case study on apples from himachal pradesh ppt

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Preservation And Productivity Of Apples In Himachal Pradesh Project For Class 11th Business Studies

Table of Contents

Introduction

Himachal Pradesh, the cherished “Apple State of India,” stands as a testament to the art of horticulture. With its enchanting landscapes adorned by thriving apple orchards, this state has not only earned a special place in the hearts of its residents but has also garnered global recognition. Our journey embarks on a visionary project, meticulously curated to unravel the complex world of apple cultivation in Himachal Pradesh, with a keen focus on the art of preserving apple excellence. Moreover, we aim to dissect the intricate dynamics of apple farming as a flourishing business venture within this breathtaking region.

Unveiling the Essence of Apple Farming in Himachal Pradesh: Our primary aim is to unearth the profound significance of apple farming within the tapestry of Himachal Pradesh. This expedition involves a deep dive into the historical, economic, and cultural facets that weave apples into the very identity of this state.

Deciphering the Orchestrating Factors Behind Apple Productivity: The productivity of apple orchards hinges on a symphony of factors. Our project embarks on a comprehensive exploration of these elements, encompassing the likes of climate, soil conditions, pest management, and modern farming techniques. Together, we’ll illuminate the intricate interplay of these elements on apple yields.

Navigating the Art of Apple Preservation and Storage: Preservation methods serve as the lifeline of the apple industry. This segment of our journey is dedicated to an exhaustive exploration of the techniques and technologies employed in Himachal Pradesh to safeguard apples post-harvest. Our discussions will encompass controlled atmosphere storage, cold storage, waxing, and packaging, revealing the secrets behind apple longevity.

Assessing the Profit Potential and Challenges in Apple Farming as a Business: Beyond the allure of orchards and the allure of juicy fruits, the world of apple farming in Himachal Pradesh teems with opportunities and hurdles alike. Our project ventures into the financial realm of apple cultivation, evaluating the profitability of apple farming as a viable business endeavor. Simultaneously, we scrutinize the challenges posed by market fluctuations, competition, and sustainability concerns, offering a comprehensive glimpse into the industry’s ever-evolving dynamics.

Methodology

1. Data Collection

The data collection phase is the bedrock of this research effort. It encompasses a wide array of sources and information to comprehensively understand the apple farming landscape in Himachal Pradesh. The following points outline the data collection process:

• Government Reports: Rigorous analysis of government reports will be conducted to obtain official statistics on apple production in the region. These reports will provide vital data on production trends, market dynamics, and policy implications, offering a macroscopic view of the industry.
• Agricultural Experts: In-depth interviews and consultations with agricultural experts will be conducted to gain insights into the nuances of apple cultivation. Their expertise will be invaluable in understanding the technical aspects, innovations, and challenges within the industry.
• Apple Farmers in Himachal Pradesh: Direct engagement with apple farmers is pivotal to this research. Through structured surveys, interviews, and field visits, comprehensive data will be collected on various facets of their operations. This includes details on apple varieties cultivated, farming techniques employed, challenges faced, and experiences with preservation and storage.
• Total Apple Production: Robust data on the total apple production in the region will be compiled, encompassing historical trends, annual fluctuations, and regional disparities. This data will provide the quantitative foundation for understanding the industry’s output.
• Types of Apple Varieties Grown: An exhaustive inventory of apple varieties grown in Himachal Pradesh will be created. This will extend to details on their characteristics, seasonality, and market demand, providing a thorough understanding of the diversity within the apple sector.
• Factors Affecting Apple Productivity: A meticulous examination of factors influencing apple productivity, such as climate patterns, soil types, pest management practices, and technological advancements, will be undertaken. This will include both quantitative data and qualitative insights from experts and farmers.
• Preservation Techniques: The preservation techniques crucial for maintaining apple quality will be thoroughly documented. This encompasses an in-depth analysis of controlled atmosphere storage, cold storage, and any other innovative methods employed in the region.
• Challenges Faced by Apple Farmers: Comprehensive surveys and interviews with apple farmers will be conducted to elucidate the multifaceted challenges they encounter. These challenges may include market fluctuations, transportation bottlenecks, resource access, and sustainability concerns.

2. Field Visits

Field visits are an essential element of this research methodology, offering first-hand exposure to the intricacies of apple cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. The methodology for field visits is as follows:

• Orchard Visits: Whenever feasible, arrangements will be made for field visits to apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh. These visits will involve direct observation and interaction with farmers to document their practices, cultivation techniques, and use of preservation facilities.
• Documentation of Unique Practices: Particular attention will be given to identifying and documenting any unique or innovative practices followed by farmers that contribute to their success. These insights will enrich the research findings and potentially offer valuable lessons for others in the industry.

3. Interviews

Structured interviews will be conducted as a critical component of this research:

• Apple Farmers: In-depth interviews will be held with apple farmers to gain profound insights into their experiences, challenges, and strategies for success in the apple farming sector.
• Government Officials: Interviews with government officials will provide perspectives on regulatory frameworks, policy implications, and support mechanisms in place for the apple industry.
• Experts in the Field: Interviews with experts specializing in apple cultivation and horticulture will offer a broader understanding of the industry’s trends, innovations, and future prospects.

Apple Farming in Himachal Pradesh

In the embrace of Himachal Pradesh’s breathtaking landscapes, apple farming stands as a cultural and economic cornerstone. Here, we delve into the profound significance of apple cultivation in this region, shedding light on its cultural heritage and immense economic contributions.

Cultural Heritage:

Apples have etched their presence deep into the cultural fabric of Himachal Pradesh. These crimson and golden gems have become an inseparable part of the state’s identity, gracing its picturesque landscapes with lush orchards. Apples take center stage in local festivities, rituals, and cuisine, adding a flavorful touch to the region’s traditions.

Economic Backbone:

Beyond culture, apple farming serves as the robust backbone of Himachal Pradesh’s economy. It’s not just another crop; it’s a livelihood for a significant portion of the population. From small-scale farmers tending to their orchards with care to the laborers who work tirelessly during harvest season, and the traders who facilitate the apple’s journey to markets far and wide, the apple industry is a thriving ecosystem. The revenue generated from apple cultivation resonates strongly in the state’s GDP, making it a vital economic contributor.

Diversification of Agriculture:

Apple cultivation has catalyzed a welcome diversification in Himachal Pradesh’s agricultural practices. Farmers, drawn by the allure of apple’s prosperity, have shifted from traditional crops to embrace apple farming. This transition has helped reduce the vulnerability associated with single-crop agriculture, fostering resilience and sustainability in the region’s farming landscape.

Statistics on Apple Production and Varieties Grown:

Now, let’s crunch some numbers:

• Total Apple Production: Himachal Pradesh consistently ranks among India’s top apple-producing states. As of the latest available data, the state boasts an impressive annual apple production that exceeds [statistical figure] metric tons. This bountiful harvest not only satisfies domestic demand but also makes a substantial contribution to the national apple output.
• Varieties Grown: Himachal Pradesh is a treasure trove of apple diversity. The state is renowned for cultivating an array of popular apple varieties, including the iconic Red Delicious, the luscious Golden Delicious, and the regal Royal Gala. These varieties not only cater to the discerning tastes of local consumers but also find their way to international markets, earning the state well-deserved recognition for its premium-quality apples.

Factors Affecting Apple Productivity in Himachal Pradesh

The thriving apple orchards of Himachal Pradesh owe their productivity to a delicate dance between nature’s forces and cutting-edge technology. Here, we explore the key influencers of apple productivity in the region, where climate, soil, and modern agricultural techniques converge seamlessly.

Altitude and Temperature: Himachal Pradesh’s undulating terrain boasts a range of altitudes and microclimates. This diversity is a boon for apple cultivation, as different apple varieties thrive at varying altitudes. Higher reaches offer cooler temperatures, making them ideal for specific apple varieties. The region’s frosty winters are, in fact, pivotal for apple trees. They induce a state of dormancy, a vital phase in the apple tree’s growth cycle, preparing it for the fruitful seasons ahead.

Soil Types: Beneath the orchards’ surface, the soil composition of Himachal Pradesh tells its own tale. Predominantly, well-draining loamy and sandy loam soils grace the apple-growing areas. These soil types prove a blessing for apple tree roots, fostering healthy development and preventing the dreaded waterlogging.

Pest and Disease Management:

Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Modern times call for modern solutions, and that’s where IPM steps in. This integrated approach to pest and disease management has revolutionized apple farming. It champions the use of biological control methods, reduces the reliance on chemical pesticides, and places early detection of pests and diseases at the forefront. The result? A more sustainable and productive apple ecosystem.

Modern Agricultural Techniques:

High-Density Planting: Orchards in Himachal Pradesh have embraced the concept of high-density planting with open arms. This technique involves planting apple trees at closer intervals, a strategy that maximizes land utilization and, in turn, yields. Efficiency meets abundance.

Drip Irrigation: Water, the elixir of life for apple trees, is managed with precision through drip irrigation systems. These systems ensure that each apple tree receives just the right amount of water and nutrients, promoting optimal growth and fruit production.

In Himachal Pradesh, apple productivity thrives amidst the harmonious symphony of nature’s elements and the sophistication of modern agriculture. It’s a testament to the region’s commitment to nurturing not just apples but also a thriving agricultural heritage.

Preservation Techniques for Maintaining Apple Quality

In the land of Himachal Pradesh, where apples reign supreme, the art of preservation is a science. Here, we explore the meticulous techniques employed to safeguard the quality and longevity of these coveted fruits.

Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS):

Picture a room where the very air itself is sculpted to preserve perfection. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS) is a technological marvel that allows precise control over temperature, humidity, and gas composition. In this controlled environment, oxygen and carbon dioxide levels are regulated with surgical precision. The result? Extended storage life for apples. CAS is the guardian of freshness, particularly adept at safeguarding apples for the long haul. It thwarts the march of over-ripening and ensures that each bite retains the essence of the orchard.

Cold Storage:

In the heart of Himachal Pradesh, cold storage facilities are a ubiquitous sight. These chambers maintain apples at chilly temperatures, typically hovering around 0-4°C (32-39°F). Here, time slows down. The ripening process is held in check, like a suspended note in a melodious symphony. This cold embrace preserves the crispness, flavor, and nutritional treasure of the fruit. It’s the essence of freshness, encapsulated in a cold, crisp bite.

Packaging Methods:

Packaging is an art form in the preservation saga. Apples are not simply placed in cartons or crates; they are cradled in protective cushioning materials that defy bruises and damage during the journey. Every apple is a precious gem, and its packaging is a testament to that. But there’s more to it. Some orchards have taken the art of preservation a step further with Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP). Within individual packages, the gas composition is controlled to an exquisite balance. This artistry further extends the apple’s shelf life, ensuring that the last apple is as crisp and delightful as the first.

In Himachal Pradesh, the preservation of apples isn’t just a practice; it’s a testament to the region’s dedication to preserving excellence. It’s the promise of an apple that’s not just a fruit but a masterpiece of flavor and freshness.

Challenges in Apple Farming

Profitability:

Apple farming in Himachal Pradesh can be a profitable venture, riding on the wave of demand for premium-quality apples. The allure lies in the details. Profit margins dance to the rhythm of apple variety, orchard management practices, and market conditions. Navigate this landscape skillfully, and profitability awaits like a hidden treasure among the orchard’s leaves.

Investment:

The journey begins with an investment. The canvas of apple farming requires resources for land acquisition, orchard development, tree planting, irrigation systems, and the guardians of freshness—cold storage facilities. The scale of your orchard sets the tone for investment, with variations as vast as the Himachal landscape.

Expected Returns:

Returns, the fruit of labor, wear many faces. Apple variety, yield per hectare, market prices, and post-harvest care shape this narrative. Orchards nurtured with care and precision in Himachal Pradesh often yield returns that sweeten the toil. The promise of profitability unfolds over the long term.

The orchard is not without its shadows. Risks, like unexpected hailstorms or lurking pests, cast a watchful eye. Market price volatility adds another layer of unpredictability. In the early years, there’s the waiting game before apple trees bear fruit. These are the risks in the world of apple farming.

Cost-Benefit Analysis:

The ledger tells the story. A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis is the compass. It should capture every expense, each potential return, and the delicate balance of assets depreciating over time. Ongoing operational costs and the patience required for orchards to reach full productivity are part of this narrative. The upfront investments are substantial, but the yield, both in apples and returns, can span multiple fruitful years.

Business Aspects: Profitability, Investment, Returns, and Risks

In the enchanting world of apple farming in Himachal Pradesh, where orchards carpet the landscape, business is both an art and a science. Let’s dissect the business aspects that underpin this flourishing endeavor.

The apple’s allure extends to its profitability. The demand for top-tier apples creates a fertile ground for returns. However, profitability wears different masks. It dances to the tune of apple variety, the symphony of orchard management practices, and the ever-shifting rhythms of market conditions. In Himachal Pradesh, where quality reigns, savvy farmers can reap the rewards.

Planting the seeds of an apple orchard requires an initial investment. This encompasses the acquisition of land, the art of orchard development, the careful placement of saplings, the irrigation systems that quench the trees’ thirst, and the guardians of freshness—cold storage facilities. The scale of this investment varies, painting the canvas of apple farming in hues as diverse as the region’s landscapes.

Returns, the fruit of labor, offer a spectrum of possibilities. Apple variety, yield per hectare, market prices, and post-harvest care compose this mosaic. Orchards nurtured with precision in Himachal Pradesh often bear the fruit of profitability over the long term. The promise of returns is written in each crisp bite of a Himachali apple.

Yet, every orchard is a delicate balance. Risks shadow the path, like clouds on a sunny day. Weather-related disasters, pests and diseases that strike unannounced, market price fluctuations that resemble a roller coaster, and the initial gestation period before apple trees bear fruit—all are part of the orchard’s narrative.

In the world of apple farming, the ledger is the storyteller. A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis is the compass, capturing every expense and each potential return. It accounts for the depreciation of assets, the ongoing operational costs, and the time it takes for the orchard to reach its zenith of productivity. The initial investments may seem formidable, but the well-tended orchards have the power to yield returns over the course of many fruitful years.

In summation, apple farming in Himachal Pradesh is not merely an agricultural pursuit but a cultural emblem intertwined with the region’s identity. The meticulous preservation techniques, such as controlled atmosphere storage and cold storage, safeguard the essence of these apples. However, amidst the lush orchards and sweet fruit, the industry confronts formidable challenges – from the capricious tides of the market to the rugged terrain that complicates transportation and the clamor for improved infrastructure.

Nevertheless, the orchards of Himachal Pradesh endure and thrive, a testament to the indomitable spirit of its farmers. Despite the hurdles, when guided by efficient management, apple farming yields not only delicious fruits but also fruitful returns. It remains an integral pillar of Himachal Pradesh’s agricultural and economic tapestry, a symbol of resilience and the enduring charm of the region.

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Economics of Apple Production in Himachal Pradesh: A Comparative Study of Different Blocks of District Shimla

2020, Agricultural Science Digest - A Research Journal

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Crunching Through History: The Apple’s Journey to Himachal Pradesh

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Climate Change and Apple Farming in Indian Himalayas: A Study of Local Perceptions and Responses

Affiliation Ecosystem and Environment Management, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Basavaraj Basannagari, 
• Chandra Prakash Kala

• Published: October 30, 2013
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077976
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Apple farming is an important activity and profession of farmer communities in the Himalayan states of India. At present, the traditional apple farming is under stress due to changes in climate. The present study was undertaken in an Indian Himalayan state, Himachal Pradesh, with the major aim of studying perceptions of farmers on the effects of climate change on apple farming along the altitudinal gradient. Through questionnaire survey, the perceptions of farmers were recorded at low hills (<2500 m), mid-hills (2500–3000 m), and upper hills (>3000 m). At all elevation range the majority of farmers reported that there was increase in atmospheric temperature, and hence at low hills 72% farmers believed that this increase in temperature was responsible for decline in fruit size and so that the quality. Thirty five percent farmers at high hills and 30% at mid hills perceived frost as a major cause for damaging apple farming whereas at low hills 24% farmers perceived hailstorm as the major deterrent for apple farming. The majority of farmers, along the altitude (92% at high hills, 79% at mid hills and 83% at low hills), reported decrease in snowfall. The majority of farmers at low altitude and mid altitude reported decline in apple farming whereas 71% farmers at high hill areas refused decline in apple farming. About 73–83% farmers admitted delay in apple’s harvesting period. At mid hills apple scab and at low hills pest attack on apple crops are considered as the indicators of climate change. The change in land use practices was attributed to climate change and in many areas the land under apple farming was replaced for production of coarse grains, seasonal vegetables and other horticulture species. Scientific investigation claiming changes in Indian Himalayan climate corroborates perceptions of farmers, as examined during the present study.

Citation: Basannagari B, Kala CP (2013) Climate Change and Apple Farming in Indian Himalayas: A Study of Local Perceptions and Responses. PLoS ONE 8(10): e77976. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077976

Editor: Matteo Convertino, University of Florida, United States of America

Received: April 12, 2013; Accepted: September 8, 2013; Published: October 30, 2013

Copyright: © 2013 Basannagari, Kala. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Competing interests: No.

Introduction

The mountain ecosystem is one of the most vulnerable ecosystems to the climate change and so that the mountain communities, especially those mainly depend on animal husbandry, marginal agriculture and horticulture products. The Himalayan mountain ecosystem, at present, is facing the challenges created due to increasing aridity, warmer winter season, variability in precipitation, and unexpected frosts and storms [1] , [2] , which largely affect the entire range of biodiversity, including agriculture and horticulture crops [1] , [3] . Though, the Himalaya harbours rich biodiversity and is one of the most vulnerable mountain ecosystems to climate change [4] , [5] , there is paucity of systematic analysis of climate change and its impacts on the Himalayan ecosystems, biodiversity and local people’s livelihoods [6] .

Farmers of Indian Himalayan region grow many fruit crops, including pomes (apple and pear) and stone fruits (peach, plum, apricot and cherry) in considerable quantity [7] ; however apple has the preference over all other horticultural crops [8] . Worldwide, there are over 7,500 known cultivars of apples [9] . China dominates the world in production of apple, followed by the United States, and India ranks seventh with average yield of about 7.24 tonnes per hectare [9] . All three north-west Himalayan states of India - Himachal Pradesh, Jammu-Kashmir, and Uttarakhand are the major apple producing states of India. In these states, the apples are grown at altitude ranging from 1200 m to 3500 m above mean sea level [10] .

In Himachal Pradesh, the area under apple has increased from 400 ha in 1950–51 to 3,025 ha in 1960–61 and further 99,564 ha in 2009–10 [11] , [12] . Though the production of apple in this state has steadily increased by bringing more areas into apple farming, the productivity has declined [13] . The present study, therefore, aims to understand the causes of reducing apple farming in the state despite high preference of local people to continue apple farming. Apple being highly sensitive to adversities of climate [14] – [16] , the centre of attention of this study is to access the perceptions of farmers on effects of climate change on the apple farming along the altitudinal gradient.

The present study was carried out in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, which is located in the northern India. Himachal Pradesh is bordered by Jammu-Kashmir on north, Punjab on west and south-west, Haryana on south, Uttarakhand on south-east and China on the east [12] . The state is second largest producer of apples in the country. About 66% of area in the state is under forest cover, which is rich in biodiversity including medicinal and aromatic plants. The main occupation of the people of this state is agriculture, horticulture and allied sector. The topographical variations and altitudinal differences provide congenial environment for cultivation of temperate to sub-tropical fruits.

Intensive investigations at village level were carried out in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. Kinnaur district is situated on both sides of river Satluj from 31°-05′-50″ to 32°-05′-15″ north latitude and between 77°-45′ to 79°-00′-35″ east longitudes. Of the 12 districts of Himachal Pradesh, Kinnuar being third largest district spans over 6,520 km 2 . Total human population of this district is 84,298 and the population density is estimated as 15 per km 2 [17] . It is situated between 2,100 m to 3,600 m above mean sea level, and it is popularly known as the ‘apple bowl’ of the state. Kinnaur district is composed of 3 administrative blocks such as Nichar, Kalpa and Pooh.

Field Surveys

The field surveys were undertaken in 2012. The approval of ethical committee was not required as the present study does not deal with the clinical trials on humans and animals. The study rather deals with the agro-biodiversity, which falls in the jurisdiction of Biological Diversity Act 2002. The regulations under ‘Assess to Biological Diversity’, Chapter 2, Section 3.0 and Section 4.0, authorize authors, being the Indian citizens, to carry out research and publish research papers with respect to agro-biodiversity in India. The present study complies with all relevant regulations.

Random survey was carried out in all three development blocks of Kinnuar district - Kalpa, Pooh and Nichar along the altitudinal gradient (e.g., upper hills, mid-hills, and low hills). Two villages at each altitudinal range (e.g., upper hills >3000 m; mid-hills between 2500–3000 m; low hills <2500 m) were selected. Villages Pooh and Chango were sampled at the high hills (>3000 m), Kalpa and Sangla at the mid hills (2500 m–3000 m) and Nichar and Urni were selected for sampling at the low hills (<2500 m). A total of 300 respondents inhabited in 6 villages were interviewed during the present investigations along the altitudinal gradient in Kinnaur district.

The data were obtained with the help of structured questionnaire survey. Before conducting the survey, we informed and discussed with the participants about the nature of the research. The subject’s participation was voluntary. Fifty households in each village were randomly sampled and information was gathered on various parameters, including perceptions of the farmers on the effects of temperature and precipitation on apple farming. Besides, Participatory Rural Appraisal was also used for collection of data through interviews/discussions with individual and focus groups within the farmer’s community. Farmers were also interviewed on the trends in snowfall, extreme events, and changes in seasonality, cropping system and pest attack.

Secondary Information

An extensive literature survey was carried out on the parameters related to research study. Different Departments (e.g., State Forest Department, State Horticulture Department, State Universities and other Government Departments) were approached for collection of present and past information related to apple farming in the state of Himachal Pradesh.

The horticulture has emerged as the main profession of inhabitants in the study area, followed by agriculture and animal husbandry. Of the total people interviewed, 73% admitted horticulture as a primary occupation, followed by agriculture (23%). The majority of farmers (78%) at low altitude (<2500 m) and 72% at mid altitude (2500–3000 m) reported in decline of apple farming whereas majority of farmers (71%) of high hill areas (>3000 m) admitted that there was no decline in the apple farming.

Along the altitudinal gradient the majority of respondents reported that there was increase in atmospheric temperature. About 24% of farmers at low hills perceived hailstorm as the major deterrent for apple farming whereas 35% farmers at high hills and 30% at mid hills perceived frost as a major cause for damaging apple farming ( Figure 1 ) . The perceptions of growers on the quality of apple fruit production varied along the altitudinal gradient. About 72% farmers at low hills believed that change in climate, especially increasing temperature, was responsible for decline in fruit size and so that the quality. Lacking of appropriate fruit colour, due to climate change, was considered as deterrent factor in maintaining the fruit quality by 39% respondents at high hills ( Figure 2 ) .

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The growers reported many indicators of climate change that impact apple farming along the altitudinal gradient. Infestation of pest and diseases such as apple scab, scale root and canker were some the indicators of climate change that increased the cost of production due to increase in use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. At low hills majority of respondents reported pest attack on apple crops as one of the indicators of climate change whereas at mid hills apple scab was the most prominent ( Figure 3 ). Apple production is known to influence by chilling hours however, the majority of respondent along the altitude (92% respondents at high hills, 79% at mid hills, and 83% at low hills) reported decrease in snowfall. None of the respondents in the study villages admitted that there was increase in snowfall ( Figure 4 ) .

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The growers indicated that because of climate change the land-use practices were under change. In many areas the land under apple farming was replaced by farming of coarse grains, seasonal vegetables and other horticulture species ( Figure 5 ) . The majority of respondents reported that there was shift in harvesting period of apple due to climate change, especially of increasing temperature, across the altitudinal gradient ( Figure 6 ) . Seventy three to eighty three percent respondents admitted that apple harvesting period has been delayed in the study villages.

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The area brought under apple farming in Himachal Pradesh has increased from 35,076 ha to 99,564 ha during 1975–2010 however, the same time series data show erratic trend in annual apple production, which is low and not in the proportion of land brought under apple farming ( Table 1 ) . The erratic trend in apple production may have number of reasons, including farming sites on sloppy and marginal lands, areas prone to adverse weather conditions, rainfed land and small land holdings [18] , [19] . Nurseries are being mainly developed by utilizing scion wood of old varieties and seedling rootstock for propagation. The concept of budwood bank for supply of certified quality true-to-type planting material for further propagation is lacking [18] . Apart from this, climate change impacts the apple farming in numerous ways.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077976.t001

Decline in atmospheric moisture and increase in frequent droughts may lead to higher temperature as reported by farmers along the altitudinal gradient during the present course of investigations. The winter temperature and precipitation in the form of snow are very important and sensitive climatic factors for induction of dormancy, bud break and also to ensure proper flowering in apples [20] . Apple requires 1200–1500 hours of chilling depending on type of cultivars. The chilling hours <1000 lead to poor fruit formation [21] – [23] . Prolonged delay in cold in December and January severely affects the chilling requirements [24] . Apple grows best in the regions where the tree undergoes an uninterrupted winter rest [25] .

However, the extreme minimum temperature during the winter causes winter freeze injury in apple fruits, which results poor apple yield [26] . Summer temperature and climate conditions also influence the size and quality of apples as the fruits develop during April to June. The high (>26°C) or low temperature (≤15°C) during flowering phase reduce apple crop [27] . Temperature impacts apples farming throughout the season from immediately after blooming period in the apple orchards to the fruit size at harvest [28] . Delicious group of apple trees, the one which is mostly cultivated in the present study area, under normal conditions require 1234 units of winter chilling [29] . However, some of the low altitude zones under apple cultivation do not fulfil sufficient winter chilling due to rise in temperature. With deficiency in chilling hours, flower buds produce fewer fruit clusters resulting in delay in bloom period.

The increasing pattern of chill unit at 2700 m above mean sea level reports that the area is conducive for apple cultivation and hence there is a shift in apple farming from low hills to middle and high hills [15] , [16] . These reports support the farmer’s perceptions of the present study area which showed that apple cultivation shifts from low to high elevations with respect to increase in temperature. The harvesting period of apple is also delayed for a week to a fortnight. Apart from temperature, the decline in apple farming at low hills is also attributed to hailstorms, decrease in snowfall and inferior quality of fruit production due to pest attack. In many such areas, the apple farming is being replaced by raising course grains and seasonal vegetables.

Our results with respect to the effects of climate change on apple farming are similar to those inferred for other regions of the world. In Japan, the areas suitable for apple farming (i.e. with an annual average temperature of 7∼13°C) are gradually shifting northward besides decline in colour quality of apple due to heat injury [30] , [31] . Farmers, here, have also started shifting from apple to peach farming because peach farming is considered less vulnerable to climatic stresses [32] . The apple farming areas have shifted north and or to highlands in the Yangu of Gangwon Province from Daegu of Gyeongbook Province of Korea, as well [31] . The decrease in number of chilling hours in four mountain oases of Oman has made to decline the production of apple, and since such fruit trees barely fulfil their chilling requirements such marginal fruit production is expected to decline further [33] . In the neighbouring country of India, about 90% farmers believe that climate change is the major factor responsible for decline in apple production [34] .

A model demonstrating climatically suitable areas for growing apples suggests that as temperature increases the areas suitable for growing apples move from south to north, from coast to midland, from planes to mountains and from urban centre to suburban areas [35] . The Indian Himalaya has warmed by 1.5°C from 1982 to 2006, at an average rate of 0.06°C yr −1 , which is considerably higher than the global average [6] . Majority of farmers during the present study believe that there is change in climate, especially increase in atmospheric temperature and decrease in snowfall, which they consider most responsible for decline in fruit size and so that the quality of apples. Scientific investigation claiming that the Indian Himalaya has warmed by 1.5°C from 1982 to 2006 corroborates such beliefs of farmers, as examined during the present study. The increase in temperature throughout the Himalaya makes it likely that our findings with respect to climate change effects on apple farming may represent a trend across the Himalaya. It is assumed that other fruit production regions, where similar sensitive fruit crop species are grown under the climatic conditions similar to the Himalaya, are also susceptible to even slight warming.

Apple is known in Himachal Pradesh as a most significant commercial fruit crop. However, in the study area, the farmers are mainly customized to follow the traditional and age-old practices of cultivation. They are less aware about scientific agro-commercial practices, horticulture schemes and agri-inputs due to lack of communication facilities at high hills. The present changes in climatic conditions such as change in temperature, precipitation, ground frost and hailstorm, and subsequent adversities in terms of proliferation of insect-pest and diseases, loss of soil fertility, water availability, and natural calamities pose serious threats on apple production. Apart from climate change, the apple production may be declined due to continuation of plantations that have crossed their fruit bearing stage. There is a need for re-plantation of apple trees in a systematic manner on a regular basis. Besides, it is important to understand the variations in the patterns of climate change and also to identify management practices and alternatives for farmers in order to cope up the vagaries of changing climate.

Acknowledgments

We thank Director, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal. The villagers of Kinnaur district are acknowledged for their support and help during fieldwork. Authors thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor for constructive comments on the manuscript.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: CPK. Performed the experiments: BB CPK. Analyzed the data: BB CPK. Wrote the paper: CPK BB. Conducted fieldwork: BB.

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class 11 bst project on case study on apples from kashmir and himachal pradesh 1. research for change in price of apples in plucking and non plucking season 2. effect on price in the absence of effective transport system 3. effect on price in the absence of suitable warehouse facilities 4. role of warehouse 5. demand and supply situation of the apple during harvesting season 6. price near the place of origin and away.​

Case Study: Apple Prices in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh

1. Research for Change in Price of Apples in Plucking and Non-Plucking Season:

• Supply and demand: During harvest season, supply is high, leading to lower prices. In the non-plucking season, demand remains but supply shrinks, pushing prices up.
• Storage and transportation: Storage losses and costs increase in the non-plucking season, further impacting prices.
• Quality: Fresh apples fetch higher prices, but quality deteriorates over time, affecting non-plucking season prices.

2. Effect on Price in the Absence of Effective Transport System:

• Increased transportation costs: Poor roads and inadequate cold chain facilities drive up transportation costs, impacting final price.
• Delays and spoilage: Inefficient transport leads to delays and higher spoilage rates, decreasing supply and raising prices.
• Limited market reach: Farmers in remote areas with poor connectivity struggle to reach larger markets, leading to lower prices.

3. Effect on Price in the Absence of Suitable Warehouse Facilities:

• Post-harvest losses: Lack of proper storage leads to significant spoilage, reducing supply and driving up prices.
• Limited shelf life: Apples kept at room temperature have a shorter shelf life, forcing farmers to sell at lower prices to avoid spoilage.
• Seasonality limitations: Without storage, farmers are restricted to selling within a short window, increasing price volatility.

4. Role of Warehouse:

• Reduced post-harvest losses: Cold storage facilities extend shelf life, minimising spoilage and increasing available supply.
• Price stabilisation: Warehousing allows farmers to store produce and release it gradually throughout the year, regulating supply and stabilising prices.
• Increased market access: Storage enables farmers to access markets beyond the harvest season, potentially fetching better prices.

5. Demand and Supply Situation of the Apple during Harvesting Season:

• Production fluctuations: Weather events and pest infestations can impact production, influencing supply and demand dynamics.
• Import competition: Imported apples can affect domestic prices, depending on quality, quantity, and trade policies.
• Market demand in different regions: Regional preferences and purchasing power can influence demand during harvest season.

6. Price Near the Place of Origin and Away:

• Marketing margins: Intermediaries like wholesalers and retailers add to the final price consumers pay.
• Transportation costs: The distance from the origin influences transportation costs, impacting final price.
• Market access constraints: Farmers in remote areas might fetch lower prices due to limited options and buyer power.

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