prison Experiment, 1971

In this infamous social psychology experiment, Philip Zimbardo set up a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford University psychology department and randomly assigned a group of 24 college students to either be guards or prisoners. 

The study was originally supposed to last for two weeks but had to be stopped after six days because participants reportedly became so immersed in their roles that they began to experience upsetting psychological effects. The results were believed to demonstrate the power that social roles and expectations can exert over a person’s behavior. 

The experiment is widely described in psychology textbooks and even became the subject of a feature film in 2015. 

More recent analysis has suggested that the experiment had serious design flaws, among other problems. In addition to the already problematic ethics of the study, analysis of the study’s records suggests that the experimenters may have played a role in encouraging the abusive behavior displayed by the participants.

Impact of Psychological Experiments

The psychology experiments of the past have had an impact on our understanding of the human mind and behavior. While many of the experiments described here have problems in terms of their design and their ethics, they remain some of the most famous examples of research within the field of psychology.

Learning more about these classic experiments can help you better understand research that informed the development of psychology. It can also provide inspiration for your own psychology experiment ideas and provide information to explore in your psychology papers .

Bandura A, Ross D, Ross SA. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1961;63:575-82. doi:10.1037/h0045925

Gantt WH . Ivan Pavlov . Encyclopaedia Brittanica . Updated February 23, 2020.

Gonzalez-franco M, Slater M, Birney ME, Swapp D, Haslam SA, Reicher SD. Participant concerns for the Learner in a Virtual Reality replication of the Milgram obedience study. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(12):e0209704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209704

Jeon, HL. The environmental factor within the Solomon Asch Line Test . International Journal of Social Science and Humanity. 2014;4(4):264-268. doi:10.7763/IJSSH.2014.V4.360 

Le Texier T. Debunking the Stanford Prison Experiment . American Psychologist . 2019;74(7):823-839. doi:10.1037/amp0000401

Sherif M, Harvey OJ, White BJ, Hood WR, Sherif CW. Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment (Vol. 10) . Norman, OK: University Book Exchange; 1961.

Zimbardo P, Haney C, Banks WC, Jaffe D. The Stanford Prison Experiment: A simulation study of the psychology of imprisonment. Stanford University, Stanford Digital Repository, Stanford; 1971.

Technologies That Entertain and Educate: How Are They Made?

How "sesame street" cracked the code of holistic evidence-building..

Posted June 17, 2024 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• Why Education Is Important
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• Educational technology can have an impact, but only when the technology design and use are of high quality.
• Inclusive R&D and efficacy trials are vital for developing impactful, sustainable ed-tech solutions.
• The show "Sesame Street" uses large-scale, global research to build support for ed-tech's capabilities.

There's a widely accepted research consensus that educational technology, or ed-tech, can lead to positive learning outcomes—but only when the technology design and use are of high quality.

Achieving this quality poses challenges due to the many factors influencing a child’s education . These include the learner background knowledge acquired at home, the teachers' skills in effectively integrating technology into their teaching, and a close alignment between an ed-tech tool and the unique learning paths of each student. Finding agreement on how to achieve ed-tech quality requires addressing these multifaceted educational dynamics.

It might sound challenging, but it is achievable: Technologies developed through both inclusive approaches that include teachers and children through participatory research as well as efficacy trials that require controlled testing conditions, have the highest likelihood to positively impact learners long-term. A holistic approach to gathering evidence is the secret to thriving in a market crowded with thousands of apps and learning platforms.

What does such an approach look like in practice? "Sesame Street" media are a good example of how technology companies can approach evidence.

"Sesame Street" and Efficacy Research

"Sesame Street," created by the nonprofit Sesame Workshop, is known for its iconic characters and engaging storylines that capture children's imaginations while nurturing their cognitive and emotional development. What sets it apart from many other children's television shows is its rigorous research approach, which spans multiple countries and focuses not only on efficacy but also on cost-effectiveness and its broader impact on learning and social outcomes. It is this comprehensive approach that has underscored its effectiveness across various contexts and its sustained relevance over time.

For example, a recent study evaluated an 11-week remote early learning program (RELP) delivered through WhatsApp to families in Lebanon, including Syrian refugees and vulnerable Lebanese families. Created by Sesame Workshop and the International Rescue Committee in response to COVID-19 , the program aimed to provide early education where access to preschool is limited.

The evaluation study looked at two groups: one receiving only RELP and another with RELP plus remote parenting support. Both were compared to a group that waited for RELP. Researchers analyzed how these programs affected child development , parenting, and caregiver well-being.

The researchers found that remote early childhood education programs are effective in promoting early childhood development in regions where traditional schooling is hard to access. The RELP intervention had significant positive effects on key areas of early learning, such as emergent literacy, numeracy skills, motor development, and social-emotional growth.

Beyond Efficacy Studies

Certainly, while efficacy studies provide solid evidence of impact, they don't encompass the full gold standard , especially not in interventions that involve education and technology. Randomized controlled trial (RCT) research has often been portrayed either as championing or condemning technology in the pursuit of equity.

However, it's more productive to view RCTs as one part of a broader spectrum of research methods available to educational researchers. These researchers span various disciplines, including cognitive psychology, learning sciences, qualitative studies, and ethnography, which often uncover intricate learning processes and areas that are challenging to quantify.

From this perspective, the critical question extends beyond whether tools are effective to understanding for whom, when, and why they are effective, addressing the diversity of students and contexts.

"Sesame Street" and Inclusive R&D

While literacy and numeracy outcomes can be readily tested, life skills such as curiosity and perseverance are more complex to measure. These socio-emotional skills are crucial for understanding how a technology tool aligns with diverse children's profiles in the learning process. While life skills may not be easily reduced to standardized tests, qualitative methods provide valuable insights into their impact.

To find out the impact of "Sesame Street" on these other skills, the team engaged in inclusive research and development, with testbed and sandbox methods , where researchers with practitioners or children jointly explore what might work best. For example, in the qualitative studies in Syria and Northern Ireland, the content was refined and developed with the local teachers and parents to improve its cultural relevance and contextual appropriateness.

Once finalized, the content was disseminated through various media platforms, including WhatsApp, to reach the parents impacted by conflict and war and support the social-emotional learning needs of their young children.

Efficacy and Inclusive R&D Are Not Opposites

This integration of efficacy trials and a testbed approach illustrates the transformative potential of technology to both entertain and educate children . Whether categorized as children’s media or "ed-tech," well-crafted technologies can positively impact young learners' lives.

This approach underscores the critical importance of comprehensive research that considers both content and format, embracing ongoing inquiry rather than one-time studies. By embracing the rich diversity of educational research disciplines, both cognitive and non-cognitive, "Sesame Street" exemplifies a commitment to advancing educational practices aligned with the science of learning and inclusive educational principles. This holistic approach not only supports continuous improvement but also exemplifies a robust approach to evidence.

Mares, M. L., & Pan, Z. (2013). Effects of Sesame Street: A meta-analysis of children's learning in 15 countries. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 34 (3), 140-151.

Schwartz, K., Michael, D., Torossian, L., Hajal, D., Yoshikawa, H., Abdulrazzak, S., & Behrman, J. (2024). Leveraging Caregivers to Provide Remote Early Childhood Education in Hard-to-Access Settings in Lebanon: Impacts From a Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness , 1-31.

Natalia Kucirkova, Ph.D. , is Professor at the University of Stavanger, Norway and The Open University, UK.

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Forensic Psychology Student Sheds Light on Native American Cold Case Crisis

Makenna Pringle

Embry-riddle student narayt salcido recently attended the national conference on undergraduate research to share her findings on the missing and murdered indigenous people crisis. ↖ this heading is for screen readers and wont be visible on the page..

Embry-Riddle student Narayt Salcido recently attended the National Conference on Undergraduate Research to share her findings on the Missing and Murdered Indigenous People crisis.

At Embry-Riddle, opportunities for research and discovery are plentiful, allowing students to explore topics that have a real-world impact.

Narayt Salcido (’24), who is pursuing a B.S. in Forensic Psychology  on Embry-Riddle's Prescott, Arizona, campus , recently attended the National Conference on Undergraduate Research ( NCUR ) to present her research on the Missing and Murdered Indigenous People (MMIP) crisis.

Research at Embry-Riddle

The MMIP cold case crisis, as defined by the U.S. Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs, encompasses decades marked by high rates of assault, abduction and murder of tribal members, with many of these cases remaining unsolved.

“The Native American population in the United States has been historically mistreated, underrepresented and overlooked,” Salcido said. “One way in which that population has been overlooked has been in our very own criminal justice system.”

Salcido lists multiple factors contributing to the crisis, such as jurisdictional issues, database discrepancies, a high victimization rate, previous government shortcomings and past historical trauma. Her research aims to develop a comprehensive understanding of these facto r s and then develop culturally sensitive recommendations on ways to actively combat the crisis.

More specifically, Salcido’s research studied database discrepancies that impact cases of MMIP. She identified and compared both official and unofficial databases to determine the number of cases and how they differ between various governmental agencies.

“The available listed cases on each database were noted and compared to other cases on other databases. First, listed cases were compared between each government database. Then, listed cases were compared between each unofficial database. Finally, cases were compared between government databases and unofficial databases,” Salcido shared.

Taking unofficial databases into consideration is crucial due to the nature in which these crimes are, or are not, reported. Historically, cases of missing and murdered indigenous people are less likely to be reported to the police – leading to many cases existing only among “unofficial” platforms, such as websites, Facebook accounts and portals.

Research Findings & Next Steps

By completing some of the first in-depth and focused research on this subject, Salcido hopes to shine a light on how these counterproductive database discrepancies impact the MMIP crisis.

“It was found through this research that there were over 5,000 discrepancies, meaning that over 5,000 cases were only reported to one government agency; there was no overlap. This provides evidence of the extent of this crisis and that action needs to be taken.”

These discrepancies among data regarding missing and murdered people align with previous reports of MMIP case inaccuracies. Like the findings from Salcido’s research, one 2016 study reported case numbers varying by the thousands, with large disparities between the Department of Justice’s federal missing persons database and cases logged by the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs) .

Salcido’s work doesn’t end with determining and analyzing data discrepancies.

“The next step of this research is to conduct a culturally sensitive and psychologically sound needs assessment with local Arizona tribes. We hope to establish a relationship of trust with tribes that will allow us to gain their insight and perspective to determine the next steps toward addressing the crisis.”

At the NCUR in early April, Salcido joined other student researchers to share her findings and, in turn, raise awareness for the MMIP crisis amongst attendees. She was able to attend thanks to earning an Ignite Grant through Embry-Riddle's Undergraduate Research Institute .

“The conference was a wonderful experience,” she said. “I was able to talk to other students about my work and their work. I formed connections from across the country and was able to speak with many [representatives from] graduate programs.”

Salcido’s Background

Salcido has always been fascinated by both the human mind and the criminal justice system. Now, she’s nearly completed her degree in Forensic Psychology and says she couldn’t imagine herself doing anything else.

“To find a way to pursue both my passions while going toward a career of helping people is more than I could have ever asked for,” she said.

Salcido’s main piece of advice to future students is to know it’s okay if plans change over time. Many students discover new and unexpected passions throughout their education and shift to pursue them.

“Learn what works best for you. No two people are the same; don’t compare yourself to others. Focus on yourself and how you can be successful.”

Do you want to get involved in research at Embry-Riddle? Apply today to take the first step.

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APA welcomes surgeon general’s highlighting dangers of social media to kids

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Joins call to protect youth, who are most vulnerable to such products

Washington — Following is a statement by Mitch Prinstein, PhD, chief science officer of the American Psychological Association, in reaction to the call by the U.S. surgeon general for warning labels on social media platforms:

“We applaud Surgeon General Vivek Murthy for calling attention to the potential dangers to children posed by social media platforms. The American Psychological Association has issued similar warnings in its landmark 2023 health advisory on social media use in adolescence and 2024 follow-up report. Research has shown that young people are especially vulnerable to specific content and functions on social platforms that interact with neural and psychological vulnerabilities in adolescence. We concur with the surgeon general's reliance on psychological science to offer warnings to protect kids from harm on these platforms. And we join the surgeon general in urging policymakers to act and help parents dealing with products that are designed to keep their kids engaged for as long as possible with few safeguards for their developmental vulnerabilities.”

Kim I. Mills

(202) 336-6048

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