research term paper

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Happiness Hub Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• Happiness Hub
• This Or That Game
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing
• Research Papers

Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

• Drafting Your Paper
• Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,245,919 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Bill McReynolds

Apr 7, 2017

Did this article help you?

Gerard Mortera

Mar 30, 2016

Ayuba Muhammad Bello

Dec 28, 2016

Mar 24, 2016

Jera Andarino

May 11, 2016

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Get all the best how-tos!

Sign up for wikiHow's weekly email newsletter

• Privacy Policy

Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

What is Political Science -Definition and Types

What is Archaeology – Definition and Overview

Predictive Analytics in Cyber Security –...

What is Physics – Definition, Types, Methods

What is Science – Definition, Methods, Types

Philosopher – Definition, Types and Work Area

Apr 19, 2024

Mastering Term Papers: The Essential Guide From Start to Finish

Forget those groans and sighs whenever a term paper is assigned. Think of them as an incredible opportunity to take a deep dive into a topic you find fascinating, flex your research skills, and produce a piece of work that truly showcases your academic growth. 

This guide will walk you through every step of the process, simplifying term papers and empowering you to achieve your best possible results.

Understanding Term Papers

Term papers are a cornerstone of academic life, but are they the same as research papers? Not quite! While both involve research and writing, term papers hold a specific weight in your academic journey.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper, also known as a course paper, is an extended research essay assigned towards the end of a term. It goes deeper than a typical essay, requiring you to present a comprehensive grasp of the course material.

Unlike a book report that summarizes information, a term paper demands critical analysis, where you explore a specific topic within the course framework. It's your chance to not just regurgitate facts, but to engage with the subject, form an argument, and support it with credible evidence.

Key Elements of a Term Paper: Building a Strong Foundation

Every successful term paper rests on a solid foundation. Here are the essential components you'll need to master:

Thesis Statement: This is the central argument of your paper, acting as a roadmap for your reader. A strong thesis statement is clear, concise, and directly addresses the prompt or topic.

Argument Structure: Think of your paper as a well-constructed building. Your arguments act as the supporting beams, holding your thesis statement aloft. Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that strengthens your overall argument.

Evidence Base: Facts, statistics, and expert opinions are the bricks and mortar of your argument. Ensure your evidence comes from credible sources, such as academic journals, scholarly books, and reputable websites. Don't forget to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism.

Differentiating Term Papers from Other Academic Works

While different academic assignments share similarities, each has a unique flavor. Let's unravel how term papers differ from their scholarly cousins:

Term Paper vs. Research Paper: They overlap significantly, yet depth is the key differentiator. Term papers focus on demonstrating knowledge acquired during a course. Research papers delve deeper, expecting original research, analysis, and a novel contribution to the field.

Term Paper vs. Dissertation: Dissertations are doctoral-level behemoths compared to the smaller-scale term paper. Dissertations involve far more extensive original research, with broader implications across a discipline. Term papers often build the research muscle needed for such larger projects.

Term Paper vs. Essay: Think of essays as sprints, while term papers are marathons. Essays are shorter, with a more focused thesis and narrower argument. Term papers require you to sustain a thesis over a greater length and offer more comprehensive analysis.

Choosing a Topic for Your Term Paper

Selecting the right topic is like finding the right key to unlock the door of a compelling term paper. Here's your toolkit:

Brainstorming with Bounds: Start by mind-mapping concepts covered in your course. Remember, your instructor wants to see your grasp of the material, so stay within those parameters.

Finding Your Passion: What intrigued you in class discussions or readings? A passion for the topic fuels your research and makes the writing process more enjoyable.

Scope Matters: Be realistic about the time and resources you have. Choose a topic that is narrow enough to research thoroughly but broad enough to support a substantial argument.

The Goldilocks Zone: Your topic shouldn't be so general that you drown in information, nor so specific that research hits a dead end. Find that perfect "just right" balance.

Get Feedback Early: Run your topic ideas by your instructor. Their insights can save you from a path strewn with frustration.

Research Strategies for Term Papers

A well-researched term paper stands out. Here's how to navigate the ocean of information for that academic treasure:

Library Power: Your campus library is your ally! Librarians are masters at guiding you to the best databases, books, and journals for your field. Don't hesitate to ask for help.

Digital Databases: Academic databases like JSTOR and Google Scholar are goldmines of peer-reviewed articles, essential for credible research.

Beyond Textbooks: Expand your worldview! Consider primary sources (e.g., interviews, archival documents), government reports, and credible news websites to add depth.

Notes Are Your Lifeline: Effective note-taking isn't just copying information. Summarize key points in your own words, note the source and page number for easy referencing, and tag information based on how it fits your argument.

Organization is Key: Create an outline or mind map to see the big picture of your research. Digital tools like Evernote or OneNote can be lifesavers for managing a large project.

The Importance of Originality and Plagiarism Avoidance

Your unique insights are what make your term paper valuable. Here's how to safeguard your work and reputation:

The Art of Attribution: Whenever you use someone else's ideas or words, credit them through citations. Use the citation style required by your instructor (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).

Paraphrase with Care: Even if you rephrase an idea in your own words, it still needs citation. Aim to primarily express your original thoughts and analysis.

When in Doubt, Cite: It's far better to over-cite than accidentally slip into plagiarism.

Is It Necessary to Use Plagiarism Detection Software for Every Term Paper?

Plagiarism detection tools like Turnitin or Grammarly are your failsafe. They help identify unintentional plagiarism, such as missed citations or poorly paraphrased passages. Consider it a step in ensuring your hard work reflects your originality and understanding.

Important Note: These tools are not foolproof, and should not replace your own careful citation practices. Use them as part of your editing process, not as a shortcut.

Selecting a Topic

Choosing a compelling topic is the first step to a successful term paper. Here's where originality and research scope become your guiding lights.

We already outlined how you can select the best topic for your term paper (see above), but you can also look for connections between your ideas and the broader themes in your field to make this process easier. This can create a deeper understanding and even pave the way for future research, like a dissertation or capstone project, that explores the topic in greater detail.

Can Any Topic Be Suitable for a Term Paper as Long as It's Well-Researched?

While thorough research is essential, topic suitability plays a crucial role. Here's why:

Alignment Matters: Your topic should align with the course objectives and the professor's expectations. Check the assignment guidelines carefully to ensure your chosen subject fits the scope of the course.

Finding the Sweet Spot: Consider research availability. Can you find enough credible sources to support a comprehensive analysis? Conversely, is the topic so narrow that locating sufficient information becomes a challenge?

Term Paper Format

Term papers have a specific format that ensures clarity and professionalism. Here's a breakdown with practical tips to set you apart:

Title Page: This is your first impression, so make it count! Include the title of your paper, your name, your instructor's name, course number, and the due date.

Abstract (Optional): A concise summary (100-200 words) highlighting your thesis statement, key arguments, and main points.

Introduction: Hook your reader with a captivating introduction that introduces the topic, presents the research question, and outlines your thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your overall argument. Use clear transitions to connect your ideas and integrate evidence effectively. Remember to properly cite your sources according to the required style guide (e.g., APA, MLA).

Conclusion: Summarize your main points, restate your thesis in a new way, and leave the reader with a lasting impression.

References: This is where you meticulously list all the sources you used in your paper. Formatting should be consistent with the chosen style guide. ( Tip: Use a reference management tool like Zotero or Mendeley to streamline this process!)

Research Papers

Term papers and research papers share some similarities, but also have distinct purposes and structures:

Term Papers: Focus on demonstrating your understanding of course material through critical analysis and synthesis of existing research.

Research Papers: Delve deeper, often requiring original research, a more complex argument, and a contribution to a specific field of study.

The skills you hone while writing term papers, like crafting a strong thesis statement, conducting effective research, and properly citing sources, are invaluable for tackling research papers later in your academic journey.

Writing Process: Transforming Ideas into a Polished Paper

A term paper isn't born overnight. Here's a step-by-step journey to guide you through the process:

Research and Exploration: Dive deep into your sources, take meticulous notes, and organize your findings around your potential thesis statement.

Outlining: Create a skeleton of your paper, mapping out your introduction, body paragraphs (each with clear topic sentences), and conclusion. This helps with structure and avoids wandering arguments.

Drafting the Rough Cut: Let the words flow! Focus on getting your main ideas on paper. Don't worry about perfection at this stage; focus on the big picture of your argument.

Revision – Part 1: The Big Picture. Step back for a few hours (or even a day!) then reread your draft with a critical eye. Does the structure flow? Are there areas that need better evidence? Does your thesis shine through clearly?

Revision – Part 2: The Nitty Gritty. Focus on sentence structure, clarity, and word choice. Read out loud to catch awkward phrasing. Double-check your citations to ensure accuracy.

Proofreading with a Fresh Eye: Enlist a classmate or use a tool like Grammarly for a final polish. Look for typos, grammatical errors, and clarity issues.

Position Papers: Term Papers as a Foundation

The skills you develop in drafting a term paper translate directly to persuasive writing formats like position papers :

Building a Strong Argument: In both term papers and position papers, your ability to develop a clear thesis and support it with evidence is essential.

Organization is Key: Both formats demand a structured presentation, with clear introductions, supporting paragraphs, and impactful conclusions.

Power of Persuasive Language: Term papers help you sharpen your writing for impact. Apply that skill in position papers to convince readers of your perspective.

Crafting an Effective Outline: The Blueprint for Your Paper

A robust outline is like your term paper's compass. Here's how to create one that'll steer you towards a polished final product:

Start Simple, Get Detailed: Begin with your thesis statement at the very top. Then, list your main points (think Roman numerals - I, II, III). Under each main point, break down supporting arguments or evidence (using capital letters - A, B, C).

Flexibility is Key: Outlines are fluid! As your research progresses, add more supporting points or rearrange them as your understanding of the topic solidifies.

Digital Tools to the Rescue: Consider apps like OneNote, Evernote, or even good old Google Docs to easily rearrange sections, add notes, and keep your outline dynamic.

Does an Outline Need to Include Every Detail That Will Appear in the Term Paper?

Your outline should not be a word-for-word preview of your term paper. It's a roadmap, highlighting the major points, supporting arguments, and overall structure. Including every tiny detail leads to a cumbersome outline that hinders your writing flow.

Understanding the Purpose of an Outline: Benefits Beyond Structure

Outlining does more than organize your thoughts. Here's why it's worth the effort:

Early Warning System: A well-made outline can reveal gaps in your research early on. Did you find enough evidence to support Point III? Time to hit the library again!

Time Saver: A clear outline makes the writing process smoother. You know what to write about next, reducing time spent staring at a blank screen.

Combats Overwhelm: Seeing your term paper broken down into smaller chunks makes the entire project seem less daunting.

A Living Document: Don't be afraid to revisit and revise your outline as you research and your ideas evolve.

Components of a Term Paper Outline

A well-structured outline is the backbone of a successful term paper. Here's a breakdown of its key components:

Thesis Statement: This is the foundation of your entire paper, so prominently position it at the top of your outline. It should be a concise and clear statement of your central argument.

Introduction: Briefly outline the key points you'll cover in the introduction, such as background information, the research question, and a preview of your thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs: This is the heart of your outline. Break down each body paragraph by:

Main Topic: Identify the main point you'll address in each paragraph.

Key Arguments: List the sub-points or arguments that will support your main topic.

Evidence: Briefly mention the sources (e.g., author, publication) that you'll use to substantiate your arguments. Don't worry about full citations here, just enough detail to jog your memory.

Conclusion: Outline the key takeaways you'll emphasize in your conclusion, including a restatement of your thesis in a new way and the significance of your findings.

Selecting Main Topics and Subtopics

Choosing strong main topics and subtopics is crucial for a clear and coherent outline. Here's how to navigate this step:

Brainstorming Power: Start by listing all the relevant points you want to cover in your paper. Group related points together to form potential main topics.

Prioritization is Key: Order your main topics logically, ensuring they flow smoothly from one point to the next and build towards your thesis.

Subtopics – Your Supporting Cast: Each main topic needs strong subtopics to develop your arguments. Ensure they directly connect back to your main topic and provide specific evidence for your claims.

Integrating Research and Sources

Your outline should reflect how you'll use research to support your arguments. Here are some tips:

Source Integration: As you identify relevant sources, jot down brief notes about their main points and how they align with your subtopics.

Avoid Information Overload: Don't try to list every detail from your sources. Focus on how they support specific arguments you'll make in the body paragraphs.

Credibility Check: Briefly evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source as you incorporate it into your outline.

Should You Cite Every Source You Consult During Your Research Process?

Yes, you should develop a comprehensive reference list that includes all the sources you consult during your research, even if you don't directly quote them in your paper. Here's why:

Credit Where Credit is Due: Citing all your sources acknowledges the work of others and avoids plagiarism.

Evaluation Matters: Consulting a variety of sources demonstrates a thorough investigation of the topic. However, use your critical thinking skills to evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source before incorporating it into your paper.

Tip: Use a reference management tool like Zotero or Mendeley to keep track of your sources and streamline the citation process!

Outline Formatting and Styles

The right outline format helps bring clarity and organization to your term paper. Here's a look at common styles and when to use them:

Alphanumeric Format: This classic format uses a combination of Roman numerals, letters, and numbers to create a hierarchy.

I. Introduction

A. Background

B. Thesis Statement

Decimal Format: A purely numerical system that creates a clear visual outline. Ideal for complex papers with many subtopics.

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Thesis Statement

Choosing the Right Style:

Complexity: For straightforward term papers, alphanumeric may suffice. If multiple levels of supporting points are necessary, the decimal format keeps things organized.

Instructor Preference: Always check with your professor for any specific requirements or guidelines they may have.

Revision and Refinement of the Outline

Your initial outline may not be perfect. Here's how to refine it throughout your writing journey:

Research-Driven Refinement: As you delve into your sources, you may discover new subtopics or need to rearrange sections. Continuously adapt your outline to reflect your evolving understanding.

Feedback Loop: Submit your outline to your professor early for valuable feedback. Their guidance can steer you in the right direction from the start.

Don't Be Afraid to Reorganize: If a particular section isn't flowing well, try restructuring it in your outline. Experiment until you find a logical and persuasive argument flow.

Capstone Project

The rigorous research and organizational skills you hone with term papers directly translate to the grand culmination of your academic program – the capstone project . Here's how:

Research Base: Capstones demand in-depth, original research. Your term paper experience will help you effectively navigate scholarly sources and synthesize information.

Time Management: Large projects benefit from strong planning. Outlining skills developed through term papers aid in structuring a capstone's complex timeline.

Writing Foundation: Capstones require clear, persuasive writing – something you've practiced consistently in term papers.

Critical Thinking: Term papers teach you to analyze and interpret information. This skill is vital when tackling the complex, real-world issues often addressed in capstone projects.

Advanced Academic Writing Techniques

While term papers lay a solid foundation, advanced academic writing techniques elevate your work to a new level. Let's explore strategies that can be applied across various academic papers:

Nuances of Argumentation: Go beyond simply stating your argument. Anticipate counterarguments and address them head-on, demonstrating a well-rounded understanding of the topic.

Evidentiary Strength: Proof matters! Utilize a variety of credible sources, from peer-reviewed journals to primary sources when applicable, to support your claims and add depth to your analysis.

Coherence is Key: Ensure a seamless flow of ideas. Transitions between paragraphs and sections should be clear and logical, guiding the reader through your argument effortlessly.

Engaging with the Conversation: Don't write in a vacuum. Reference and engage with the works of scholars in your field. Show how your work contributes to the ongoing academic dialogue.

Are Advanced Writing Techniques Essential for the Success of an Undergraduate Term Paper?

While not strictly mandatory, advanced writing techniques can improve your term paper. Here's how:

Stronger Arguments: Anticipating counterarguments demonstrates critical thinking and strengthens the overall persuasiveness of your work.

Impressing Your Professor: Professors appreciate well-researched and well-argued papers. Advanced techniques showcase your dedication and understanding of the subject matter.

Standing Out from the Crowd: A well-crafted term paper with advanced elements can distinguish you from your peers, especially in competitive programs.

Dissertations or Thesis: Building on Your Expertise

The skills you refine with term papers become the cornerstone for tackling more complex projects like dissertations or theses . Here's how your experience translates:

Research Prowess: Term papers hone your research skills, preparing you for the more intensive research required for dissertations or theses.

Organizational Mastery: Outlining and structuring term papers prepare you for the even more intricate planning involved in a dissertation or thesis.

Critical Thinking Powerhouse: Analyzing and synthesizing information is a core skill practiced in term papers, essential for dissecting complex issues in a dissertation or thesis.

Academic Papers: A Spectrum of Skills in Action

The skills you develop through term papers are valuable across a range of academic writing formats :

Research Papers: Term papers build a strong foundation for research papers, which delve deeper into a specific topic and often require original research.

Literature Reviews: Analyzing and synthesizing sources in term papers translates directly to the comprehensive literature review process required for many academic endeavors.

Grant Proposals: Clear and persuasive writing, honed through term papers, is essential for crafting compelling grant proposals to secure research funding.

Securing Academic Success Through Effective Term Paper Writing

Term papers, while sometimes daunting, are powerful tools in your academic arsenal. Mastering the art of crafting a compelling term paper increases your grades and opens a broader gateway to scholarly achievement.

Remember these key takeaways:

Originality Matters: Developing your unique voice, analyzing sources critically, and avoiding plagiarism set your work apart and demonstrate your understanding of the material.

Research is Your Foundation: Dedicating time to exploring high-quality sources elevates your arguments by adding depth and credibility.

Structure Brings Clarity: A well-organized outline and clear writing guide your reader through your thought process and make your arguments more impactful.

By prioritizing these strategies, you'll create term papers that meet the requirements and demonstrate a commitment to learning and understanding. This dedication pays off – the skills acquired in term paper writing translate directly to improved performance in future academic pursuits, whether that be in research papers, capstone projects, or even graduate-level dissertations.

Start Writing With Jenni Today!

Sign up for a free Jenni AI account today. Unlock your research potential and experience the difference for yourself. Your journey to academic excellence starts here.

Try Jenni for free today

Create your first piece of content with Jenni today and never look back

How to Write a Term Paper: A Complete Guide With Examples

You just got your term paper assignment and have no idea what to do or how to start? This guide will navigate you through every step of the process, from idea formation to final editing and proofreading. We will start with outlining, drafting and brainstorming, and get you through the writing part in no time. So, let’s dive into the question of how to write a term paper.

If you want to know everything you will need about term papers, this guide, written by the writers at the best essay writing service will help you along.

Table of Contents

What is a term paper.

A term paper is an academic milestone more so than anything else. As a student, you are tasked with learning and then transmitting that knowledge to others. A term paper is just that, a way to show what you have learnt, and disseminate the knowledge to others. Unlike other types of academic writing , a term paper is more detailed, requires more research, and is generally seen as the hardest piece of written work aside from a thesis.

The aim of a term paper is to showcase your understanding of the subject matter and how well you handle pressure and deadlines. In this context, a term paper proves invaluable. In terms of scope, term papers may zero in on an important historical event – if you’re studying history – a scientific concept, or a contentious argument. The choice hinges on the prompt created by your academic advisor. The typical length of a term paper can stretch to five or seven pages, and is generally the prerequisite to attend end-of-semester examination. But, it is also a part of the weighted grade you’ll receive, which only adds to its importance.

For the average student, writing a term paper takes around two weeks, and is a process many do not fully understand. Term paper starts from a very basic element, a question.

Say your teacher wants you to analyze the arguments for and against US involvement in World War II. How would you start? By asking a question; something like: Why did the US enter the war? Or, why did the US waive its neutrality and entered the war.

This opens the door for you and allows you to find an article or two that then leads to the second step, and so on and so on, until you are done. The problem is many students do not know how the process works, or what skills are needed to get the job done. To write an excellent paper you need to plan carefully, adapt to new conditions, be analytical yet persuasive, and understand how referencing works. In addition, the paper has to be formatted to specifications of your chosen citation style – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, etc. This is a lot of work!

What is the Purpose of a Term Paper

At its core, a term paper serves to test your ability to understand arguments and defend them using written constructs within a pre-determined time period. Put simply, it tests your ability to navigate complex ideas when faced with a deadline – something that comes in handy in almost every job you’ll ever have later in life. If you can understand a complex event, a scientific theory, or a debatable stance, based on the directive from your academic mentor, you can manage pretty much anything that is thrown your way.

A typical term paper will be between five to seven pages, and represents the pinnacle of writing tasks in the semester. The process of term paper writing, even when the topic is prescribed, can be an arduous and time-consuming undertaking. To succeed you need meticulous planning, good composition skills, and scrupulous analysis, structure, and edit

Doing the Basics Right Saves You Time

As Seneca famously said, “Luck Is What Happens When Preparation Meets Opportunity.” In short, prepare, prepare, prepare. To create a perfect term paper you need to know, well in advance, how it will look, what will it be about, and how will it be structured. This then allows you to simply fill in the blanks as you go. But, if you start a day before submission, you’re toast – or, you can always ask for help from us J – because the result will be Red Bull frenzy induced compilation of internet’s best hits. And trust me when I say, your teacher has those stored in memory; you’re not the first student to turn a deaf ear on old Seneca….

So, let’s see how to start your term paper:

• Select your topic – If possible choose something that you’re personally interested in. When you choose early, all the good topics are still free, so keep that in mind.
• Research your topic – Once chosen, sit at your computer and run through Google Scholar or your University Library for anything that pops up when you type in your exact topic.
• Create an outline – When you have a basic understanding of the topic, prepare an outline. It’s always going to be fairly standard, so once you get it right, you can re-use whenever you need to in the future.
• Thesis statement – Now starts the tricky part. Just kidding, this is still the Top Lane, we’re not even close to the Jungle. Thesis statements are always pretty similar. Jolt down your guiding question and then, based on what you’ve read, write a one sentence argument. For example, if writing about solar and wind, you might go with: Solar and wind power are the future of energy production because fossil fuels are unsustainable.
• Topics, topic sentences, and paragraphs – Every paragraph starts with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph is talking about. The easiest way to understand is this. If writing a paper about wind and solar, you would need at least three topic sentences – 1)Wind 2)Solar 3)Benefits of using wind and solar. Naturally, a term paper needs much more than just three, but you get the idea.
•   Conclusion – Once you’ve written down the topic sentences and outlined the paper, note your own expectations of what you’ll find in the conclusion. This will help you understand what is happening, and when you’re actually writing the conclusion it will tell you if you were right or wrong.

Pro tip: If all of this is too much for you, there is always the possibility of asking professionals for help. Our team of term paper writers are here to help, so feel free to reach out!

Structure of a Term Paper

As you’ve probably guessed by now, every paper has to have a specific structure. In general, you can expect to have at least three parts – introduction, body, and a conclusion. However, longer papers may need several sub-sections, perhaps even an abstract or a summary, and a page dedicated to bibliography.

A typical term paper has three to five body paragraphs that form the backbone of your arguments and analytical discourse. A bibliography is always needed, even if your sources predominantly comprise course materials or excerpts from consulted textbooks. Depending on the chosen style, you will need either a Works Cited page (MLA), a Reference page (APA) or a Bibliography (Harvard, Chicago). Given its pivotal role in determining your final course grade, make sure to adhere to the highest writing and editing standards.

Term Paper Outline

• Title page – this is where you enter your name, teacher name, school, class, and date. The formatting will depend on your chosen style
• Introduction – Introduction sets the stage for your arguments. This is where you present statistics, define helpful terms, and finally present your thesis statement. IMPORTANT: Thesis statement is always the last sentence in the introduction.
• Body 1: Historical setting or development
• Body 2: Current state of knowledge about the problem
• Body 3: Main argument and potential implications
• Body 4: Argument for
• Body 5: Argument against
• Body 6: Summary
• Conclusion : Bring all of the body arguments together and restate your thesis statement.
• Bibliography : Provide references for all sources cited in the term paper using the style of your choice

Now let’s get to the nitty gritty of the writing process.

Topic Selection – In most cases teachers or instructors will provide students with a list of pre-approved topics to choose from. But, in some cases you will get the opportunity to choose for yourself. This is both a blessing and a curse, because it can lead you into a deep pit of despair if you are not careful.

Length – Every paper will have an assigned length. You should never go under the minimum or the maximum word/page count, as that will take points away from your final score. If the prompt asks for 10 pages, write that.

Sources – Consult your school library, Google Scholar, and any other database that has access to journals and books on your topic.

Simplify – While it is admirable to be able to write in a high-brow voice, it’s much better to use plain language as much as possible, but staying within the confines of academic jargon. No don’t’s, couldnt’s, or should’ve. If something is too complicated to explain simply, you do not understand it properly. Ask for clarification.

Do not be afraid to wander – Choosing a common topic may be a safe bet, but your teacher will grade you higher if you take a topic nobody else even though about. Brownie points are there for the taking. Just make sure you know what you’re talking about!

Don’t overextend – While the entire combined histories of all monastic orders may seem like an interesting topic (well, to us at least), it is waaaaaaay too broad to cover in 5 or 10 pages. Heck, that would probably take an entire compendium with multiple volumes. In short, don’t be a megalomaniac and choose a topic that fits in 5 pages.

How to Write a Term Paper: The Writing Process

Before starting your write up, the teacher will expect a proposal. This is a very short summary of the topic, your thesis statement, and a few sources. The goal is to present a topic that you can defend and ask the teacher to approve it.

So how do you write a proposal? Start by writing down your thesis statement and guiding question. Then identify three to four sources and jolt down key statistics and pieces of information that are linked to your thesis statement. The goal is to show you’ve done the work. The proposal will generally have a full outline (see above) so that the teacher knows what you are planning to do. If you explain what the topic is and why it is important in writing , the teacher will accept the proposal.

Introduction, well, Introduces the Term Paper

Your essay has to start strong, which is why 99.99%  of all introductions start with a hook that captivates the audience. A hook can be anything, a statistic (like 40% of people in the US have no savings whatsoever, which means around 140 million people are completely broke – now that’s a hook, line, and sinker).

Once you know the reader is hooked, you present a brief overview of the topic you will discuss. This is where you bring statistics, data, and broader theories or concepts that may relate.

The end of the introduction is always reserved for the thesis statement, which is the last sentence of the introduction.

Try to be concise – not more than ¾ of a page (cca 200-250 words), but detailed enough so that the reader understands what the paper is about.

Writing the Body Sections

When you are certain you can understand the concepts and arguments presented in the literature, it’s time to write your body paragraphs.

The goal is to provide the reader with enough context and argumentation to prove your point. So, if you’re writing about the advantages of nuclear energy, you have to provide evidence from the literature as well as a thorough analysis of all benefits and drawbacks. The goal is to be as objective as possible, while ensuring your results are accurate.

Do not dwell on too much detail, you cannot fit all of the information in a 5 – 10 page paper. Isolate the most important pieces of evidence, maybe 3-4 and focus on those.

As a rule of thumb, you will aim for 4 – 5 body paragraphs minimum, but in most cases you will need more. The first section should be the literature review, where you analyze state-of-the-art of the topic you are writing about.

Following the literature review is your analysis, which draws from the information you’ve collected. It’s important to note, do not try and make up new stuff, or draw conclusions in this section. Simply analyze and summarize the findings in your own voice.

The last paragraph of the body section can be your own summary, where you present a different opinion. Be concise and do not go into too much detail, simply note if you think there are any discrepancies in the literature.

Remember : Always start your paragraphs with a topic sentence and try to contain the information within the paragraph to the topic.

Writing the Conclusion

Conclusion is the most important part of the term paper, even though many do not give it enough attention. This is where you put everything you’ve written together and summarize key findings.

Important : Conclusion is not the place to add new information or knowledge!

To write a good conclusion keep in mind your initial research question and thesis statement. The goal of the term paper is to answer the question and prove your thesis statement is correct. Has your paper done this? Write it down and explain why or why not your initial proposal was correct. A thesis statement can be wrong, and you must acknowledge this in your conclusion.

In the conclusion:

• Summarize your findings
• Discuss implications for future reseasrch

Editing and Finalization

The final word of the conclusion has been written, references added and alphabetized, the paper and the title page formatted. You are finally done. Or, maybe not! Now is the time for the final edit.

Teachers, above everything else, hate reading papers with spelling mistakes and poor grammar. To make sure your paper does not annoy the teacher (you don’t want a lower grade), make sure it is completely free of any errors.

The best way to do this is by using a machine learning tool combined with close reading on your own. The machine will weed out the glaring errors, and you will finish the job.

Read through the draft carefully. Remove any fluff or excess words that add nothing to the argument. You will likely find several sentences you will want to change. Do this now. Once done, start the second read-through.

In this read-through you will hone in on the arguments. Do they make sense? Are statistics properly cited, and do you sound coherent? If the answer is no, you will want to fix the mistakes until satisfied.

Now, finally, you are done! Congratulations. Pat yourself on the back. Oh, wait, we forgot about the abstract!

Abstract Comes First, or Last

In no uncertain terms, do not write the abstract before you’ve completed the term paper. This is always the last part of the writing process, but strangely enough the one your paper starts with. Go figure.

When you do get to this stage, use our secret formula. Well, it’s not really secret but we like to think so. The abstract needs three parts to work well, the introduction, the method/procedure, and the conclusion/findings. Depending on the topic these will vary slightly but you will always find them in an abstract.

Introduce your topic and what you plan to do in two to three sentences.

Describe what method you will use – such as literature review, an experiment, or something else. Two to three sentences.

Define the results you obtained after using the method. Two to three sentences.

Remember : The abstract should be between 120 and 200 words in length, no more is needed.

No, they are not. A research paper is an original piece of writing that comes after some type of original research has been done. Maybe you’ve found a new civilization during a dig, or a new chemical element. The research paper is meant to publicize this finding so other scientists can critique, refute, or confirm its validity. A term paper is a much simpler version that requires no original research. But, a term paper is your preparation for writing a research paper later in life.

This will depend on your teacher. In many cases, you will get a pre-defined format to follow, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. If not, we recommend using APA or Harvard, as they are relatively simple to learn and have a ton of resources to help you along.

It is important to remember you are not writing a book, so keep the topic narrow. For example, if writing about renewable energy, choose only one type of energy or just one region. Do not try to cram everything into 5-10 pages; it won’t work.

Writing a term paper is certainly a challenge, but it is also manageable if you dedicate yourself to the process. Prepare well in advance, read a lot, and do not be afraid to ask for help if you get stuck. Your teachers are paid to help you, so email them if you get stuck. Above everything, make sure you are interested in the topic, as that will make the process so much easier.

Related Posts

10 Tips To Study Effectively

How To Buy Essays Online? A Safety-First Guide For Students!

How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

Term paper writing was never an easy ride. Well, not for our expert writers. Place an order with our term paper writing service and secure yourself an “A!”

In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

Don’t procrastinate on your College or University papers anymore. Get professional help with our essay writer !

That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

A life lesson in Romeo and Juliet taught by death

Due to human nature, we draw conclusions only when life gives us a lesson since the experience of others is not so effective and powerful. Therefore, when analyzing and sorting out common problems we face, we may trace a parallel with well-known book characters or real historical figures. Moreover, we often compare our situations with […]

Ethical Research Paper Topics

Writing a research paper on ethics is not an easy task, especially if you do not possess excellent writing skills and do not like to contemplate controversial questions. But an ethics course is obligatory in all higher education institutions, and students have to look for a way out and be creative. When you find an […]

Art Research Paper Topics

Students obtaining degrees in fine art and art & design programs most commonly need to write a paper on art topics. However, this subject is becoming more popular in educational institutions for expanding students’ horizons. Thus, both groups of receivers of education: those who are into arts and those who only get acquainted with art […]

How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

Worrying About the Quality of Your Upcoming Essay?

"Being highly trained professionals, our writers can provide term paper help by creating a paper specifically tailored to your needs.

Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

Need a Winning Hand in Academia?

Arm yourself with our custom-crafted academic papers that are sharper than a well-honed pencil! Order now and conquer your academic challenges with style!

What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

How to Research a Term Paper

#scribendiinc

The term paper researching process

So, you wrote a great college admissions essay and were accepted at the university or college of your dreams. Now, you've been assigned your first term paper, and you don't know where to start!

The research process is an exploratory quest, a hunt for information that can be both exciting and rewarding. The word itself is derived from the French rechercher, which literally means "to investigate thoroughly." So, when embarking on writing a term paper or research paper, think of yourself as a detective. You will not only search for information but also delve into the whys and wherefores behind the subject material, seeking to provide elucidation through your term paper.

Select a topic for your term paper

Let's start at the beginning. The first step in the essay writing process is to decide on a worthy topic, choosing one that is interesting to you. Make a list of keywords—these are important words or phrases that encapsulate the essence of your topic. Good keywords will specifically describe your topic, but consider using closely related words, as well.  Use these keywords when searching print or electronic sources that you can use in your term paper.

Research your term paper topic

General-purpose reference books, such as encyclopedias and fact books, provide comprehensive summaries and suggestions for sub-topics, as well as related terminology. Although these books are not generally considered suitable sources to cite in a term paper, the bibliographies they contain can be very helpful. This initial reading may help you to narrow your interest, stimulate additional questions, and focus your research. We recommend the following general resources, as they are more global in scope:   The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World , CQ Researcher , the Political Handbook of the World, the Index to International Public Opinion, and World Opinion Update . These publications deal with particular topics, give summaries of various governments, or take other specialized approaches, which are generally considered acceptable sources to cite in a term paper.

The next step is to either narrow your topic (so you can deal with the amount of information) or to broaden it so you have enough to write about. You might have to pick a particular sub-topic and make that your area of interest, or combine certain aspects of a topic to create a narrower one. Decide the direction you want the research for your term paper to take. What are the most interesting aspects of the topic, and what do you want to learn? Be careful not to be too general. This term paper researching process will keep you from getting lost or sidetracked when searching for information.

Find suitable sources for your term paper

At this point, decide on the most likely sources of information—books, journal articles, newspapers, online databases, CD-ROM databases, interviews, etc. Dig around in the library and locate sources for your term paper. Use your library's computer access system to find books on your subject. Some topics may be so current that few, if any, books are available. If this is the case, research scholarly journals for up-to-date information and analyses. You should consult journals even for non-contemporary topics, since scholars may have unearthed new information or produced new analyses. You may also find valuable information published in the reports of a government agency, in hearings or reports of a government committee, or in the transcripts of the proceedings of a government body. The United Nations and a number of other international organizations also publish proceedings and reports.

Don't forget that when you locate the sources you want to use for your term paper, you should be trying to find answers to the questions you posed previously. Also, don't forget to make use of the reference librarian, who can help you to locate and use sources efficiently.

Get organized early! Keep track of your sources

It is very helpful to make notes about your sources on index cards or in an Excel spreadsheet . Such notes should include bibliographic information, page numbers for quotations, and source locations. This way, you can easily find the source of an idea, quote, reference, etc. Number these cards so you can link them to your term paper notes: this will make the references section of your report a snap to complete.

Remember—thoroughly peruse all the information you have gathered, making copious notes as you go. This preliminary research should answer basic factual questions, as well as interpretive ones, and should help you to refocus. Give yourself a reasonable amount of time to absorb all the information you've read.

Writing a research or term paper

In our follow-up article about writing a research paper , we explain the next steps in the term paper writing process. The article discusses your thesis statement, body of your paper, and your reference page. If you would like to learn more about essay writing, check out Scribendi's article   12 Ways to Quickly Improve Your Academic Essay Writing Skills .

Image source: Samuel Zeller/Unsplash.com

Have You Read?

"The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing"

Related Posts

Essay Writing Help

How to Improve Essay Writing Skills

How to Write a Great Thesis Statement

Upload your file(s) so we can calculate your word count, or enter your word count manually.

We will also recommend a service based on the file(s) you upload.

English is not my first language. I need English editing and proofreading so that I sound like a native speaker.

I need to have my journal article, dissertation, or term paper edited and proofread, or I need help with an admissions essay or proposal.

I have a novel, manuscript, play, or ebook. I need editing, copy editing, proofreading, a critique of my work, or a query package.

I need editing and proofreading for my white papers, reports, manuals, press releases, marketing materials, and other business documents.

I need to have my essay, project, assignment, or term paper edited and proofread.

I want to sound professional and to get hired. I have a resume, letter, email, or personal document that I need to have edited and proofread.

 Prices include your personal % discount.

 Prices include % sales tax ( ).

How to write a term paper

Published September 27, 2020. Updated June 1, 2022.

Term Paper Definition

A term paper is usually the culmination of a semester-long class and is meant to synthesize the information that you learned.

Overview of term paper

To start writing a term paper, you should first choose a topic that you are interested in that is related to the class. Then, do some pre-searching to identify preliminary sources that you could potentially use. Write a thesis statement addressing your topic that is arguable and provable. Thorough research should be conducted to identify a variety of credible sources. Recording and citing the sources as you go helps to make sure nothing is missed. An outline should be created before you write to make sure that the structure and organization of the paper are logical. After completion of the paper, make sure to read each section carefully and edit your draft. Double-check if all the required rules are followed for in-text citations and formatting. In addition to self-editing, it is also a good idea to get another person to read it and provide feedback if possible.

Worried about your writing? Submit your paper for a Chegg Writing essay check , or for an Expert Check proofreading . Both can help you find and fix potential writing issues.

This page will cover the following points:

Key takeaways

Choosing a topic, writing a thesis statement, read, analyze, and take notes, organize your ideas into categories and create an outline, write the paper, edit your draft.

• Turn in your paper and relax !
• Choose a term paper topic that you are interested in and have knowledge of, and then do some pre-searching to identify preliminary sources that you could potentially use.
• Write a thesis statement that is arguable, provable, adequately addresses your topic, and is not too broad or narrow.
• Conduct thorough research to identify a variety of credible sources and begin recording and citing your sources as you go to make sure nothing is missed.
• Create an outline before you write to make sure that the structure and organization of your paper is logical.
• Be sure to edit your draft and have another person read it and provide feedback if possible.

The magic of writing lies in writing about what you know. A term paper is the culmination of a semester’s worth of learning, so you should already have a good head start if you’ve been paying attention in class. In order to choose a strong topic, the following tips will help:

• Consult your class syllabus carefully.
• Clarify what the professor is asking you to do.
• Utilize your professor’s office hours to ask questions if confused.

Finding clarity at the beginning of the project will lead to smoother sailing throughout the journey.

In the process of writing the term paper, perhaps no step is more important than PRE-searching. After carefully reading the syllabus and clarifying what is expected of you, take some time to examine your own interests and skills that align with the assignment. In other words, what do you already know about the topic that would make a good term paper? Is there anything related to this topic that you feel passionate about?

Pre-searching involves asking yourself a few pointed questions:

• Do I fully understand what is expected of me with this project?
• What skills do I already possess surrounding this topic?
• What do I already know about the topic that would make a good term paper?
• What am I passionate about?

The more you already know, and the more invested you are in the project, the easier it will be. Once you start narrowing down your topic, your pre-search should also include some quick online searching to ensure that you will be able to find valid sources on your chosen topic. Taking time at this stage to ensure a solid topic with viable sources will save you time and aggravation in the future.

A thesis statement is the road map for your paper. There are several tips for writing a good thesis statement:

• Write a provable, arguable statement. You are not stating a fact; you are stating a debatable idea. You will use the rest of your paper to prove this statement.
• Usually, it is written in the third person.
• It should address the requirements and topic of your assigned project.
• Too broad: Plastic straws are bad.
• Too narrow: Because plastic straws with stripes harm marine life and contribute to Atlantic ocean pollution, so we should consider banning them in coastal towns with populations of more than 60,000.
• Just right: Because plastic straws harm marine life and contribute to ocean pollution, we should consider banning them.
• Put your thesis statement at the end of your first paragraph.
• Understand that your thesis statement will grow and change. As you research and learn more, it’s natural to tweak your thesis statement to account for new information and conclusions.

The art of research cannot be overstated. Working smarter and not harder is the key to your success here.

• Use your college library’s databases. Most of these can be accessed in the library or online. Since these databases have been vetted by librarians, you can trust the sources you find on them.
• Evaluate any sources you find via an online search engine. Though there are some great sources online (government data, newspaper articles, etc.), you have to be careful about what you choose to use. Not every source is reputable enough to include in a term paper.
• Use a mix of sources. You don’t want to only cite one or two sources over and over again or only cite sources from the same author. The more variety you have, the stronger your argument will be. At the college level, some academic journal articles should definitely be included (these can be found in the above–mentioned databases).
• Make a bibliography of your sources as you research. It’s easier to record your sources from the start rather than forgetting a source later on and being accused of accidental plagiarism.

What makes a good source? One guide to consider following is the CRAAP method of evaluating sources:

• Currency: How recent is your source? Does it present the most up-to-date information? Does it have information from a time period you’re focusing on? Check the copyright, posting date, or publication date carefully.
• Relevance: Your source needs to contain pertinent information for the topic you have chosen. It should also be at an appropriate scholarly level for the assignment.
• Authority: The source’s author needs to be credible. Check the author’s credentials, as well as the publisher’s or website’s background. Avoid personal blogs and random sources that are not written by experts.
• Accuracy: Your information needs to give you solid evidence to write your paper. Analyze a source’s use of language and information to make sure it is accurate.
• Purpose: You need to determine why your source was written. Was it written by an objective expert, or did an author or company with a vested interest in the topic write the article? Avoid articles with heavy bias.

One final note on research: Now is a good time to note that the word “research” means just what it sounds like. The prefix “re-” means ¨to do again,¨ so research means to search and search again. Don’t become discouraged if it takes a while to find good sources. The more work you do on the front end of the project, the better off you will be.

Want to look at a sample paper first? Check out this example term paper .

Once you have your sources, the hard work begins. You will need to read and analyze your source information. Taking notes is a MUST. In order to organize your thoughts and prove what you are trying to prove, you need to take detailed, relevant notes. Here are some reading strategies that will help streamline the process:

• Read your source through once to get a general idea of what it is talking about.
• Read it a second time to take notes and focus on the points you want to include in your paper.

The kind of notes you take could range from summarizing the material to making bullet points of useful facts to jotting down direct quotes. There are also specific note-taking approaches you can follow. If you’re interested in learning more, visit this helpful site .

The next step in the process is to organize the information you have gathered in your note-taking stage. There are several tips that will help you stay on track in this stage:

• Organize your notes into categories.
• Take the information in each category and decide what order to put it in to create the strongest argument.
• Write an outline. After organizing your notes, writing a phrase or full-sentence outline will really help you organize your thinking and keep your writing focused. You can be as informal or formal as you like, but this step is a lifesaver when it comes time to compose.

Consider using this outline template:

Creative Title of Research Paper

• Opening Statement (this is the “hook” for your reader)
• Thesis Statement
• ______________________________
• Recap thesis statement
• Summarize argument

At this point, you already have all the hard work done. All you have to do now is build out the sections in your outline using the research you’ve collected and analyzed.

Here are some helpful tips to make the most of your writing time:

• Format the paper according to the professor’s guidelines. You will probably use MLA or APA style.
• Use formal writing and strong vocabulary throughout.
• Use transition words like “therefore” and “additionally” to connect ideas.
• Use transition sentences at the beginning and/or end of each paragraph to set the reader up for what comes next.
• Create in-text citations as you go along to give credit for your information.
• Double–check your work.

After all of this time and effort, do yourself a favor and edit carefully. Read each section closely and double-check that you’re following all of the proper rules for in-text citations and formatting. There are two great tricks for editing that will help you catch errors:

• Reading your paper out loud will help you catch mistakes, especially words you accidentally skipped.
• Reading each sentence backwards from the end of your paper to the beginning will also help you polish your work. Although they might sound bizarre, these two tricks will really help!

In addition to self-editing, it’s always a good idea to get an outside opinion. There are many options:

• Ask a friend or classmate to read through your paper.
• Visit your university writing center in-person or online and use their review services.
• Submit your paper to an online paper checker like Chegg Writing. This option is great when you’re in a time crunch.

Before you turn in that paper, don’t forget to cite your sources in APA format , MLA format , or a style of your choice.

Turn in your paper and relax!

After going through this process, your fear will melt away and you will have a solid paper to show for your efforts. Imagine what you can learn and produce when you put your mind to it and follow a few simple steps!

Example term paper on Geoffrey of Monmouth

By Kathryne Bradesca. Kathryne has a aster´s degree in Teaching from Kent State University and a BA in English and Communications from Gannon University. She has been a junior high and high school teacher for 24 years.

Common Writing Assignments, Apps & Tests

• Analytical Essay
• AP synthesis Essay
• Argumentative Essay
• Book Report
• Compare and Contrast Essay
• Cause and Effect Essay
• College Admissions Essay
• Critical Analysis Essay
• Definition Essay
• Descriptive Essay
• Dissertation
• Explanatory Essay
• Expository Essay
• Informative Essay
• Narrative Essay
• Opinion Essay
• Personal Essay
• Persuasive Essay
• Reflective Essay
• Research Paper
• Rhetorical Analysis
• Scholarship Essay
• Short Essay
• Thesis Paper

What’s included with a Chegg Writing subscription

• Unlimited number of paper scans
• Plagiarism detection: Check against billions of sources
• Expert proofreading for papers on any subject
• Grammar scans for 200+ types of common errors
• Automatically create & save citations in 7,000+ styles
• Cancel subscription anytime, no obligation

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

• A Research Guide
• Writing Guide
• Assignment Writing

How to Write a Term Paper

• Purpose of a term paper
• How to start a term paper
• Structure and outline

Step-by-step writing guide

Standard term paper format.

• Term paper examples
• Writing tips

What is the purpose of a term paper?

How to start a term paper correctly.

• Choose your topic by focusing on what inspires you unless you are already given a topic.
• Take time to research and analyze your subject.
• Start with a term paper outline (see our templates in the next sections).
• Come up with a strong thesis statement before writing anything for body paragraphs.
• Provide topic sentences and practical examples.
• Provide a strong lesson in the conclusion if it suits the subject you write about.
• Edit and proofread available information for trustworthiness.

Term paper structure and outline

• Introduction. This is where you talk about the subject and a problem you are researching. It helps to introduce your thesis statement and explain the objectives that have been set.
• Body Paragraphs. As a rule, in writing college term papers, one must write down several subheadings and headings to divide ideas and arguments into several (at least four) paragraphs. As done below, each body paragraph should contain one idea and a strong topic sentence.
• Heading 1: History of the argument and background.
• Heading 2: Extent of the problem that you write about.
• Heading 3: Effects of the problem and possible causes.
• Heading 4: Possible solutions and outcomes.
• Conclusion. The final part should represent a strong summary and a response to your thesis statement.

Step 1: Data collection

Step 2: explaining research relevance, step 3: introducing your subject, step 4: literature review preparation, step 5: offering results and conclusions, step 6: structural term paper evaluation, step 7: check your citations and references.

Helpful term paper examples

• Term paper examples that earned an A grade from the University of Delaware
• Sample term paper offered by the Justus-Liebig Universitat Giessen
• Purdue Owl Lab Citation Formats Database
• Simon Fraser University Sample Term Paper

Term paper writing tips

• Choose a topic that inspires you if you have an opportunity. If you have been given an already existing prompt to write, research your subject online and ask about the use of course materials. It will help you to narrow things down and already have source materials for referencing purposes.
• If you can choose a subject to write a final paper for your course, think about something you can support with statistical data and some practical evidence.
• Most importantly, keep your term paper relevant to the main objectives of your study course.
• Keep your tone reflective and natural as you write.
• Double-check your grading rubric regarding limitations and obligatory requirements that must be met.
• Always proofread your term paper aloud!
• If you have an opportunity, consider editing your term paper with the help of a friend or a fellow college student.

Receive paper in 3 Hours!

• Choose the number of pages.
• Select your deadline.
• Complete your order.

Number of Pages

550 words (double spaced)

Deadline: 10 days left

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

Sign Up for your FREE account

How to Write a Term Paper 101: A Tutorial to Takeover

As the end of the semester draws closer, many students are losing their sleep over the thought of writing a term paper. But you’re worrying pointlessly because  PaperPerk  has brought expert help to your doorstep! 

Our comprehensive guide on how to write a term paper is sure to help you with every step. So read this article thoroughly because we cover everything from definition to steps on composition and templates with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Term Paper?

A term paper is a written project required at the end of a semester. It is designed to evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. Typically, it takes the form of a discussion or analysis of an assigned topic. 

But it can also resemble a scientific report,  reflective essay , or even a research paper. As an essential component of a student’s academic journey, a term paper is characterized by its in-depth exploration of a specific subject matter.

Key Characteristics

One of the key features of a term paper is that it requires a significant amount of research , as it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic. This research-intensive nature of the term paper sets it apart from other academic assignments. 

Additionally, term papers demand technical writing skills, as they need to be well-organized, structured, and adhere to specific formatting requirements. A high-quality term paper should be well-written, thoroughly researched, and analytical. 

It should demonstrate critical thinking and provide valuable insights into the subject matter. With an Impactful term paper, a student showcases their ability to synthesize and analyze information, ultimately contributing to their overall academic success.

How to Write a Term Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

The biggest step in learning how to write a term paper is to understand the importance of creating a term paper outline. This  research paper outline  is the beacon that will guide through your writing process. The following part of this post contains steps on composing an outline and its component. 

How to Write a Term Paper: Outlining a Term Paper

Below are the essential components of an outline. Once you gather your information, you’ll incorporate it within these compartments to avoid creating a chaotic cluster of random data. 

Introduction

Let’s look at these a bit more closely and understand how to use these elements in the best way. 

Also known as the  title page , the cover page of a term paper is the first impression of the paper. It provides all the necessary information about the paper along with a neat and professional look. It should include the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Course name and code
• Instructor’s name
• Date of submission

Steps to compose a cover page:

• Centrally align the title of your paper in the middle of the page.
• Add your name, course name, and number below the title.
• Include your instructor’s name and the date of submission at the bottom.

You might be required to add more than these common elements if your professor asks you to. Many students additionally write the name of the university, department or other relevant details. 

The abstract is a brief summary of your term paper, usually between 150-250 words. It should highlight the main points, including the research question, methods, results, and conclusions. 

Using an  abstract  optimally allows readers to quickly grasp the main points and significance of your term paper. The abstract is usually placed at the beginning of the paper, right after the cover page. 

Steps to compose an abstract:

• Write a concise summary of your paper’s purpose and research question.
• Briefly describe the methods used in your research.
• Summarize the main findings or results.
• Conclude with a brief statement of your paper’s implications or significance.

Ensure that all the information you incorporate within your abstract accurately reflects the content and findings within your paper. Double-check that there is consistency between the abstract and the main body of the paper in terms of the research objectives, methodology, and conclusions. 

The  introduction  sets the stage for your term paper. It provides background information, states the research question, depicts the purpose of the study and explains the paper’s significance. 

Steps to compose an introduction:

• Begin with a hook to capture the reader’s attention.
• Provide background information on your topic.
• Clearly state your research question.
• Explain the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.

The body of your term paper is where you present your arguments , evidence, and analysis. It should be organized into sections or subheadings, each focusing on a specific aspect of your research.

Steps to compose the body:

• Organize your content into logical sections or subheadings.
• Present your arguments and support them with evidence from your research.
• Analyze the evidence and explain its relevance to your research question.
• Use appropriate citations to acknowledge the sources of your information.

The results section presents the outcomes and the findings of your research study. It should be clear, concise, and focused on the data collected during your study.

Steps to compose the results section:

• Summarize the data collected during your research.
• Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent your findings.
• Describe any patterns, trends, or relationships observed in the data.
• Ensure that your results are relevant to your research question.
• Avoid repetition of any information. 

The  discussion section  interprets the results of your term paper and explains their implications. It should also address any limitations of your research and suggest areas for future study.

Steps to compose the discussion section:

• Interpret your results and explain their significance.
• Discuss any limitations or weaknesses in your research.
• Compare your findings to previous studies and explain any differences.
• Suggest areas for future research based on your findings.

The  conclusion  brings your term paper to a close by summarizing the main points. This final section of your paper also restates the significance of your research.

Steps to compose a conclusion:

• Restate your research question and summarize the main points of your paper.
• Emphasize the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.
• Offer recommendations or suggestions for future research.
• End with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

By following this comprehensive guide, you can write a well-structured and impactful term paper that demonstrates your understanding of the subject and contributes valuable insights to the field.

How to Write a Term Paper Proposal: A Tutorial

A term paper proposal serves as a blueprint for your research. It helps in organizing your thoughts and ideas. Lets focus on the essential features of a term paper proposal and understand steps on how to compose each part.

Essential Features of a Term Paper Proposal

Relevance and importance.

The title of your term paper proposal should attract your readers and provide them with a clear idea of your work. It should be clear, concise, and accurately reflect the subject of your research.

Steps to compose a title:

• Identify the main topic or theme of your research.
• Choose relevant keywords that represent the key concepts of your research.
• Combine these keywords to create a clear and informative title.
• Ensure that your  title  is not too long or overly complex.
• Consider your audience’s ability to understand your title.

The objectives section outlines the specific goals of your research. These goals should be clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.

Steps to compose objectives:

• Begin by stating the general purpose of your research.
• Break down this purpose into specific, measurable objectives.
• Ensure that your objectives are achievable within the timeframe and resources available for your term paper.
• Keep your objectives focused and relevant to your research question.

The relevance and importance section demonstrates the significance of your research within the context of your field of study. It should explain why your research is necessary and how it contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

Steps to compose the relevance and importance section:

• Explain the context of your research by providing background information on the topic.
• Identify gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Explain how your research contributes to the field by offering new insights or perspectives.
• Emphasize the potential impact of your research on the broader academic community or society as a whole.

Putting It All Together: Writing a Term Paper Proposal

Now that you clearly understand the essential features of a term paper  proposal , it’s time to put it all together. Follow these steps to create a well-structured and compelling proposal:

• Begin by writing a clear and concise title that accurately reflects the subject of your research.
• Compose a brief introduction that overviews your research topic and its significance. This introduction should also include a clear statement of your research question.
• Outline the specific objectives of your research, ensuring that they are clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.
• Explain the relevance and importance of your research by demonstrating its significance within your field of study. Highlight the gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Provide a brief overview of your research methodology, including the methods you plan to use for data collection and analysis.
• Include a tentative timeline for your research, outlining the milestones and deadlines for each project stage.
• Conclude your proposal with a summary of the main points and a restatement of the significance of your research.

By following these comprehensive steps, you can create a well-structured and persuasive term paper proposal that demonstrates the importance of your research and sets the stage for a successful term paper.

How to Write a Term Paper: Formatting

A term paper format refers to the set of rules and standards that dictate the structure and presentation of a term paper. Formatting is essential to learn how to write a term paper as it ensures consistency, enhances readability, and maintains a professional appearance. 

A proper structure allows readers to concentrate on the content rather than the presentation. Several formatting styles are used in term papers, with the American Psychological Association (APA) style and the Modern Language Association (MLA) style being the most common.

Using APA Style in a Term Paper:

• Choose a standard font, such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 12-point Times New Roman.
• Apply double-spacing throughout the paper, including the abstract, main text, quotes, tables, figures, and references.
• Create a title page containing the paper’s title, author’s name, affiliated institution, and a running head.
• Organize the content using headings that adhere to  APA guidelines for different heading levels.
• Incorporate the author-date citation method for in-text citations and format the reference list according to APA guidelines.

Using MLA Style in a Term Paper:

• Opt for a standard font, such as 12-point Times New Roman.
• Double-space the entire paper, including the main text, quotes, and the Works Cited page.
• Include a header with the last name of the author and page number on the top right corner of all pages.
• Use parenthetical citations within the text and format according to  MLA guidelines .
• Follow MLA guidelines for formatting headings and subheadings, if applicable.

Adhering to the appropriate style guide when formatting term papers is crucial for maintaining academic integrity and ensuring that your work is easily comprehended and properly cited.

Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topics

Writing a term paper can be a daunting task, but choosing the right term paper topics can make all the difference. In this part, we will provide you with some useful tips and tricks to make the process as smooth as possible.

The Starting Point

In most cases, students are assigned term papers by their professors. These topics are related to course outline to assess pupil’s understanding of the course material. As well as their ability to think critically and conduct research on a specific subject. 

Other times, teachers provide students a chance to choose a topic of their liking. But before you go on and pick a topic for your term paper, put the following concerns at the forefront. 

• The course objective 
• Your own interest. 

The Course Objective

Your term paper is essentially assigned to assess your command on the subject. Prioritize your course outline or objective before picking your  research paper topics . This will ensure that your paper is relevant and reflects what you have learnt so far about the subject. 

Your Interests

Your personal interests play a significant role in the success of your term paper. When you choose a topic that genuinely interests you, you are more likely to engage in  writing a research paper . This enthusiasm will not only make the writing process more enjoyable but also result in a higher quality term paper. 

Before picking a specific topic, make sure to conduct thorough research and align your personal liking to your course objective. The following tips on how to pick the perfect term paper topic will assist you in acing your grade.

Tips for Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topic

While picking a topic for yourself, be mindful of certain things:

Adjusting Topic Length

Consider if the topic would adjust your required length for a term paper. Suppose you’re to write a  10-page research paper , what kind of topic would adjust within those 10 pages? Registering the narrowness or broadness of the topic can help.

Authentic Resources

The second thing you need to consider is the resources of your information. Check if the source you’re working with is authentic. Reliable  sources for a research paper  include academic journals, books, think tanks, and reputable websites.

Complexity of the Subject

To ensure the clarity of your topic, consider its complexity. It is important that the chosen subject can be effectively presented to your audience. Additionally, ensure that you have a solid understanding of the subject matter yourself.

By considering the length, resources, and complexity of your chosen topic, you can ensure that your term paper is engaging, informative, and well-researched. So, take the time to select the perfect topic and get ready to ace your term paper!

How to Write a Term Paper: A Template With Example

This template also contains examples that are highlighted in a different color. 

Title Page 

Abstract 

• Remember to never exceed the abstract more than 250 words.

1.1 Background

1.2 problem statement, 1.3 objectives, 2. literature review, 3. methodology, 5. discussion, 6. conclusion, 7. references.

• The references section uses the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

8. Appendices

• If necessary, this section includes additional material such as raw data, survey questionnaires, interview transcripts, or any other supplementary information that supports the research.

This guide on how to write a term paper must have been helpful to you. But we understand that wrapping your head around something so detailed can be difficult when you’re stressed out. And most students are stressed out by the end of the semester due to multiple deadlines.  That’s why we have brought you our  term paper writing service  so you can relax and focus more on your upcoming exams. Our experts are dedicated to helping students excel academically with quality content and on-time submission. Check us out today and bid goodbye to academic worries!

Order Original Papers & Essays

Your First Custom Paper Sample is on Us!

Timely Deliveries

No Plagiarism & AI

100% Refund

Try Our Free Paper Writing Service

Related blogs.

Connections with Writers and support

Privacy and Confidentiality Guarantee

Average Quality Score

Project Types We Cover

• Admissions Essay
• PowerPoint Presentation
• Research Paper
• Book Reviews
• Personal Statement
• Ph.D Dissertation
• Proofreading

Academic Fields & Subjects

• Programming
• Computer Science
• Other projects we help with
• Our Experts
• Plagiarism Checker
• Writing Tips

How to Write a Successful Term Paper

By: Tasha Kolesnikova

Studying at college or university, you have to deal with a variety of assignments. They are necessary to gain new knowledge, skills, and experience important for your future career. Some tasks may be pretty easy, while others require a lot of time and effort. However, you should challenge yourself because it is when you’re developing and becoming better.

Can I Ignore the Length Requirements?

Introduction, make sure you have enough time, start by creating an outline, use a strong tongue, don't forget about proofreading, how to write a term paper proposal, how to start a term paper, how to finish a term paper, term paper apa formatting, term paper mla formatting, term paper chicago formatting, social issues topics.

Regardless of the major you choose, each discipline has a specific structure and goals. You’ll have lectures, practical lessons, internships, and so on. Your professor may use different strategies to test your knowledge, and writing is one of them.

It is not so hard when it goes about regular essays. But the term paper is something the most students are afraid of. It is a voluminous piece that synthesis all your knowledge received during the course.

We’re ready to provide you with an ultimate guide to write a term paper. Let’s start from the beginning.

Definition of a Term Paper

A term paper is a research document that you write after a semester or year of work. This assignment helps you determine your understanding of the course content and the aspects required by the curriculum.

Writing a term paper has other purposes as well. Working on your task, you delve deeper into the discipline, get acquainted with its main problems and challenges. It also improves your analytical, critical thinking, and writing skills, which are useful both during your studies and after university.

Your professor can assign you a specific topic, depending on the material being studied. Sometimes the choice is up to you, or you can choose a narrower theme from a broader list of options.

Regardless of the title, it would help if you delved in. We’ve prepared some actionable tips to come up with outstanding writing. You may follow them or send us your “ write my essay ” message if you need professional assistance. Our authors are eager to share their experiences and help you to boost academic performance.

How Long Is a Term Paper?

There is no universal standard for the volume you should adhere to. It depends on the requirements of your institution.

If you search for this information on the Internet, you will see that different sources offer different data. One website claims that you need to submit a 10-page document, while another writes about 45 pages. This is why it is important to read your professor's requirements carefully.

The volume determines which approach you take to writing. For example, if your paper is short, you need to state your thoughts concisely and clearly, going straight to the point. If it is long, do not fill the pages with hot air, but try to do thorough research and look at the issue from different angles.

You may write about 10% less or more, but overall try to adhere to the particular number of pages or words. All students are in identical conditions, so your article should be standardized. If you don’t know what to write about, ask your professor about additional instructions.

It would also be a great idea to read some examples written by other students or professional authors. Filter out the documents with the same volume as you need and pay notice to the paper writer's structure .

Term Paper and Research Paper - Differences

We understand if you are confused after reading our introduction. If you need to conduct research, why are you writing a term paper and not a research one?

Many students confuse these two types of assignments. But certain aspects indicate the differences between them.

Writing a research paper takes months or even years. It covers various aspects of the topic, up to the development of new strategies and innovative ideas.

The term paper should be submitted by the end of the semester or year. Its content is based on the material covered. Of course, you can use additional resources, but in general, custom term paper assignment is only relevant to the themes you discussed in class.

The purpose is another crucial difference between the two assignments.

When you work on a research paper, you need to work through the problem and find a viable solution. You are dealing with a hypothesis that needs to be confirmed or refuted.

The term papers have the task of reflecting your knowledge of the discipline. It is more straightforward but influences the final score much more.

What Are Parts of Term Paper?

Each student paper has its structure you should strictly adhere to. It is useful to organize your thoughts and to provide your readers with a clear and understandable text. Here is the list of the main parts you should include in your term assignment.

The cover or title page is necessary to introduce your paper and provide the basic information about it, including your data, professor’s name, topic, etc. More detailed requirements depend on the particular formatting style, so read your instructions carefully.

This part is something like a short introduction to your paper. It lets your readers understand the overall direction, the issue you explore, and why you have decided to choose this particular theme. If you have additional comments that may be interesting for your audience, provide them here as well.

Start your paper with an exciting and engaging statement. The main thing you should know about the thesis is that it is a pivot point of your writing. You build all body paragraphs and the primary research around it.

If you don’t know how to write a thesis , you may read some articles or ask for professional help.

The body consists of the main paragraphs. The traditional essay structure includes 3 of them; however, if you’re writing a 10-pages or even 40-pages paper, you should change your structure according to requirements.

You should develop your findings, ideas, or arguments, considering the final goal. For example, if your task is to analyze some issues and perceive readers to accept your point of view, you should provide compelling evidence-based arguments. If you need to explore the theme, write down, and develop the main ideas it covers. Make sure each paragraph is devoted to one aspect only.

This part is of great significance because you should show particular progress. Have you accepted certain things about your topic? Have you changed your view from the moment you started working on the piece? Any insights you’ve gained you should describe in the Results section. If you’re not satisfied with them, you can explain the reasons here as well.

It is a conclusion chapter where you can wrap up. You should analyze your text and provide readers with the next steps one should follow to continue one’s research on the subject you’re working through.

As an unusual essay conclusion, the discussion doesn’t contain any new information.

Main Tips to Write a Killer Term Paper

Do not hope that you will complete this task in a day or an hour. Some students make the mistake of starting paper right away. This is a beginner's mistake. You may think that if you have already written a few lines, this indicates significant progress. But these proposals will be weak, meaningless.

Any work takes time. Think of it as a project with specific goals. You can split a task into multiple milestones and set a deadline for each one.

If you realize that you cannot write this piece on time, hire an experienced writer. The more experience you have, the faster the process lasts.

So, you've gathered enough information. We understand if you don't know what to do next and what your first step should be.

Get a sense of control with a paper outline. This is your plan that describes all stages of the process. It also helps you organize your time and information.

In the end, you can come back to this plan again to check how the final version matches your initial expectations. If you have developed a high-quality outline, you can quickly determine which aspects of the document are needed and which are just filling the space.

You should write the term paper competently. You have done the research, collected enough information, analyzed it. Any of your doubts will indicate a lack of professionalism.

This is why you need to keep an eye on your writing style. Formal academic writing involves an active voice, professional vocabulary, and no fluffy words. You don't need to write something that doesn't make any sense for the main task.

Remember, we said that writing a term paper is long and complicated? Most students hate this. They spent a lot of time writing all sections of the article and do not feel like proofreading the entire text.

But if you have not yet encountered academic writing, you may not imagine how many mistakes a text can contain. Even if you are a very literate person, you may not notice some typos and occasional flaws. Of course, this does not make you incompetent, but readers can lose confidence in your paper.

Proofread the piece very thoroughly and carefully. Wait a few days before doing this; your brain should not be tired.

How to Make a Term Paper Outline

An outline is the part of the writing process that deserves a little more attention.

Use it as the guiding map that is always ready to point you in the right direction if you get confused.

There are several ways to design an outline, and you can download different templates from the Internet.

Some methods are suitable for people who like to organize all information in a coherent plan. But if you are a creative person, you can also choose a suitable template for yourself. For example, a mind map.

An outline is not something that your professor will check, so you don't have to worry about the exact format and details. The main thing is to make sure that you fully understand the content and use it for your writing.

Even before you start researching a topic and writing, you need to prepare a college term paper proposal. This is a document that will help you defend your idea in front of the professor. Even before starting the main work, you will submit this proposal to get approval.

You need to show the importance of this theme by including recent data with correct links. Why do you think your piece will correlate with the course syllabus? How is it useful for you and your fellow students?

Set goals for your college assignment and organize your ideas into one article. This will let the professor know that you have understood the assignment correctly.

It's okay if you fail at this stage. It is needed just so that the professor checks whether you are on the same wavelength and can provide you with any further instructions.

So, you received confirmation from your professor, came up with a topic, conducted initial research, and made an outline. What's next?

• Try to narrow down your topic. You need a learning perspective that allows you to organize and structure your thoughts.
• Create bait for your readers. Have a brainstorming session and write down different ideas: rhetorical questions, anecdotes, statistical facts, etc
• Come up with a thesis statement. If you cannot summarize your article's main idea in 1-2 sentences, you need to return to the first step and think about narrowing the topic.
• Check out the style requirements. Your piece must be in a standardized format. Below you will learn more about APA format and others.
• Do more research. You can go deeper because now you know your goals better. Use quality and trusted sources only.
• Write the first sentence. If you worry too much, just start. You may delete the first sentences later, but don’t look for a perfect moment: start as soon as you have enough information.

You may think that the conclusion chapter is not so important because it doesn’t provide your readers with any new information. However, each section has its tasks and goals, so don't relax too early.

The last paragraphs should provide an answer to a fundamental question. This question is “So what?”. Just imagine your regular reader who finishes the text and doesn’t understand what is next. Was your text just a pleasant evening reading? Is it one more piece to improve academic performance? Or is it something more that was created to contribute to the field you’ve studied?

If you don’t have strict instructions from your professor, you can decide on your own. Think about questions your work creates, and provide the audience with steps to follow.

Term Paper Format

All college and university papers must be standardized. The requirements are the same for all students regardless of their educational institutions. If you plan to pursue a scientific career, you’ll deal with these standards all the time.

Formatting is not the most straightforward task because you need always be concentrated on some details that seem to be useless for you. It is clear why you should develop a unique thesis statement, but some students can’t get why they should use the particular font type or double-spacing.

That’s why formatting is one of the most popular writing services. While you’re working on tasks you like, the professional author and editor provide you with quality formatting.

Several styles are typical for the modern scientific society. Let’s look at them to get a basic understanding.

If you are studying psychology or other social sciences, the APA format is your choice. Here's a shortlist of the main things to consider:

• White A4 sheet 8.5 x 11 inches.
• Times New Roman or other easily readable 12 point font.
• Double spacing for all text.
• 1 "margins on the left, right, top, and bottom of the sheet.
• Indent the paragraph by 1/2 inch.
• The first-page heading, which includes the capitalized running head and the page number.

The MLA style is the preferred guideline for dealing with the humanities such as English and Literature, Arts, etc. Some of the features of this style are:

• Times New Roman, Arial or similar, 12 point font.
• Double spacing for the entire document. Get rid of single or one and a half intervals.
• Enter your contact details and instructor in the upper left corner.
• Take care of 1 "padding on all sides of the sheet.
• Add your last name and page number to all pages in the upper right corner.
• Align the title of the article in the center. Don't use bold, italic, quotation marks, underlines, etc.
• Align the entire article to the left.
• Indent all paragraphs to the right 1/2 inch.

Chicago or Turabian styles are used when it goes about the law assignments. The requirements are similar, but there are some differences as well. Take a look at this list:

• Times, Times New Roman 12 pt font.
• 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Double-spacing.
• Left-justified text with a ragged right edge.
• 12 inch indent for the first sentence of each paragraph.
• Provide page numbers in the top right corner.

Of course, we can’t provide you with all the format requirements in this article. You should have an official relevant guide with all details and examples to follow. Ask your professor if you have any questions. And don’t forget about correct citing, it is necessary to avoid plagiarism.

• The main arguments for and against the death penalty.
• What is more important: national identity or globalization?
• Social isolation and its consequences.
• Should church and state function together?
• Could modern advertising be dangerous?

User ratings:

User ratings is 4.5 stars.

4.5 /5 ( 13 Votes)

Content Writer

I studied sociology and marketing at Europa-Universität Viadrina (Germany) and Universidade da Beira Interior (Portugal). When I was a sophomore, back in 2018, I decided to put what I've learned into practice, so I got my first job in digital marketing. I currently work in the content marketing department at Studybay, building strong, effective, and respectful communication between the platform and our clients.

Add Your Comment

We are very interested to know your opinion

Very helpful, thanks😌

Excellent Explanation! Thanks.

very insightful

Adeola Hannah

Thanks🥰 for the summary

Excellent explanation! Thx😀❤️

Your guidance is very good. Thank you.

I like the material of this website

Bakhtar iqbal

Thank very much for your help, it is very interesting and very clear description about term paper

mamuye ashagire

This is a very useful tip. Thanks

Dimgba Chiamaka

Impactful and resourceful. Thank you for your all essay writing guides!

Princess Anto

I very satisfied with clear discussion on the topic, thanks for mentioning mla format

Mulugeta Tesfaye

Upgrade your writing skills!

Try our AI essay writer from Studybay today!

• Dalhousie University Libraries

Academic Research Skills Guide

• Term paper research
• Getting started with research
• Choosing a topic
• What is a database?
• Database searching tips
• Books or articles: What should I use?
• Help - I can't access something!
• Identifying and reading scholarly works
• Evaluating online sources
• Primary sources
• Advanced searching with Google
• Citation chaining: Finding more papers starting from a single source
• Finding best practices and guidelines

Plan your time using the Assignment Calculator

Enter the start date and due date of your assignment into the Assignment Calculator to get yourself organized right from the start.

The first stretch: Choosing a topic

When choosing a research topic for your term paper, read the assignment description and ask yourself the following questions: 

• What topics interest me? Consider issues discussed in class, current events, and anything you're curious about, even if you don't think they relate to your course. You might be surprised at the connections you can make! 
• How long does my paper need to be? Term paper lengths vary, so keep the length of your paper in mind when choosing a topic. If your topic is too specific, you may not have enough material to write about. If your topic is too broad, you may run over the page limit. 

For more help choosing a topic, visit the Choosing a research topic page of this guide.

A bend in the road: Have you registered your Dal card with the library? 

Before the next step in the research roadmap, you need to make sure your Dal card is registered as your library card. You can do this through an online registration form on the Dalhousie Libraries' website or in person at any of the Libraries' service points. 

The second stretch: Search for information

A major part of the research process is searching for information. To help you with your search, check out the Dalhousie Libraries' Research Guides . These guides are collections of key resources created by librarians to assist with your research. 

Here are a few types of information resources that you might want to search for:

Reference Sources

Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are excellent for looking up both general background information on a topic and specific facts and figures. 

Scholarly/Academic Books and Articles

Scholarly books and articles are the most common information resources used in term paper research. Books and articles can be found through searching in Novanet.

Articles can also be found in databases. The A-Z Databases List  can be sorted by subject to find the database most relevant to your research topic. Keep in mind that there are also multidisciplinary databases, such as Academic Search Premier , which cover a wide range of topics. 

Media Commentary 

Finding media commentary on your topic can also be useful. Dalhousie Libraries' collected print/online magazines and newspapers can be helpful for this kind of research. These collections can be accessed through the Newspapers Research Guide .

The third stretch: Read and reflect

Once you have found a variety of relevant sources, it's time to get reading. While you read, be sure to highlight any quotes that seem important and take notes as you go. Jot down any questions or thoughts that come to mind, and write down key terms and points. 

Next, use your notes to write an outline of the paper. Think of each resource as a building block: How do they fit together to build your argument? Figuring this out at the outline stage will save you time later.

The road home: Write and cite

Use your outline to structure and guide your writing. 

If you struggle with this step, be sure to take a detour to the Dalhousie University Writing Centre to receive assistance with your writing. In-person and online appointments are available. Fill out the intake form to get started!

Don't forget to cite your sources. The various resources you read for your paper require explicit credit through citations. Your assignment instructions will likely indicate what citation style to use. If you are unsure what citation style to use or how to cite a particular resource, ask a librarian for assistance or use the Citation Style Guide. 

Is it really that simple?

Your research may require that you occasionally backtrack and return to previous checkpoints — this is totally normal.

For example, as you search you may decide that your topic is too general (you're overwhelmed by all the information you find) or too specific (you can't find enough on your topic). Return to the first stretch of the roadmap and revise your topic choice.

Or you may read an amazing article that introduces a new aspect of your topic and want more literature that tackles this aspect. Return to the second stretch of the roadmap and continue your search. 

Or, as you write, you may develop new thoughts on your topic that are not reflected in the original outline of your argument. Return to the third stretch of the map and re-work your outline. 

Use this roadmap to structure your research process but don't be afraid to follow the route backwards whenever necessary! And for more information on term paper research, consult the videos below. 

• << Previous: Choosing a topic
• Next: What is a database? >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2024 1:22 PM
• URL: https://dal.ca.libguides.com/ResearchSkills

Term Paper: Step-by-Step Guide for Getting an A+

• Icon Calendar 3 August 2024
• Icon Page 6562 words
• Icon Clock 30 min read

Students in higher learning institutions must submit their term papers at the end of each semester. Fundamentally, these projects play a crucial role in evaluating the learner’s knowledge of a specific subject. In this case, scholars should engage in adequate preparation before writing a complete document. Then, some of the essential steps include defining a topic, finding credible sources, creating and revising a document’s outline, and drafting a term work. Moreover, an outline of such work differs from that of other essays since it must include subsections. Further on, writers must ensure all the subtopics relate to a central thesis statement. Besides, each body paragraph must contain a topic sentence, supportive proof, appropriate descriptions, and a concluding and transitioning statement. In turn, its conclusion must include a concise summary of the main points discussed in its body. As a result, this guide is designed to help students to learn how to write a correct term paper and achieve their academic goals successfully.

What Is a Term Paper and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a term paper is a comprehensive research assignment that students typically complete at the end of an academic year to demonstrate their understanding and knowledge of a specific subject, taking a significant portion of their grade. The main purpose of writing a term paper is to assess and evaluate students’ skills to conduct independent research, analyze primary and secondary data, organize their thoughts coherently, support their arguments with evidence, and present their findings in a structured format (Phillips, 2018). To achieve this objective, learners must prepare such documents for them to succeed in their studies. Moreover, such an assignment refers to serious study work that they need to submit to their instructors at the end of a semester to pass their courses. On the other hand, professors use these types of papers to track and evaluate their students’ knowledge about their areas of expertise. Further on, the process of organizing a term paper involves comprehensive research and methodological writing skills and follows specific analytical and organized structures (Coreil, 2013). Besides, good term papers have well-researched evidence that supports significant claims. As such, learners in higher educational institutions prepare such works when reflecting on their knowledge in a specific study area. In turn, the length of a term paper can vary significantly in terms of words and pages, depending on the course, instructor, and academic level:

High School

• Words: 1,500 to 2,500 words
• Pages: 5 to 8 full pages

College (Undergraduate)

• Words: 3,000 to 5,000 words
• Pages: 10 to 15 full pages

University (Upper-Level Undergraduate)

• Words: 4,000 to 6,000 words
• Pages: 13 to 20 full pages

Master’s

• Words: 5,000 to 7,500 words
• Pages: 17 to 25 full pages
• Words: 7,500 to 10,000 words
• Pages: 25 to 35 full pages

Term Paper Format

General formatting guidelines:

• Font: Times New Roman, 12-point
• Spacing: Double-spaced
• Margins: 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page Numbers: Top right corner, starting from the title page
• Headings and Subheadings: Use consistent formatting for headings and subheadings

Possible Topics

Students in higher learning institutions may come across different topics for writing their term projects. In practice, study themes vary from one subject to another and require students to engage in detailed research (Phillips, 2018). Hence, possible topics that one may come across for writing their documents are:

• Influence of colors on mood and behavior .
• Exploring the impact of telemedicine in patient-centered care .
• Impacts of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance .
• Is there a cancer epidemic due to industrial chemicals in the environment?
• Should federal courts be bound by the “original intent” of the framers?
• Do foreign investments threaten U.S. economic independence?
• Should morality and human rights influence foreign trade policy?
• Do rich nations have a responsibility to help developing countries?
• Partnership benefits at state and federal institutions.
• Same-sex adoption and access to reproductive technologies.
• Execution of juveniles.
• The lengthy appealing process for death row inmates.
• The Constitutional question of “cruel and unusual punishment.”

Different topics have a broad scope. Basically, themes given above show that students must carry out extensive research to provide a comprehensive response. On the other hand, they can decide on the content they include in their papers and give a comprehensive analysis of their subjects.

Step-by-Step Guide for Writing a Term Paper

Any student must prepare a final project to achieve desired grades and complete a study course. In this case, a good term paper typically ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 words of writing, depending on academic levels and specific course requirements. Besides, adequate preparation allows scholars to gather relevant evidence and draft their works effectively. To start a term paper, students begin with a clear and engaging introduction that provides background information on study topics assigned by their instructors, states their research questions or thesis statements, and outlines corresponding structures (Phillips, 2018). As a result, the necessary steps in writing a high-quality report that one should take into consideration when organizing an academic piece are:

Step 1: Preparation

Defining a topic.

Defining a specific subject for a project is the first and most crucial activity that any writer must consider. Fundamentally, describing a specific issue allows students to understand their course prompts and understand key ideas required to complete final projects. For example, a term paper in English literature is a comprehensive research assignment that involves analyzing, interpreting, and discussing a specific literary work, author, or theme, allowing instructions to evaluate students’ understanding and critical evaluation of the subject at the end of a semester (Coreil, 2013). To write an English term paper, students begin by selecting a relevant literary topic, conduct thorough research and analysis, create an outline, state a clear thesis statement, develop their arguments in structured sections, provide textual evidence and citations, conclude with a summary of their findings, and ensure to proofread and adhere to the required formatting guidelines. In this case, one must understand the meaning of essential terms with their context. Moreover, students should use resources, like a dictionary and thesaurus, to obtain the necessary definitions. In turn, they may opt to seek help from peers and lecturers when defining a topic for a research assignment.   

Preparing Ideas

Preparing ideas for any project leads to outstanding work. For example, students can identify all the relevant ideas and points that need to be covered before engaging in the actual writing process (Goodson, 2024). Unfortunately, many learners fail to consider preparing thoughts as an essential step when writing a term paper. As a result, they prepare low-quality essays and achieve low grades. In turn, students need to redo their projects to pass their classes. Hence, they should prepare initial ideas before organizing a term report by using acceptable methods.

Brainstorming

Scholars should consider brainstorming as an acceptable method to prepare ideas for a term paper. For example, brainstorming helps learners to come up with fresh and new facts for their writing. In this case, students think of the ideas that relate to their topics (Goodson, 2024). Moreover, the process generates unique ideas that can make one’s work to stand out. Hence, some ideas for brainstorming that one may use when preparing concepts and thoughts are:

• Come up with bad ideas first – Learners should think about research concepts related to their topics. In this case, successful students do not consider raising positive thoughts during brainstorming. Instead, they need to present both good and bad ideas concerning their subjects. On the other hand, writers should not feel ‘stupid’ for raising bad ideas since the strategy helps identify weaker and more robust ideas. Then, one should allow ideas to flow during the brainstorming strategy. Besides, scholars should focus on raising positive opinions after exhausting throwaway thoughts. Hence, authors need to increase both bad and good ideas that relate to their topics under analysis.
• Breaking and building ideas – One of the most effective strategies for turning a few ideas into many is to break them down. Principally, learners need to identify general writing themes that relate to a project and break them into smaller details. In this case, the process helps authors to see if some narrower ideas branch from their main themes. Alternatively, one may combine different ideas to create a broader subtopic for a document. Hence, writers need to break down more general concepts while combining narrow ones.
• Play word games – Outstanding term projects contain original and unique ideas. For example, word games are instrumental tools that prevent learners from producing generic and unoriginal ideas. In this case, word games motivate some out-of-box thinking. Moreover, “word storm” is an excellent method for a student to generate related ideas. In turn, this method allows authors to create thoughts naturally without overthinking.
• Creating a mood board – Learners should rely on writing methods that motivate them to generate fresh and unique ideas related to a research topic. For instance, combining imagery, color, and visual-spatial elements evokes emotions and feelings. and they spark fresh and new thoughts. In this case, students manage to recall some concepts acquired during learning by improving the overall paper’s quality.
• Doodling – Successful students spur creativity insights and increase attention when generating essential ideas for a term report. Essentially, doodling allows a learner to engage with visuals that spark new thoughts. Furthermore, practical doodling approaches help authors to break out of the traditional brainstorming approaches, and they rely on reading and talking. In this case, learners should break visual objects into small objects or combine unrelated items. Hence, these approaches motivate the brain to generate unique ideas for supporting a central theme.
• Changing a physical environment – Ordinary motivation plays a crucial role in the generation of new writing ideas. In this case, students should change their physical environment to avoid boredom. Basically, enriched and attractive environments affect how the human brain works and speed up how one generates new ideas and thoughts. Therefore, a successful learner can select the location for brainstorming effectively. 

Reading is an appropriate method that students may consider when generating ideas for term papers. For instance, reading is a traditional method, and writers use it to raise arguments related to a specific topic (Goodson, 2024). In this case, scholars must identify credible sources that relate to a study topic and read them to understand an assigned subject better before writing. This strategy plays a crucial in raising viable and accurate ideas about the project’s topic. However, scholars can take the necessary precautions since extensive reading is a tedious and monotonous process.   

Considering an Academic Audience

Different scholars read term papers for specific reasons. Basically, students must consider the target audience as academic readers to ensure articles meet their needs (Phillips, 2018). In most cases, scholars use the official language when writing and expressing thoughts. Moreover, formal language suits academic documents because it reveals professionalism and academic excellence.

Step 2: Setting Up the Stage

Researching for sources.

Terms papers must contain credible evidence obtained from academic sources. Essentially, scholars gather adequate evidence from different reliable sources, like books, journal articles, financial and laboratory reports, credible websites, and magazines (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). As a ground writing rule, all sources must provide adequate and irrefutable evidence to support the main arguments. In particular, one can find scholarly sources published in the last ten years because they contain the latest evidence and facts on issues under investigation. Hence, writers need to look for credible sources to support their main arguments.

Making Notes

Taking notes is a crucial step when writing term papers. Principally, scholars must read all the sources critically. In this case, the strategy allows one to understand the major concepts and ideas that relate to a research topic. Moreover, students should consider writing short notes to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding of the main messages made by authors of credible sources (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Then, successful scholars take notes and revise them to ensure they obtain the most substantial evidence that supports their research work. In turn, improving paper notes involves breaking broader ideas into smaller ones and combining others to make them stronger and more sensible. Therefore, students can take the necessary points to support their central ideas.    

Developing a Study Outline

Organizing thoughts plays a crucial role in preparing a quality document. Essentially, one should combine research notes obtained from scholarly sources and those gathered during brainstorming and put them into developing a term paper’s outline (Phillips, 2018). In this case, a well-organized outline helps writers to connect ideas. Moreover, this outline should contain a study topic with the main thoughts and concepts needed to be covered. Further on, clear outlines have smaller ideas that relate to the main ones. In turn, the strategy allows one to see direct connections between the main ideas and leads to an organized scholarly article. As a result, students should follow the basic writing steps below to create a clear outline:

• Organize notes and relevant evidence into groups of related ideas.
• Review a thesis statement to determine if it communicates the intended message.
• Define the main points to support a working thesis statement or research hypothesis.
• Include ideas and thoughts to strengthen the main points.
• Match supportive ideas with relevant sources obtained through research.
• Organize all the ideas to achieve a unique flow of information logically.
• Identify if some of the points presented need additional research and where thoughts require more development.
• Revise points and ideas to enhance the overall quality of a paper.

Writing an Annotated Bibliography

Successful scholars prepare annotated bibliographies that contain relevant and irrefutable research. Basically, each entry in an annotated bibliography for a document must include citation information with writing a short description and analysis (Coreil, 2013). In this case, scholars need to follow accepted citation styles, depending on instructions given by professors. Besides, an annotated bibliography must focus on a central topic of a term report. Students must ensure all sources remain relevant to their study topics. However, one should remember that typical annotated bibliography requirements may vary depending on the topic and term paper’s requirements. In turn, a useful annotated bibliography should help learners to keep track of research readings and gain a sense of a literature review. Hence, one needs to prepare a written annotated bibliography for a project when conducting research.

Step 3: Starting a Term Paper

Organizing a first draft.

First drafts of term papers help one to organize ideas in a good flow. Essentially, students should use their outlines and annotated bibliographies to write the first draft of a document (Coreil, 2013). In this case, scholars need to focus on presenting all the ideas in this draft. Further on, an appropriate draft enables one to test an outline and elaborate theories to support the central argument. As a result, good drafts resemble complete term reports. Finally, good drafts must contain a title page, abstract or executive summary, introduction, body, and conclusion with a reference page.

Putting Everything Together

A scholar should put all the ideas together into a complete term paper. For example, learners need to ensure a written document contains a logical flow of ideas (Goodson, 2024). In this case, the strategy enables students to identify some gaps in the presented concepts. Besides, putting everything together helps authors to identify some points that require more investigation.

Finding New Sources or Deleting Old Ones

Term papers must contain compelling ideas and arguments. For example, learners need to review their drafts to determine if all sources provide relevant and credible evidence (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). In practice, scholars change some sources that offer weak arguments. Besides, writers must remove previous scholarly sources with weak points of view or irrelevant information to a study since a research hypothesis may be changed during writing the first draft. Hence, one can change credible sources where necessary.

Altering an Outline

Learners should change their outlines of term papers to make such pieces more substantial and compelling. For instance, people must use their first drafts and new scholarly sources to make relevant changes in a term document’s outline (Coreil, 2013). Besides, the primary goal of this writing strategy is to strengthen study arguments and improve their clarity.

Creating a Working Thesis

Compelling term papers must contain well-organized thesis statements by considering research hypotheses and rationales. Fundamentally, scholars develop a working thesis statement, which includes the claim and significant points that scholars try to make (Gray, 2018). In this case, writers need to create a sentence that explains their positions taken on topics in question based on their hypotheses and rationales. Furthermore, lecturers evaluate all the body paragraphs and how they relate to the thesis and research question. In this case, one should use a revised outline, a written draft, and a completed annotated bibliography to create the working hypothesis and ensure it meets the necessary quality.

Step 4: Wrapping It Up

Outstanding term papers contain minimal or no flaws. Essentially, learners must revise their drafts to remove all the mistakes. For example, some factors that one must consider are spelling and grammatical errors, various writing technicalities, and idea flow (Goodson, 2024). In this case, revisions play a significant role in improving the paper’s overall quality and ensuring readers develop the motivation to evaluate all its sections. Hence, students need to revise the first term project’s draft to remove unnecessary mistakes.  

Editing is an important task, and it helps authors to make term papers compelling. In particular, students focus on enhancing the readability and relevance levels of research (Coreil, 2013). Hence, when writing a term paper, one must consider:

• Scholars can change the order of words during the editing process. In this case, the primary purpose of enhancing the term report’s euphony is to improve the rhythm and other dynamics. As a result, students can replace weak expressions to remove clichés and conversational writing style.
• Effective editing helps authors to enhance the brevity of statements and claims made throughout a document. In turn, short and concise words sound better than long or wordy statements.
• An effective editing process improves the honesty of claims made and evidence presented throughout a study work. In this case, term projects must include proven facts written in each paragraph. Moreover, one can specify scholarly sources of any data used in supporting topic sentences.
• Good students edit their documents to improve the quality of their literacy levels. On the other hand, one must proofread the work to remove punctuation, spelling and syntax mistakes, and typos. Finally, this process requires reading a whole term document several times to identify all writing errors and correct them accordingly.

Topic Sentences

Every paragraph in the body of a term paper must begin with a topic sentence. For example, learners ensure each section dwells on a single point related to a central thesis statement (Goodson, 2024). Moreover, one needs to reread a written work to ensure all paragraphs have the necessary opening statements.

Concluding Sentences

Every paragraph of a term report must end with a concluding sentence. In this case, students need to summarize all ideas covered in a paper’s body section (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). Besides, last sentences of paragraphs should include writing a summative claim, which brings all the concepts and thoughts into a unique closure.  

Transitions

All ideas presented in a term document must have a unique transitioning of ideas. For example, writers should use the necessary phrases to transition sentences and paragraphs (Goodson, 2024). In particular, the approach improves the overall readability and flow of ideas in any paper. As a rule, each paragraph’s last sentence must act as a transition to the next section. Hence, readers need to find connections between all the paragraphs in a written report.

Any learning institution requires students to follow specific formatting rules. In this case, learners must follow such guidelines when writing their term papers (Coreil, 2013). As a result, marking rubrics are useful tools that each learner needs to use to format their work.

Peer Reviewing

Peer review is an essential step in enhancing the term project’s quality. Mainly, one should identify scholars who are familiar with a study subject to read a written document. To achieve this objective, qualified scholars help students to identify some mistakes that may undermine the paper’s readability (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Besides, peers provide positive criticism, and this process allows students to make the necessary changes to their work.

Step 5: Writing a Final Draft

A term paper’s final draft must include all the changes made during revisions, editing, formatting, and peer review. In this case, scholars focus on submitting flawless documents that do not contain any forms of plagiarism (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). Besides, the written final draft must capture all the aspects covered during a research study with results, discussion, recommendations, limitations, and information for further analysis or investigation.

Basic Outline Template for a Term Paper

Cover Page with a Title

Abstract (150 words)

Table of Contents (if needed)

I. Introduction

A. Relevance of research

B. The purpose of a term paper or a discussed problem

C. Personal reaction to a study subject

D. Hypothesis and rationale

E. Short descriptions of methodology and key findings

F. Principal conclusions and thesis statement

A. Literature Review (if needed)

• Topic sentence
• Explanation
• Concluding sentence and transition

B. Methodology

D. Discussion

E. Recommendations and Limitations (if needed)

III. Conclusion

A. Summary of the main points

B. A strong response to a central thesis statement

C. A summative statement

Note: The presented structure for writing a term paper appears different since it contains some sections of a research paper, which are useful for any study, and includes various subheadings that relate to the main topic. Each subheading may have several body paragraphs. However, each paragraph must contain a topic sentence, a supporting example, and a relevant explanation.

Explanations for Key Aspects

Introduction.

The introduction must state the primary purpose of a term project. Mainly, scholars ensure the first part of the work acquaints readers with a problem under discussion (Gray, 2018). Besides, one must include a compelling and robust thesis statement in this section. As a rule, introduction paragraphs should not take up a large part of an entire document. Hence, the introduction section must provide an overview of the whole work in a straightforward and precise writing manner. In turn, some examples of sentence starters for beginning a term paper are:

• In recent years, the phenomenon of [topic] has gained notable attention due to its impact on [field or society].
• This project explores the critical issue of [topic], aiming to understand its implications for [specific group or area].
• The purpose of this examination is to investigate the underlying causes of [issue] and propose potential solutions, such as [solutions].
• Understanding [topic] is crucial for [field] because it directly affects [specific outcome or process].
• This research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of [topic], focusing on [specific aspect].
• This paper explores the historical context of [topic] and its relevance to modern-day issues.
• Through a comprehensive review of [literature/field], this report seeks to examine the complex relationship between [concept A] and [concept B].
• By exploring [topic], this analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of [field or discipline].
• The evolution of [topic] over the past decade highlights the need for a thorough investigation of [specific aspect].
• The purpose of this term project is to challenge the traditional understanding of [topic] by presenting new insights and perspectives, such as [points].

The term document’s body must have different headings and subheadings that connect to the topic. In this case, scholars ensure the process of dividing a document into different sections enhances the clarity of the message (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Moreover, a suitable number of citations for a term paper generally ranges from 10 to 20, depending on the length and depth of the entire work, the topic’s complexity, and the specific requirements of the course and instructor. Finally, the writing strategy should not distract readers from appreciating the intended message.

The closing paragraph must restate the thesis statement included in the introduction. Essentially, students sum up the ideas presented in all the body paragraphs (Gray, 2018). Then, the most effective writing strategy that one may use is to restate all the topic sentences. Finally, authors provide a concluding statement, and it brings an entire study paper into a unique closure.

How to Write a Proposal for a Term Paper

A term paper proposal outlines the structure of the future work that scholars must complete. Principally, practical writing recommendations provide crucial elements that support the research process included in an actual paper. In this case, term proposals aim to constrict a wide area of interest into a complicated or specific topic (Coreil, 2013). Moreover, writers define the intention to discover a study issue and base their decision on the need to make changes, improve the condition of the matter, or advance scholarly knowledge in the specific area of interest. In turn, one needs to select essential parts of writing a term project and put them together in a unified format. Besides, one should briefly describe each section and tie key details to a chosen topic. Hence, a good term paper proposal must include the following parts:

• Title – Any documentmust have a concise and brief title, and it should resemble that of an actual term paper.
• Objectives – All proposals state a key goal of a future project and include its intended purpose on what it expects to achieve.
• Research question – An outstanding proposal must state study questions, and scholars intend to answer them through adequate research.
• Thesis statement – Propositions include a clear thesis statement that responds to the research question directly. In this case, a suitable thesis should be factual, clear, and subjective. Besides, one must ensure a central claim is a verifiable statement.
• Methodology – Proposal documents state actual methods used to gather and evaluate the relevant data, including appropriate and proven methods to conduct a research study.

Possible Writing Formats

Different educational institutions require learners to use writing formats when preparing term papers. For example, the most common formatting styles that one may come across include MLA 9, APA 7, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian. In turn, each of these formats has specific guidelines, and they are.

Term papers formatted in APA 7 must contain a title page, which includes the relevant heading and identifies the student, date, and relevant institution. In this case, each page must contain a header, which consists of a shortened title of a term report and the specific page. However, the first page should have the phrase “Running Head” preceding the shortened title. In turn, in-text citations contain the author’s last name and publication date.

Projects formatted in MLA 9 do not require a cover page unless specified. In particular, writers include a header, which contains surnames and page numbers. Moreover, one must flush these writing details to the right margin of the page. In turn, all in-text citations must have the author’s last name and the exact page containing the evidence used.

Chicago/Turabian

Documents formatted in Chicago/Turabian must contain a title page, which has the title and identifies the author. Basically, one must capitalize all the letters in the heading. Moreover, page numbers begin on the second page and appear on the top right side. In turn, in-text citations appear as footnotes, which contain full bibliographic details of sources.    

Reports formatted in Harvard style must contain a title page, which includes the title and other details identifying the student, professor or tutor, and the relevant institution. In particular, one must write the title in capital letters. Then, the paper’s header contains the title and page number. However, one must flush these details to the right margin. As a result, in-text citations include the author’s surname, publication date, and the page containing the relevant evidence.

Term Paper Example

Research Topic: Is the “war on terror” a global civil war?

Scholars develop different conceptions of the term “war on terror.” Basically, some scholars argue that the United States uses the war on terror to control the weaker nations. In this case, the current research examined whether the war on terror is a civil war. Then, a review of relevant literature was an effective method of gathering the necessary data. In turn, study results show that the United States uses the war on terror to protect citizens’ rights, which proves the alternative hypothesis to be a valid statement.

Keywords : War on terror, hypothesis, and review of literature

I. Introduction Sample

The term war on terror became standard after the extremist attacks of September 11, 2001. Basically, President George W. Bush’s government confirmed a global campaign that involved open and secret military actions, new security lawmaking, and determinations to block extremism’s sponsoring, among other factors. In this case, the movement rallied for support from other countries, which willingly joined in the fight against terrorism. Although most scholars argue that the war on terror is an American strategy to control other countries, civil war theories prove otherwise.

Hypotheses:

H 0 – The United States uses the war on terror to control other countries.

H 1 – The United States uses the war on terror to protect the rights of its citizens.

II. Example of Body Paragraphs

A. Literature Review

Different theories of civil wars prove that persistent rebel groups that engage in criminal activities. For example, some of the civil war philosophies include motivation and feasibility, ideas of rebellion, organization of the uprising, and evidence of the causes, among other factors (Kimbrough & Sheremeta, 2019). In turn, these theories prove that civil war results from the emergence and persistence of a rebel army. Moreover, motivation and feasibility theories argue that rebels with excessive power engage in terrorism. Hence, persistent rebel groups engage in terrorism as a way of addressing their interests.

A review of relevant literature is a suitable method for gathering the necessary data for the essay. According to Reale et al. (2017), a literature review is an effective method for gathering information for research papers in history and other social sciences. Therefore, reviewing scholarly sources related to civil war and terrorism will contribute to gathering the necessary data.

Standard game theory shows that economic grievances lead to terrorism. According to traditional game theory, economic dissimilarities in the community motivate some people to engage in crime (Kimbrough & Sheremeta, 2019). In this case, the less productive but healthy groups tend to participate in violence against industrious but weak groups. Besides, such conflict levels undermine fairness, equity, or coercion, depending on the analyst’s political standpoint. Hence, economic grievances motivate some groups to engage in terrorism.

Study findings show that the United States targets specific terror groups since their predatory behavior in a country or region leads to adverse economic and social outcomes. In this case, militant groups lead to redistribution through violence when productive and weak agents engage in defensive actions. Moreover, militant groups engage in activities that cause other people to reiterate. In turn, research results from such activities include reciprocated hatred that inflicts harm to innocent citizens. Hence, the United States participates in peacekeeping missions that can lower the negative impacts of such conflicts.

III. Conclusion Sample

Most scholars argue that the war on terror is an American strategy to control other countries. In this case, different theories on civil wars prove that terrorism results from grievances and economic interests of some specific groups. Moreover, such activities destabilize the economic and social welfare of ordinary citizens. Thus, citizens focus on such terror groups intending to protect citizens of the affected countries. 

List of References

Kimbrough, E. O., & Sheremeta, R. M. (2019). Theories of conflict and war. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization , 159 , 384–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.02.007

Reale, E., Avramov, D., Canhial, K., Donovan, C., Flecha, R., Holm, P., Larkin, C., Lepori, B., Mosoni-Fried, J., Oliver, E., Primeri, E., Puigvert, L., Scharnhorst, A., Schubert, A., Soler, M., Soòs, S., Sordé, T., Travis, C., & Van Horik, R. (2017). A literature review on evaluating the scientific, social, and political impact of social sciences and humanities research. Research Evaluation , 27 (4), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvx025

Comparison Table: Term Paper vs. Research Paper vs. Essay

Key Remarks . The main differences between a term paper and an essay are that the former involves in-depth research and analysis on an assigned topic over a specific course, being longer and more detailed, while the latter presents a focused argument or viewpoint on a particular subject, resulting in a shorter and less comprehensive writing piece. Moreover, the main differences between a term paper and a research paper are that the former demonstrates a better understanding and knowledge gained after completing a course, often summarizing existing research, while the latter explores and answers a specific study question or hypothesis, usually involving original research and detailed analysis. In turn, a term paper and a thesis paper are not the same because the former is a comprehensive writing assignment completed over a course to demonstrate a deep understanding of a specific subject, while the latter is a lengthy, original research project required for a graduate degree, solving an existing knowledge gap and presenting new findings or insights through writing.

Common Mistakes

• Lack of an Accurate Thesis Statement: Failing to establish a clear, concise thesis statement shows your lack of focus and direction in your term paper.
• Poor Organization: A disorganized structure can make your arguments hard to follow because you need to ensure your document has a logical flow of ideas with clear headings and subheadings.
• Insufficient Research: Relying on too few sources or not incorporating different perspectives can weaken your writing project since comprehensive research is crucial.
• Ignoring Guidelines: Not following the assignment writing guidelines or the specified format (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, and others) can result in losing marks.
• Weak Introduction and Conclusion: An ineffective introduction may fail to engage readers, and a weak conclusion can leave your report feeling incomplete.
• Plagiarism: Failing to properly cite sources or presenting others’ works as your own can have serious academic consequences, and you must always cite your sources correctly.
• Inconsistent Argumentation: Presenting contradictory arguments or failing to support your claims with evidence can undermine your project’s credibility.
• Grammatical and Spelling Errors: Poor grammar and spelling mistakes can distract your readers and detract them from the quality of your work, suggesting you need to proofread your writing carefully.
• Overuse of Quotations: Relying too heavily on direct quotes can make your paper seem like you lack original analysis, and you need to paraphrase sentences where possible and use quotes sparingly.
• Not Revising and Editing: Submitting your first draft without revising can result in a document full of writing errors and weak arguments, and you must always take some time to revise and improve your work.

Term projects refer to research assignments completed by learners toward the end of educational semesters. The fastest way to write a term paper is to start with a clear outline, conduct focused research, develop a strong thesis statement, draft the work section by section without worrying about perfection, and then revise and proofread for clarity and accuracy. In this case, students must ensure their documents meet the necessary quality since they track and evaluate one’s knowledge. Hence, when writing a term paper, one should remember:

• Rely on comprehensive research and methodological writing skills.
• Include analytical and organized structures.
• Present well-researched evidence and support significant claims.
• Consider various paper formatting strategies as required by learning institutions.

Coreil, C. (2013). Term papers and academic writing: Setting new parameters, for undergraduates, graduate students; Self-study and use with a teacher . Infinity Publishing.

Ecarnot, F., Seronde, M.-F., Chopard, R., Schiele, F., & Meneveau, N. (2015). Writing a scientific article: A step-by-step guide for beginners. European Geriatric Medicine , 6 (6), 573–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurger.2015.08.005

Goodson, P. (2024). Becoming an academic writer: 50 exercises for paced, productive, and powerful writing . Sage.

Gray, J. A. (2018). Introduction sections: Where are we going and why should I care? AME Medical Journal , 3 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.21037/amj.2018.12.03

Hoogenboom, B. J., & Manske, R. C. (2012). How to write a scientific article. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy , 7 (6), 512–517. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3474301/

Phillips, R. (2018). Term papers: An informal guide . Independently Published.

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

Visual Analysis Essay: Guidelines for Observing Artworks

• Icon Calendar 10 September 2020
• Icon Page 6986 words

723 Informative Essay Topics & Ideas

• Icon Calendar 8 September 2020
• Icon Page 6759 words

Term Paper Writing - A Step-by-Step Student's Guide

As the semester ends, some colleges and universities mandate that students must submit an end-of-the-year term paper to fulfill the course requirements. Writing a term paper is one of the many types of assignments students have to complete.

Like writing a research paper, a term paper assignment equips you with important writing skills, knowledge, and experience that come in handy as you advance your studies and your career. However, not every student takes the task lightly.

Most students dread writing a term paper. As a long research paper, a term paper contains organized information, analysis and synthesis, and structured paragraphs and sections.

In this comprehensive guide, our best research paper writers take you through the process of how to write a perfect term paper, what to do and what not to do, and more insights and tips to help you get the best grades.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper is a long research paper, just like a thesis, dissertation, or capstone project, only that it is required at the end of the school semester. Term papers can be scientific reports, case studies, thesis-driven research papers, or scientific research papers based on an assigned topic, which contributes to your final grade.

Writing a term paper entails exploring a certain topic through thorough research and analysis of data that is collected throughout the course or part of the course period. Most term papers focus on a specific concept, issue, problem, or event, depending on the prompt that your academic advisor, professor, or instructor gives you.

The standard practice is for you to write the paper within the semester and submit it at the end of the college or university semester.

Professors and lecturers assign term paper assignments to evaluate the knowledge of students about the course concepts and contents. Most term papers take the structure of scientific reports.

Every course has its preferred term paper writing requirements, which your professor or teacher will share with you when you are given the assignment. Nevertheless, it is common to undertake in-depth research, analysis, synthesis, and use technical writing skills to achieve the intended goals.

As with any academic assignment, the term paper has to be organized, analytical, and polished to show that you have mastered the knowledge from the specific course.

How long is a Research Paper?

As a general rule of thumb, a term paper should be 10-double spaced pages or five single-spaced pages and above. However, for a term paper full of information, a minimum of 15 pages is fine.

A typical term paper is between 3000 and 5000 words long. It could be more or less, depending on what your professor wants, departmental/institutional requirements, and the complexity of the topic.

Regarding how many references a term paper should have, each page should have 1-3 references. If it is a ten-page term paper, it should have 10-15 references. If you have less than 10 pages, you skimped through the writing process, and your all-nighter probably did not pay.

A college term paper is between 5-7 pages. However, you can consult with your instructor or professor if you are unsure. This answers your question on how long is a term paper writing assignment, doesn't it?

Term Paper Outline or Structure

As you settle in to write a term paper, it is imperative to understand its structure so that you are prepared to handle it confidently.

A term paper outline is a roadmap of the specific components you want to achieve when writing the term paper. It gives a clear picture of every section, including the most pertinent details that you intend to include in every section of the paper.

A typical thesis-driven term paper has an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. You can write the paper like an essay only that it will certainly have more paragraphs compared to a typical 5-paragraph essay. If you are writing such a paper, utilize headings and subheadings for the term paper sections to make your ideas flow well and for readers to easily follow the paper.

You can also write a term paper as a scientific research paper, especially if you have collected and analyzed data to make certain conclusions, answer research questions, or test hypotheses.

• Cover or Title Page. This should feature the course name, course code, your name, date of submission, instructor's name, and the number of words. The cover page differs depending on the formatting style. MLA, APA, Harvard, and Chicago each have different cover pages. See our research paper title page guide .
• Abstract. The abstract should describe the entire paper. It is written last. This one should be 200-250 words. Your thesis must contain the background, findings, and conclusions of the paper.
• Introduction. The introduction of your term paper should begin with general knowledge to focused knowledge on the topic. It should have a thesis statement.
• Body. Each body paragraph should have an introductory sentence, and facts (well-cited through APA, MLA, Harvard, or Chicago in-texts). There should also be a concluding sentence. Typically, the body expounds on the paper's main agenda (thesis statement of the term paper).
• Literature Review. This section contains organized information based on critical synthesis and analysis. Here, you explore concepts, methods, frameworks, and theories related to your topic as discussed by other authors. Organize the information in chronological, methodological, or thematic format. Ensure that you only use scholarly sources that are published recently, unless you are referring to seminal studies.
• Methodology. This is the section where you provide details of the theoretical frameworks, conceptual models, and the data collection strategies you used when gathering data for the term paper.
• Results. Here, you interpret the findings.  Explain what the term paper has covered and discovered.
• Discussion. Your paper should end with a summary and conclusion of the topic question. You should take note of the principles of writing a good essay.
• Conclusion. Winds up the paper by restating the thesis of the term paper and summarizing facts.
• References. This section has an alphabetical list of all the sources that you have cited in the paper.
• Appendix (optional). The appendix provides information, which though useful to the paper, would distract the readers if placed within the body of the paper. It should have images, tables, charts, figures, and other materials or documents. Any information that cannot be placed within the text is placed in the appendices.

You can add a list of figures, tables, or abbreviations to your term paper if it is a requirement.

Read more about making a perfect research paper outline to adopt an outline format that works for you for the term paper you are writing. Check out our guide on the parts of a research paper .

How to Do a Term Paper: Steps to Take

If you are writing a term paper, you are going to have a long time (entire semester), which means breaking everything down to avoid unnecessary writer's block and procrastination. Failure to plan will make you write a last-minute term paper, riddled with mistakes and omissions.  To write a term paper effectively, follow these steps.

Step #1: Read the Assignment Prompt

As part of the preparation stages, begin the term paper writing process by reading the instructions. as you read, focus on:

• The requirements. Check whether you are to submit a term paper proposal with a topic. Also, check if you are required to submit a formal term paper outline or an annotated bibliography during the course of the semester.
• Ensure that you know the deadlines for each of the submission requirements, including the proposal, annotated bibliography, article reviews, literature reviews, or evidence synthesis tables.
• The number of pages. Most term papers range between 3000-5000 words. Ensure that you know the number of pages and page limits set for the paper.
• The number of sources. Some professors specify the number of academic or scholarly sources they expect you to use in your term paper.
• Some professors will give you a definite topic or a list of topics to choose from or leave you the liberty to select a suitable topic that resonates with your interests and aspirations.
• Check the questions you are expected to address in the paper.
• The prompt will have details about the formatting style to use when writing the paper. Check whether you are required to use MLA, APA, Harvard, Oxford, Chicago, or Bluebook formats.

The term paper prompt or instructions sometimes come with a rubric that breaks down what the instructor will be checking as they mark your paper. Ensure that you have everything figured out by the time you are writing and submitting the paper.

Step #2: Plan the Tern Paper Writing Process

Given the understanding, you need to plan the term paper writing process by coming up with a calendar to budget the time to achieve milestones. If there are deliverables such as research topic, proposal, annotated bibliography, outline, literature review, or anything else, ensure that you mark the dates on your calendar and plan for their delivery.

When planning the paper, brainstorm and come up with term paper topics and ideas. You should research widely by reading the course content (assigned readings). You should eliminate the topics and settle for the one that is interesting, relevant, relatable, and manageable. When selecting the topic, do your preliminary research to check if there are good scholarly sources you can use when writing the paper. You can also consult with your professor.

When you have the topic, write a term paper proposal that details the topic, rationale for choosing the topic, objectives of the term paper, research questions or hypotheses, thesis statement, purpose and problem statement, methodology, timelines, and budget.

Consult with your professor if there are any changes to be made on the topic or if you are unsure about the next step to take. If everything is approved, proceed to the research phase.

Step #3: Research, Take Notes, and Organize Sources

After getting approval for the topic, it is now time to delve deep into research. If you are doing secondary research, which mainly focuses on reading scholarly and official documents, ensure that you prepare well for it. Do systematic research to identify the sources of information to use in the research paper. As well, ensure that you execute the scientific research well so that you can prove a hypothesis or answer to a given research question. You can use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approach, depending on the topic and the scope of research.

When you are doing a research-based term paper, consider primary and secondary sources. We recommend using University library databases such as EBSCOhost, ProQuest, Psych Net, Science Direct, PubMed, CINHAL, or Google Scholar. Google search is also a good place to begin.

DO NOT use WIKIPEDIA, YOUTUBE, Personal blogs, News websites, and other shoddy blogs you find online. Well, you can use non-scholarly sources to familiarize yourself with the topic, but not within the paper. You should strive to ensure that you have a balance for the selected sources.

Although most colleges and universities will give you access to scholarly sources, when supplementing such, choose a credible scholarly source wisely. Use specific keywords in Google Search and for academic libraries. Focus on data from science and educational resources, government records, official reports, open educational resources, journal articles, and other credible sources.

Take notes as you research, which comes in handy when preparing the outline and when writing the paper. Ensure that you indicate the source of information in your notes. You can use tables to organize similar information to make it easy to develop paragraphs.

Each time you get a befitting credible source, log it into your list of potential references. You can use online citation management tools to organize the sources you have selected in alphabetical order. If possible, download the source in pdf format and read it as you highlight major points using different color codes. You can even print them out and make physical notes in writing.

Step #4: Make a Term Paper Outline

Now that you have researched and have an idea of what your paper should look like, visualize it by creating an outline.

You can make a decimal, full-sentence, or alphanumeric outline for your term paper. The outline should contain the major points including the thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting ideas, research questions, hypotheses, and other fine details about the paper.

Format your term paper outline, as you would want the term paper itself to be when you are done writing it.

If you have any charts, images, figures, or data tables, ensure that you have an appendix section. We already covered the formal structure of a term paper, check the previous section.

Step #5: Write the First Draft

Now that you have the ideas outlined, it is time to start working on the first draft. If you had submitted a term paper proposal, it would be easier to develop everything going forward. However, you will need to change the tone, tenses, and language to match that of the term paper. The proposal is written in the future tense while a term paper in the present or past tense since it reports research that you conducted.

Begin writing your term paper from the introduction to the conclusion. After you are done with everything, write the abstract and polish your paper.

The introduction should start with an attention grabber to enthuse your readers. It can be a statement, fact, or statistic to point to the importance of the topic. You should then provide an overview of the topic, including stating the purpose of the term paper. Your introduction also entails your problem statement, including the rationale for exploring the topic. Include the research questions, hypothesis, and thesis statement of the term paper. You can use the funnel introduction approach so that your readers can appreciate your writing prowess. The introduction should also signpost (highlight) what the readers should expect in the subsequent sections.

With the results of the study or the research notes, write the body section of the paper. For the body paragraphs , write topic sentences, supporting details, explanations, links, and concluding sentences until you are done with the section. Write the literature review critically and present the facts chronologically. You should develop all the arguments gradually and use section headings and subheadings to organize information. Prioritize ideas in terms of their strengths and cite every piece of information from external sources to avoid plagiarism. Paraphrase the ideas from other sources well and avoid overusing vocabulary when developing ideas in the term paper. You should also balance the body paragraphs so that your audience/readers are not bored or confused when reading.

Finally, when writing the conclusion of the term paper, summarize the information you have discussed in the body. Restate the thesis and show how you have addressed it in the paper. Have a concluding sentence that gives your readers a good closure.

When you are done with the conclusion, write the abstract to summarize the entire term paper.

Step #6: Polish the Term Paper

You have spent the longest time writing the term paper and all you now have is a draft. It is recommended that you take a break from writing to refresh your mind. A few days off your writing schedule will not hurt the submission deadline. When on the break do anything unrelated to the term paper. Such breathers are great; you resume working on the paper with an objective mind and a keen eye.

An outstanding term paper has a good flow, contains minimal to no errors, and addresses the research topic. You must not tire to revise the paper until you are sure it meets the rubric requirements. You should focus on moving the paragraphs around, deleting unnecessary sections, replacing paragraphs, and re-writing some sections to make sense to the readers.

When polishing the paper, focus on removing all the grammatical, stylistic, and spelling errors in the paper. As well, ensure that the format of the paper is right. Check the in-text citations to ensure that they are referenced in the references list section. The goal here is to have a high-quality term paper that your professor reads and wants to keep reading or share with friends; one that they will post on the school website as a sample for a perfectly done paper.

Check the choice and use of words. You should ensure that every topic sentence makes sense. Additionally, ensure that you have used the right phrases and words within paragraphs. Your supporting sentences should have citations and explanations. The concluding sentences should use the right transition words to give your paper a good flow.

If you are sure you have edited it enough, consider having a peer review of the term paper to ascertain that you have met the requirements. You can also hire qualified scholars or editors to check your paper against the rubric and advise on areas to make changes or realign for better grades.

Incorporate the changes and turn the first draft into a final draft term paper that you can confidently submit.

Related: How to write a perfect nursing term paper .

Tips for Formatting a Term Paper

College and university papers have a preferred standard format. Students must ensure that they meet the formatting requirements for term papers as specified in the instructions.

Although considered straightforward, formatting alone carries some marks and can affect the grade you get for your term paper.

If you have written your paper but do not know how to format it, you can hire a proofreader or editor for the task.

There are several styles to format a term paper, including MLA, Chicago, APA, oxford, etc. Let us look at the most popular styles.

Formatting a Term paper in APA

Students pursuing social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, social work, sociology, education, geography, and other fields such as engineering, nursing, business, communications, and related fields mostly use APA formatting style . An APA term paper will have the following:

• Written in an A4 sheet 8.5 x 11 inches.
• Use Times New Roman font size 12 or any specific by your professor/instructor.
• Has a one-inch margin around the page.
• Double or single-spaced text (as per your instructor's guidelines).
• 0.5-inch indent for every paragraph , except for the abstract.
• Headings and subheadings are placed on different levels
• Cover page with the title, course details, student details, instructor's name, and submission date.
• The 'References' is bold.
• All entries in the reference list are alphabetical and double-spaced. Use hanging indent for the citations that require more than one line.

We have a quick formatting guide for APA papers ; check it as you polish your paper.

Formatting a Term Paper in Chicago Style

The Chicago or Turabian formatting style is used mostly for religion, theology, law, and other humanities and social sciences.

When writing in Chicago or Turabian style, ensure to format your paper as follows:

• Font: Times New Roman
• Font Size : 12 points.
• Margins: 1 inch.
• Paragraphs: All paragraphs should be indented, half an inch from the margin.
• Spacing: All of the text in the body of your paper should be double-spaced.
• The title page contains a capitalized title, course name, your full name, and the date due for the paper.
• The text is left-aligned with a ragged right edge.
• The entire paper is double-spaced.
• If you are using the CMS, ensure that you place footnotes after any punctuation. Every number must have an entry at the bottom margin of the page.
• Include a page number on the top right corner of the page.
• Start the body of your paper on the first line on a new page.
• The word 'Bibliography' is centered and not in bold.
• The citations in the bibliography section should be in alphabetic order.
• Every entry in the bibliography is single-spaced with a blank line separating each entry.
• Use hanging indent for the citations that require more than one line.

MLA Term Paper Formatting

You can format your term paper in MLA if you are pursuing humanities such as history, English and Literature, Arts, archeology, etc. some of the salient features of this style include:

• Type the paper on a standard, white 8.5 x 11-inch paper.
• Double-space the text of your paper.
• Use legible font, mostly Times New Roman, and font size 12.
• Leave a space after the period and other punctuation marks.
• You must indent the first line of every paragraph half an inch from the left margin or ONE tab space.
• Use headers and subheadings effectively.
• When quoting titles of longer works, use italics to mention the titles, only when necessary.
• If you have endnotes, include them on a separate page before the Works Cited section. The section should be titled Notes and centered and it should not be formatted.
• Use quotation marks when referring to literary works in your paper.
• The entire term paper should be left aligned.
• The references should be written in alphabetical order and use hanging indent for those that are more than a line long.

How do you end a Term Paper?

A good term paper should have a comprehensive conclusion. Refer to this source for  term paper writing tips  (external website). To end your term paper:

• Restate the topic in the topic sentence of your conclusion paragraph.
• Also,  restate the thesis statement  of your term paper.
• Briefly present a summary of the significant points in your term paper. Be clear and concise on the arguments.
• Have a call to action if there is a need to do so.
• Your conclusion should pass the "so what" test.
• Your conclusion should synthesize the primary Link from the introduction to the conclusion.
• End your term paper with logic. It will help if you have a suggestion in your conclusion.

Can I end the research paper with a question? Yes, why not? Ending a paper with a question leaves the reader thinking about the content. It entices them to read the piece yet again. A professor doing this means an excellent grade.

Typically, people use words such as sum, conclusion, closing, wind up, etc. However, these words are clichés. Be innovative at the end of your term paper.

Use words like:

• As seen in the discussion above.
• We can conclude from the research.
• It is generally agreed that
• The above discussion
• As can be proved by the findings...
• As research has demonstrated
• Reported and tested

These words are not as stiff as the common concluding transition words. Remember, a thesis should come in the introduction of your term paper. It is only restated in your conclusion.

Before you close this page...

This information on how to write a term paper can help you construct the best term papers and score the best grades. Choose the best topic and have an outline.

Related: Writing article titles in a term paper.

On your GPA hunt, though, writing a term paper can be tough. Getting time to complete college assignments is challenging due to work-life balance. Maybe you have a family to take care of, errands to run, or chores to complete; you can be literarily stuck with your paper.

Instead of worrying or stressing yourself, you can trust our online writing services. We offer discreet, reliable, and trustworthy  online assignment writing help . A term paper requires the input of the best writers. We have experts in  term paper writing  to help. You can purchase a term paper from our website and have it written from scratch based on your instructions. We are the website that writes your term papers at an affordable fee.

Our experienced professional writers will also offer proofreading and editing services free when you order from our website. Besides, they will also come through if you are stuck with choosing a topic for your term paper.

Get a well-written paper in APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard. Any style, we have you covered! Order at GradeCrest.

If you are hoping to choose the best term paper topics, consider our posts and guides including:

• Research Paper Topics
• Nutrition research topics
• List of global and social issues to write about
• How to write a research paper
• Best Topics for international business research papers
• Criminology and criminal justice Research Topics
• Sports term paper topics
• Making a title page for a research paper
• Technology research topics for students
• Research topics on discrimination
• Education research topics
• How to make a Research paper Longer
• Political Science research topics
• How to write any paper fast when you don't have much time
• Aviation Research Papers for students
• Steps and tips for writing a term paper proposal.
• Psychology research topics for term papers.
• Essay Outlining Process
• Writing a Research Proposal

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

• Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
• Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
• Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

• A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
• A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

• Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
• Are there any heated debates you can address?
• Do you have a unique take on your topic?
• Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

• Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
• Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
• Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

• topic sentences against the thesis statement;
• topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
• and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

• Offer new arguments or essential information
• Take up any more space than necessary
• Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

• Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
• Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
• Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
• If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

• Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
• Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
• Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

• each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
• no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
• all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading  or create an APA title page .

Scribbr’s professional editors can help with the revision process with our award-winning proofreading services.

Discover our paper editing service

Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions  to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

You've written a great paper. Make sure it's perfect with the help of a Scribbr editor!

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked.

• Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide
• Writing a Research Paper Conclusion | Step-by-Step Guide
• Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates

More interesting articles

• Academic Paragraph Structure | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples
• Checklist: Writing a Great Research Paper
• How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example
• How to Write a Discussion Section | Tips & Examples
• How to Write Recommendations in Research | Examples & Tips
• How to Write Topic Sentences | 4 Steps, Examples & Purpose
• Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates
• Research Paper Damage Control | Managing a Broken Argument
• What Is a Theoretical Framework? | Guide to Organizing

What is your plagiarism score?

• Other Guides

How to Write a Term Paper: 5 Basic Components of Successful Format

• Speech Topics
• Basics of Essay Writing
• Essay Topics
• Other Essays
• Main Academic Essays
• Research Paper Topics
• Basics of Research Paper Writing
• Miscellaneous
• Chicago/ Turabian
• Data & Statistics
• Methodology
• Admission Writing Tips
• Admission Advice
• Student Life
• Studying Tips
• Understanding Plagiarism
• Academic Writing Tips
• Basics of Dissertation & Thesis Writing

• Essay Guides
• Research Paper Guides
• Formatting Guides
• Basics of Research Process
• Admission Guides
• Dissertation & Thesis Guides

Table of contents

Use our free Readability checker

A term paper is a research project written by students over an academic term, typically accounting for a significant part of a grade. It is intended to describe an event, a concept, or argue a point. The paper is usually original research involving a detailed study of a subject, requiring a considerable amount of preparation and effort.

The length and complexity of a term paper can vary but it's generally more comprehensive and detailed than regular academic essays. It usually includes an introduction, body, conclusion, and a bibliography citing the sources used.

Writing a term paper can be a piece of cake if you know how to properly structure it and where to begin. Browse this guide and learn how to write a term paper worth a A+.

Discover How to Write a Term Paper & What It Is

Students who earn Cs (70 per cent equivalent) do obtain degrees, but they barely get valuable, interesting job offers. Tell Granny to get ready with the magnets: we are about to start our amazing academic adventure! What is a term paper ? It is an effective method to increase the overall great point average and professional skills every student should not ignore. What is a term paper? Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the word this way: “A major written assignment in a school/college course representative of a student's achievement during a semester.” No matter which is your personal answer to “what is a termpaper,” it is the last chance to fix the final course grade. There will be no other chance to improve the academic performance as it is the final assignment to pop up during the semester. The need to learn how to write a term paper appears closer to of the educational year’s finish; try to be ahead of your class by reviewing the steps to writing a term paper earlier! Or you can simply get the best term paper writing service .

Accepted Essay’s Format

How to write an outline for a term paper? Do not bother – have a look at the helpful guide prepared by the talented scholars to understand what the main parts of the good final projects are! Here are five main parts of this process. Please do not be confused with five paragraph essay. Term paper help can get your assignment written in half a day, by the way.

Brief (1/3 of A4 page) description of the written work. Wonder how to write an abstract ? Write down what the topic is, reasons to discuss it (how it is related to the core college discipline/major), and your results.

Introduction

What is a termpaper without a powerful introduction? It does not make any sense; stick to the following checklist to avoid missing an important introduction element: 

• Define the problem.
• Include a literature review made of recent thoughts, findings, and approaches to the solution.
• Is the chosen issue significant?
• Write about the ways you plan to handle the existing problem.

Buy term papers online if that doesn't seem interesting for you at the moment. 

• Explain the methods used to research corresponding sources plus the ways you selected the relevant data.
• Describe the impression of the tool, relevance, and quality of the gathered information.
• Write down the steps required to choose/utilize the information.

In this section, list the results of the experiment (trying to solve the problem) and the obstacles faced on the way while trying to answer every related question.

In the final part, the student is willing to do whatever they think is relevant. In personal words, it is important to explain what the findings mean, make a summary of the main points, draw some conclusions, & interpret the role of the findings in the context of the studied subject. The outline will prevent the student from falling off the topic, forgetting the next item in the line to discuss. Need some help with it? Call online academic writing services to allow them explain how to write a term paper by developing the most powerful essay!

“What Is a Term Paper?” on the Essay Examples

To understand a topic better, it is critical to have great examples in front of your nose. You may know how to write a term paper, having an idea of the outline, but choosing a good topic might be a challenge. A topic reflects the title, which is the face of your writing. Do not hope that your teachers/professors will give a list of great topics every time the end of the semester is closer. Modern instructors prefer to leave freedom of choice to their students. Many ways exist to help with the choice of topic:

• Recent articles
• Current news
• Favorite literature
• Movies & documentaries
• Conferences

If you decide to pick one of the sources as your primary source of information, do not forget to cite the quotes. It is important to add a Reference list on the last page. The basic rule of choosing the appropriate topic is to have the one, which fulfills the purposes of the college course and is the subject of the student’s interest. It makes no sense to select the topic you do not know at the advanced level. It is important to understand the criteria of choosing a topic to realize how to write a term paper. In case your head goes spinning from all the new information, simply shop for custom written term papers and call it a day.

Selecting the Topic: Criteria

What length are you planning to handle? What is a termpaper regarding of volume? It is not a typical argumentative, narrative essay ; a project of this type is a lengthy document, which contains no less than 5-10 pages. If your teacher asks for the certain amount of words, leave the word count to your Microsoft Word app. If writing huge pieces does not inspire you, try to select narrower topics. Take into account the length and plan how many words you plan to include into each part. Resources: school, college, or community libraries are no longer the best places to look for the relevant information. The modern world offers high technologies! Go to the Internet, open Google, type whatever you wish to research, and you will get millions of results. Remember: every source requires a reference. These are the top resources that will help to write a great term paper: 

• Class notes
• Academic journals
• Documentaries

The final page of your essay should contain a full Bibliography made of the cited sources. The last thing to think about is the complexity level. It is better to avoid topics you are not expert in; try choosing something you know from your personal experience & life examples, what can be explored in details. In case of any questions, professionals working in the field of your study may help. Teachers put extra credits to the works with interviews & surveys. Do not use primary sources only! Wish to learn how to write a history term paper, biology lab report , art movie review, capstone project , or how to write a dissertation in psychology? Buy a ready solution online!

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

You may also like

How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

280k Accesses

15 Citations

710 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

Similar content being viewed by others

How to Choose the Right Journal

The Point Is…to Publish?

Writing and publishing a scientific paper

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

Michalek AM (2014) Down the rabbit hole…advice to reviewers. J Cancer Educ 29:4–5

Article   Google Scholar  

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Defining the role of authors and contributors: who is an author? http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authosrs-and-contributors.html . Accessed 15 January, 2020

Vetto JT (2014) Short and sweet: a short course on concise medical writing. J Cancer Educ 29(1):194–195

Brett M, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLoS ComputBiol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005619

Lang TA (2017) Writing a better research article. J Public Health Emerg. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

Download references

Acknowledgments

Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

Code Availability

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Maternal and Child Health, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, 135 Dauer Dr, 27599, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Clara Busse & Ella August

Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2029, USA

Ella August

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ella August .

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interests.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

(PDF 362 kb)

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Download citation

Published : 30 April 2020

Issue Date : October 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Manuscripts
• Scientific writing
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Glossary of research terms.

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

This glossary is intended to assist you in understanding commonly used terms and concepts when reading, interpreting, and evaluating scholarly research. Also included are common words and phrases defined within the context of how they apply to research in the social and behavioral sciences.

• Acculturation -- refers to the process of adapting to another culture, particularly in reference to blending in with the majority population [e.g., an immigrant adopting American customs]. However, acculturation also implies that both cultures add something to one another, but still remain distinct groups unto themselves.
• Accuracy -- a term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the sample.
• Affective Measures -- procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an individual's feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
• Aggregate -- a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.
• Anonymity -- a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research participants.
• Baseline -- a control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.
• Behaviorism -- school of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible, objective facts of behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses. Contemporary behaviorism also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and measured.
• Beliefs -- ideas, doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which are not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.
• Benchmarking -- systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon "best-in-class" frames of reference.
• Bias -- a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.
• Case Study -- the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.
• Causal Hypothesis -- a statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.
• Causal Relationship -- the relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.
• Causality -- the relation between cause and effect.
• Central Tendency -- any way of describing or characterizing typical, average, or common values in some distribution.
• Chi-square Analysis -- a common non-parametric statistical test which compares an expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
• Claim -- a statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research question and that is affirmed with evidence based on research.
• Classification -- ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according to characteristics or attributes.
• Cluster Analysis -- a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain characteristics.
• Cohort Analysis -- group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].
• Confidentiality -- a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
• Confirmability Objectivity -- the findings of the study could be confirmed by another person conducting the same study.
• Construct -- refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of other concepts. For example, intelligence cannot be directly observed or measured; it is a construct.
• Construct Validity -- seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device, such as observation.
• Constructivism -- the idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that reality cannot be understood outside of the way humans interact and that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not discovered. Constructivists believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.
• Content Analysis -- the systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the manifest or latent content of print or nonprint communications.
• Context Sensitivity -- awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and beliefs that influence cultural behaviors.
• Control Group -- the group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the experimental group.
• Controlled Experiment -- an experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].
• Correlation -- a common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.
• Covariate -- a product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment between them.
• Credibility -- a researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately identified and described based on the way in which the study was conducted.
• Critical Theory -- an evaluative approach to social science research, associated with Germany's neo-Marxist “Frankfurt School,” that aims to criticize as well as analyze society, opposing the political orthodoxy of modern communism. Its goal is to promote human emancipatory forces and to expose ideas and systems that impede them.
• Data -- factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.
• Data Mining -- the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information, often to discover patterns and/or systematic relationships among variables.
• Data Quality -- this is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and  reliable [dependable].
• Deductive -- a form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or universal premises.
• Dependability -- being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing conditions surrounding what was studied.
• Dependent Variable -- a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.
• Deviation -- the distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given distribution.
• Discourse Community -- a community of scholars and researchers in a given field who respond to and communicate to each other through published articles in the community's journals and presentations at conventions. All members of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions for the presentation of their theories and research.
• Discrete Variable -- a variable that is measured solely in whole units, such as, gender and number of siblings.
• Distribution -- the range of values of a particular variable.
• Effect Size -- the amount of change in a dependent variable that can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable. A large effect size exists when the value of the dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between experimental and control groups divided by the standard deviation on that variable of the pooled groups or of the control group alone.
• Emancipatory Research -- research is conducted on and with people from marginalized groups or communities. It is led by a researcher or research team who is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted within intellectual frameworks of that group; and, is conducted largely for the purpose of empowering members of that community and improving services for them. It also engages members of the community as co-constructors or validators of knowledge.
• Empirical Research -- the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.
• Epistemology -- concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge is validated.
• Ethnography -- method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through immersion into the culture or group. Research is completed through various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is usually collected during the research.
• Expectancy Effect -- any unconscious or conscious cues that convey to the participant in a study how the researcher wants them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a particular way has been shown to promote the expected behavior. Expectancy effects can be minimized by using standardized interactions with subjects, automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.
• External Validity -- the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
• Factor Analysis -- a statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific questions.
• Field Studies -- academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.
• Focus Groups -- small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually consist of 4-12 participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing and to collect and report the results.
• Framework -- the structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.
• Generalizability -- the extent to which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at large.
• Grey Literature -- research produced by organizations outside of commercial and academic publishing that publish materials, such as, working papers, research reports, and briefing papers.
• Grounded Theory -- practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a group. Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist.
• Group Behavior -- behaviors of a group as a whole, as well as the behavior of an individual as influenced by his or her membership in a group.
• Hypothesis -- a tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between variables.
• Independent Variable -- the conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of "gender" and "academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent variable.
• Individualism -- a theory or policy having primary regard for the liberty, rights, or independent actions of individuals.
• Inductive -- a form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from particular instances.
• Inductive Analysis -- a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions throughout the research process.
• Insiderness -- a concept in qualitative research that refers to the degree to which a researcher has access to and an understanding of persons, places, or things within a group or community based on being a member of that group or community.
• Internal Consistency -- the extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or quality.
• Internal Validity -- the rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and was not measured]. It is also the extent to which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.
• Life History -- a record of an event/events in a respondent's life told [written down, but increasingly audio or video recorded] by the respondent from his/her own perspective in his/her own words. A life history is different from a "research story" in that it covers a longer time span, perhaps a complete life, or a significant period in a life.
• Margin of Error -- the permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in a study.
• Measurement -- process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons, organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.
• Meta-Analysis -- an analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of related hypotheses.
• Methodology -- a theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.
• Methods -- systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed by a discipline.
• Mixed-Methods -- a research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or methodological triangulation.
• Modeling -- the creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for certain phenomenon.
• Models -- representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often used for imitation or emulation.
• Naturalistic Observation -- observation of behaviors and events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or other forms of interference.
• Norm -- the norm in statistics is the average or usual performance. For example, students usually complete their high school graduation requirements when they are 18 years old. Even though some students graduate when they are younger or older, the norm is that any given student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.
• Null Hypothesis -- the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null hypothesis.
• Ontology -- a discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.
• Panel Study -- a longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.
• Participant -- individuals whose physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of study in a research project.
• Peer-Review -- the process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.
• Phenomenology -- a qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group behaviors from that group's point of view.
• Philosophy -- critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.
• Phonology -- the study of the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in language.
• Policy -- governing principles that serve as guidelines or rules for decision making and action in a given area.
• Policy Analysis -- systematic study of the nature, rationale, cost, impact, effectiveness, implications, etc., of existing or alternative policies, using the theories and methodologies of relevant social science disciplines.
• Population -- the target group under investigation. The population is the entire set under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
• Position Papers -- statements of official or organizational viewpoints, often recommending a particular course of action or response to a situation.
• Positivism -- a doctrine in the philosophy of science, positivism argues that science can only deal with observable entities known directly to experience. The positivist aims to construct general laws, or theories, which express relationships between phenomena. Observation and experiment is used to show whether the phenomena fit the theory.
• Predictive Measurement -- use of tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate future events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.
• Principal Investigator -- the scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct of a research project.
• Probability -- the chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is shown as p [the "p" factor].
• Questionnaire -- structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.
• Random Sampling -- a process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that differences observed between participant groups are the result of the experimental intervention.
• Reliability -- the degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups would yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.
• Representative Sample -- sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the sample to the population.
• Rigor -- degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out in order to recognize important influences occurring in an experimental study.
• Sample -- the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical, generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.
• Sampling Error -- the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.
• Saturation -- a situation in which data analysis begins to reveal repetition and redundancy and when new data tend to confirm existing findings rather than expand upon them.
• Semantics -- the relationship between symbols and meaning in a linguistic system. Also, the cuing system that connects what is written in the text to what is stored in the reader's prior knowledge.
• Social Theories -- theories about the structure, organization, and functioning of human societies.
• Sociolinguistics -- the study of language in society and, more specifically, the study of language varieties, their functions, and their speakers.
• Standard Deviation -- a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given distribution. It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.
• Statistical Analysis -- application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.
• Statistical Bias -- characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.
• Statistical Significance -- the probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
• Statistical Tests -- researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant. If differences are found to be statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.
• Subcultures -- ethnic, regional, economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to which they belong.
• Testing -- the act of gathering and processing information about individuals' ability, skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled conditions.
• Theory -- a general explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.
• Treatment -- the stimulus given to a dependent variable.
• Trend Samples -- method of sampling different groups of people at different points in time from the same population.
• Triangulation -- a multi-method or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of findings from any one method.
• Unit of Analysis -- the basic observable entity or phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are collected in the form of variables.
• Validity -- the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable, consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.
• Variable -- any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender, academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].
• Weighted Scores -- scores in which the components are modified by different multipliers to reflect their relative importance.
• White Paper -- an authoritative report that often states the position or philosophy about a social, political, or other subject, or a general explanation of an architecture, framework, or product technology written by a group of researchers. A white paper seeks to contain unbiased information and analysis regarding a business or policy problem that the researchers may be facing.

Elliot, Mark, Fairweather, Ian, Olsen, Wendy Kay, and Pampaka, Maria. A Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016; Free Social Science Dictionary. Socialsciencedictionary.com [2008]. Glossary. Institutional Review Board. Colorado College; Glossary of Key Terms. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Glossary A-Z. Education.com; Glossary of Research Terms. Research Mindedness Virtual Learning Resource. Centre for Human Servive Technology. University of Southampton; Miller, Robert L. and Brewer, John D. The A-Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts London: SAGE, 2003; Jupp, Victor. The SAGE Dictionary of Social and Cultural Research Methods . London: Sage, 2006.

• << Previous: Independent and Dependent Variables
• Next: 1. Choosing a Research Problem >>
• Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 12:57 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Introduction
• Article Information

OR indicates odds ratio. Comparing extreme quintiles of intake, artificially sweetened beverages, and artificial sweeteners were associated with greater risk of depression (strict definition) after multivariable regression.

Data Sharing Statement

• Errors in the Table JAMA Network Open Correction October 18, 2023

See More About

Sign up for emails based on your interests, select your interests.

Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.

• Academic Medicine
• Acid Base, Electrolytes, Fluids
• Allergy and Clinical Immunology
• American Indian or Alaska Natives
• Anesthesiology
• Anticoagulation
• Art and Images in Psychiatry
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assisted Reproduction
• Bleeding and Transfusion
• Caring for the Critically Ill Patient
• Challenges in Clinical Electrocardiography
• Climate and Health
• Climate Change
• Clinical Challenge
• Clinical Decision Support
• Clinical Implications of Basic Neuroscience
• Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Consensus Statements
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Critical Care Medicine
• Cultural Competency
• Dental Medicine
• Dermatology
• Diabetes and Endocrinology
• Diagnostic Test Interpretation
• Drug Development
• Electronic Health Records
• Emergency Medicine
• End of Life, Hospice, Palliative Care
• Environmental Health
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Facial Plastic Surgery
• Gastroenterology and Hepatology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Genomics and Precision Health
• Global Health
• Guide to Statistics and Methods
• Hair Disorders
• Health Care Delivery Models
• Health Care Economics, Insurance, Payment
• Health Care Quality
• Health Care Reform
• Health Care Safety
• Health Care Workforce
• Health Disparities
• Health Inequities
• Health Policy
• Health Systems Science
• History of Medicine
• Hypertension
• Images in Neurology
• Implementation Science
• Infectious Diseases
• Innovations in Health Care Delivery
• JAMA Infographic
• Law and Medicine
• Leading Change
• Less is More
• LGBTQIA Medicine
• Lifestyle Behaviors
• Medical Coding
• Medical Devices and Equipment
• Medical Education
• Medical Education and Training
• Medical Journals and Publishing
• Mobile Health and Telemedicine
• Narrative Medicine
• Neuroscience and Psychiatry
• Notable Notes
• Nutrition, Obesity, Exercise
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Occupational Health
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopedics
• Otolaryngology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Care
• Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
• Patient Care
• Patient Information
• Performance Improvement
• Performance Measures
• Perioperative Care and Consultation
• Pharmacoeconomics
• Pharmacoepidemiology
• Pharmacogenetics
• Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology
• Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
• Physical Therapy
• Physician Leadership
• Population Health
• Primary Care
• Professional Well-being
• Professionalism
• Psychiatry and Behavioral Health
• Public Health
• Pulmonary Medicine
• Regulatory Agencies
• Reproductive Health
• Research, Methods, Statistics
• Resuscitation
• Rheumatology
• Risk Management
• Scientific Discovery and the Future of Medicine
• Shared Decision Making and Communication
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports Medicine
• Stem Cell Transplantation
• Substance Use and Addiction Medicine
• Surgical Innovation
• Surgical Pearls
• Teachable Moment
• Technology and Finance
• The Art of JAMA
• The Arts and Medicine
• The Rational Clinical Examination
• Tobacco and e-Cigarettes
• Translational Medicine
• Trauma and Injury
• Treatment Adherence
• Ultrasonography
• Users' Guide to the Medical Literature
• Vaccination
• Venous Thromboembolism
• Veterans Health
• Women's Health
• Workflow and Process
• Wound Care, Infection, Healing

Get the latest research based on your areas of interest.

Others also liked.

• Download PDF
• X Facebook More LinkedIn

Samuthpongtorn C , Nguyen LH , Okereke OI, et al. Consumption of Ultraprocessed Food and Risk of Depression. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(9):e2334770. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.34770

Manage citations:

© 2024

• Permissions

Consumption of Ultraprocessed Food and Risk of Depression

• 1 Clinical and Translational Epidemiology Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
• 2 Division of Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
• 3 Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
• 4 Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 5 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
• 6 Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 7 Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
• 8 Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• Correction Errors in the Table JAMA Network Open

Increasing evidence suggests that diet may influence risk of depression. 1 - 3 Despite extensive data linking ultraprocessed foods (UPF; ie, energy-dense, palatable, and ready-to-eat items) with human disease, 4 evidence examining the association between UPF consumption and depression is scant. Prior studies have been hampered by short-term dietary data 1 , 2 and a limited ability to account for potential confounders. 1 , 3 Additionally, no study has identified which UPF foods and/or ingredients that may be associated with risk of depression or how the timing of UPF consumption may be associated. Therefore, we investigated the prospective association between UPF and its components with incident depression.

This cohort study was approved by the institutional review board (IRB) at the Brigham and Women’s Hospital and the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. The return of a completed questionnaire was accepted by the IRB as implied informed consent. The study adhered to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

We conducted a prospective study in the Nurses’ Health Study II between 2003 and 2017 among middle-aged females free of depression at baseline. Diet was assessed using validated food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) every 4 years. We estimated UPF intake using the NOVA classification, 2 which groups foods according to the degree of their processing. In secondary analyses, we classified UPF into their components, including ultraprocessed grain foods, sweet snacks, ready-to-eat meals, fats and sauces, ultraprocessed dairy products, savory snacks, processed meat, beverages, and artificial sweeteners. 4 We used 2 definitions for depression: (1) a strict definition requiring self-reported clinician–diagnosed depression and regular antidepressant use and (2) a broad definition requiring clinical diagnosis and/or antidepressant use.

We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for depression according to quintiles of UPF intake using Cox proportional hazards models, with adjustment for known and suspected risk factors for depression, including age, total caloric intake, body mass index (BMI; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared), physical activity, smoking status, menopausal hormone therapy, total energy intake, alcohol, comorbidities (eg, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia), median family income, social network levels, marital status, sleep duration, and pain. In an exploratory analysis, we examined the association between changes in UPF consumption updated every 4 years with incident depression. All analyses were performed using 2-sided tests from SAS (version 9.4). Data were analyzed from September 2022 to January 2023.

Our cohort included 31 712 females, aged 42 to 62 years at baseline (mean [SD] age, 52 [4.7] years; 30 190 [95.2%] non-Hispanic White females). Participants with high UPF intake had greater BMI, higher smoking rates, and increased prevalence of comorbidities like diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia and were less likely to exercise regularly. We identified 2122 incident cases of depression using the strict definition and 4840 incident cases using the broad definition. Compared with those in the lowest quintile of UPF consumption, those in the highest quintile had an increased risk of depression, noted for both strict definition (HR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.26-1.76; P  < .001) and broad definition (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.20-1.50; P  < .001) ( Table ). Models were not materially altered after inclusion of potential confounders. We did not observe differential associations in subgroups defined by age, BMI, physical activity, or smoking. In a 4-year lag analysis, associations were not materially altered (strict definition: HR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.13-1.54; P  < .001), arguing against reverse causation.

Next, we examined the association of specific UPF components with risk of depression. Comparing extreme quintiles, only artificially sweetened beverages (HR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.19-1.57; P  < .001) and artificial sweeteners (HR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.10-1.43; P  < .001) were associated with greater risk of depression and after multivariable regression ( Figure ). In an exploratory analysis, those who reduced UPF intake by at least 3 servings per day were at lower risk of depression (strict definition: HR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.71-0.99) compared with those with relatively stable intake in each 4-year period.

These findings suggest that greater UPF intake, particularly artificial sweeteners and artificially sweetened beverages, is associated with increased risk of depression. Although the mechanism associating UPF to depression is unknown, recent experimental data suggests that artificial sweeteners elicit purinergic transmission in the brain, 5 which may be involved in the etiopathogenesis of depression. 6 Strengths of our study include the large sample, prospective design, high follow-up rate, ability to adjust for multiple confounders, and extensively validated dietary assessment tools. This study had limitations. The cohort primarily included non-Hispanic White females. Additionally, without structured clinical interviews, misclassification of the outcome may be considered.

Accepted for Publication: August 15, 2023.

Published: September 20, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.34770

Correction: This article was corrected on October 18, 2023, to fix transcription errors in the Table.

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Samuthpongtorn C et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Authors: Raaj S. Mehta, MD, MPH ( [email protected] ), and Andrew T. Chan, MD, MPH ( [email protected] ), Clinical and Translational Epidemiology Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 100 Cambridge St, Ste 1580 Boston, MA 02114.

Author Contributions: Drs Samuthpongtorn and Mehta had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Samuthpongtorn, Chan, Mehta.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Samuthpongtorn, Chan, Mehta.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Samuthpongtorn, Chan, Mehta.

Obtained funding: Chan.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Samuthpongtorn, Okereke, Song, Chan, Mehta.

Supervision: Chan, Mehta.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Okereke reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health and royalties from Springer Publishing outside the submitted work. Dr Chan reported receiving grants from Bayer Pharma AG and Zoe and personal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, and Freenome outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: The Nurses’ Health Study II was funded by grant U01 CA176726 from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Disclaimer: The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Data Sharing Statement: See the Supplement .

Additional Contributions: We thank the participants and staff of the Nurses’ Health Study II for their valuable contributions. They received no compensation for their contributions.

• Register for email alerts with links to free full-text articles
• Access PDFs of free articles
• Manage your interests
• Save searches and receive search alerts

• Main navigation
• Main content

Reforming the US Long-Term Care Insurance Market

• R. Anton Braun
• Karen Kopecky

Nursing home risk is significant and costly. Yet, most Americans pay for long-term care (LTC) expenses out-of-pocket. This chapter examines reforms to both public and private LTCI provision using a structural model of the US LTCI market. Three policies are considered: universal public LTCI, no public LTCI coverage, and a policy that exempts asset holdings from the public insurance asset test on a dollar-for-dollar basis with private LTCI coverage. We find that this third reform enhances social welfare and creates a vibrant private LTCI market while preserving the safety net provided by public insurance to low-income individuals.

Working Papers of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland are preliminary materials circulated to stimulate discussion and critical comment on research in progress. They may not have been subject to the formal editorial review accorded official Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland publications. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland or the Federal Reserve System.

Suggested Citation

Braun, R. Anton, and Karen Kopecky. 2024. “Reforming the US Long-Term Care Insurance Market.” Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland,  Working Paper  No. 24-17. https://doi.org/10.26509/frbc-wp-202417

• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024

Experiences of informal caregivers supporting individuals with upper gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review

• Melinda Furtado   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5472-4707 1 ,
• Dawn Davis 1 ,
• Jenny M. Groarke 1 , 2 &
• Lisa Graham-Wisener 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  932 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

103 Accesses

Metrics details

Upper gastrointestinal cancers (UGICs) are increasingly prevalent. With a poor prognosis and significant longer-term effects, UGICs present significant adjustment challenges for individuals with cancer and their informal caregivers. However, the supportive care needs of these informal caregivers are largely unknown. This systematic review of qualitative studies synthesises and critically evaluates the current evidence base on the experience of informal caregivers of individuals with UGIC.

A Joanna Briggs Institute systematic review was conducted. Searches were performed in four databases (MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, CINAHL) from database inception to February 2021. Included studies explored experiences of informal caregivers of individuals diagnosed with primary cancer of the oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, bile duct, gallbladder, or liver. Studies were independently screened for eligibility and included studies were appraised for quality by two reviewers. Data were extracted and synthesised using meta-aggregation.

19 papers were included in this review, and 328 findings were extracted. These were aggregated into 16 categories across three findings: (1) UGIC caregiver burden; UGIC caregivers undertake extensive responsibilities, especially around patient diet as digestion is severely impacted by UGICs. (2) Mediators of caregiver burden; The nature of UGICs, characterised by disruptive life changes for caregivers, was identified as a mediator for caregiver burden. (3) Consequences of caregiver burden: UGIC caregivers’ experiences were shaped by unmet needs, a lack of information and a general decline in social interaction.

Conclusions

The findings of this review suggest the need for a cultural shift within health services. Caregiving for UGIC patients is suggested to adversely affect caregivers’ quality of life, similarly to other cancer caregiving populations and therefore they should be better incorporated as co-clients in care-planning and execution by including them in discussions about the patient’s diagnosis, treatment options, and potential side effects.

Peer Review reports

The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) [ 1 ] define upper gastrointestinal cancers (UGICs) as cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, bile duct/gallbladder, or liver. Of all new cancer diagnoses in 2020 globally, 16.6% were UGICs [ 2 ]. Incidence of UGICs is increasing in countries under economic transition, and in Western countries due to heightened exposure to certain risk factors [ 3 ]. Overall prevalence of UGICs is also expected to rise annually with growing life expectancy and improved diagnostics [ 4 ]. Despite this, UGICs still have a uniquely poor prognosis in comparison to other cancer populations [ 5 ]. UGICs do not typically benefit from screening programmes and individuals are more likely to present at diagnosis with advanced disease [ 6 ]. This is compounded by a high rate of recurrence for individuals able to receive curative treatment [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. As a result, UGICs persistently account for a significant proportion of global cancer deaths; 27.1% in 2020 [ 2 ]. Poor prognosis contributes significantly to the heightened disease burden of UGIC, alongside increased utilisation of health services due to the complexity of the treatment trajectory and symptom management [ 10 , 11 ]. In comparison to other cancer populations, having UGIC is associated with late consultation with palliative care services [ 12 ] meaning patients and their families have delayed access, if any, to supportive interventions such as counselling, psycho-education, financial advice and structured family meetings [ 13 ].

The supportive care needs of the sizeable population of individuals with UGIC are considerable, with sustained late and longer-term effects. In addition to the common sequalae from cancer diagnosis and treatment, disruption to the digestive system presents problems with swallowing, nausea and keeping food down, a modified diet, extreme changes in weight, chronic pain and living with a stoma [ 14 , 15 ]. The poor prognosis and longer-term effects present a challenge in adjustment both for the individual with UGIC and their informal caregiver, defined as “close persons” who may be related to the diagnosed individual (siblings, relatives, or spouses) or not (friends, neighbours). A caregiver is anyone identified as such by the patient to provide unpaid ongoing care and support [ 16 ]. Examples of challenges for caregivers include learning new practical skills such as managing negative responses to foods, providing a new diet, monitoring weight changes, chronic pain management and stoma management [ 17 , 18 ]. With biomedical advances leading to a reduction in hospital stay length [ 19 ], there is increasing emphasis placed on the role of the UGIC caregiver to provide support to the individual with cancer in the community.

This unique caregiver population face distinct challenges which contribute to caregiver burden which reflects the need for further research into their experiences. For example, due to changes in the diet of the individual with UGIC, the social aspect of dining for both is compromised and can lead to feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and shame [ 20 , 21 ]. Evidence of caregiver burden is suggested by high levels of anxiety and depression. In caregivers of post-treatment oesophageal cancer patients, 30% of caregivers reported moderate-high levels of anxiety and 10% reported moderate-high levels of depression, alongside a significant fear of recurrence [ 22 ]. Research suggests that UGIC caregivers may experience higher levels of psychological distress than the individual with UGIC, and that clinical levels of anxiety and depression may be sustained in the longer-term [ 22 , 23 ]. However it is worth noting that a lot of the effects of UGIC caregiving acknowledged in the literature are consistent with the general experience of informally providing care and as such there is scope to apply the beneficial practices from other settings (both extra-GI cancer and non-cancer).

It is crucial that we recognise the role of caregivers as co-clients and understand the experiences of this significant caregiver population. Caregivers’ personal experiences are inherently subjective, and due to this subjective nature, a qualitative research approach is optimal [ 24 ]. A synthesis of existing qualitative studies will help to establish a knowledge base on the experience of informal caregivers of individuals with UGIC and will help to inform the provision for supportive care. An initial search of PROSPERO, MEDLINE, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports was conducted and no current or underway systematic reviews on the topic were identified.

This qualitative systematic review aims to synthesise the best available evidence on the experiences of informal caregivers supporting individuals diagnosed with UGIC.

This systematic review was conducted following the JBI approach to qualitative systematic reviews [ 25 ]. A protocol was pre-registered in PROSPERO (registration number CRD42021235354). The systematic review is reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols (PRISMA-P) statement [ 26 ].

Search strategy

An initial limited search of MEDLINE (Ovid) and PsycINFO (Ovid) was undertaken using the following keywords: Oesophageal cancer OR Stomach cancer OR Gastrointestinal cancer OR pancreas cancer OR gallbladder cancer OR liver cancer AND caregiver AND Qualitative. The text words contained in the titles and abstracts of relevant articles, and the index terms used to describe the articles were used to develop a full search strategy for MEDLINE and adapted for the other databases.

The final search strategy (Additional information 1 ) was then employed against four databases: MEDLINE (Ovid), PsycINFO (Ovid), Embase (Elsevier) and CINAHL (EBSCOhost). Each database was searched on 12th February 2021.

Study selection

Following the formal searches, all identified citations were collated and uploaded into Endnote [ 27 ] to identify and remove duplicates. Rayyan reference management software [ 28 ] was then used by independent two reviewers (DD, MF) to screen titles and abstracts against the eligibility criteria. Potentially relevant articles were retrieved in full and screened against the eligibility criteria by two independent reviewers (DD, MF). Reasons for exclusion of papers at full text review were recorded. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process was resolved through discussion (DD, MF), or with an additional reviewer (LGW). The reference list and citation list of all eligible articles was searched for additional studies.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This review included studies exploring experiences of adults (≥ 18 years of age) who are informal caregivers of individuals diagnosed with UGIC at any stage within the disease process. This included those diagnosed with cancer of the oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, bile duct, gallbladder, or liver [ 1 ]. This diagnosis must be the primary cancer site. Studies involving informal caregivers of individuals who had secondary gastrointestinal system metastases were not included.

A caregiver is anyone identified as such by the patient to provide unpaid ongoing care and support [ 16 ]. Paid professional caregivers were not included. The caregivers included provided various services, such as practical (providing transport, overseeing meals) or emotional support roles in caring for the patient. Caregivers with any gender or ethnicity were considered for inclusion. Both active and bereaved caregivers were eligible, if discussing their pre-bereavement experience.

Studies which reviewed experiences of multiple groups (e.g., patients, caregivers, healthcare professionals) or multiple cancers beyond the remit of UGIC were included, provided the data pertaining to informal caregivers and UGICs was clearly delineated and could be extracted separately. Where data was hard to distinguish regarding participant-type or cancer-type, the study was only included if at least 50% of the sample size was drawn from the target population.

Phenomena of interest

The review included qualitative studies that looked at caregivers’ experiences of caring for an individual with UGIC.

Studies for inclusion were based in any geographic location or setting. All care contexts were considered relevant (e.g., primary care, secondary, tertiary, community, or home settings).

Types of studies

Research studies considered for inclusion were focused on qualitative data including, but not limited to; designs such as phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, action research and feminist research. Mixed method studies were considered relevant if data from the qualitative component could be clearly extracted. Only English language studies were included.

Only empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals were included. There was no restriction on publication year. Systematic reviews were not included, however relevant studies were harvested from them, when relevant. Editorials, opinion papers, case studies and any articles without relevant, original data were excluded, alongside grey literature.

Quality Appraisal

Subsequently, two independent reviewers (DD, MF) critically appraised the included studies to evaluate the strength of the evidence for methodological quality using the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research [ 29 ]. All studies, regardless of the results of their methodological quality, underwent data extraction and synthesis. One of the included studies employed use of free-test questionnaires [ 30 ], the robustness of which has been called into question by qualitative researchers as the data generated from these responses is rarely rich enough to provide the necessary strong insights [ 31 ]. However, the reviewers felt the robustness of this study was upheld by the fact that the researchers conducted a comprehensive search on existing literature prior to data collection, thus allowing questionnaire findings to be scaffolded onto existing conceptual frameworks.

Data extraction

Data were extracted using standardized JBI data extraction tool [ 32 ] by two independent reviewers (DD, MF). Each undertook data extraction for half of the articles and then checked the other reviewer’s data extraction. The extracted data included specific details about the population, context, study methods and the phenomena of interest relevant to the review objective. Disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion. Four authors of papers were contacted to request missing or additional data for clarification mainly regarding breakdown of participant populations by cancer type of which no new information arose.

A finding is defined by the JBI as “a verbatim extract of the author’s analytic interpretation accompanied by either a participant voice, or fieldwork observations or other data.” [ 33 , p40]. Findings were identified through repeated reading of the text, and extraction of findings included any distinct analytic observation reported by authors with an accompanying illustration (Additional information 2 ).

Data synthesis

Each finding was identified by an alphanumeric code (e.g., A1, A2, B1, etc.). Each letter corresponded to a study and each number to a unique finding. The progressive numbers indicate the order of the findings within the original article. Each finding was rated with one of three levels of credibility as per the ConQual system [ 34 ]:

Unequivocal - findings accompanied by an illustration that is beyond reasonable doubt and therefore not open to challenge.

Credible - findings accompanied by an illustration lacking clear association with it and therefore open to challenge.

Not Supported - findings are not supported by the data.

Qualitative research findings were pooled with the meta-aggregation approach and captured in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet [ 33 ]. Findings were aggregated by assembling the findings and categorizing these findings based on similarity in meaning, then labelling the categories accordingly. Categories were then synthesised to produce a comprehensive set of synthesized findings. Two reviewers (DD, MF) repeatedly read the findings and developed a set of categories. To assess the quality and confidence of each qualitative finding synthesised within this review, authors utilised the ConQual system (Additional information 3 ), a tool used to assign ratings of confidence in synthesised qualitative research findings [ 34 ]. Only unequivocal and credible findings were included in the synthesis.

The combined database searches yielded 5465 records. After removing duplicates and screening studies against eligibility criteria (Fig.  1 ), the review included 19 studies [ 18 , 30 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Additional information 4 displays the characteristics of the 19 included studies.

PRISMA flowchart of study selection process

Description of included studies

All included studies were published between 2004 and 2021. Most commonly, studies focused on caregivers of individuals with oesophageal cancer ( N  = 7), or pancreatic ( N  = 7), including one study of pancreatic and bile duct cancer. Other studies included caregivers of individuals with liver cancer ( N  = 2), gastric cancer ( N  = 1) and the gastrointestinal tract generally ( N  = 2). Geographically, studies were conducted in eight regions. The largest group ( N  = 6) were conducted in the US [ 35 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ], followed by Denmark ( N  = 3) [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Most samples included a variety of within-family caregivers ( N  = 13), generally spouses/partners, children, and siblings. Others ( N  = 3) looked specifically at spouses and three did not specify the caregiver-patient relationship. Most studies included a semi-structured interview format ( N  = 12), others used focus groups ( N  = 4), secondary analysis of existing data ( N  = 2) or questionnaires ( N  = 1).

Quality of included studies

The JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist [ 25 ] was used to establish the quality of the research. The included studies were generally of good quality, with all 19 papers achieving at least 60% across the ten JBI quality assessment criteria (Additional information 5 ). Within the JBI checklist there are five questions assessing study dependability, where the studies performed at a lower satisfactory level. Of the included papers, two achieved a 5/5 score on dependability questions, seven achieved 4/5, nine scored 3/5 and one scored 2/5. Only 26% of studies could adequately locate the researcher(s) culturally or theoretically and only 37% of papers addressed the influence of the researcher on the research and vice-versa. Conversely, nearly all papers adequately addressed the research methodology’s congruity on objectives, data collection, data representation and analysis.

Meta-aggregation findings

Across the 19 studies, 328 supported findings were extracted, of which 239 were unequivocal and 89 were credible. Findings could be aligned into 23 categories with unique core meanings, which were then synthesised into three findings: (1) UGIC caregiver burden; (2) Mediators of caregiver burden; (3) Consequences of caregiver burden (Additional information 6 ). Figure  2 outlines how the categories relate to the overarching synthesised findings. To remain grounded in the data, the actual participants’ words are used throughout the narrative and double quotation marks illustrate a direct caregiver quote. References given after a quotation links the quote to the study as outlined in Additional information 2 .

Structural arrangement of categories and synthesised findings

Synthesised finding 1: UGIC caregiver burden

As caregivers began supporting those with UGIC, they faced numerous challenges to adjustment. This largely stemmed from efforts to integrate a broad and complex caregiving role within their existing routine. Difficulties such as disruption to daily routines and meals impacted caregivers’ psychological wellbeing. Caregivers were often unprepared for this life disruption, leading them to seek out information from which to learn and distribute to others.

1. Breadth of the caregiver role

The extent of responsibilities on UGIC caregivers was perceived as broad and complex, with an ‘all encompassing’ focus on patient outcomes. UGIC caregivers ‘assume different roles’ [ 42 ].

“The food thing is omnipresent. We have been told that he is not allowed to have further weight loss (K23).

Specific responsibilities included working around reduced appetite and oral intake; monitoring physical signs e.g., patient weight; perioperative management such as care of surgical wounds and organising medical appointments and treatments.

“We’d have to keep. . .going with all the medical appointments and surgery and treatment” (B11).

2. Challenges around patients’ meals

Treatment for and progression of UGIC severely impacts the patient’s relationship with food; with diet quantity and content at times significantly altered. Adaption for the caregiver involved learning about dietary modifications and management of digestive symptoms such as dysphagia. Several studies found that the new dietary restrictions were a source of worry for caregivers regarding the patients’ weight [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. The social importance of food was a common theme throughout the included studies, with interruption to established social norms perceived as distressing. Mealtimes are considered a ‘unifying family ritual’ [ 49 ], but when mealtimes constantly serve to remind caregivers of their responsibility of monitoring, they became a potential source of distress.

“I can’t get Bernard out of the small meals. . I have to ring him every day from work to tell him to eat” (A7).

3. Life disruption

UGIC was experienced as coming unexpectedly into caregivers’ lives, intruding on their existing routines, for instance, as working professionals or parents. Caregivers described their responsibilities as time and energy-consuming. This conflict caused caregivers to feel a loss of control [ 44 ]. Caregiving responsibilities for UGICs demanded commitment over a long-time frame, impacting caregivers’ employability and their ‘own social life’ [ 35 ]:

“It’s changed my daily routine. It totally disrupted my life. I have to rearrange a lot of things such as my kids , my work , and getting help for my house cleaning” (J4).

4. Unpreparedness

Caregivers expressed being ill-equipped and unqualified to manage the needs of the UGIC patient. Caregivers reported feeling out of their depth, partially attributed to the lack of available support, relating to patients’ medical requirements:

“I went , ‘You’re not supposed to call 911? What am I supposed to do? What if he just dies right here?’ I mean , it seems they should have somebody say , ’OK , if he’s with you , then here’s the procedure…[The nurse] gave me really no support about what to do” (R21).

Caregivers sometimes felt misled about the extent of their new responsibilities, as while the patient was cared for in hospital by medical staff, they could not gauge what caregiving at home would involve.

“I wish they would have talked to me about it as well… it was a bit of a shock. …but the next morning it all dawned on me that I had just replaced a whole team” (E10).

5. Information manager

Caregivers perceived a key responsibility was to make executive decisions in the dissemination of information, for instance symptomatology, treatment plans and prognosis. Caregivers felt they were the ‘conduit’ [ 18 ] through which medical details were communicated to members of the extended social circle, a time-consuming role where they spent “hours on the phone telling everyone what is happening” (I32).

The caregivers also viewed their role as giving healthcare providers (HCPs) valuable insight into how the patient was coping outside of the medical setting:

“[describing a discussion during a clinical consultation , contradicting the patient] It is not correct that you almost eat as usual. You are eating food of more liquid substance than you usually do and your drinks are high-protein” (C1).

Synthesised finding 2: mediators of caregiver burden

While supporting patients with UGIC, caregivers are exposed to mediators which could increase or reduce caregiver burden, including their use of coping strategies, financial and social resources, and their caregiving context. For instance, higher levels of social support helped alleviate some caregiver burden. Similarly, how excluded a caregiver felt in the medical setting influenced the burden experienced.

1. Degree of inclusion in medical settings

Many studies reported that caregivers perceived they are often kept at a distance in medical settings, increasing caregiver burden. Although some caregivers felt this was fitting and chose to take a ‘subordinate position’ [ 44 ], others struggled with a sense of exclusion, which commonly left unresolved questions:

“…my husband could ask questions , but I didn’t have the space to ask questions , not unless my husband allowed it” (K39).

In such cases, caregivers relied on HCPs’ judgement. Caregivers described only being ‘seen’ if they actively called attention to themselves [ 41 ]. Caregivers experienced being left out of important decisions.

Caregivers expressed wanting to ask questions without the patient present but felt they had no opportunity to directly communicate with HCPs. This pervasive, default invisibility was perceived as disempowering:

“No health professionals involved me in this decision” (K38).

2. Social resources

The degree and quality of support received by caregivers varied and shaped their overall caring experience. The support network is especially beneficial for normalisation of caregivers’ experiences, providing hope and reducing feelings of isolation.

“it was only when I came here that I started talking to people … it was just like a breath of fresh air. . this dumping syndrome , he [the patient] wasn’t the only one” (A10).

Support could be from spiritual groups ( “I have a lot of people that stand behind me…” (B19), empathetic HCPs ( “It’s easier to talk with a nurse when it concerns important questions. You may receive quite good and reassuring answers” (H22) or peers who have undergone a similar caregiving experience, and therefore could reliably address and empathise with caregivers’ challenges.

3. Financial resources

Caregivers reported financial pressure as they had to consider the dyad’s financial situation while one or both members may not be able to work. Providing full-time care was a drain on caregivers’ resources, time, and money. Caregivers struggled with financial planning for the future in the face of prognostic ambiguity.

“We talked about if we should stay on at the house or sell it” (K6).

There were additional pressures on dyads living in countries where utilisation of private health services is the norm.

“Now my grandmother is sick and I can understand how high is the cost of the disease” (D5).

4. Patient-caregiver relationship

The caregiving experience was shaped by the inter-dyad relationship. Some caregivers reported having an emotionally distant relationship with the patient before the diagnosis which led to poor attachment during the cancer trajectory. Others reported a decline in the relationship quality due to cancer-related pressures.

“When I got upset , I would say to my husband , ‘You got cancer because you didn’t listen to me! You deserve it!” (F35).

Others noted a shift within the relationship, transitioning from ‘caregiver’ to ‘curer’ or from a spousal role to a parental one [ 45 ] especially where the caregiver was actively involved in delivering treatment:

“Sometimes I felt like a mother talking to a child: ‘Remember to do this and that’ ” (K29).

Caregivers experienced reciprocal suffering when seeing the patient suffer, especially if an established close relationship existed:

“up when the patient is up and down when the patient is down” (I21).

5. Emotion-focused coping

The cancer experience was perceived to result in significant distress for caregivers. To address this challenge, caregivers engaged in positive emotion-focused coping strategies to directly regulate distress. Many caregivers reported trying to maintain positive thinking. One participant recalled using humour:

“Sometimes you can’t believe what happens and the only thing you can do is laugh” (I41).

Maintaining a positive outlook was perceived to involve “looking for the good in every situation” and by being selective about what news caregivers received through ‘denial’ and “choosing what to hear” (I44). Conversely, another study described positivity as an open-minded reflection on the conflict between current suffering and spiritual beliefs [ 38 ]. Caregivers described how formally addressing their feelings through therapy was also helpful.

Individuals were limited in their opportunity for emotional expression. Caregivers described hiding their own negative thoughts from the patient and took practical measures to divert the patient’s attention by doing “normal things like [going] for a drive and [having] visits from our children and grandchildren” (C15).

6. Information seeking

Caregivers perceived challenges around a lack of information from HCPs regarding UGIC’s pathology and related management options. The experiences of caregivers included difficulties in accessing information.

“We have little information in these areas. When we go to the physician’s office for treatment , the doctor is too busy to give us information in this regard and he merely visits the patients. When we see that nobody could survive from such diseases , we get worried more” (D9).

Caregivers addressed the information challenge by persistently seeking information relating to the disease itself, namely cancer-related symptomatology, prognosis, and treatment options (including alternative therapies). Caregivers referred to sources like medically knowledgeable peers, the internet and print (e.g., encyclopaedias). HCPs were trusted for honest information, with their word choices and body language carefully analysed:

“When my husband and I visit the doctor together , you see when he opens the door that there is no good news today” (H6).

Caregivers were especially empowered when they could differentiate between symptoms due to disease progression and treatment-related adverse effects.

Synthesised finding 3: consequences of caregiver burden

There were consequences of caregiver burden such as feelings of helplessness, distress, anger, guilt and a strong fear of losing the patient. Conversely, there was potential for positive outcomes as caregivers experienced growth and feelings of hope.

1. Distress and helplessness

When recounting the most involved phase of providing care, active treatment, many caregivers reported experiencing heightened distress. One caregiver perceived gastric cancer a ‘death sentence’ [ 49 ], and seeing the patient struggle with the effects of disease and treatments an unbearably ‘ challenging experience’ [ 40 ]. This distress also affected children with one spouse noting their child’s “grades dropped disastrously during his first term” (H14).

Helplessness originates from a lack of control over the disease progression. A particular source of distress were the delays along the cancer trajectory, especially at diagnosis due to the ambiguous presentation of UGICs and lack of control over symptom management.

“It is distressing seeing him in pain all the time” (E6).

2. Anger and guilt

Caregivers experienced a sense of guilt and anger because they perceived stigma from society towards certain cancers. Others may assume that the diagnosis was caused by the patient’s behaviours and therefore indirectly the caregiver may also have been involved. A few studies described this judgement from society towards the patient, with caregivers fearing that others would see the diagnosis as a justified fate:

“You know , when you say cirrhosis of the liver , they think , ‘Oh , you drank yourself’” (R7).

Caregivers also harboured anger at being forced to take on caregiving responsibilities, describing they had “been dealt a bad hand” (I39); however, they felt guilty for feeling this way.

3. Fear of cancer progression and recurrence

Due to the unpredictability of UGICs, caregivers described living in constant dread of the patient’s health declining, and the potential for disease progression or recurrence:

“I am not sure I am going to like the answers I get. Maybe it is better not to know so very much but to do like the ostrich , to bury your head in the sand and hope for the best and keep your fingers crossed” (H41).

Caregivers were fearful of any new physical or psychological symptoms in patients, especially weight-loss, as caregivers saw this as a marker of recurrence. Further, caregivers feared the cancer would progress to a terminal stage which meant they were afraid of the means through which the bereavement would occur and their own subsequent reaction.

“the fear of not being sure of how it’s going to happen and how I’m going to react…I’m afraid of losing him” (L1).

The high mortality associated with most UGICs caused several caregivers to experience acceptance, with the realisation of the long-term impact of their loved one’s cancer and possibility of bereavement.

“The possibility is there for one of us dying quickly” (K5).

4. Isolation and loneliness

Caregivers commonly reported experiencing isolation within their unique role, feeling unable to share their anxieties. As patients were burdened already, caregivers did not want to unload their own worries on to the patient.

“And I had nobody to talk to…There was just nobody. I couldn’t let myself down , my guard down and I found the isolation terrible” (A3).

Loneliness was not only an ongoing concern, but a future threat as spousal caregivers relayed their fear of life post-bereavement.

5. Personal growth

Caregivers reflected that they saw the experience of caregiving as a catalyst for personal change, resulting in positive outcomes such as personal growth and appreciation for life, individually and within the relationship. Caregivers recounted that this unexpected, immense challenge had given them ‘ new perspectives about life’ [ 35 ]. Couples got to spend time together that they would not have had otherwise which led to an improved quality of relationship.

“We’ll talk three or four times a month. Where 10 years ago it might be 6 months or 10 months you know between phone calls” (B14).

The current study presents the first comprehensive synthesis of qualitative research on the experiences of caregivers of individuals with UGICs. This review is the first to systematically identify and synthesise the current evidence base on the experiences of informal caregivers of individuals with UGIC. Given the emergence of this prominent caregiver population, this review contributes to advancing cancer caregiver literature as a whole, an important area of study recognised by individuals with cancer, their family and healthcare professionals [ 52 ]. The review included 19 studies, presented synthesised findings, and identified aspects of caregiving experiences that UGIC caregivers have in common with other cancer caregivers, and aspects more distinct to UGICs. UGIC caregivers experience significant challenges contributing to high levels of burden which are mediated by social, psychological, and practical resources, as well as aspects of health service delivery. The consequences of caregiver burden are primarily negative, including distress, anger, fear, and loneliness.

Caregivers of UGIC patients experienced burden due to the breath and complexity of their role for which they felt unprepared. Caring involved incorporating novel skills into existing responsibilities, causing significant life disruption. Caregivers perceive burden in providing multifaceted care with demands that shift along the illness trajectory. For example, in the beginning caregivers felt it necessary to partake in provision of care, and due to UGIC treatment and disease progression, many responsibilities evolved to monitor and maximise physical health, such as diligent weight monitoring and meal preparation [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. These findings align to the general cancer caregiver literature [ 53 ], with caregivers recognised in having steep initial learning curves to rapidly acquire skills to provide care. Only one of the 19 studies evaluated data over an extended period [ 45 ]. An extended review is needed to map supportive care resources available across the disease path and longitudinal studies tracking UGIC caregiver support needs across the illness trajectory is warranted.

One of the most reported findings in this review was informal caregivers’ continuous search for information related to their role. Many struggle to satisfy their informational needs at different stages of the disease trajectory contributing to caregiver burden. This corresponds with systematic review findings of Wang et al. [ 54 ] that informational needs were the most common unmet need of informal caregivers. To begin addressing this need, caregivers could be signposted to existing sources of general caregiver support information and interventions, such as Cancer Caring Coping [ 55 , 56 ]. These supports could be used to develop informational resources tailored for UGIC caregivers. A core information set has been developed to aid HCPs at consultation with UGIC patients, to ensure key information is being delivered [ 57 , 58 ] and now the focus of improving patient-carer education should be raising awareness of this key information toolkit to HCPs who commonly interact with this population. A similar approach could be utilised by identifying informational needs of UGIC caregivers at consultations and developing standardised information points delivered by HCPs to caregivers within those consultations. There is also potential to expand the pool of reliable sources of information to individuals outside of the HCP cohort, such as peer networks or psychologists in providing longitudinal support without necessarily adding to the cost burden required for the development of additional personnel and resources.

This review found caregivers experienced exclusion in the medical setting, suggesting enhanced communication between HCPs and caregivers could improve caregivers’ experience. Indeed, a qualitative study by Reblin et al. [ 59 ] identified communication within health services as a key driver for improving cancer caregiver support. One potential avenue to bridge the gap between HCPs and patient-caregiver dyad is incorporating better the clinical nurse specialist (CNS) [ 60 ] as these professionals can be a key contact for bi-directional communication between HCPs and caregivers. That is, caregivers support and help the clinical team to understand the patient’s progress and through this process HCPs acknowledge and include caregivers in the patient’s care. However, the current issue of under resourcing in cancer nursing would need to be addressed as it presently limits the amount of CNS time available to support caregivers [ 61 ].

One review finding specific to UGIC caregiver burden was the challenge around preparing meals. Taleghani and colleagues [ 62 ] mirror this, highlighting gastric caregivers experienced inadequate education in managing patient’s dietary requirements appropriately, resulting in feeling inefficient, uncomfortable, and fearful. Dietician-led interventions are typically patient focused [ 63 , 64 , 65 ]. However, this review highlights an opportunity for HCPs to include caregivers in dietician-led interventions as many caregivers assume responsibility over meal preparation and grocery shopping. The challenge around meals also has social consequences as meals are important social settings. Changes in eating behaviours can lead to both dyad members feeling isolated and lonely [ 18 , 66 ]. Loneliness is prevalent among people living with cancer and is influenced by cancer-specific and non-cancer specific risk factors, such as lack of social support [ 67 ]. There is less of an understanding of loneliness among UGIC caregivers compared to general cancer caregivers [ 68 ]. This is of concern as negative physical and mental health impacts of loneliness are well-established [ 69 , 70 ]. Peer support is the most used intervention to reduce caregivers’ loneliness, with strategies of psychoeducation and emotional support featuring prominently [ 71 ]. Research is needed to identify risk and protective factors for loneliness among UGIC caregivers.

In addition to loneliness, distress and negative affect were identified as consequences of UGIC caregiver burden. There is evidence of heightened distress and reduced physical and mental health among UGIC caregivers relative to UGIC patients [ 72 , 73 ]. This review also found that caregivers engage in emotion-focused strategies to cope with their caregiving role. A review by Teixeira et al. [ 74 ] found that among cancer caregivers, emotion-focused coping was related to higher distress, whereas problem-focused coping was related to better adjustment and reduced burden. There is a need to develop targeted theory-based psychosocial interventions for this caregiver group. The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC) framework could be utilised to understand how mediating processes specific to coping strategies influence distress and negative affect among UGIC caregivers [ 75 , 76 , 77 ], similar to how Bowan et al. [ 78 ] used a Baltes and Baltes [ 79 ] coping framework to develop interventions for cancer patients’ families. Candidate interventions could involve problem-solving and coping skills training [ 80 , 81 ], which could in turn ameliorate the negative consequences of caregiver burden. If effective with UGIC caregivers, such interventions could be extended to all caregivers as part of a standard care pathway. This review recommends further research to develop an understanding of adjustment in UGIC caregivers.

In contrast to the many negative consequences described by informal caregivers, there were a small group of findings which indicated some positive outcomes. These findings align with a review of the positive aspects of caregiving, which reported improved relationship quality, reward, fulfilment, and personal growth [ 82 ]. The review concluded that positive aspects of caregiving are interconnected and suggested, in addition to interventions reducing negative burden, that interventions could be developed to enhance positive outcomes, such as personal growth. Tedeschi and Calhoun’s Transformational Model (TM) [ 83 ] proposes that potentially traumatic stressors, such as caring for an individual diagnosed with cancer, cause a disruption in one’s worldview triggering attempts to make meaning in response to the stressor. Cognitive disruptions also lead to distress, which in turn can act as a catalyst for post-traumatic growth (PTG). Studies have found that caregivers of people with advanced cancer and early-stage breast cancer experience PTG in relation to their caregiving role [ 84 , 85 ], and that PTG was positively associated with greater social support and perceived hope [ 86 ]. Additional research is needed to understand how the challenging UGIC caregiver role may facilitate growth and help the caregiver adjust to their role.

Study limitations

The current systematic review has several strengths. Firstly, it followed an internationally recognised methodology (JBI) for the conduct of qualitative systematic reviews. This helped ensure methodological approach rigour and subsequently, confidence in findings should they be used to inform policy and practice. There are however several limitations. Although studies in the review are generally of good quality, only 19 studies were identified. Indeed, the UK Less Survivable Cancers Taskforce [ 87 ] advocates for more research focused on cancers with low life expectancy, two-thirds of which are UGICs. This lack of research into UGICs extends to the evidence on caregivers. Synthesised findings are therefore based on a small number of studies, largely conducted in the US and Denmark. Within the studies, caregivers of individuals with oesophageal and pancreatic cancer were well represented. However, there were a dearth of studies focused on caregivers’ experiences with gallbladder, or stomach cancer, alongside multiple studies exploring caregivers’ experiences related to dysphagia and malabsorption but fewer exploring jaundice. Therefore, more primary qualitative research is necessary to understand experiences of all UGIC caregiver populations.

Clinical implications

Of relevance for clinical practice was the finding that caregivers often felt excluded in medical settings, increasing caregiver burden. Caregivers should be seen as co-clients along with patients in the medical setting. This is very much in line with the priorities of care within palliative healthcare settings. Since the palliative care approach seeks to addresses the physical, psychological, cultural, social, and spiritual needs [ 88 ] of both individuals with life-limiting and chronic illnesses like cancer and their support networks, early referral to palliative care services could be particularly beneficial for caregivers as their needs are formally and expertly acknowledged and thus help alleviate the burden identified for informal caregivers in this study.

HCPs have an opportunity to give caregivers reliable, specific, and up-to-date information, pitched at the right level to reassure but not overwhelm. Morris and Thomas [ 89 ] mirror this suggestion and highlight its importance, as there is potential for tension in information exchange due to HCP’s lack of formal acknowledgement of caregivers. Clinical guidance and policy could be updated to include recognition of caregivers as co-clients, and with caregiver training, could formally be part of the patient support team. This could help meet the caregivers’ needs, especially post-diagnosis. On an institutional level, caregivers may be more recognised within their role if acknowledged formally, for example in NICE [ 1 ] guidelines for UGICs. In understanding the considerable role caregivers undertake supporting the care of UGIC patients outside of the healthcare system, policymakers and HCPs need to improve support for caregivers which will in turn reduce the burden on health services.

The aim of this qualitative systematic review was to synthesize evidence about the experiences of UGIC caregivers and has found that caregivers face significant challenges leading to caregiver burden which negatively impacts adjustment. Due to the nature of UGICs, caregivers experienced unique challenges such as how best to manage disruptions to mealtimes and how to monitor surrogate markers of patient health, such as weight. UGICs are a medically complex and evolving chronic condition and caregivers struggle to gain information. This review found that caregiver burden was impacted by feeling excluded in medical settings which could be improved with better communication between HCPs, patients, and their caregivers. There is a lack of data relating to the experiences of certain UGIC caregivers (e.g., gallbladder, stomach) in comparison to others (e.g., oesophageal), as well as a lack of understanding on how to manage the impact of caregiving for these types of cancer, thus providing directions for future research.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Gastrointestinal tract (upper). cancers - recognition and referral | Health topics A to Z | CKS |NICE. https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/gastrointestinal-tract-upper-cancers-recognition-referral/2022 . Accessed 25 Aug 2022.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, Colombet M, Mery L, Piñeros M, Znaor A, Soerjomataram I, Bray F. Global cancer observatory: cancer today. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (2020). https://gco.iarc.fr/today . Accessed 1 Sep 2021.

Xie Y, Shi L, He X, Luo Y. Gastrointestinal cancers in China, the USA, and Europe. Gastroenterol Rep. 2021;9(2):91–104.

Article   Google Scholar  

Gastrointestinal Cancers Global Burden Expected to Rise. National Cancer Institute. 2020. https://dceg.cancer.gov/news-events/news/2020/global-burden-gastro . Accessed 25 Aug 2022.

Veitch AM, Uedo N, Yao K, East JE. Optimizing early upper gastrointestinal cancer detection at endoscopy. Nat Reviews Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;12(11):660–7.

Vedeld HM, Goel A, Lind GE. Epigenetic biomarkers in gastrointestinal cancers: the current state and clinical perspectives. InSeminars in cancer biology 2018 Aug 1 (Vol. 51, pp. 36–49). Academic.

Hong L, Huang YX, Zhuang QY, Zhang XQ, Tang LR, Du KX, Lin XY, Zheng BH, Cai SL, Wu JX, Li JL. Survival benefit of re-irradiation in esophageal cancer patients with locoregional recurrence: a propensity score-matched analysis. Radiat Oncol. 2018;13(1):1–9.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Lee S, Kang TW, Song KD, Lee MW, Rhim H, Lim HK, Kim SY, Sinn DH, Kim JM, Kim K, Ha SY. Effect of microvascular invasion risk on early recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after surgery and radiofrequency ablation. Ann Surg. 2021;273(3):564–71.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Sakamoto H, Attiyeh MA, Gerold JM, Makohon-Moore AP, Hayashi A, Hong J, Kappagantula R, Zhang L, Melchor JP, Reiter JG, Heyde A. The evolutionary origins of recurrent pancreatic CancerOrigins of recurrent pancreatic cancer. Cancer Discov. 2020;10(6):792–805.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Peery AF, Crockett SD, Murphy CC, Lund JL, Dellon ES, Williams JL… Sandler, R. S. Burden and cost of gastrointestinal, liver, and pancreatic diseases in the United States: update 2018. Gastroenterology. 2019;156(1):254–72. Study 2.

Peery AF, Crockett SD, Murphy CC, Lund JL, Dellon ES, Williams JL, Jensen ET, Shaheen NJ, Barritt AS, Lieber SR, Kochar B. Burden and cost of gastrointestinal, liver, and pancreatic diseases in the United States: update 2018. Gastroenterology. 2019;156(1):254–72.

Valentino T, Paiva B, Oliveira M, Hui D, Paiva C. Factors associated with palliative care referral among patients with advanced cancers: a retrospective analysis of a large Brazilian cohort. Support Care Cancer. 2018;26:1933–41.

Hudson P, Remedios C, Thomas K. A systematic review of psychosocial interventions for family carers of palliative care patients. BMC Palliat Care. 2010;9:17–17.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Khan NN, Maharaj A, Evans S, Pilgrim C, Zalcberg J, Brown W, Cashin P, Croagh D, Michael N, Shapiro J, White K. A qualitative investigation of the supportive care experiences of people living with pancreatic and oesophagogastric cancer. BMC Health Serv Res. 2022;22(1):1–1.

Cencioni C, Trestini I, Piro G, Bria E, Tortora G, Carbone C, Spallotta F. Gastrointestinal cancer patient nutritional management: from specific needs to novel epigenetic dietary approaches. Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1542.

Given BA, Given CW, Sherwood PR. Family and caregiver needs over the course of the cancer trajectory. J Support Oncol. 2012;10:57–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.suponc.2011.10.003

Kim Y, Baek W. Caring experiences of family caregivers of patients with pancreatic cancer: an integrative literature review. Support Care Cancer. 2022;7:1–0.

McCorry NK, Dempster M, Clarke C, Doyle R. Adjusting to life after esophagectomy: the experience of survivors and carers. Qual Health Res. 2009;19:1485–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732309348366

Bozzetti F, Braga M, Gianotti L, Gavazzi C, Mariani L. Postoperative enteral versus parenteral nutrition in malnourished patients with gastrointestinal cancer: a randomised multicentre trial. Lancet. 2001;358(9292):1487–92.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Laursen L, Schønau MN, Bergenholtz HM, Siemsen M, Christensen M, Missel M. Table in the corner: a qualitative study of life situation and perspectives of the everyday lives of oesophageal cancer patients in palliative care. BMC Palliat care. 2019;18(1):1–0.

Cooper C, Burden ST, Molassiotis A. An explorative study of the views and experiences of food and weight loss in patients with operable pancreatic cancer perioperatively and following surgical intervention. Support Care Cancer. 2015;23(4):1025–33.

Dempster M, McCorry NK, Brennan E, Donnelly M, Murray LJ, Johnston BT. Psychological distress among family carers of oesophageal cancer survivors: the role of illness cognitions and coping. Psycho-oncology. 2011;20(7):698–705.

Graham L, Dempster M, McCorry NK, Donnelly M, Johnston BT. Change in psychological distress in longer-term oesophageal cancer carers: are clusters of illness perception change a useful determinant? Psycho‐Oncology. 2016;25(6):663–9.

Penner JL, McClement SE. Using phenomenology to examine the experiences of family caregivers of patients with advanced head and neck cancer: reflections of a novice researcher. Int J Qualitative Methods. 2008;7:92–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690800700206

Munn Z, Moola S, Riitano D, Lisy K. The development of a critical appraisal tool for use in systematic reviews addressing questions of prevalence. Int J Health Policy Manage. 2014;3(3):123.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Clarivate analytics. endnote (version 7.7.1). Philadelphia, USA. https://endnote.com Accessed 25 Aug 2022.

Mourad Ouzzani H, Hammady Z, Fedorowicz, Ahmed Elmagarmid. Rayyan — a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. Syst Reviews. 2016;5:210. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-016-0384-4

Joanna Briggs Institute. Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist for studies reporting prevalence data. Adelaide: Joanna Briggs Institute; 2011.

Google Scholar  

Hodgson T. Oesophageal cancer: experiences of patients and their partners. Br J Nurs. 2006;15(21):1157–60.

LaDonna K, Taylor T, Lingard L. Why open-ended survey questions are unlikely to support rigorous qualitative insights. Acad Medicine: J Association Am Med Colleges. 2017;93(3):347–9.

Joanna Briggs Institute. Joanna Briggs Institute reviewers’ manual: 2014 edition. Australia: The Joanna Briggs Institute. 2014:88–91.

Lockwood C, Munn Z, Porritt K. Qualitative research synthesis: methodological guidance for systematic reviewers utilizing meta-aggregation. JBI Evid Implement. 2015;13(3):179–87.

Munn Z, Porritt K, Lockwood C, Aromataris E, Pearson A. Establishing confidence in the output of qualitative research synthesis: the ConQual approach. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14(1):1–7.

Sherman DW, McGuire DB, Free D, Cheon JY. A pilot study of the experience of family caregivers of patients with advanced pancreatic cancer using a mixed methods approach. J Pain Symptom Manag. 2014;48(3):385–99.

Winterling J, Wasteson E, Glimelius B, Sjödén PO, Nordin K. Substantial changes in life: perceptions in patients with newly diagnosed advanced cancer and their spouses. Cancer Nurs. 2004;27:381–8.

Hansen L, Rosenkranz SJ, Wherity K, Sasaki A. Living with hepatocellular carcinoma near the end of life: family caregivers’ perspectives. In Oncology nursing forum 2017 Sep 1 (Vol. 44, No. 5).

Nolan MT, Hodgin MB, Olsen SJ, Coleman J. Spiritual issues of family members in a pancreatic cancer chat room. In Oncology Nursing Forum 2006 Mar 1 (Vol. 33, No. 2, p. 239). Oncology Nursing Society.

Padron A. Dyadic relationships among sense of mastery, cancer-related distress, and cortisol in patients and caregivers impacted by abdominal and pelvic malignancies. In University of Florida. 2018.

Petrin K, Bowen DJ, Alfano CM, Bennett R. Adjusting to pancreatic cancer: perspectives from first-degree relatives. Palliat Support Care. 2009;7(3):281–8.

Wong SS, George TJ, Godfrey M, Le J, Pereira DB. Using photography to explore psychological distress in patients with pancreatic cancer and their caregivers: a qualitative study. Support Care Cancer. 2019;27(1):321–8.

Larsen LS, Blix BH, Hamran T. Family caregivers’ involvement in decision-making processes regarding admission of persons with dementia to nursing homes. Dementia. 2020;19(6):2038–55.

Gerhardt S, Dengsø KE, Herling S, Thomsen T. From bystander to enlisted carer–a qualitative study of the experiences of caregivers of patients attending follow-up after curative treatment for cancers in the pancreas, duodenum and bile duct. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2020;44:101717.

Larsen MK, Birkelund R, Mortensen MB, Schultz H. Being a relative on the sideline to the patient with oesophageal cancer: a qualitative study across the treatment course. Scand J Caring Sci. 2021;35(1):277–86.

Shaw J, Harrison J, Young J, Butow P, Sandroussi C, Martin D, Solomon M. Coping with newly diagnosed upper gastrointestinal cancer: a longitudinal qualitative study of family caregivers’ role perception and supportive care needs. Support Care Cancer. 2013;21(3):749–56.

Gooden HM, White KJ. Pancreatic cancer and supportive care—pancreatic exocrine insufficiency negatively impacts on quality of life. Support Care Cancer. 2013;21(7):1835–41.

Andreassen S, Randers I, Näslund E, Stockeld D, Mattiasson AC. Family members’ experiences, information needs and information seeking in relation to living with a patient with oesophageal cancer. Eur J Cancer Care. 2005;14(5):426–34.

Morowatisharifabad MA, Gerayllo S, Jouybari L, Amirbeigy MK, Fallahzadeh H. Concerns and fear of esophageal cancer in relatives of patients with cancer: a qualitative study. J Gastrointest cancer. 2020;51(3):957–64.

Yi M, Kahn D. Experience of gastric cancer survivors and their spouses in Korea: secondary analysis. J Korean Acad Nurs. 2004;34(4):625–35.

Morowatisharifabad MA, Gerayllo S, Jouybari L, Amirbeigy MK, Fallahzadeh H. Perceived threats toward esophageal cancer among immediate relatives of sufferers: a qualitative study. J Gastrointest Cancer. 2021;52:643–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12029-020-00422-y

Shih WM, Hsiao PJ, Chen ML, Lin MH. Experiences of family of patient with newly diagnosed advanced terminal stage hepatocellular cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2013;14(8):4655–60.

James Lind, Alliance. 2021. https://www.jla.nihr.ac.uk . Accessed 1 Sep 2021.

Girgis A, Lambert S. Caregivers of cancer survivors: the state of the field. In Cancer Forum 2009 Nov (Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 168–171).

Wang T, Molassiotis A, Chung BP, Tan JY. Unmet care needs of advanced cancer patients and their informal caregivers: a systematic review. BMC Palliat care. 2018;17(1):1–29.

Cancer Caring Coping. 2021. https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/CancerCaringCoping . Accessed 1 Sep 2021.

Santin O, McShane T, Hudson P, Prue G. Using a six-step co‐design model to develop and test a peer‐led web‐based resource (PLWR) to support informal carers of cancer patients. Psycho‐oncology. 2019;28(3):518–24.

Blazeby JM, Macefield R, Blencowe NS, Jacobs M, McNair AG, Sprangers M, Brookes ST, Avery KN, Blazeby JM, Blencowe NS, Brookes ST. Core information set for oesophageal cancer surgery. J Br Surg. 2015;102(8):936–43.

Jacobs M, Henselmans I, Macefield RC, Blencowe NS, Smets EM, de Haes JC, Sprangers MA, Blazeby JM, van Berge Henegouwen MI. Delphi survey to identify topics to be addressed at the initial follow-up consultation after oesophageal cancer surgery. J Br Surg. 2014;101(13):1692–701.

Reblin M, Ketcher D, Vadaparampil ST. Care for the cancer caregiver: a qualitative study of facilitators and barriers to caregiver integration and support. J Cancer Educ. 2021;30:1–7.

Pape E, Decoene E, Debrauwere M, Van Nieuwenhove Y, Pattyn P, Feryn T, Pattyn PR, Verhaeghe S, Van Hecke A, Vandecandelaere P, Desnouck S. Experiences and needs of partners as informal caregivers of patients with major low anterior resection syndrome: a qualitative study. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2022;58:102143.

Dacre J, Francis R, Appleby J, Charlesworth A, Peckham S, Ahmed S, Brown J, Dickson J, Morris N, Patel M. Expert panel: evaluation of the Government’s commitments in the area of cancer services in England.

Taleghani F, Ehsani M, Farzi S, Farzi S, Adibi P, Moladoost A, Shahriari M, Tabakhan M. Nutritional challenges of gastric cancer patients from the perspectives of patients, family caregivers, and health professionals: a qualitative study. Support Care Cancer. 2021;29(7):3943–50.

Reece L, Hogan S, Allman-Farinelli M, Carey S. Oral nutrition interventions in patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery for cancer: a systematic literature review. Support Care Cancer. 2020;28(12):5673–91.

Hanna L, Huggins CE, Furness K, Silvers MA, Savva J, Frawley H, Croagh D, Cashin P, Low L, Bauer J, Truby H. Effect of early and intensive nutrition care, delivered via telephone or mobile application, on quality of life in people with upper gastrointestinal cancer: study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. BMC Cancer. 2018;18(1):1–3.

Missel M, Hansen M, Jackson R, Siemsen M, Schønau MN. Re-embodying eating after surgery for oesophageal cancer: patients’ lived experiences of participating in an education and counselling nutritional intervention. J Clin Nurs. 2018;27(7–8):1420–30.

Dempster M, McCorry NK, Brennan E, Donnelly M, Murray LJ, Johnston BT. Illness perceptions among carer–survivor dyads are related to psychological distress among oesophageal cancer survivors. J Psychosom Res. 2011;70(5):432–9.

Deckx L, van den Akker M, Buntinx F. Risk factors for loneliness in patients with cancer: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2014;18(5):466–77.

Gray TF, Azizoddin DR, Nersesian PV. Loneliness among cancer caregivers: a narrative review. Palliat Support Care. 2020;18(3):359–67.

Beutel ME, Klein EM, Brähler E, Reiner I, Jünger C, Michal M, et al. Loneliness in the general population: prevalence, determinants and relations to mental health. BMC Psychiatry. 2017;17(1):97. pmid:28320380.

Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Baker M, Harris T, Stephenson D. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2015;10(2):227–37. pmid:25910392.

Velloze IG, Jester DJ, Jeste DV, Mausbach BT. Interventions to reduce loneliness in caregivers: an integrative review of the literature. Psychiatry Res. 2022;12:114508.

Haj Mohammad N, Walter AW, van Oijen MGH, et al. Burden of spousal caregivers of stage II and III esophageal cancer survivors 3 years after treatment with curative intent. Support Care Cancer. 2015;23:3589–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-015-2727-4

Langenberg SM, Reyners AK, Wymenga AN, Sieling GC, Veldhoven CM, van Herpen CM, Prins JB, van der Graaf WT. Caregivers of patients receiving long-term treatment with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) for gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST): a cross-sectional assessment of their distress and burden. Acta Oncol. 2019;58(2):191–9.

Teixeira RJ, Applebaum AJ, Bhatia S, Brandão T. The impact of coping strategies of cancer caregivers on psychophysiological outcomes: an integrative review. Psychol Res Behav Manage. 2018;11:207.

Folkman S, Lazarus RS. Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company; 1984. p. 460.

Han Y, Hu D, Liu Y, Lu C, Luo Z, Zhao J, Lopez V, Mao J. Coping styles and social support among depressed Chinese family caregivers of patients with esophageal cancer. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2014;18(6):571–7.

Rankin SR. Influence of coping styles on social support seeking among cancer patient family caregivers (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University).

Bowman KF, Rose JH, Radziewicz RM, O’Toole EE, Berila RA. Family caregiver engagement in a coping and communication support intervention tailored to advanced cancer patients and families. Cancer Nurs. 2009;32(1):73–81.

Baltes PB, Baltes MM, editors. Successful aging: perspectives from the behavioral sciences. Cambridge University Press; 1993 May. p. 28.

Toseland RW, Blanchard CG, McCallion P. A problem solving intervention for caregivers of cancer patients. Soc Sci Med. 1995;40(4):517–28.

McMillan SC, Small BJ, Weitzner M, Schonwetter R, Tittle M, Moody L, Haley WE. Impact of coping skills intervention with family caregivers of hospice patients with cancer: a randomized clinical trial. Cancer. 2006;106(1):214–22.

Li Q, Loke AY. The positive aspects of caregiving for cancer patients: a critical review of the literature and directions for future research. Psycho-oncology. 2013;22(11):2399–407.

Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG. Trauma and transformation. Sage; 1995 Jun. p. 20.

Liu Y, Li Y, Chen L, Li Y, Qi W, Yu L. Relationships between family resilience and posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors and caregiver burden. Psycho-oncology. 2018;27(4):1284–90.

Moore AM, Gamblin TC, Geller DA, Youssef MN, Hoffman KE, Gemmell L, Likumahuwa SM, Bovbjerg DH, Marsland A, Steel JL. A prospective study of posttraumatic growth as assessed by self-report and family caregiver in the context of advanced cancer. Psycho‐oncology. 2011;20(5):479–87.

Nouzari R, Najafi SS, Momennasab M. Post-traumatic growth among family caregivers of cancer patients and its association with social support and hope. Int J Community Based Nurs Midwifery. 2019;7(4):319.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Less Survivable Cancers Taskforce.org.uk. London: Principle Consulting. https://lesssurvivablecancers.org.uk . Accessed 30 December 2021.

Dy S, Isenberg S, Hamayel N. Palliative care for cancer survivors. Med Clin N Am. 2017;101(6):1181–96.

Morris SM, Thomas C. The need to know: informal carers and information 1. Eur J Cancer Care. 2002;11(3):183–7.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, UK

Melinda Furtado, Dawn Davis, Jenny M. Groarke & Lisa Graham-Wisener

School of Psychology, University of Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland

Jenny M. Groarke

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

M.F., D.D. wrote the main manuscript text with supervision/assistance from J.M.G and L G-W . All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melinda Furtado .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1: Additional file 1

Search Strategy

Supplementary Material 2: Additional file 2

Findings illustrations table

Supplementary Material 3: Additional file 3

ConQual table

Supplementary Material 4: Additional file 4

Characteristics of studies

Supplementary Material 5: Additional file 5

Methodological assessment

Supplementary Material 6: Additional file 6

Meta-synthesis

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Furtado, M., Davis, D., Groarke, J.M. et al. Experiences of informal caregivers supporting individuals with upper gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 932 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11306-3

Download citation

Received : 20 June 2024

Accepted : 10 July 2024

Published : 14 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11306-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Caregiver burden
• Esophageal neoplasms
• Gastrointestinal neoplasms
• Gallbladder
• Quality of life
• Delivery of health care

BMC Health Services Research

ISSN: 1472-6963

• General enquiries: [email protected]

How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Related and recent

Comments are disabled due to your privacy settings. To re-enable, please adjust your cookie preferences.

APA Style Monthly

Subscribe to the APA Style Monthly newsletter to get tips, updates, and resources delivered directly to your inbox.

Welcome! Thank you for subscribing.

APA Style Guidelines

Browse APA Style writing guidelines by category

• Abbreviations
• Bias-Free Language
• Capitalization
• In-Text Citations
• Italics and Quotation Marks
• Paper Format
• Punctuation
• Research and Publication
• Spelling and Hyphenation
• Tables and Figures

Full index of topics