geography water supply case study

Managing Water Supply ( Edexcel A Level Geography )

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Hard Engineering to Increase Water Supply

• There are conflicting views over what is the best approach to managing water supplies
• Economic stakeholders prefer hard-engineered schemes, and environmental stakeholders a more natural and sustainable approach

Hard-engineered schemes

• These need capital, technology and long-term maintenance to be successful

Water transfer schemes

Desalination plants.

• These attempt to make up for water deficits through constructing systems of canals, pipes, and dredging over long distances to transfer water from a drainage basin of surplus supplies to areas of deficit
• The Kielder reservoir in Northumberland supplies water to the cities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sunderland, Durham, Darlington and Middlesbrough via a water transfer

China’s south-north water transfer

• One of the largest water transfer projects in the world
• Planning began in 1952, with work starting in 2002, and is expected to be completed by 2050
• It aims im is to divert 45bnm³ of water a year from surplus river basins in the south and east to the north where there is frequent water deficits in places such as Beijing and Tianjin
• The project will cost US$62 billion to complete and will involve the resettlement of people which is not popular
• Western route - started in 2010, through difficult, high-altitude terrain. As the route will pass high industrial activity, it is feared that water will become polluted on transfer, as well as reduce the volumes in the Yangtze,  causing issues with sediment and the ecosystem 
• Central route - this is a 1267km diversion with some of the water from the Three Gorges Dam being used in order help
• Eastern route - this route is 1,155km long diversion from the Yangtze river next to Shanghai to Beijing and Tianjin in the north
• The main stakeholders are the government sponsored ‘South to North’ Water Transfer Project Company and corporate civil engineering companies building 3 major canals, pipelines, tunnels and pumping stations
• Dams block rivers so that reservoirs of water build up behind, rather than drain away
• Dams provide large, reliable supplies of drinking water and reduces water insecurity, especially in areas of seasonal precipitation 
• Dams and reservoirs can also prevent flooding, as the flow of the river is controlled, and can generate electricity through hydroelectric power (HEP)
• Nearly 60% of the world's major rivers have large dams of which the Aswan, Hoover and 3 Gorges are amongst the largest
• Dams alter ecosystems - downstream ecosystems rely on water and sediment, both of which are held back by big dams, making downstream land less fertile
• Dams displace people, communities and destroy cultural heritage
• Flooding of the reservoir submerges land and destroys plants and animals
• Dams reduce water quality and waste water - large surface areas of reservoirs increase rates of evapotranspiration and trap sediment and agricultural runoff, increasing rates of eutrophication and vector diseases
• Extracts the salt from seawater to enable it to be used for drinking and irrigation
• Expensive, salt waste can damage marine ecosystems and the process uses large amounts of energy
• As the price of freshwater increases, some countries will look to the sea for water supplies
• Dubai has already done this, as has Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
• Alicante II Seawater plant in Spain and Tampa Bay Water plant, USA 
• Although it is a sustainable process, it is considered a hard engineered process due to the inputs of technology and energy and it has an ecological impact on marine life

Sustainable Schemes of Water Supply & Water Conservation

• Minimise wastage and pollution
• Provide access to safe, potable water at an affordable price to all
• Consider the views of all stakeholders
• Guarantee equitable distribution of water between and within countries
• Smart irrigation - replace traditional irrigation methods of sprinklers and surface flows with automated spray technology and drip irrigation systems
• Rainwater harvesting - precipitation is collected from roofs and stored in water butts for repurposing in toilets and watering gardens
• Restoration of damaged lakes, rivers and wetlands to return them to their part in the natural water system
• Filtration - sophisticated systems are used to remove even the finest particulates from dirty water, rendering it safe to drink again
• Recycle - grey water is a low cost option for use domestically and in agriculture (irrigation, flushing toilets etc.) not drinking 
• Hydroponics - crops are grown in shallow trays that are drip fed nutrients and water, there is no soil involved
• Singapore has very little natural water resources and have made water management one of its priorities for its 6 million residents
• Collect all water - government educates its citizens on using water carefully and since 2003, domestic water consumption has fallen by 24 litres per person per day (24 x 6 = 144 million litres per day is a lot of water)
• Re-use water - Singapore has cutting edge technology to re-use its grey-water called NEWater
• Desalinate - Singapore now has 5 desalination plants meeting up to 25% of demand

Integrated Drainage Basin Management

• According to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee 2000

Integrated river basin management (IRBM) is the process of coordinating conservation, management and development of water, land and related resources across sectors within a given river basin, in order to maximise the economic and social benefits derived from water resources in an equitable manner while preserving and, where necessary, restoring freshwater ecosystems.

• Water is used to maximum efficiency
• Equitable distribution
• Conserve the environmental quality of rivers and its catchments
• IWRM is successful at a local, community level, but not at national or international levels

Water sharing treaties and frameworks

• UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) - the convention promotes joint management and conservation of all shared freshwater ecosystems
• UN Water Courses Convention - offers guidelines for protection and use of transboundary rivers like the Nile
• EU Water Framework Directive (2000) - committed all members to ensure their 'status' of water bodies, which included marine waters up to 1 nautical mile offshore
• Helsinki (1966) and Berlin (2004) Rules - ensure that all have an 'equitable use' and 'equitable shares' concept
• The Water Convention and the Protocol on Water and Health - jointly serviced by UNECE and WHO-Europe, it is a unique legally binding framework that aims to protect human health through improved water management and reduction of water-related diseases. The Protocol provides a practical advice on how to provide the human rights to water and sanitation
• With the increasing risks of climate change, there is the potential for water wars to be global, despite the degrees of international cooperation at present
• Proper management of current water supplies are crucial and binding international agreements need to be in place for a sustainable water supply for future generations

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GCSE Geography | Case Study: Lesotho Highlands Water Project (Resource Management - Water 5)

Last updated 25 May 2024

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Lesotho (an LIC) is a landlocked country, which is entirely surrounded by South Africa. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project is an example of a large-scale water transfer scheme, taking water from Lesotho to South Africa, and is the largest water transfer scheme in Africa, taking 30 years to complete.

Lesotho is a mountainous country that receives a high level of precipitation and has a low population (2.3 million) - therefore has a water surplus . Whereas, South Africa has a population of 60.4 million and uneven rainfall, so has a water defic it , with the west and south being particularly dry.

200 km of tunnels divert 40% of the water in the Senqu river basin in Lesotho, to the Vaal river system in South Africa, and then on to where it is needed most in the country. 2000 million m3 of water is transferred every year.

Lesotho is one of the world's poorest countries and relies on money from selling water to South Africa - it actually makes up 75% of Lesotho's income.

The main features of the scheme:

• Construction started in 1984 with the Katse Dam (pictured below) and Mohale Dam completed in 1998 and 2002, storing and transferring water to the Mohale Reservoir
• A 32 km tunnel then transfers water to South Africa's Muela plant to generate hydroelectric power (HEP)
• The second phase of the project involved the construction of the Polihali Dam which can hold 2.2 billion m3 of water and has a 38 km transfer tunnel
• Later phases of the project included the Tsoelike Dam, built at the confluence of the Tsoelike and Senqu rivers, with a storage capacity of 2223 million m3 and a pumping station, and the Ntoahae Dam with another pumping station 40 km downstream

Benefits for Lesotho

• Economic impact - the project provides Lesotho with 75% of its income, boosting the economy and improving the quality of life in the country
• Water supply - income from the scheme has been spent on increasing water security in Lesotho - 90% of the population of Maseru (the capital city) has access to water
• Sanitation - money has been spent on improving sanitation systems, increasing the proportion of the population with adequate sanitation from 15% to 20% (although this is still low), reducing the risk of waterborne diseases
• Energy - the dams also generate hydroelectric power (HEP) which increases energy security in the country, which will help economic development
• Employment - the project has taken 30 years to complete and has provided thousands of jobs during construction, with further jobs created with operation and maintenance
• Infrastructure improvements - the project has included access roads and communication networks, which benefit local people but also may encourage further investment into the country in the future

Benefits for South Africa

• Increased water security - addresses the issue of uneven and unreliable rainfall distribution and frequent drought events, and ensures that there is enough water for agricultural and industrial uses (as well as domestic). It also means that the 10% of the population who were without access to safe water now have it
• Economy - the increased water security means that food production and industrial output increases, which encourages economic growth
• Ecosystem restoration - the Vaal River Reservoir has been heavily polluted by raw sewage and toxic chemical run-off from manufacturing and gold mining which has had a huge impact on marine ecosystems - however, the influx of freshwater has meant that the acid levels in the water have been reduced, meaning that the balance is being restored

Disadvantages for Lesotho

• Displacement of local population - the initial phase of construction meant that 30,000 had to be moved to make way for the flooding behind the Katse and Mohale dams, and the Polihali Dam destroyed 17 villages, and reduced the land available for farming for the residents of 71 villages
• Ecosystem damage - the wetland ecosystem downstream that depended on regular flooding has been destroyed due to less water reaching that part of the river basin
• Corruption - compensation money was set aside to those communities who have been displaced by the project, to help them set up new lives and buy new land to farm on, however, corruption has meant that a lot of that money has not gone where is was supposed to, and money that has been received has been too little, too late
• Temporary workers - many workers moved to informal settlements around the construction sites where alcoholism was a huge issue and the spread of HIV/AIDs was rife
• Over-reliance on one income source - 75% of Lesotho's income comes from transferring water to South Africa which makes Lesotho economically vulnerable
• Debt - Lesotho has had to borrow large sums of money to finance their part of the project, this will have to be paid back with interest, which reduces the amount of money available to spend on important services such as education and healthcare, which are vital in improving the quality of life for people in LICs

Disadvantages for South Africa

• Economic cost - the project is estimated to cost around US$4 billion and the South African government is likely to pass that cost onto consumers in the country. The increase water tariffs are much too high for the poorest people in South Africa so they will not be able to access safe water, increasing water inequality
• Poor infrastructure - 40% of all water transferred is actually lost through leakage (linked to poor maintenance of pipes and tunnels)
• Lack of water security - although the project has increased access to a safe water supply for most people in the the country, South Africa is entirely reliant on another country for its water supply, meaning it doesn't have water security. This means there is the potential for conflict between the countries in the future, and Lesotho could restrict water access

• Resource sustainability
• Resource balance
• Resource exploitation
• Resource security

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Environmental Pollution in the Moscow Region According to Long-term Roshydromet Monitoring Data

• Published: 02 November 2020
• Volume 45 , pages 523–532, ( 2020 )

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Long-term Roshydromet monitoring data (2009–2018) on the pollution of the atmosphere, soil, and surface water are considered for the Moscow region (Moscow city within its new boundaries and the Moscow oblast). The air quality in the megacity (Moscow) and in background conditions (Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve) is compared.

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Chernogaeva, G.M., Zhuravleva, L.R., Malevanov, Y.A. et al. Environmental Pollution in the Moscow Region According to Long-term Roshydromet Monitoring Data . Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol. 45 , 523–532 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3103/S1068373920080014

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Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow

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Gornostayeva Galina A. Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow . In: Espace, populations, sociétés , 1991-2. Les franges périurbaines Peri-urban fringes. pp. 349-357.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/espos.1991.1474

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Galina A. GORNOSTAYEVA

Moscow University

Suburbanization Problems

in the USSR :

the Case of Moscow

Suburbanization processes typical to cities in Western Europe, the USA and other countries are not observed in the USSR or they are distorted to such an extent that they may not be compared with existing standards. This states the question how Soviet cities-succeeded in escaping this stage of urban development. In order to answer this question, we should first summarize the main aspects of Western suburbanization.

Firstly, it is well known that the urbanization processes are linked to structural changes in the economy. Thus the transition from the stage of concentration to this of suburbanization is associated with industrialization, and the transition to the third stage - déconcentration - is related with the rapid growth of employment in the non-industrial sphere. Secondly, a suburbanization of economic activities can be distinguished. It applies in the first place to the building and iron- working industry, transports, engineering and chemical works. These are polluting and requiring extensive areas. This suburbanization of industry is caused by the following factors: rising demand for land from firms ; worsening of transport

tions in the inner cities ; demand for lower land costs and taxation levels in suburbs ; rapid growth of road transports; state policies regulating the growth of large cities ; migration of the labour force to the suburban zones. Scientific and educational activities are also transferred from the centre to the suburbs.

The third important aspect of suburbanization applies to the population. In the suburbs two opposite flows of population meet ; one is centripetal, coming from non- metropolitan regions, the other is centrifugal, coming from the central city. The reasons for the migration to the suburbs are as follows : declining living standards in large cities (overcrowding, slow housing renewal, environmental problems, etc.); growth of motorization of the population, development of communications (telephone, telex, fax, computer) ; intensifying decentralization of working places ; lower land prices in the suburbs ; state support for the intensification of real estate development in the suburbs. The above-mentioned factors and reasons for suburbanization are altered in the Soviet cities. Let us explore them, by taking for example the largest one - Moscow.

Potential sources of reactive gases for the West of Moscow Oblast

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The South-North Water Transfer Project in China

A large-scale water transfer scheme

The South-North Water Transfer Project, China

The South-North Water Transfer Project aims to transfer significant quantities of water from China’s humid south to the arid north.

South-north Water Transfer Scheme, China

The US$62 billion scheme, designed to move 12 trillion gallons of water over more than 1000 kilometres, was launched in 2002. The scheme moves water along three distinct routes from the Yangtze River basin in the south to the Yellow River basin in the north. 

Why was the South-North water transfer project introduced?

Northern China has long been a centre of population, industry and agriculture . With all three growing apace, the per capita share of the region’s limited water resources has inevitably kept falling.

The South-North Water Transfer Project is one of the world’s most ambitious and expensive water transfer projects. The project was introduced because:

• there is a significant demand for water for economic growth in the more arid north of China.
• population density is high, so there is considerable demand for domestic water.
• water is needed for irrigating farmland
• there is a water deficit in the country’s north.
• the water table below Beijing is falling at a rate of 5m per year due to over-abstraction.

What are the advantages of the South-North water transfer project?

The advantages of the South-North water transfer project include:

• reducing water insecurity in the north and supporting economic development
• food security is improving as more water is available for irrigation
• health benefits from improved water quality
• improved water supply for the industry
• additional water will help China cope with climate change
• groundwater withdrawal is reducing

What are the disadvantages of the South-North water transfer project?

The disadvantages of the South-North water transfer project include:

• hundreds of thousands of people displaced by the construction of dams and reservoirs
• ecological damage to the natural environment
• the region is prone to earthquakes, which could cause extensive damage to the scheme
• the project cost a significant amount of money to taxpayers
• antiquities have been lost
• considerable evaporation from canals and reservoir

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