cognitive milestones (learning thinking problem solving)

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Child cognitive development is a fascinating and complex process that entails the growth of a child’s mental abilities, including their ability to think, learn, and solve problems. This development occurs through a series of stages that can vary among individuals. As children progress through these stages, their cognitive abilities and skills are continuously shaped by a myriad of factors such as genetics, environment, and experiences. Understanding the nuances of child cognitive development is essential for parents, educators, and professionals alike, as it provides valuable insight into supporting the growth of the child’s intellect and overall well-being.

Throughout the developmental process, language and communication play a vital role in fostering a child’s cognitive abilities . As children acquire language skills, they also develop their capacity for abstract thought, reasoning, and problem-solving. It is crucial for parents and caregivers to be mindful of potential developmental delays, as early intervention can greatly benefit the child’s cognitive development. By providing stimulating environments, nurturing relationships, and embracing diverse learning opportunities, adults can actively foster healthy cognitive development in children.

Key Takeaways

Child cognitive development involves the growth of mental abilities and occurs through various stages.
Language and communication are significant factors in cognitive development , shaping a child’s ability for abstract thought and problem-solving.
Early intervention and supportive environments can play a crucial role in fostering healthy cognitive development in children.

Child Cognitive Development Stages

Child cognitive development is a crucial aspect of a child’s growth and involves the progression of their thinking, learning, and problem-solving abilities. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a widely recognized theory that identifies four major stages of cognitive development in children.

Sensorimotor Stage

The Sensorimotor Stage occurs from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, infants and newborns learn to coordinate their senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) with their motor abilities. Their understanding of the world begins to develop through their physical interactions and experiences. Some key milestones in this stage include object permanence, which is the understanding that an object still exists even when it’s not visible, and the development of intentional actions.

Preoperational Stage

The Preoperational Stage takes place between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. In this stage, children start to think symbolically, and their language capabilities rapidly expand. They also develop the ability to use mental images, words, and gestures to represent the world around them. However, their thinking is largely egocentric, which means they struggle to see things from other people’s perspectives. During this stage, children start to engage in pretend play and begin to grasp the concept of conservation, recognizing that certain properties of objects (such as quantity or volume) remain the same even if their appearance changes.

Concrete Operational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years old. At this stage, children’s cognitive development progresses to more logical and organized ways of thinking. They can now consider multiple aspects of a problem and better understand the relationship between cause and effect . Furthermore, children become more adept at understanding other people’s viewpoints, and they can perform basic mathematical operations and understand the principles of classification and seriation.

Formal Operational Stage

Lastly, the Formal Operational Stage typically begins around 12 years old and extends into adulthood. In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and can consider hypothetical situations and complex reasoning. They can also perform advanced problem-solving and engage in systematic scientific inquiry. This stage allows individuals to think about abstract concepts, their own thought processes, and understand the world in deeper, more nuanced ways.

By understanding these stages of cognitive development, you can better appreciate the complex growth process that children undergo as their cognitive abilities transform and expand throughout their childhood.

Key Factors in Cognitive Development

Genetics and brain development.

Genetics play a crucial role in determining a child’s cognitive development. A child’s brain development is heavily influenced by genetic factors, which also determine their cognitive potential , abilities, and skills. It is important to understand that a child’s genes do not solely dictate their cognitive development – various environmental and experiential factors contribute to shaping their cognitive abilities as they grow and learn.

Environmental Influences

The environment in which a child grows up has a significant impact on their cognitive development. Exposure to various experiences is essential for a child to develop essential cognitive skills such as problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking. Factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive development include exposure to toxins, extreme stress, trauma, abuse, and addiction issues, such as alcoholism in the family.

Nutrition and Health

Maintaining good nutrition and health is vital for a child’s cognitive development. Adequate nutrition is essential for the proper growth and functioning of the brain . Key micronutrients that contribute to cognitive development include iron, zinc, and vitamins A, C, D, and B-complex vitamins. Additionally, a child’s overall health, including physical fitness and immunity, ensures they have the energy and resources to engage in learning activities and achieve cognitive milestones effectively .

Emotional and Social Factors

Emotional well-being and social relationships can also greatly impact a child’s cognitive development. A supportive, nurturing, and emotionally healthy environment allows children to focus on learning and building cognitive skills. Children’s emotions and stress levels can impact their ability to learn and process new information. Additionally, positive social interactions help children develop important cognitive skills such as empathy, communication, and collaboration.

In summary, cognitive development in children is influenced by various factors, including genetics, environmental influences, nutrition, health, and emotional and social factors. Considering these factors can help parents, educators, and policymakers create suitable environments and interventions for promoting optimal child development.

Language and Communication Development

Language skills and milestones.

Children’s language development is a crucial aspect of their cognitive growth. They begin to acquire language skills by listening and imitating sounds they hear from their environment. As they grow, they start to understand words and form simple sentences.

Infants (0-12 months): Babbling, cooing, and imitating sounds are common during this stage. They can also identify their name by the end of their first year. Facial expressions play a vital role during this period, as babies learn to respond to emotions.
Toddlers (1-3 years): They rapidly learn new words and form simple sentences. They engage more in spoken communication, constantly exploring their language environment.
Preschoolers (3-5 years): Children expand their vocabulary, improve grammar, and begin participating in more complex conversations.

It’s essential to monitor children’s language development and inform their pediatrician if any delays or concerns arise.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication contributes significantly to children’s cognitive development. They learn to interpret body language, facial expressions, and gestures long before they can speak. Examples of nonverbal communication in children include:

Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact while interacting helps children understand emotions and enhances communication.
Gestures: Pointing, waving goodbye, or using hand signs provide alternative ways for children to communicate their needs and feelings.
Body language: Posture, body orientation, and movement give clues about a child’s emotions and intentions.

Teaching children to understand and use nonverbal communication supports their cognitive and social development.

Parent and Caregiver Interaction

Supportive interaction from parents and caregivers plays a crucial role in children’s language and communication development. These interactions can improve children’s language skills and overall cognitive abilities . Some ways parents and caregivers can foster language development are:

Reading together: From an early age, reading books to children enhance their vocabulary and listening skills.
Encouraging communication: Ask open-ended questions and engage them in conversations to build their speaking skills.
Using rich vocabulary: Expose children to a variety of words and phrases, promoting language growth and understanding.

By actively engaging in children’s language and communication development, parents and caregivers can nurture cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

Cognitive Abilities and Skills

Cognitive abilities are the mental skills that children develop as they grow. These skills are essential for learning, adapting, and thriving in modern society. In this section, we will discuss various aspects of cognitive development, including reasoning and problem-solving, attention and memory, decision-making and executive function, as well as academic and cognitive milestones.

Reasoning and Problem Solving

Reasoning is the ability to think logically and make sense of the world around us. It’s essential for a child’s cognitive development, as it enables them to understand the concept of object permanence , recognize patterns, and classify objects. Problem-solving skills involve using these reasoning abilities to find solutions to challenges they encounter in daily life .

Children develop essential skills like:

Logical reasoning : The ability to deduce conclusions from available information.
Perception: Understanding how objects relate to one another in their environment.
Schemes: Organizing thoughts and experiences into mental categories.

Attention and Memory

Attention refers to a child’s ability to focus on specific tasks, objects, or information, while memory involves retaining and recalling information. These cognitive abilities play a critical role in children’s learning and academic performance . Working memory is a vital component of learning, as it allows children to hold and manipulate information in their minds while solving problems and engaging with new tasks.

Attention: Focuses on relevant tasks and information while ignoring distractions.
Memory: Retains and retrieves information when needed.

Decision-Making and Executive Function

Decision-making is the process of making choices among various alternatives, while executive function refers to the higher-order cognitive processes that enable children to plan, organize, and adapt in complex situations. Executive function encompasses components such as:

Inhibition: Self-control and the ability to resist impulses.
Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new information or changing circumstances.
Planning: Setting goals and devising strategies to achieve them.

Academic and Cognitive Milestones

Children’s cognitive development is closely linked to their academic achievement. As they grow, they achieve milestones in various cognitive domains that form the foundation for their future learning. Some of these milestones include:

Language skills: Developing vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.
Reading and mathematics: Acquiring the ability to read and comprehend text, as well as understanding basic mathematical concepts and operations.
Scientific thinking: Developing an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and forming hypotheses.

Healthy cognitive development is essential for a child’s success in school and life. By understanding and supporting the development of their cognitive abilities, we can help children unlock their full potential and prepare them for a lifetime of learning and growth.

Developmental Delays and Early Intervention

Identifying developmental delays.

Developmental delays in children can be identified by monitoring their progress in reaching cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social milestones. Parents and caregivers should be aware of developmental milestones that are generally expected to be achieved by children at different ages, such as 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 9 months, 18 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years. Utilizing resources such as the “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” program can help parents and caregivers recognize signs of delay early in a child’s life.

Resources and Support for Parents

There are numerous resources available for parents and caregivers to find information on developmental milestones and to learn about potential developmental delays, including:

Learn the Signs. Act Early : A CDC initiative that provides pdf checklists of milestones and resources for identifying delays.
Parental support groups : Local and online communities dedicated to providing resources and fostering connections between families experiencing similar challenges.

Professional Evaluations and Intervention Strategies

If parents or caregivers suspect a developmental delay, it is crucial to consult with healthcare professionals or specialists who can conduct validated assessments of the child’s cognitive and developmental abilities. Early intervention strategies, such as the ones used in broad-based early intervention programs , have shown significant positive impacts on children with developmental delays to improve cognitive development and outcomes.

Professional evaluations may include:

Pediatricians : Primary healthcare providers who can monitor a child’s development and recommend further assessments when needed.
Speech and language therapists : Professionals who assist children with language and communication deficits.
Occupational therapists : Experts in helping children develop or improve on physical and motor skills, as well as social and cognitive abilities.

Depending on the severity and nature of the delays, interventions may involve:

Individualized support : Tailored programs or therapy sessions specifically developed for the child’s needs.
Group sessions : Opportunities for children to learn from and interact with other children experiencing similar challenges.
Family involvement : Parents and caregivers learning support strategies to help the child in their daily life.

Fostering Healthy Cognitive Development

Play and learning opportunities.

Encouraging play is crucial for fostering healthy cognitive development in children . Provide a variety of age-appropriate games, puzzles, and creative activities that engage their senses and stimulate curiosity. For example, introduce building blocks and math games for problem-solving skills, and crossword puzzles to improve vocabulary and reasoning abilities.

Playing with others also helps children develop social skills and better understand facial expressions and emotions. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, where kids can work together to achieve a common goal, and open-ended play with no specific rules to boost creativity.

Supportive Home Environment

A nurturing and secure home environment encourages healthy cognitive growth. Be responsive to your child’s needs and interests, involving them in everyday activities and providing positive reinforcement. Pay attention to their emotional well-being and create a space where they feel safe to ask questions and explore their surroundings.

Promoting Independence and Decision-Making

Support independence by allowing children to make decisions about their playtime, activities, and daily routines. Encourage them to take age-appropriate responsibilities and make choices that contribute to self-confidence and autonomy. Model problem-solving strategies and give them opportunities to practice these skills during play, while also guiding them when necessary.

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Promote a well-rounded lifestyle, including:

Sleep : Ensure children get adequate and quality sleep by establishing a consistent bedtime routine.
Hydration : Teach the importance of staying hydrated by offering water frequently, especially during play and physical activities.
Screen time : Limit exposure to electronic devices and promote alternative activities for toddlers and older kids.
Physical activity : Encourage children to engage in active play and exercise to support neural development and overall health .

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key stages of child cognitive development.

Child cognitive development can be divided into several key stages based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development . These stages include the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years), and formal operational stage (11 years and beyond). Every stage represents a unique period of cognitive growth, marked by the development of new skills, thought processes, and understanding of the world.

What factors influence cognitive development in children?

Several factors contribute to individual differences in child cognitive development, such as genetic and environmental factors. Socioeconomic status, access to quality education, early home environment, and parental involvement all play a significant role in determining cognitive growth. In addition, children’s exposure to diverse learning experiences, adequate nutrition, and mental health also influence overall cognitive performance .

How do cognitive skills vary during early childhood?

Cognitive skills in early childhood evolve as children progress through various stages . During the sensorimotor stage, infants develop fundamental skills such as object permanence. The preoperational stage is characterized by the development of symbolic thought, language, and imaginative play. Children then enter the concrete operational stage, acquiring the ability to think logically and solve problems. Finally, in the formal operational stage, children develop abstract reasoning abilities, complex problem-solving skills and metacognitive awareness.

What are common examples of cognitive development?

Examples of cognitive development include the acquisition of language and vocabulary, the development of problem-solving skills, and the ability to engage in logical reasoning. Additionally, memory, attention, and spatial awareness are essential aspects of cognitive development. Children may demonstrate these skills through activities like puzzle-solving, reading, and mathematics.

How do cognitive development theories explain children’s learning?

Piaget’s cognitive development theory suggests that children learn through active exploration, constructing knowledge based on their experiences and interactions with the world. In contrast, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning. Both theories imply that cognitive development is a dynamic and evolving process, influenced by various environmental and psychological factors.

Why is it essential to support cognitive development in early childhood?

Supporting cognitive development in early childhood is critical because it lays a strong foundation for future academic achievement, social-emotional development, and lifelong learning. By providing children with diverse and enriching experiences, caregivers and educators can optimize cognitive growth and prepare children to face the challenges of today’s complex world. Fostering cognitive development early on helps children develop resilience, adaptability, and critical thinking skills essential for personal and professional success.

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Cognitive Developmental Milestones

From Birth to Five Years

Birth to 3 Months
3 to 6 Months
6 to 9 Months
9 to 12 Months
1 to 2 Years
2 to 3 Years
3 to 4 Years
4 to 5 Years
Reaching Cognitive Milestones

Cognitive milestones represent important steps forward in a child's development. Cognitive development refers to how children think, learn, explore, remember, and solve problems.

Historically, babies were often thought of as simple, passive beings. Prior to the 20th century, children were often seen simply as miniature versions of adults.

It wasn't until psychologists like Jean Piaget proposed that children think differently than adults that people began to view childhood and adolescence as unique periods of growth and development.

In the past, adults often dismissed the remarkable intellectual skills of infants and very young children, but modern thinkers and researchers have discovered that babies are, in fact, always learning, thinking, and exploring the world around them.

Even newborn infants are actively taking in information and learning new things. In addition to gathering new information about the people and the world around them, babies constantly discover new things about themselves.

This article discusses cognitive milestones that occur between the ages of birth and five years. It also explores what you can do to help encourage your child's cognitive development.

From Birth to 3 Months

The first three months of a child's life are a time of wonder. Major developmental milestones at this age focus on exploring the basic senses and learning more about the body and the environment.

During this period, most infants begin to:

Demonstrate anticipatory behaviors, like rooting and sucking at the site of a nipple or bottle
Detect sound differences in pitch and volume
Discern objects more clearly within a distance of 13 inches
Focus on moving objects, including the faces of caregivers
See all colors of the human visual spectrum
Tell between tastes, from sweet, salty, bitter, and sour
Use facial expressions to respond to their environment

From 3 to 6 Months

In early infancy, perceptual abilities are still developing. From the age of 3–6 months, infants begin to develop a stronger sense of perception . At this age, most babies begin to:

Imitate facial expressions
React to familiar sounds
Recognize familiar faces
Respond to the facial expressions of other people

From 6 to 9 Months

Looking inside the mind of an infant is no easy task. After all, researchers cannot just ask a baby what he or she is thinking at any given moment. To learn more about the mental processes of infants, researchers have come up with many creative tasks that reveal the inner workings of the baby's brain.

From the age of 6–9 months, researchers have found that most infants begin to:

Gaze longer at "impossible" things, such as an object suspended in midair
Tell the differences between pictures depicting different numbers of objects
Understand the differences between animate and inanimate objects
Utilize the relative size of an object to determine how far away it is

From 9 to 12 Months

As infants become more physically adept, they can explore the world around them in greater depth. Sitting up, crawling, and walking are just a few physical milestones that allow babies to gain a greater mental understanding of the world around them.

As they approach one year of age, most infants can:

Enjoy looking at picture books
Imitate gestures and some basic actions
Manipulate objects by turning them over, trying to put one object into another, etc.
Respond with gestures and sounds
Understand the concept of object permanence , the idea that an object continues to exist even though it cannot be seen

From 1 to 2 Years

After reaching a year of age, children's physical, social, and cognitive development seems to grow by leaps and bounds. Children at this age spend a tremendous amount of time observing the actions of adults, so it is important for parents and caregivers to set good examples of behavior.

Most one-year-olds begin to:

Identify objects that are similar
Imitate the actions and language of adults
Learn through exploration
Point out familiar objects and people in picture books
Tell the difference between "Me" and "You"
Understand and respond to words

From 2 to 3 Years

At two years of age, children are becoming increasingly independent. Since they are now able to explore the world more fully, a great deal of learning during this stage is the result of their own experiences.

Most two-year-olds are able to:

Identify their own reflection in the mirror by name
Imitate more complex adult actions (playing house, pretending to do laundry, etc.)
Match objects with their uses
Name objects in a picture book
Respond to simple directions from parents and caregivers
Sort objects by category (i.e., animals, flowers, trees, etc.)
Stack rings on a peg from largest to smallest

From 3 to 4 Years

Children become increasingly capable of analyzing the world around them more complexly. As they observe their environment, they begin to sort and categorize objects and ideas into different categories, often referred to as schemas .

Since children are becoming much more active in the learning process, they also begin to pose questions about the world around them. "Why?" becomes a very common question around this age.

At the age of three, most kids are able to:

Ask "why" questions to gain information
Demonstrate awareness of the past and present
Learn by observing and listening to instructions
Maintain a longer attention span of around 5 to 15 minutes
Organize objects by size and shape
Seek answers to questions
Understand how to group and match objects according to color

From 4 to 5 Years

As they near school age, children become better at using words, imitating adult actions, counting, and other basic activities that are important for school preparedness.

Most four-year-olds are able to:

Create pictures that they often name and describe
Count to five
Draw the shape of a person
Name and identify many colors
Tell you where they live

Help Kids Reach Cognitive Milestones

Finding ways to encourage children's intellectual development is on the minds of most parents. Fortunately, children are eager to learn right from the very beginning.

Cultivate learning experiences at home : While education will soon become an enormous part of a growing child's life, those earliest years are influenced mainly by close family relationships, particularly those with parents and other caregivers. This means that parents are uniquely positioned to help shape how their children learn, think, and develop.
Encourage children's interest in the world : Parents can encourage their children's intellectual abilities by helping them make sense of the world around them. When an infant shows interest in an object, parents can help the child touch and explore the object and say what the object is.
Demonstrate information : For example, when a baby looks intently at a toy rattle, the parent might pick up the item and place it in the infant's hand, saying, "Does Gracie want the rattle?" and then shake the rattle to demonstrate what it does.
Encourage exploration : Parents should encourage their children to explore the world as they grow older. Try to be patient with young children who seem to have an endless array of questions about each and everything around them. Parents can also pose their own questions to help kids become more creative problem solvers.
Ask questions : When facing a dilemma, ask questions such as "What do you think would happen if we…?" or "What might happen if we….?" By allowing kids to come up with original solutions to problems, parents can help encourage both intellectual development and self-confidence.

Developmental milestones provide guideposts so that children can better understand whether their child is developing similarly to other children their age. However, it is important for parents to remember that all kids develop at their own pace. Some cognitive milestones may emerge earlier and others later. Talk to your child's doctor if you are concerned about your child's development.

Larcher V. Children are not small adults: Significance of biological and cognitive development in medical practice . Handbook Philos Med. 2015. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8706-2_16-1

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC's Developmental milestones .

UNICEF. Your toddler's developmental milestones at 2 years .

Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Developmental milestones .

Child Mind Institute. Complete guide to developmental milestones .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Developmental Milestones

Motor Milestones - Birth to Five
Communication and Language Milestones - Birth to Five
Social and Emotional Milestones - Birth to Five
Cognitive Milestones - Birth to Five

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Milestones help you understand how your child learns and grows. Cognitive development is critical to a child’s growth. It describes how a child’s brain develops, and includes skills such as thinking, learning, exploring and problem solving. It also affects other areas of a child’s development, including language and social skills.

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Sees objects that are eight to 12 inches away from his/her face.
Is sensitive to sounds close by.
Startles to loud noises by arching back, kicking legs and flailing arms.
Watches objects and faces briefly and follows moving object with eyes.
Follows moving object, such as rattle or toy, with eyes.
Recognizes familiar people at a distance.
Cries or fusses if bored.
Startles to loud noises.
Recognizes breast or bottle.
Follows movement by turning head.
Startles at loud noises.
Watches moving objects, moves eyes from side to side to watch.
Communicates if happy or sad.
Watches faces and looks at your face while feeding.
Reaches for toys and brings toys to mouth.
Uses hands and mouth to explore the world.
Transfers objects from hand to hand.
Tries to get things that are out of reach.
Looks around at things.
Watches an object as it falls.
Looks for objects that he/she saw you hide.
Transfers things smoothly from hand to hand.
Plays "peek-a-boo."
Uses thumb and index finger to pick things up, such as cereal Os.
Turns pages in a book.
Puts things in mouth.
Puts objects in and out of containers.
Looks at the correct picture when it's named.
Bangs things together.
Begins to use common objects correctly (drinks from a cup, brushes hair).
Follows simple directions, such as “pick up your book.”
Explores things by banging, shaking or throwing.
Pokes with index finger.
Lets go of things without help.
Scribbles with crayon or pencil.
Points to at least one body part.
Follows one-step directions without any gestures (for example, sits when you say “sit”).
Knows what common objects are for, such as a phone, brush or spoon.
Points to get the attention of others.
Shows interest in a stuffed animal or doll, and plays pretend.
Enjoys books, stories and songs.
Turns pages of a book.
Builds a tower of four or more blocks.
Finds things even when hidden under two or more covers.
Explores how things work by touching them and trying them out.
Begins to sort shapes and colors.
Follows two-step directions such as, “pick up your truck and put it on the shelf.”
Plays simple pretend or make-believe games.
Names items in a book such as a dog, cat, car or baby.
Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books.
Does puzzles with three or four pieces.
Draws or copies a circle with crayon or pencil.
Plays make-believe with dolls, animals and people.
Uses imagination to create stories or play.
Matches and sorts objects by shape and color.
Works toys with buttons, levers and moving parts (for example, makes mechanical toys work).
Knows what “two” means.
Turns pages one at a time.
Knows common colors.
Screws and unscrews jar lids, and turns door handles.
Copies simple shapes.
Understands the concepts of “same” and “different.”
Follows instructions with two or three steps.
Understands the concept of counting and may know numbers.
Draws a person with two to four body parts.
Begins to understand time.
Knows basic colors.
Uses scissors.
Copies letters.
Plays board games or card games.
Tells you what he thinks will happen next in a story.
Counts 10 or more objects.
Names at least four colors correctly.
Understands items used every day such as food or money.
Draws a person with at least six body parts.
Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes.
Understands the concept of time.
Prints some letters and numbers.
Recognizes own printed name and may be able to write name.

If you have concerns about a child's development and think a child might need extra help to learn and grow, do not hesitate to refer a child.

The family will be contacted by the local school districts to arrange for a screening or evaluation to determine if their child is eligible for Infant and Toddler Intervention or Preschool Special Education services in Minnesota.

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Cognitive Development Theory: What Are the Stages?

Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.

Cognitive development is the process by which we come to acquire, understand, organize, and learn to use information in various ways. Cognitive development helps a child obtain the skills needed to live a productive life and function as an independent adult.

The late Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a major figure in the study of cognitive development theory in children. He believed that it occurs in four stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

This article discusses Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including important concepts and principles.

FatCamera / Getty Images

History of Cognitive Development

During the 1920s, the psychologist Jean Piaget was given the task of translating English intelligence tests into French. During this process, he observed that children think differently than adults do and have a different view of the world. He began to study children from birth through the teenage years—observing children who were too young to talk, and interviewing older children while he also observed their development.

Piaget published his theory of cognitive development in 1936. This theory is based on the idea that a child’s intelligence changes throughout childhood and cognitive skills—including memory, attention, thinking, problem-solving, logical reasoning, reading, listening, and more—are learned as a child grows and interacts with their environment.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive development occurs in four stages as a child ages. These stages are always completed in order, but last longer for some children than others. Each stage builds on the skills learned in the previous stage.

The four stages of cognitive development include:

Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

The sensorimotor stage begins at birth and lasts until 18 to 24 months of age. During the sensorimotor stage, children are physically exploring their environment and absorbing information through their senses of smell, sight, touch, taste, and sound.

The most important skill gained in the sensorimotor stage is object permanence, which means that the child knows that an object still exists even when they can't see it anymore. For example, if a toy is covered up by a blanket, the child will know the toy is still there and will look for it. Without this skill, the child thinks that the toy has simply disappeared.

Language skills also begin to develop during the sensorimotor stage.

Activities to Try During the Sensorimotor Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the sensorimotor stage include:

Playing peek-a-boo
Reading books
Providing toys with a variety of textures
Singing songs
Playing with musical instruments
Rolling a ball back and forth

The preoperational stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs between ages 2 and 7 years. Early on in this stage, children learn the skill of symbolic representation. This means that an object or word can stand for something else. For example, a child might play "house" with a cardboard box.

At this stage, children assume that other people see the world and experience emotions the same way they do, and their main focus is on themselves. This is called egocentrism .

Centrism is another characteristic of the preoperational stage. This means that a child is only able to focus on one aspect of a problem or situation. For example, a child might become upset that a friend has more pieces of candy than they do, even if their pieces are bigger.

During this stage, children will often play next to each other—called parallel play—but not with each other. They also believe that inanimate objects, such as toys, have human lives and feelings.

Activities to Try During the Preoperational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the preoperational stage include:

Playing "house" or "school"
Building a fort
Playing with Play-Doh
Building with blocks
Playing charades

The concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. During this stage, a child develops the ability to think logically and problem-solve but can only apply these skills to objects they can physically see—things that are "concrete."

Six main concrete operations develop in this stage. These include:

Conservation : This skill means that a child understands that the amount of something or the number of a particular object stays the same, even when it looks different. For example, a cup of milk in a tall glass looks different than the same amount of milk in a short glass—but the amount did not change.
Classification : This skill is the ability to sort items by specific classes, such as color, shape, or size.
Seriation : This skill involves arranging objects in a series, or a logical order. For example, the child could arrange blocks in order from smallest to largest.
Reversibility : This skill is the understanding that a process can be reversed. For example, a balloon can be blown up with air and then deflated back to the way it started.
Decentering : This skill allows a child to focus on more than one aspect of a problem or situation at the same time. For example, two candy bars might look the same on the outside, but the child knows that they have different flavors on the inside.
Transitivity : This skill provides an understanding of how things relate to each other. For example, if John is older than Susan, and Susan is older than Joey, then John is older than Joey.

Activities to Try During the Concrete Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the concrete operational stage include:

Using measuring cups (for example, demonstrate how one cup of water fills two half-cups)
Solving simple logic problems
Practicing basic math
Doing crossword puzzles
Playing board games

The last stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs during the teenage years into adulthood. During this stage, a person learns abstract thinking and hypothetical problem-solving skills.

Deductive reasoning—or the ability to make a conclusion based on information gained from a person's environment—is also learned in this stage. This means, for example, that a person can identify the differences between dogs of various breeds, instead of putting them all in a general category of "dogs."

Activities to Try During the Formal Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the formal operational stage include:

Learning to cook
Solving crossword and logic puzzles
Exploring hobbies
Playing a musical instrument

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the belief that a child gains thinking skills in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. These stages roughly correspond to specific ages, from birth to adulthood. Children progress through these stages at different paces, but according to Piaget, they are always completed in order.

National Library of Medicine. Cognitive testing . MedlinePlus.

Oklahoma State University. Cognitive development: The theory of Jean Piaget .

SUNY Cortland. Sensorimotor stage .

Marwaha S, Goswami M, Vashist B. Prevalence of principles of Piaget’s theory among 4-7-year-old children and their correlation with IQ . J Clin Diagn Res. 2017;11(8):ZC111-ZC115. doi:10.7860%2FJCDR%2F2017%2F28435.10513

Börnert-Ringleb M, Wilbert J. The association of strategy use and concrete-operational thinking in primary school . Front Educ. 2018;0. doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00038

By Aubrey Bailey, PT, DPT, CHT Dr, Bailey is a Virginia-based physical therapist and professor of anatomy and physiology with over a decade of experience.

A Guide to Cognitive Development Milestones in Early Childhood

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Child development

Cognitive development refers to how children’s minds change and grow as they become more aware of the world around them. As children develop, they gain more complex thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving skills. Their expanding cognition is closely linked to other developmental domains such as language and social-emotional skills. Below, we break down the major cognitive development milestones, how to support children’s cognitive growth, and how to recognize any delays.

What are cognitive developmental milestones in early childhood?

Cognitive development in early childhood is about how children think (cognition). It involves the development of children's reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, understanding, and memory skills as they become more aware of the world around them and make sense of it. Cognitive development includes learning how to walk, talk, and read. It also consists of a child's ability to think abstractly about concepts such as love and empathy or to categorize people, places, and things, such as associating dogs with the category of animals. Cognitive development is one of four significant developmental domains , along with physical, social-emotional, and language.

How do children progress through the milestones?

Cognitive development begins in infancy and continues to evolve throughout adulthood as a result of life experiences. According to psychologist, Jean Piaget, children go through four stages or milestones of cognitive development:

Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)

This is the first stage of cognitive development, where infants learn about their environment through sensory information such as touch, sound, and sight. In this stage, children learn by experimenting with their environment, and interact with toys, people, and objects to see how they will react. They will often touch and taste things to understand what the response will be. The main goal of this stage is for children to develop object permanence , the concept that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)

This is the second milestone or stage of cognitive development. During this stage, children learn how to think about things more symbolically and abstractly than before, meaning they are able to use their imagination and understand that an object exists even though they cannot see it. An example of this would be playing hide and seek or looking for an object that you hid under a towel or behind your back. However, children still struggle with thinking logically during this stage. Some characteristics of the preoperational stage include engaging in make-believe, beginning to understand conversion, or the concept that a quantity stays the same even if you change the size, shape, or container it’s in, and thinking intuitively rather than relying on perception.

Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)

The concrete operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development. This is when children begin to think more logically, show concrete reasoning, and are able to see things from another person’s point of view. This is also the time when children are able to classify objects and mentally arrange a group of items into a sequence, such as organizing items from tallest to shortest. However, children still struggle to think about abstract ideas or hypothetical situations during this stage.

Formal operational stage (age 12 and up)

This is the final stage of cognitive development, where the child develops the ability to think logically and understand abstract ideas. Children are able to think about hypotheticals and formulate various solutions to solve them.

Importance of cognitive development

Cognitive development or cognition refers to taking in, processing, storing, communicating, or applying information. All of these factors contribute to learning. Children’s brains are like a sponge when they’re young. The more brain stimulation they receive early on, the more likely they will succeed academically. When families and teachers foster cognitive development from birth, it lays the foundation for children to succeed later in life. Cognitive skills must function well and be strong for children to process and retain information.

Cognitive development is an important and foundational aspect of early childhood education. Every child learns and develops at their own pace, however it is important for educators to understand cognitive development milestones for each age group so they can develop effective teaching strategies and incorporate them in their learning plans.

Cognitive development skills by age group

The chart below includes some of the cognitive development skills a child may reach at certain ages. The chart is not all-inclusive.


0 to 3 months
3 to 6 months
6 to 9 months
9 to 12 months
12 to 18 months
18 months to 2 years old
2 to 3 years old
3 to 4 years old
4 to 5 years old
5 to 6 years old	and

Activities to promote cognitive development

Infants and children learn by interacting with their environment. There are so many activities families and teachers can do to help children grow and strengthen their cognitive skills. Here are some actions you can do to stimulate cognitive development with the children in your care.

Reading: Reading to the infants in your care is a great way to help them recognize voices and sounds, which helps with the development of language skills and helps improve listening skills.
Singing: Singing, just like reading, is another way to help children develop language skills and improve listening skills. As you sing, the baby will learn and pick up new words.
Playing with toys: Children love to experiment with their environment to learn how it will react to them. Allow infants to play with various objects, including interactive toys. The objects can be as simple as a box, spoon, or an age-appropriate toy with lights, buttons, and music. As infants interact with these toys, they stimulate their cognitive skills by learning more about cause and effect.
Hiding objects: When infants get a little older, at around seven to eight months, you can play games such as peek-a-boo, or hide objects behind your back after showing them. These activities help the children develop the concept of object permanence, which is the idea that an object exists even when it is hidden.
Play music: Toddlers love to sing, dance, and listen to music. Playing music and encouraging toddlers to sing along is a great way to help them develop cognitive skills. Singing along also helps with memory development.
Practice animal sounds: It is an excellent milestone in cognitive development when a child can mimic animal sounds and associate them with the correct animal.
Learn with flashcards: Using flashcards and posters to teach children is a great way to develop their memory. They can learn colors, numbers, letters, animals, and more when they use flashcards and posters. Taking the time to stop and ask them, "Where is the dog?" or "Can you point to the color blue?" are all great ways to help them develop their cognitive skills.
Pretend-play: Children have great imaginations. Giving them toys to play with, such as kitchen toys, dress-up clothes, or a toy washer and dryer, allows them to use their imagination and grow.

Preschoolers

One-to-one correspondence activities: One-to-one correspondence activities, which are activities that encourage the ability to touch count by touching an object in a set only once, are great ways to help preschoolers develop early math skills.
Matching and memory games: Playing matching and memory games help children with developing attention, concentration, recognition, and memory skills .
Board games: Playing age-appropriate board games, such as Monopoly , for ages four and over, and Chutes and Ladders , is another great way to help children with attention, concentration, and recognition. As they roll the dice, count the dots on the dice, and move their character along the game board, this helps with early math and one-to-one correspondence skills.
Name exploration activities: Children love learning how to spell their names. You can write the letters of their names on spoons or create various name puzzles. Learning how to write and spell their names will help develop literacy skills as well as some of their fine motor skills.

Signs of cognitive delays and when to seek professional help

As an early childhood educator, you should always look for ways to ensure that the children in your care meet their milestones. While developmental milestone checklists can help provide basic guidance on what to expect at each age group, children’s development still varies as each child develops at their own unique pace. Some children might meet milestones earlier, while others may reach them a bit late. However, if you are concerned that a child isn’t meeting key development milestones or has lost any skills, it’s important to act early .

Many factors can contribute to a developmental delay , including genetic conditions, health conditions, and other environmental factors. Some examples of cognitive delays include:

A delay in milestones such as sitting, crawling, or walking
A delay in speech, such as not saying words or difficulty speaking
Trouble understanding social rules or consequences of behavior
Difficulty with problem-solving tasks such as putting a puzzle together
Difficulty following instructions
Short attention span or inability to remember information
Lack of age appropriate self-help skills

If you notice developmental delays, get the child’s family involved right away. You can recommend that their child get evaluated by their pediatrician, who can conduct a comprehensive assessment, and connect you with your state’s early intervention program if necessary.

Cognitive development is essential to a child’s growth and overall learning. When a child has healthy cognitive development early on, they’re more likely to succeed later in life. Educators and families play an important role in fostering a child’s cognitive skills through incorporating developmentally appropriate activities, tracking key milestones, and acting early if there are any concerns.

Activities Across Developmental Domains

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Piaget’s Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

You’re trying to explain something to a child, and even though it seems so obvious to you, the child just doesn’t seem to understand.

They repeat the same mistake, over and over, and you become increasingly frustrated.

Well, guess what?

The child is not naughty.
They’re also not stupid.
But their lack of understanding is not your fault either.

Their cognitive development limits their ability to understand certain concepts. Specifically, they’re not capable right now of understanding what you’re trying to explain.

In this post, we’ll learn more about Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist whose ideas about cognitive development in children were extremely influential. We’ll cover quite a lot in this post, so make sure you have a cup of coffee and you’re sitting somewhere comfortable.

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This Article Contains:

Who was jean piaget in psychology, piaget’s cognitive development theory, 1. the sensorimotor stage, 2. the preoperational stage, 3. the concrete operational stage, 4. the formal operational stage, piaget’s theory vs erikson’s, 5 important concepts in piaget’s work, applications in education (+3 classroom games), positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to the understanding of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

He was born in 1896 and originally trained as a biologist and philosopher. Although he is well known for his work as a psychologist, he also published research on sparrows and mollusks (Burman, 2012; Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Early in his career, Piaget scored the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to children.

Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect answers. From these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these mistakes, he developed a theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with the same cognitive processes as adults (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Instead, children’s cognitive processes:

develop over time,
develop in response to their environment, and
are updated with exposure to new information.

Piaget also influenced psychology in other ways. For example, he emphasized other methods of conducting research, such as the clinical method (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He relied upon the following research methods:

Naturalistic observation of play and conversation between children (including his own)
Interviewing children

Additionally, he was the first psychologist to study ‘theory of mind’ in children (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Theory of mind is the understanding or basic sense that each of us has our own consciousness and thoughts.

Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.

The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs after the one before it.

These stages are:

Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)

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The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities.

The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, where children’s behavior moves from being reflex driven to more abstract. Each substage is described briefly.

1. Use of reflexes (0–2 months)

During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept.

2. Primary circular reactions (1–4 months)

Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example, they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment.

3. Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months)

Children’s behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses.

4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8–12 months)

At this point, children’s behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can combine different behaviors to achieve goals.

5. Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months)

Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired result.

6. Mental combinations (18–24 months)

Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.

At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly.

Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.

Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain the same even if they look different. For example, at some point during this stage, a caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might not be as convincing.

In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items based on similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity (e.g., concepts such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).

Although abstract thought advances quickly in the preoperational stage, other cognitive processes develop more slowly.

For example:

Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective.
Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear different (more about this in the next section on Conservation).
Children struggle to take someone else’s point of view.

The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven. During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage.

Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object.
Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations.
Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.

Conservation

During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a result, are better at solving conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.

An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the same amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.

Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation. For example, they struggle with tasks where the following is conserved even it appears different:

Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently)
The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped glasses)

Children struggle with conservation because they can only focus on one dimension at a time; this is known as centering. For example, with the volume of liquid, they can only consider the shape of the glass, but not the shape of the glass and the volume of water.

They also do not yet understand reversibility. Irreversibility refers to a child’s inability to reverse the steps of an action in their mind, returning an object to its previous state. For example, pouring the water out of the glass back into the original cup would demonstrate the volume of the water, but children in the preoperational stage cannot understand this.

In contrast, children in the concrete operational stage can solve conservation problems. This is because children now have the following cognitive abilities:

They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states).
They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than just one).
They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks different).

Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation.

They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.

During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.

cognitive milestones (learning thinking problem solving)

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Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is one of several theories about how children develop. Other contrasting theories include Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, and importantly for this post, Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development.

Differences

Unlike Piaget, who focused on cognitive development, Erikson emphasized healthy ego development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Healthy egos are developed when people resolve specific personality issues at set periods in their lives.

Specifically, each developmental stage is characterized by two conflicting personality traits, one positive and one negative. Successful resolution occurs when the positive trait is more emphasized than the other, resulting in the development of a virtue, which aids healthy resolution of subsequent stages.

As an example, between 12 and 18 months, children experience two feelings: trust and mistrust. If they resolve this crisis by balancing a healthy level of trust with mistrust, then they develop the virtue of ‘hope.’

Overall, Erikson proposed eight personality crises, five of which occur before the age of 18:

Basic trust versus mistrust ( 0–12/18 months)
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12/18 months–3 years)
Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years)
Industry versus inferiority (6 years–puberty)
Identity versus identity confusion (puberty–young adulthood)

Not all of the developmental stages in Erikson’s theory correspond to the cognitive stages proposed by Piaget. For example, Piaget’s preoperational stages overlap with the second and third stages in Erikson’s theories.

Similarities

Like Piaget, Erikson also emphasized that children’s development occurs through interacting with the external environment, but Erikson’s stages focus more on societal influences. Both Piaget and Erikson emphasized that children are active participants in their world and that development occurs in stages.

Schemas and constructivism

Piaget argued that children learn about the world by interacting with it. This notion of gaining knowledge about the world is known as constructivism (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Through their interactions, children construct schemas – or cognitive patterns – about how the world works (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). These schemas come about through organization, which is how categories are formed, organizing items together based on common characteristics.

According to Piaget schemas can then be repeated and tested. For example, an infant has a schema about a rattle: shake it, and it makes a noise.

Importantly, schemas are not static, and they can be improved and updated with new information. When children learn new information, they do not disregard their previous schemas; instead, they build upon them. As a result, children’s cognitive development happens in stages as schemas are continuously updated with new information.

Adaptation describes how children update their current cognitive organizations and schemas with new information. Adaptation takes place in two ways: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Assimilation describes how children incorporate new information into existing schemas. For example, a child refers to dogs as ‘woofs.’ When they see a cat for the first time, they refer to the cat as a ‘woof’ too.

Accommodation

Accommodation describes how children adapt their cognitive structures to match new information in the world. Continuing with the previous example, the child realizes that dogs and cats are different. The child updates their cognitive schema of the world, and now refers to cats as ‘cats’ and dogs as ‘woofs’.

Equilibrium

Piaget’s background as a biologist influenced some of his work, notably the concept of ‘equilibrium,’ which resembles homeostasis (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He posited that children’s cognitive processes are aimed toward equilibrium. When children learn new information that is at odds with their current schemas, they are in an undesirable state of disequilibrium.

To achieve equilibrium, children adapt their mental instructions by:

Assimilating new information
Accommodating new information by updating their cognitive schemas

By achieving equilibrium, children learn new information.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One premise of constructivism is that knowledge about the world is gained and made sense of through active participation. In other words, children are not passive recipients of knowledge. They’re not empty vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge. Instead, children’s knowledge is generated when they interact with the world (Yilmaz, 2008).

Some of the education implications of this concept are that children cannot be expected to ‘just sit down and learn’ and that teaching methods that emphasize passive learning are discouraged.

An example of passive learning is reading a text without engaging with it, debating with it, or trying to connect it to real life. Instead, teaching rooted in Piaget’s theories emphasizes that children learn by interacting. Here are some examples:

Physical interaction (e.g., seeing and touching insects when learning about them)
Verbal interaction (e.g., talking about how new learning material connects to everyday experiences)
Abstract interaction (e.g., thinking about new ideas, wrestling with difficult or challenging topics, imitating or acting out concepts/ideas/people)

Play theory

Piaget (1951) argued that play is vital for children’s learning. Play is an example of assimilation, and imitation is an example of accommodation.

He argued that there are three types of games that children can play based on their cognitive development:

Practice games
Symbolic games
Games with rules

Practice games include the repetition of a particular set of actions for pure enjoyment. Although it might not seem like much, these practice games are very important for cognitive development.

Symbolic games involve make-believe scenarios and characters, and appear during the preoperational stage.

Rule-based games appear later during the concrete operational stage. As well as abstract elements, these games also include rules and consequences for violating them.

Classroom games

It’s important to tailor classroom games to match the overall development stage of the children.

For very young children in the sensorimotor stage, classroom games that rely on repetition and interesting results are best. In these games, the child repeatedly demonstrates a new skill or behavior that they have learned, reinforcing the behavior . Examples include splashing water, kicking leaves, shaking a rattle or toys, and playing with music instruments.

For children in the preoperational stage, classroom games that involve imitation are useful ways to teach new concepts. For example, children can learn about animals by pretending to be different animals (e.g., ‘roar like a lion,’ ‘jump like a frog’).

Children can also learn about social skills and social interactions by acting out certain social situations, like pretending to be a shopkeeper. Symbolic games are also used when children pretend one item is something else; for example, pretending that a stick is a lightsaber.

Rule-based games are more suitable for older children. These games can teach concepts like theory of mind, because they encourage decentering (DeVries & Kamii, 1975).

For example, in ‘Simon Says,’ children learn to watch the teacher and know that if they don’t follow the teacher, they are out. Typically, young children don’t understand rule-based games and are not good at counting or numbers.

This is why, for example, very young children don’t understand that there is a penalty for one child in ‘Musical Chairs’ (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). Young children will enjoy the game if the penalty is removed and the chairs stay the same.

Other ways that games can facilitate learning is by allowing children to make up the rules (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). New toys related to the concepts that they’re learning about should be available when children engage in unstructured play without the assistance of the teacher.

For more on this, we recommend reading our article How to Promote Cognitive Development: 23 Activities & Games .

17 Top-Rated Positive Psychology Exercises for Practitioners

Expand your arsenal and impact with these 17 Positive Psychology Exercises [PDF] , scientifically designed to promote human flourishing, meaning, and wellbeing.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

At PositivePsychology.com, you’ll find lots of exercises, tasks, and activities that you can use in the classroom. We’ve highlighted these two as examples.

The Nice Things tool is useful in teaching children compassion. Children are encouraged to recall something ‘nice.’ It could be something nice that happened to them or something nice that they did. Children are also encouraged to share these nice things with each other and the class.

Since this task requires that children have mental/abstract representations of other people and things, it is more applicable for children in the preoperational and concrete operational stages.

In the Shuffle game, children learn how to resolve conflict. In this game, the play area is marked out with a set of items. Each child starts at one item, and an extra player is in the middle. At the start of the game, children have to move to another item.

However, if two children reach the same item simultaneously, they resolve this by playing Rock–Paper–Scissors. Since this is a rule-based game, it is best suited to children in the concrete operational stage; younger children will not understand the consequences of losing Rock–Paper–Scissors.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

Knowing that children’s learning and understanding are limited by their cognitive development, what can you do the next time you explain something?

Use simple, age-appropriate examples.
Explain concepts simply, considering the limitations of each cognitive stage.
Encourage discussion and creativity so that they create meaningful interactions and memories.

Most importantly, remember that children are not born as ‘mini-adults.’ They do not have adult cognitive abilities, and they do not have the lifetime of experiences for these abilities to develop.

Instead, to learn, they need to participate actively with their world and the people in it. They must be exposed to new experiences and information for learning to occur, and importantly, they must have the opportunities to make mistakes.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

Burman, J. T. (2012). Jean Piaget: Images of a life and his factory. History of Psychology , 15 (3), 283–288. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0025930
DeVries, R., & Kamii, C. (1975). Why group games? A Piagetian perspective . ERIC Clearinghouse. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED110159
Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2011). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill. https://www.amazon.com/dp/B007YXO3MM/
Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (vol. 25). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315009698
Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning. In L. E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (Eds.), Theories of early childhood education: Developmental, behaviorist, and critical (pp. 3–17). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003288077-2/jean-piaget-constructivist-theory-learning-sandra-waite-stupiansky
Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational Horizons , 86 (3), 161–172. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42923724

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Cognitive and social skills to expect from 6 to 10 years, mental skills.

Become able to understand the viewpoint of others: are aware that others can have different thoughts.
Can focus on several aspects of a problem at a time.
Can concentrate on what they do for longer periods of time.
Increased problem-solving ability, but not yet like an adult.
Can think of simple plans before acting. For example, when inviting friends over to play, children can plan in advance what games they will play.
Can begin to understand time and the days of the week; by age 10, children can place events in time sequence.
Improved short- and long-term memory.
Can speak and also write; by age 10, children have a vocabulary of 20,000 words and learn an average of 20 new words a day; can also understand that a word may have different meanings.
Can communicate better and longer with others, express themselves and understand things.
Can better understand and internalize moral rules of behavior (right/wrong; good/bad; wonderful/terrible).
Begin to understand that what is fair is related to merit: who works harder deserves special treat.
Are better able to empathize with other people and accept the idea of giving special consideration to those in greater need.

Social Skills

Are able to view themselves based on: how they perform in school; capacity to make friends; and their physical appearance.
Understand they can feel two emotions at the same time (I like Jenny but I hate how she talks to me).
Are intensely interested in peers, prefer same sex friends; develop friendships marked by give and take, mutual trust and shared experiences.
Feel that belonging and acceptance by peers is very important. (Children may look more for peers than to adults for gratification).
Play is no longer just fantasy play where imagination is the key element; more often children choose rules-based games where the rules are the key element and winning the game is more frequently the objective.
Have great concern with justice and fairness; what is fair or equal is important and some children may try to get even and become verbally or physically aggressive.
Continue to develop social skills like empathy and compassion.
Become more able to do things by themselves and as a result, their relationship with parents changes.

Tips for Parents

Help your children to develop a sense of competence: give them opportunities to master some skills like cooking, building models, making crafts, playing an instrument.
Learn to gradually share the control of your child’s life with your daughter or son.
Reinforce the understanding of right and wrong and consequences.
Identify the problem and the feelings involved (Your child is being bullied and is afraid of going to school).
Determine with the child possible solutions without use of violence.
Evaluate with the child the merits of each possible solution.
Act, choosing the best solution.
Learn from what you and your child did to solve the problem.
Use real-life situations (in your family or make-up a situation) and when you are on the bus, in the car or in the kitchen, play the IDEAL game with your child. A mock scenario could be: A child can’t watch TV because he or she hasn’t done homework and she/he is mad and breaks the remote control.
Reinforce prosocial skills such as sharing, empathy, cooperation by asking a child to do things like help care for a baby, collect food for a shelter.
Provide opportunities for your child to develop an understanding of rules by playing simple table games that rely on chance rather than on skills such as cards, dominoes, tic-tac-toe.
Teach by speaking out loud to yourself (so your child will hear) about a problem and how to resolve it. An example: We are out of milk, bread and fruit. I’m not feeling well. I will call daddy and ask him to stop by the grocery store on his way home to get them.
Demonstrate that behaviors and actions have consequences for everybody involved in a situation: If you do that, this will happen or when you do this, then you will get this.

Second Opinion

Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

What is cognitive development.

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18.

Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called concrete because they’re done around objects and events. This includes knowing how to:

Combine (add)

Separate (subtract or divide)

Order (alphabetize and sort)

Transform objects and actions (change things, such as 5 pennies = 1 nickel)

Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and teens in this age group do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal logical operations. This includes the ability to:

Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.

Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.

Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to note that:

Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.

Each child develops their own view of the world.

Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use them for personal problems.

When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in complex ways.

The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in either positive or negative ways.

Types of cognitive growth through the years

A child in early adolescence:

Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home

Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

Begins to question authority and society's standards

Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on many topics. You may hear your child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

Often questions more extensively

Often analyzes more extensively

Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?)

Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I? )

Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want? )

Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans

Begins to think long-term

Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others

A child in late adolescence:

Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism

Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive growth in your teen, you can:

Include him or her in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.

Encourage your child to share ideas and thoughts with you.

Encourage your teen to think independently and develop his or her own ideas.

Help your child in setting goals.

Challenge him or her to think about possibilities for the future.

Compliment and praise your teen for well-thought-out decisions.

Help him or her in re-evaluating poorly made decisions.

If you have concerns about your child's cognitive development, talk with your child's healthcare provider.

Developmental milestones for 3-year-olds

By Amanda Morin

Updated June 15, 2022

At a glance

As kids get close to preschool age, they gain new skills in different areas.

Kids don’t develop all of the skills at once, or at the same rate.

If your child doesn’t meet many of the milestones, it’s a good idea to look into why.

During this year, kids suddenly go from being toddlers to being old enough for preschool. But they don’t gain all the preschool skills at once — or even at the same rate. If you have a 3-year-old, you may wonder what most kids are able to do at this age.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has a list of milestones, which it updated with many changes in 2022. The agency moved some of the milestones to different age ranges, which some experts question.

The CDC milestones below can help you know what to expect. If your child isn’t meeting a fair number of them, it can point to possible developmental delays .

You can also learn more about:

How coordination and motor skills develop at different ages

How social-emotional skills develop at different ages

Social/emotional milestones

Calms down within 10 minutes after you leave (if they have separation anxiety)

Notices other children and joins them to play

Language/communication milestones

Talks with you in conversation using at least two back-and-forth exchanges

Asks “who,” “what,” “where,” or “why” questions, like “Where is Mommy/Daddy?”

Says what action is happening in a picture or book when asked, like “running,” “eating,” or “playing”

Says first name, when asked by a familiar person

Talks well enough for others to understand, most of the time

Cognitive milestones (learning, thinking, problem-solving)

Copies a circle when you show them how

Avoids touching hot objects, like a stove, when warned

Movement/physical development milestones

Strings items together, like large beads or macaroni

Puts on some clothes without help, like loose pants or a jacket

Uses a fork

All kids develop on their own timetable. But if after turning 3, your child isn’t able to do many of these things, it’s important to look into why. Talk with your child’s health care provider about evaluation options for special education support from your local school .

Take a look forward at developmental milestones for 4-year-olds .

Key takeaways

By the end of this year, kids are usually asking many “why” questions.

By the time they’re 4, kids usually speak clearly enough that strangers can understand what they say.

If your child doesn’t meet many milestones, it could point to developmental delays.

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Cognition , or cognitive development, includes reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and thinking skills. Young children use these abilities to make sense of and organize their world. By the time children reach the preschool years, their cognitive skills have grown so much that they can engage in complex mathematical thinking and scientific reasoning.

Infants and toddlers play an active role in their own cognitive development by exploring and testing the world around them. Through these explorations and experiments, and with the support of parents, teachers, and other adults, infants and toddlers begin to understand basic mathematical, spatial, and causal relationships. More and more, infants and toddlers can rely on their developing memory to help them make sense of the world. All this activity in the first three years lays the foundation for the more complex cognitive skills children will build as preschoolers.

For preschoolers, cognitive development is presented as two different domains: Mathematics Development and Scientific Reasoning. This separation highlights the increasingly complex and more differentiated cognitive abilities of this age group. Mathematics Development in preschoolers refers to understanding numbers and quantities, their relationships, and operations, such as what it means to add to and take away. Mathematics also includes shapes and their structure, reasoning, measurement, classification, and patterns.

Scientific Reasoning is the emerging ability to develop scientific knowledge about the natural and physical worlds. Children begin to learn scientific skills and methods and continue developing reasoning and problem-solving skills. For preschoolers, scientific investigation includes making observations, recording them, talking about them, and analyzing them. Problem-solving and reasoning become more complex as preschoolers gain new abilities to ask questions and gather information.

To read more about this domain, visit the Interactive Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework .

The Cognition domain includes the following sub-domains:

Infants and Toddlers

Exploration and discovery, reasoning and problem-solving, emergent mathematical thinking, imitation and symbolic representation and play, preschoolers, counting and cardinality, operations and algebraic thinking, measurement, geometry and spatial sense, scientific inquiry, effective teaching practices.

The effective teaching practices that follow are grouped in three categories: Interactions, Environment, and Individualization. Examples of ways to support goals for children are provided by sub-domain. It is likely, however, that these practices will also support goals for children in additional domains and sub-domains. This is the nature of teaching and learning in the early years.

Home Visitors

Teaching practices in home visiting are the ways home visitors work with families to provide experiences that support their child’s development and learning, engage in responsive interactions, and use home as the learning environment. Home visitors:

Facilitate parent-child interactions
Engage parents in focusing on their child’s development
Directly encourage parents to teach, talk, and interact with their child in responsive and warm ways
Use family activities, routines, and materials in the home for learning
Collaborate with parents to plan activities and experiences

Home visitors may consider using group care teaching practices in the “Know,” “Do,” and “Improve” sections during home visits and group socializations. They can engage with parents to identify, adapt, and use these practices or when appropriate, model the practices.

Sub-Domains: Infants and Toddlers

Explore resources, sub-domains: preschoolers.

Resource Type: Article

National Centers: Early Childhood Development, Teaching and Learning

Last Updated: July 27, 2020

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Applied computing

Computers in other domains

Personal computers and PC applications

Computer games

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Collaborative and social computing systems and tools

Information systems

Information systems applications

Multimedia information systems

Massively multiplayer online games

Software and its engineering

Software organization and properties

Contextual software domains

Virtual worlds software

Interactive games

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Cognitive scaffolding
Historical thinking skills
Collaborative problem solving
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Historical education
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Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan

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