Frankline kibuacha | dec. 02, 2022 | 3 min. read.
A research report is a document that summarizes and provides an analysis of the findings of a research project. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, data, and findings of a research study, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
There are a few questions a research report should answer:
A research report is normally organized into three broad sections. First, an introduction provides a brief background on the topic and introduces the reader to your perspective. The second section is the body of the report, which should include the research findings and supporting evidence. Finally, the conclusion, which summarizes your arguments and the implications of your study for future research.
Every year, GeoPoll carries out hundreds of research studies and produces reports on several topics, both for clients and internally commissioned studies. In this article, we highlight some tips for writing great reports from our experience.
GeoPoll conducts research worldwide on topics integral to the organizations we serve and the world. You can read and download our reports here for free. Sign up for our newsletter to receive GeoPoll reports as soon as we release them.
Contact us about your upcoming research project and learn how we can help.
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Learning objectives.
Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?
You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.
Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.
When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.
But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.
If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.
Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.
No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.
Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.
Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.
Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?
A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.
Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?
How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.
These are the steps in the research writing process:
Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.
As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.
Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.
During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.
When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.
Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.
When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.
Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”
Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.
When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.
In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.
Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!
Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.
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Reports are the backbone of effective communication in both academic and professional realms. Discover the significance of report writing in our blog on the Importance of Report Writing. Learn how mastering this skill can enhance your ability to convey information, influence decisions, and propel your career to new heights.
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Table of contents
1) Importance of Report Writing
a) Evaluation
b) Development of skills
c) Investigation
d) Quick Location
e) Decision making tool
f) Neutral presentation of facts
g) A managerial tool
h) Proper control
i) Professional advancement
j) Encountering advance and complex situation
2) Conclusion
Report Writing is a skill that can benefit you in various ways and contexts. Here is the list of reasons reflecting the Importance of Report Writing:
The importance of Report Writing can be reflected during the evaluation process. This is because Report Writing can help you evaluate your own or others’ performance, progress, or outcomes. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to assess your learning outcomes, achievements, or challenges in a course or a project. As a teacher, you can write a Report to evaluate your students’ learning outcomes, strengths, or weaknesses in a course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to evaluate your research methods, results, or implications in a study or an experiment. Report Writing can help you identify the gaps, strengths, or areas for improvement in your own or others’ work.
Report Writing can help you develop your skills in various domains and disciplines. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to improve your writing, research, analysis, or presentation skills . If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to enhance your teaching, assessment, feedback, or curriculum design skills.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to advance your knowledge, methodology, innovation, or contribution skills. Report Writing can help you acquire new knowledge, apply existing knowledge, or create new knowledge in your field of interest.
The Importance of Report Writing also lies in investigating a problem or a topic in-depth and in detail. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to explore a question or an issue that interests you or relates to your course or project.
At the same time, if you are a teacher, you can write a Report to investigate a pedagogical or educational problem or phenomenon that affects your teaching or learning environment. On the other hand, if you are a researcher, you can write a Report to investigate a scientific or social problem or phenomenon that has significance or relevance for your discipline or society. Report Writing can help you collect, analyse, and present data in an organised and systematic way.
Report Writing can help you locate information quickly and easily. For example, students can write a Report to summarise the main points and findings of your course or project for future reference or revision. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to document the key aspects and outcomes of your course or assignment for future use or evaluation.
At the same time, researchers can write a Report to record the essential details and implications of a study or experiment for future dissemination or publication. Report Writing can help you create an index, an abstract, or an executive summary that can help you access information at a glance .
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Report Writing acts as a decision-making tool that can assist you in making decisions based on facts and evidence. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to support your arguments or opinions with data and sources in an essay or a debate. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to justify your decisions or recommendations with data and sources in an assessment or feedback.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to validate your claims or hypotheses with data and sources in a study or an experiment. Thus, Report Writing can help you use logic, reasoning, and analysis to make informed and rational decisions.
Report Writing can help you present facts in a neutral and objective manner. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to avoid bias or emotion in your writing and use facts and evidence to support your points. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to avoid bias or emotion in your assessment and use facts and evidence to evaluate your students.
Researchers can write a Report to avoid bias or emotion in their research and use facts and evidence to demonstrate their findings. Report Writing can help you maintain a professional and ethical tone in your communication.
Report Writing can help you manage your work or project effectively and efficiently. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to plan, organise, and monitor your progress or outcomes in a course or a project. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to plan, organise, and monitor your activities or objectives in a course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to plan, organise, and monitor your methods or results in a study or an experiment. As a result, Report Writing can help you set goals, allocate resources, and measure performance.
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Report Writing helps you control your work or project effectively and efficiently. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to check, review, and revise your work or project before submission or presentation. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to check, review, and revise your work or project before delivery or evaluation.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to check, review, and revise your work or project before dissemination or publication. Thus, Report Writing can help you ensure quality, accuracy, and consistency in your work or project.
The importance of Report Writing lies in advancing and developing your professional career. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to demonstrate your competence, knowledge, and skills in a course or a project. In contrast, if you are a teacher, you can write a Report to demonstrate your competence, knowledge, and skills in a course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to demonstrate your competence, knowledge, and skills in a study or an experiment. Report Writing can help you showcase your achievements, contributions, or innovations in your field of interest.
Report Writing can help you encounter advanced and complex situations in your work or project. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to deal with challenging questions or issues that arise in your course or project. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to deal with challenging questions or issues that arise in your course or assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to deal with challenging questions or issues that arise in your study or experiment. Report Writing can help you solve problems, overcome obstacles, or discover new possibilities in your work or project.
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We hope that this blog has helped you understand the Importance of Report Writing and how to use it effectively. Report Writing is a skill that can benefit you in various ways and contexts. So, why not start writing Reports today? You will be amazed by the results!
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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide
Table of Contents
Definition:
Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.
It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.
The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:
The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.
The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.
The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.
The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.
The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.
The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.
The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.
The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.
The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.
You can write Research Paper by the following guide:
Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.
Research Paper Example sample for Students:
Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.
Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.
Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.
Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.
Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.
Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.
Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.
Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.
Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.
References :
Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.
Social Media and Mental Health Survey
Thank you for your participation!
Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:
Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.
Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:
The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:
Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:
Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:
Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:
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Pitchai balakumar.
Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia
1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA
An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.
Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]
The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).
The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.
The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.
A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.
A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.
The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]
Elements of a study protocol
The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.
Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.
How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?
A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:
To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.
To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.
To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.
The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:
All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]
Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.
A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]
Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).
Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.
Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.
The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.
The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?
In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .
Elements of a research protocol
Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].
Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)
The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.
Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.
Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.
Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.
The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.
Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.
The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.
The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.
Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.
Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes
After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.
The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.
At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:
Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.
We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.
The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration
Source of Support: Nil
Conflict of Interest: None declared.
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples.
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Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World
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2. issues and the 2024 election, table of contents.
As concerns around the state of the economy and inflation continue, about eight-in-ten registered voters (81%) say the economy will be very important to their vote in the 2024 presidential election.
While the economy is the top issue among voters, a large majority (69%) cite at least five of the 10 issues asked about in the survey as very important to their vote.
There are wide differences between voters who support Harris and Trump when it comes to the issues.
Among Trump supporters, the economy (93%), immigration (82%) and violent crime (76%) are the leading issues. Just 18% of Trump supporters say racial and ethnic inequality is very important. And even fewer say climate change is very important (11%).
For Harris supporters, issues such as health care (76%) and Supreme Court appointments (73%) are of top importance. Large majorities also cite the economy (68%) and abortion (67%) as very important to their vote in the election.
Most voters cite several issues as very important to their vote this November. Very few – just 5% – say only one issue or no issues are highly important.
Majorities of both Harris supporters (71%) and Trump supporters (69%) say at least five of 10 issues included in the survey are very important to their vote.
Harris supporters are more likely than Trump supporters to say most of the issues included are very important. About a third of Harris supporters (32%) say at least eight of 10 issues are very important, compared with 17% of Trump supporters.
While the economy has long been a top issue for voters – and continues to be one today – other issues have become increasingly important for voters over the past four years.
About six-in-ten voters (61%) today say immigration is very important to their vote – a 9 percentage point increase from the 2020 presidential election and 13 points higher than during the 2022 congressional elections.
Immigration is now a much more important issue for Republican voters in particular: 82% of Trump supporters say it is very important to their vote in the 2024 election, up 21 points from 2020.
About four-in-ten Harris supporters (39%) say immigration is very important to their vote. This is 8 points higher than the share of Democratic congressional supporters who said this in 2022, but lower than the 46% of Biden supporters who cited immigration as very important four years ago.
In August 2020, fewer than half of voters (40%) said abortion was a very important issue to their vote. At the time, Trump voters (46%) were more likely than Biden voters (35%) to say it mattered a great deal.
Following the Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe v. Wade , opinions about abortion’s importance as a voting issue shifted. Today, 67% of Harris supporters call the issue very important – nearly double the share of Biden voters who said this four years ago, though somewhat lower than the share of midterm Democratic voters who said this in 2022 (74%). And about a third of Trump supporters (35%) now say abortion is very important to their vote – 11 points lower than in 2020.
Voters have more confidence in Trump than Harris on economic, immigration and foreign policies. Half or more voters say they are at least somewhat confident in Trump to make good decisions in these areas, while smaller shares (45% each) say this about Harris.
In contrast, voters have more confidence in Harris than Trump to make good decisions about abortion policy and to effectively address issues around race. Just over half of voters have confidence in Harris on these issues, while 44% have confidence in Trump on these issues.
Trump holds a slight edge over Harris for handling law enforcement and criminal justice issues (51% Trump, 47% Harris). Voters are equally confident in Harris and Trump to select good nominees for the Supreme Court (50% each).
Fewer than half of voters say they are very or somewhat confident in either candidate to bring the country closer together (41% are confident in Harris, 36% in Trump). And voters express relatively little confidence in Trump (37%) or Harris (32%) to reduce the influence of money in politics.
Since Biden dropped out of the presidential race in July , there has been movement on how confident voters are in the candidates to address issues facing the country.
In July, 48% of voters were confident in Biden to make good decisions about abortion policy. Today, 55% of voters are confident in Harris to do the same.
Harris currently has an 11-point advantage over Trump on voters’ confidence to handle abortion policy decisions.
Voters also express more confidence in Harris to make wise decisions about immigration policy than they did for Biden before he withdrew from the race. Today, 45% are confident in Harris on this issue; in July, 35% said this about Biden.
While Trump’s advantage over Harris on immigration policy is less pronounced than it was over Biden, he continues to hold a 7-point edge. Voters are as confident in his ability to make wise decisions about immigration policy as they were in July (52%).
Harris has also improved over Biden in voters’ confidence to make good decisions about foreign and economic policies. Currently, 45% of voters are confident in Harris on each of these issues.
In July, 39% had confidence in Biden to make good foreign policy decisions, while a similar share (40%) had confidence in him on economic policy.
Trump holds an edge over Harris on both of these issues, though both are somewhat narrower than the advantage he had over Biden on these issues in July.
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Welcome to the fascinating world of quantitative biology, where biology, math, and technology blend to help us understand life better. Whether you’re a student, a science enthusiast, or just curious about how biology works at a deeper level, this guide will break down the key research areas in simple terms. Quantitative biology is all about using numbers, patterns, and computer models to figure out how living things behave, and we’re going to explore some of its most exciting topics. Let’s dive in!
Table of Contents
At its core, quantitative biology is the use of mathematical models, statistics, and computational tools to understand biological systems. It combines biology with math, providing a quantitative approach to solving biological problems. Whether predicting how a disease spreads or understanding genetic mutations, quantitative biology allows researchers to gain insights that would be impossible without the power of numbers.
For instance, imagine you’re studying how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance. Using mathematical models, you can predict how quickly resistance will spread in a population, helping scientists develop better treatments.
Quantitative biology plays a vital role in modern science. By blending biological science with quantitative methods, researchers can:
1. systems biology: the blueprint of life.
Systems biology is a key branch of quantitative biology that examines how different parts of a biological system interact to create its overall behavior. It studies biological networks—how genes, proteins, and cells communicate with one another. Using computational modeling, scientists simulate these interactions and predict what might happen if one part of the system changes.
For example, understanding how cancer spreads requires studying how cells interact and multiply. Systems biology helps researchers identify which proteins or genes are involved in these processes, enabling the development of targeted therapies.
Why It Matters:
Example Research Question:
Bioinformatics is a field of quantitative biology that applies computational modeling to the study of DNA and genetic data. It plays a central role in genomics, the study of an organism’s entire genetic makeup. Scientists use bioinformatics tools to analyze vast amounts of DNA and gene data, helping them find connections between genes and diseases.
For example, researchers use DNA analysis to identify mutations linked to conditions like diabetes or cancer. The data generated from sequencing entire genomes is immense, and bioinformatics is essential for making sense of it.
Population genetics is the study of how gene frequencies change in a population over time. It examines how natural selection, mutations, and genetic drift shape populations’ genetic makeup. Using mathematical models, population geneticists can predict how traits evolve and spread in a group of organisms.
For instance, a population of animals might adapt to a changing environment by developing thicker fur for colder climates. Population genetics helps scientists understand the genetic diversity that drives these changes.
4. Biophysics: The Physics Behind Life
Biophysics combines physics with biology to understand the physical principles governing biological processes. It focuses on the molecular dynamics of proteins, DNA, and other cellular components. Scientists use biophysics to study how proteins fold, how cells transmit signals, and how forces within cells affect their behavior.
One crucial area in biophysics is studying protein structure. When proteins fold incorrectly, it can lead to diseases like Alzheimer’s. Understanding these physical processes allows researchers to develop drugs that stabilize proteins and prevent misfolding.
In quantitative ecology, researchers use mathematical tools and environmental modeling to study ecosystems. By simulating how species interact with their environment and each other, ecologists can predict changes in biodiversity due to factors like climate change, pollution, or habitat destruction.
For example, if a new predator is introduced into an ecosystem, it can dramatically alter the populations of prey species. Quantitative ecology models help scientists understand these dynamics and develop strategies to protect endangered species.
Neuroscience focuses on understanding the structure and function of the brain, and quantitative biology plays a big role here. By studying brain networks and neural circuits, scientists can map out how neurons interact and how information flows through the brain. Neuroscience uses computational models to understand how these networks change when we learn or suffer from disorders like epilepsy.
For instance, researchers use quantitative models to simulate how neural circuits adapt during learning processes, providing insights into memory formation and decision-making.
Synthetic biology is an exciting field of biotechnology in which researchers design and create new biological systems or organisms. Using principles from genetic engineering, scientists can modify or build DNA sequences to produce new functions, like bacteria that break down plastic or plants that grow faster.
For instance, synthetic biology has been used to engineer yeast cells that can produce medicines like insulin. This type of research is paving the way for sustainable solutions to medical and environmental problems.
In epidemiology, researchers study how diseases spread within populations. By using disease modeling, scientists can predict outbreaks and design public health strategies to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. These models take into account factors like transmission rates, immunity, and social behavior.
For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, epidemiologists used models to forecast how the virus would spread and what measures, like social distancing, could slow its progression. Public health officials rely on these models to make informed decisions.
Quantitative biology might sound technical, but it affects everyone. From better healthcare (through personalized medicine and disease modeling) to conservation efforts (by protecting species and ecosystems), the insights from this field shape the world we live in. Whether scientists are predicting how a virus spreads or figuring out how to grow more food in a changing climate, quantitative biology helps tackle global challenges.
Table: Key Research Areas in Quantitative Biology
Systems Biology | How biological networks function | How do genes interact in a cell? |
Bioinformatics & Genomics | DNA data and genetic information | How do genes determine traits? |
Population Genetics | Evolution and genetic diversity | How do populations adapt to their environment? |
Biophysics | Physical principles in biological systems | How do proteins fold inside cells? |
Quantitative Ecology | Ecosystem dynamics and environmental effects | How do species interact in an ecosystem? |
Neuroscience | Brain networks and cognitive functions | How do neurons form memories? |
Synthetic Biology | Designing and engineering biological systems | Can we create bacteria to produce medicine? |
Disease spread and public health | How can we model the next pandemic? |
As technology continues to advance, quantitative biology will become even more important in solving real-world problems. Whether you’re interested in medicine, ecology, genetics, or any other field, quantitative biology offers exciting opportunities to make a meaningful impact on society . It’s a field that continues to grow, offering new ways to understand and influence the living world.
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This report examines a study focused on current interest areas and themes of business ethics in Australia as discussed in the Australian media (major national and State newspapers) across the years 2019–2022, using content analysis and stakeholder frame of focus. The identified themes are then compared with themes identified in the Global Survey of Business Ethics 2022–2024. These themes provide a framework to compare with themes identified as important for teaching and research through a survey of Australian university educators in business schools involved in ethics teaching and research in South Australia and Western Australia. Findings indicate that ethics and ethical concerns appear across a range of media publications in Australia which in turn is placing pressure on businesses to respond to this ethics talk in the media in explaining or justifying their actions. Although no particular pattern is identified from responses, some topics are gaining more prominence such as climate change and artificial intelligence, both in the media and in university courses and research. Topics of discussion were ranked from very important to important. It is concluded that ethical issues are important for Australian business and business is responding. Key ethical issues include climate change and sustainability, governance, government and transparency, and organizational culture with ethical issues of interest to Australia featuring including sport, corporate misconduct, and Indigenous issues.
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Australia, being an island nation with a population of over 25 million people, is a discrete economy and a discrete culture. We use local media to help us confirm that business ethics is a topic of conversation in Australia and identify the themes of business ethics in Australia. We then compare that list of themes with the Global Survey of Business Ethics 2022–2024. It also provides the framework to assess themes taught and perceived as important from educators and researchers in Australia.
The authors have sought support for their assessment in the media (Part A) and in the subsequent survey (Part B) with tertiary level educators and researchers. That said, the report does not claim to be either complete or universal, as the survey was only able to capture data from a limited sample from South Australia and Western Australia due to short timelines. There may be other views of the current state of business ethics in Australia, and we include one of these (Sirimanne, 2023 ).
Of one thing we are sure is that business ethics is alive as a topic of consideration in Australia. We found strong evidence that ethics and ethical concerns are appearing in a wide range of media in Australia and that this ethics talk has brought pressure onto business, as it has been frequently asked to explain its actions in ethical terms or to explain its response to ethical questions. In the terminology of the ethics classroom, stakeholder pressure has been applied, and business is learning how to respond. The issues and concerns may not have changed, but the scrutiny is harsher and more persistent. Already the 2012 survey listed the following issues: corporate environmental sustainability, corporate governance, corporate (social) responsibility, professional ethics, and society/stakeholders (Gustavson, 2012 , 367).
Ethics in the australian media (part a).
Both the Australian and the international teams developed a list of expected topics. For Australia, this list included sport, governance and government, inequality, climate change and sustainability, Indigenous affairs, and national sovereignty. The international list of the framework of the GSBE 2022–2024 includes also sustainability, business and wealth creation, digital transformation, corruption, whistleblowing, and conflict and terrorism, among others. Table 1 shows the two lists and the extent of agreement between them. As Table 3 shows, we found evidence of discussion related to each and every one of the topics in the items we reviewed.
Ethical issues have been widely covered in contemporary Australian media, as our surveys of various media databases show (more of that below). This “ethics talk” is in many fields including both the topics on the national and international lists prepared as the study began. While these lists might not seem business-oriented, business becomes involved and sometimes responsive in two ways. First, the stories reported in the media may have raised ethical concerns, which at the first pass might have seemed unrelated to or distant from business, yet the ethical concerns exposed by those stories may have had business implications. Second, the very discussion of ethical questions in the media heightens the capability or capacity of the community or at the very least of those reporting on business. Business has to pay attention. Indeed, the first and overwhelming finding is that the Australian media is talking about business ethics. Before presenting our findings, we provide a description of each of the main topic areas on the Australian list.
Australia is a sporting nation with over 60% of the population participating in sport and physical activity at least three times a week in 2022 according to AusPlay survey data (Australia, 2023 ). Australia is one of only five nations to have competed at every summer Olympic Games since the modern games began in 1896. Sport gets extensive coverage in the Australian media; it is “part of the Australian national identity” (Leng, 2013 ). Two recent examples of sports stories with ethical content are the sacking of a player in the National Rugby League (NRL) after he made comments, based on his Christian faith, on the future prospects of practicing homosexuals. This raised questions about the role of religion and faith in society and questions of free speech. The matter was, for a time, treated by the sports media, then as an employment issue, with the NRL using a clause in the player’s employment contract as a basis for termination. Here, the business ethics implications are clear. The second example involved a netball player refusing to have her uniform carry a sponsor’s logo. The sponsorship was withdrawn. The matter raised questions about the extent of cancel culture and of racial and Indigenous comments or activity by forebears (Aston, 2022 ). Whether it is a matter of free speech, employment contracts, or differences in values, the Australian society is well aware of the ethical issues involved and sees sportspeople as stakeholders. Business is likely to find itself facing informed and practiced questioners not only in the media, but also among shareholders and job applicants. This is captured by the phrase,”it’s not cricket” often used in Australia in relation to conduct in business and life generally. It “refers to having something that is unjust or just plain wrong done to someone or something” (Kolt, 2012 ), thereby using sport to capture the concept of unethical behavior. A ball tampering incident (in cricket) generated much press in reflecting on the double moral code dilemma of loyalty to the team to win versus following ethical guidelines for sport. Since the media study was undertaken, further business ethics questions have arisen in sport as the Spanish team at the FIFA Women’s World Cup has become embroiled in controversy after being crowned champions.
Issues of governance and government in Australia have been addressed in the media and public debate especially in relation to matters considered by the very public focus on governance in the finance sector in the Royal Commission on Banking and Finance (Australia, 2019 ; Atkins & Charlton, 2019 ; Hayne, 2019 ) and in the discussion of the response of companies to money received during the Covid pandemic under the JobKeeper program (Corral de Zubielqui & Harris, 2023 ). These show the importance of culture and values within the organization and of considering the efficacy of the various internal (regulatory) and external (culture) approaches to change. Corporate governance had been identified as a focus area for business ethics discussion throughout Oceania in the 2012 survey.
Many seemingly economic or non-ethical issues have been shown to have unequal impact, often to the disadvantage of the poor, and this can be considered to be a matter of human rights. It is also recognition of the importance of the underprivileged as stakeholders. Some elements of inequality can be considered under other topics, thereby indicating the breadth and comprehensiveness of the business concern for ethics (and the difficulty of any analysis based on categorization). For instance, the Banking Royal Commission revealed sales to unsuspecting and uneducated customers who were thereby made more unequal and disadvantaged to the detriment of their human rights, while the governance failures of the financial institutions were also exposed. In the 1995 study of business ethics in Australia, Milton-Smith had included employment issues among the top five in its list of systemic business ethics concerns ( 1997 ).
Australia has large reserves of fossil fuels and is a large exporter of both coal and natural gas. It is also a world leader in the production of electricity from wind and solar power. Australia also recognizes a particularly close relationship with the island nations of the Western Pacific, where climate-induced ocean rises may be existentially threatening. Thus, environmental issues are frequently discussed in Australia, whether as matters of sustainability, human rights, inequality, or government intention. Corporate environmental sustainability was the first of the focus areas identified in the 2012 Oceania study (Gustavson, 2012 , 364, 367) and remains so as governments, employees, and other stakeholders seek a way forward, which is equitable for all stakeholders. Matters relating to “Just Energy Transition” can also be considered here as business, and the public consider the impact that the closure of coal mines and an end to energy exports might have on employment and on local communities.
In Australia, the issues relating to Indigenous people can be considered a separate category, one where ethical questions are frequently raised. In 2023, a constitutional referendum took place regarding an Indigenous Voice to Parliament. The Australian Constitution considers race a special category of stakeholder. This is the first referendum in over 20 years, and there has been extensive discussion of the Indigenous Voice in the media and elsewhere (and hence widespread discussion of Indigenous affairs). Although this may not be an issue in other countries, it is in Australia. The official “campaign” period for the referendum falls outside our study limits. The public has harshly judged the apparent prioritizing of economic benefits over sustaining Indigenous sacred space and cultural heritage sites. In May 2020, the international miner, Rio Tinto, destroyed rock shelters of exceptional significance at Juukan Gorge, near its Brockman iron ore mine in the Pilbara, Western Australia (Pierce, 2021 ).
The relationship between Australia and other nations has been raised by government action in relation to the purchase, maintenance, and operation of new submarines for the Australian Navy, by the war in Ukraine, and by actions of island nations in the Pacific. Often these have been considered to have an ethical aspect, especially in relation to climate change, inequality, or human rights. Furthermore, Australia, as a large exporter of food and resources, has been called on to participate in international sanctions or be subject to the unilateral imposition of tariffs on its exports. Both have raised ethical issues concerning the rights and responsibilities of Australia as a nation, which has spoken out against human rights violations. This issue is not new as Milton-Smith included “conflicts between the company’s ethics and foreign business practices” in his 1997 study.
For the analysis of the topics we have applied a stakeholder framework (Freeman, 2010 ), given the importance the role of Australians as stakeholders discussed in the paragraphs describing sport, inequality, climate change, and Indigenous affairs.
Our initial assessment of contemporary ethical issues for business in Australia was undertaken using content analysis for two reasons. First, it had been used before (James & Wooten, 2006 , 1108), and second, because the use of pre-existing material avoids the potential for self-reporting bias, especially given the reluctance of people “to speak about ethical issues in public” (Enderle, 1999 , 6). Treurniet ( 2023 , 941) notes that being interviewed can affect estimates of subsequent interest in a topic, while Centite and his Singapore colleagues note the need for care and confidentiality “when asking about sensitive topics such as ethics” (Centite et al., 2009 , 580). Gustavson begins the 2012 survey with a survey of existing literature ( 2012 , 365). More recently, Mehmet Yildiz (Yildiz et al., 2023 ) collected data from newspapers to identify the challenges facing Australian tourism businesses as they responded to the Covid crisis. They called this “corpus linguistics” rather than content analysis, and an Introduction to Corpus Linguistics (Bennett, 2010 ) confirms that the method can tell us what is or is not present in the corpus. What is important, according to the Introduction, is that the corpus “contains authentic language used for real-life communication” ( 2010 , 19). While content analysis may be broader, encompassing, on occasion, other “symbolic phenomena” (Krippendorff, 2004 , xvii), in our use, it too is restricted to language. Our study is restricted to Australia, to items written in English, and to the years from 2019 to 2022—that is not only as Australia emerged from the COVID-19 pandemic, but also about ten years after the 2012 survey. This study avoids discussion of the COVID-19 pandemic as the topic did not appear among those raised in the items selected by the business + ethic* selection criteria.
For a start, we used a collection of Australian newspaper articles to provide an understanding of the business ethics topics attracting attention in Australia in the period 2019 to 2022. News media provides “first-hand information from business leaders,” which was both up to date and influenced by recent events (Yildiz et al., 2023 , 5). In a range of newspapers, we searched for items where the words business and ethic* were found in a single item. Our initial search was limited to the major newspapers in each state using the ProQuest and Gale databases for Australian newspapers. Newspapers from both the major newspaper stables—Murdoch and Fairfax —were included. That meant that the one paper with national circulation, The Australian , was included as were the Fairfax mastheads, Sydney Morning Herald and The Age, and the one business daily, the AFR ( Australian Financial Review ). To compare between Australian States (as Australia has both Commonwealth and State governments), newspapers from all State capitals were included. However, it became apparent that many stories were syndicated so that if they appeared in one State, they also appeared in the linked paper from the same stable in other States. Our method ruled out duplicates; so the State is that of the paper in which the story is first encountered. Thus, our approach could be seen as national rather than State based. The approach to this phase of the content analysis activity is set out diagrammatically in Table 2 . Items in which both the words “business” and”ethic*” occurred were found readily in the daily newspapers. Business ethics is a frequent topic of discussion and comment.
To this initial survey, we added a number of items from online news sources to increase the breadth of coverage, the reason being that online news media are widely accessed in the “new world of blogs and citizen journalism” (Friend & Singer, 2015 , xxv), justified as “now networked” (Trygg, 2012 ) and “sometimes surpassing the traditional news media” (Centite et al., 2009 , 577), moreover, because online material has been used before as a source of comments on business ethics topics (Yildiz et al., 2023 , 5) and on “ethical implications” (Centite et al., 2009 , 576). Whilst The Guardian is historically seen as a UK-based paper, it is widely available online in Australia, and for many Australians, it is a respected daily source of news (ACCC, 2018 ; GNM, 2020 ). We once again followed the procedure set out in Table 2 , searching for items including the terms business and ethic* and then removing duplicates, reading to ensure that the items were relevant, and adding a further 19 items.
Our aim is to give readers some assurance that the research findings can be taken seriously and “provide evidence that systematic and spurious errors occur infrequently” (Janis, 1965 , 81). We do not intend to rank topics in any particular order but, as in past studies, to contribute to the painting of “a rich and fascinating picture of international business ethics” (Enderle, 1999 , 1). Thus, validity—the truth of what is found—is more important in this case than reliability or reproducibility. In accord with Krippendorff’s scheme, the results provide “assurances that the claims emerging from the research are borne out” ( 2004 , 212). In the initial study, involving the 33 texts arising from the newspaper databases, each item was read, and the topic assessed by two readers. The agreement achieved exceeded the statistical requirement for a situation involving two coders and multiple categories. The presence of both pragmatic and face validity—that the method works—is based in part by including the full titles of all items in newspaper and online as well.
In the period after the end of the pandemic restrictions, our media study shows that the “ethics” talk occurs in many fields, including climate change and sustainability more generally, governance and government, culture, treatment of workers, fairness and inequality, rules and codes, sport, Indigenous affairs, and in such international topics as national sovereignty. While this list might not seem business-oriented, business is caught up in two ways. First, all the stories reported in the media include “business” in the item, and, second, the discussion of ethical questions in the media heightens awareness and increases not only the capability of the community to discuss or raise the topic, but also increases the need for business to pay attention. Notwithstanding our findings, Sirimanne notes that “ethics is outdated…in almost every part of the ‘free’ world” ( 2023 , 8). We do not agree, as Table 3 shows, how frequently ethical topics were discussed in Australian newspapers and online over the relatively short 2019–2022 period of our study.
A survey was conducted in Australia utilizing the same questionnaire as was used in other regions and nations. This was done under the auspices and with the explicit approval of the two main business ethics organizations in Australia, the Australian Association for Professional and Applied Ethics (AAPAE) and the Australasian Business Ethics Network (ABEN). Both of these organizations agreed to distribute the survey through their online distribution lists. For a short history of business ethics activity in Australia, see Harris ( 2017 ).
The statements of purpose for these two organizations are set out below and show the scope and coverage they have in the Australian ethics scene. The broad purpose of the AAPAE is to encourage awareness of applied ethics as a significant area of concern and to foster discussion of issues in applied ethics. It provides a meeting point for practitioners from various fields together with academics with specialist expertise. It welcomes everyone who wants or needs to think and talk about applied or professional ethics. The AAPAE also attempts to foster connections with special interest groups. The AAPAE does not endorse or support any particular viewpoint, but rather aims to promote a climate in which different and differing views, concerns, and approaches can be expressed and discussed.
The Australasian Business Ethics Network was founded in Melbourne, Australia, in 2010. ABEN is a community of scholars and practitioners from a range of institutions across Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania. They share a passion for developing and extending the Australasian business ethics agenda and recognize the uniqueness of the Australasian approach, experience, and contribution to the field of business ethics.
This survey covers universities and higher education organizations in South Australia and West Australia that deliver ethics-related courses at undergraduate and post graduate levels.
The sampling approach was a convenience sample from within the researcher networks and supplemented by targeting key people listed under ethics courses at selected universities and higher education institutions in business-related schools. Initial emails were sent to potential participants with an explanation of the study, an Information and Consent sheet, and the survey form. The overall response rate was 80%; the completed survey forms were returned by email, without identifying names and organizations, only coded by numbers. The respondents were from four educational institutions and two States of Australia.
Basic demographics
Country of birth: Seventy percent were born in Australia.
Language: Eighty percent identified English as their first language. One Indigenous participant also highlighted that although English is her first language Aboriginal English is a way of defining her even if mostly not spoken.
Gender: Thirty-six percent are male and sixty-four percent female.
Organizational information
Eighty-one percent of the respondents were teaching undergraduate degree courses with business ethics components. Thirty-six percent were involved in compulsory courses, eighteen percent in elective courses, and the rest did not answer the question.
Forty-five percent were involved in research.
Seventy-one percent of respondents were teaching postgraduate courses with business ethics components. Of these responses, nine percent were involved in teaching both compulsory and elective courses related to business ethics. Twenty-seven percent were involved in teaching compulsory courses with business ethics components. Twenty-seven percent were involved in teaching elective courses with business ethics components.
Eighteen percent did not specify the requirement of courses.
Forty-five percent of respondents were involved in research, much of which appeared to be ethics related. Most of those involved in research had been in their position for 11 + years.
Those respondents who were committed to teaching with a considerable workload had fewer publications than those whose positions provided more opportunity for research.
No publications: Fifty-five percent / 1–5 publications: 0 percent / 6–10 publications: twenty-seven percent / 11 or more publication: eighteen percent
Thirty-six percent of respondents provided these services to organizations, leaving open whether through the university/higher education organization or through private contracts.
Eighteen percent of respondents were involved in this kind of activity.
No respondent was involved in this activity.
Forty percent of the respondents identified “business ethics” as a key term for ethics, with one answering that this term slightly differs from “organizational ethics.” The remaining answers varied to some extent, depending on the specific ethics focus areas taught at their institution; the ethical approaches may be deontological, utilitarian, virtue-based, normative, descriptive, etc. “Trust” was also included by one respondent.
The terms “compliance” and “responsibility” were stated by one respondent who is mainly involved in the accounting area. An Indigenous respondent provided a different perspective in talking of “working together,” important with Indigenous people, considering the country, and doing things in accordance with “proppa ways” (an Aboriginal English term).
One respondent with a Middle Eastern language background associated “ethics,” “moral science,” and “wisdom.”
Very important topics, leadership and ethics management.
Sixty-three percent of respondents identified this as very important. Searching through university business schools from Harvard in United States of America to all business schools in Australia, ethics is involved in leadership courses in business schools, as well as stand-alone ethics courses within the business disciplines. It is to be expected that leadership and ethics would get a high priority of importance. There is increasing literature around this area from what and how leadership character should be developed (Crossan et al., 2015 ) or in considering approaches to teaching leadership in a reflective way for educators.
There are fifty-four percent of respondents. This is not a surprising result in view of the fact that university curriculum often integrates sustainability as part of ethics courses as it is often viewed as an essential component to acting ethically with practical real-world application across economic, social, and environmental components, with relevance at both undergraduate and postgraduate level courses (Steiner & Skorupinski, 2012 ) .
There are fifty-four percent of respondents. This is not a surprising figure as corporate governance is embedded in most business school courses in Australia around ethics, particularly in areas such as accounting and law, which are required components in MBA programs and undergraduate business studies. They are also essential components for accounting and law. With increasing company transparency required for shareholders, and with the expanding focus needed in corporate governance to issues around environmental and social concerns relevant to governance, there is definitely both a justification and need for corporate governance understanding and knowledge (Wiersema & Koo, 2022 ). Therefore, university business schools should respond to external forces (shareholders and investors) to embed corporate governance into their teaching and research.
There are fifty-five percent of respondents. This response rate reflects the increasing trend of including human rights across many disciplines (including business) from the undergraduate to the postgraduate level across many countries including Australia (Cargas & Mitoma, 2019 ). However, the survey did not provide the scope to assess how education in human rights is being taught, whether from the knowledge base such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Sustainable Development Goals. This is definitely an area for future research.
There are forty-five percent of respondents. This response rate presumably relates to human rights and reflects a concern of those who hold human rights very important. This actually proved to be the case for eighty percent of those who identified both human rights and poverty and inequality as very important.
Ten percent of respondents ranked these focus areas as important, twenty-seven percent as neutral, and eighteen percent “excluded” them.
Digital transformation.
Fifty-four percent reflects a strong interest in digital transformation and artificial intelligence (AI) among higher educators and researchers. This new uncharted ethical territory for educators is a rising area of concern (Crompton & Burke, 2023 ), with ethical implications and the need for more research around ethical implications and consideration relating to many areas. They include biased algorithms in AI and decision-making as well as human displacement through new AI systems (see Slimi & Carballido, 2023 ). Other areas are academic integrity and the use of AI by educators in course content writing and research. There is a need for more research and setting of ethical boundaries in this area.
Thirty-six percent of respondents held this topic important, eighteen percent very important, nine percent were neutral, twenty-seven percent ranked it not important, and ten percent excluded it.
Forty-five percent of respondents identified this topic as important. It is to be expected that wealth creation and business are important outcomes for a business operator in organizations whether as CEOs, managers, entrepreneurs, bankers, economists, financial planners, or accountants. Hence, these topics are of interest to business higher education educators (Heubeck, 2024 ). A good percentage of respondents view business and wealth creation through a business ethics lens. Eighteen percent of respondents held this topic very important, twenty-seven percent were neutral, and ten percent held it not important.
Thirty-six percent of respondents held the topic very important, thirty-six percent important, nine percent were neutral, and nine percent did not answer this question.
Corruption can be viewed as a central theme in ethical business; thus, not surprisingly, the ranking was fairly even in rating as important to very important with similar respondent numbers. As a country, Australia ranks 75/100 in perceptions of corruption (ranking scale 100 is very clean with zero extremely corrupt) according to Transparency International ( 2023 ). The results of this survey do not identify if corruption is an issue in Australia that is being managed quite well or is scored quite high as it is a serious concern. Regardless of Australia’s high ranking, corruption is considered an issue of importance.
Other topics with lower ranks are as follows: Just Energy Transition; Whistleblowing; Conflict and Terrorism; Diversity; and Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises.
While no pattern might be determined from the responses, certain subtopics are gaining increasing prominence such as climate change and artificial intelligence. They are mentioned as they are starting to be considered as university courses in their own right and have generated much research. Stakeholders, SDGs, inequality, and corporate social responsibility are topics that are expressed as issues in most university business and ethics courses.
In sum, very important topics in Australia are as follows: Leadership and Ethics Management, Human Rights, Sustainability, Corporate Governance, and Poverty and Inequality. Important topics are as follows: Digital Transformation, Wealth Creation, Corruption, Religion and Spirituality in Business, and the Economy. Not included topics are as follows: Conflict and Terrorism; Whistleblowing; Diversity, Micro-, Small-, and Medium-Enterprises.
Ethical issues are important for business in Australia as our study of Australian media has shown. Business is engaged. Matters relating to climate change and sustainability, governance, government and transparency, and organizational culture head the list of issues in business ethics. This represents not only international influences on Australian business, but also expresses the local circumstances in Australia, where sport remains important, discussion of corporate misconduct has been fostered by public inquiries into financial institutions (Australia, 2019 ), and a 2023 Referendum has brought Indigenous issues to the fore.
The referendum on the Indigenous Voice was lost since every State in the Commonwealth voted against the proposal. Subsequently, there has been much analysis and discussion.
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Pierce, J., Harris, H. Special Issue of the Asian Journal of Business Ethics on Global Survey of Business Ethics (GSBE) Reports 2022–2024 from Asia, Australia, and Russia: Australia. Asian J Bus Ethics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13520-024-00213-9
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A study of 137 leaders and their direct reports during the early stages of Covid-19 shows that men were more likely to resort to abusive behavior during stressful moments.
One of the oldest erroneous gender stereotypes is that women are too emotional to be effective leaders, especially in uncertain times. Contrary to this belief, research on 137 leader-report pairs in Europe during the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic indicates that women may actually be less likely to let their emotions negatively influence their leadership behaviors compared to men. During this time, women leaders reported higher anxiety levels but did not translate these emotions into abusive behaviors, unlike their male counterparts who exhibited more hostile supervision when anxious. Women typically engaged in family-supportive behaviors regardless of their emotional state. The research emphasizes the importance of recognizing the unique strengths women bring to leadership roles, especially their capacity to lead compassionately and prioritize others, but also notes that caring leadership behaviors are evaluated differently based on the gender of the leader. The study calls for more inclusive research that addresses diverse gender identities and cultural contexts.
One of the oldest and most persistent gender stereotypes is that women are too emotional. This stereotype hurts women’s leadership prospects as they are seen as less fit for leader roles because they are perceived to be more likely to make irrational, emotion-driven decisions than men.
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