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A Survey on Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Reliability Research

Om Prakash Roy 1 and Vinod Kumar 1

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering , Volume 1020 , 6th International Conference on Computers Management & Mathematical Sciences (ICCM 2020) 22nd-23rd November 2020, Nirjuli, India Citation Om Prakash Roy and Vinod Kumar 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1020 012015 DOI 10.1088/1757-899X/1020/1/012015

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VoIP technology deals with the real-time data communication for voice transfer in the form of digital packets through internet communication and facilitates public to make use of internet for video and phone calls. The voice data packets are transferred from source to the destination and vice versa. VoIP require high speed internet connection for data transfer on data network. It is necessary to arrive the data packet from its source to the destination with high level of reliability. It is very important to analyse link failure, packet loss, delay and jitter during the data communication. Components involved in data communication should be reliable. This paper provides a survey for step wise development and use of reliability techniques for gaining high quality of voice in VoIP network.

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Research on Security of VoIP Network

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As a voice transmission technology based on packet switching, VoIP is quite different from traditional telephone service which is based on circuit switching, which results in specific security issues on VoIP network. In addition, because of the high real time request for VoIP network, the characteristics of network services and the security strategies applied bring challenges for the capability and QoS of VoIP network. In this paper, the existing security threat and several security measures of VoIP network have been analyzed, and the author put forward suggestions for VoIP system deployment and related management policy.

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Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Camarillo, G., Johnston, A., Peterson, J., Sparks, R., Handley, M., Schooler, E.: SIP:Session Initiation Protocol. IETF RFC 3261 (June 2002)

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Liu, X., Tu, C. (2011). Research on Security of VoIP Network. In: Dai, M. (eds) Innovative Computing and Information. ICCIC 2011. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 231. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23993-9_9

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Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) refers to the use of packet-switched internet protocol (IP) networks to relay a voice message. VoIP is among the latest modes of communication. As with a majority of the novel technologies, VoIP comes with both opportunities and security challenges. It has a unique architecture compared to the conventional circuit-based telephony. As a result, VoIP is susceptible to numerous security risks.

The benefits of a VoIP system to an enterprise include flexibility and low operation cost. There are different forms of Voice over Internet Protocol systems.

They include mobile units, conferencing units, and the ordinary telephone handsets. For a VoIP network to meet the needs of a user, it has to guarantee the quality of service. A VoIP system has little tolerance for interruptions. There is no single solution to security challenges that face data transmitted over VoIP. Thus, organizations should ensure that they acquire the appropriate network infrastructure.

Introduction

Voice over Internet Protocol refers to a collection of technologies and methods that facilitate the transfer of voice messages over IP networks. Other terms that are used to refer to VoIP networks include Internet telephony, IP telephony, and broadband phone service among others. VoIP systems can run on any form of computer. Additionally, the conventional telephone handsets can be modified to handle VoIP services.

Other equipment that can provide VoIP services includes mobile units, conferencing units, and “softphone”. Cheng and Lai (2010) argue, “Quality of service (QoS) is fundamental to the operation of a VoIP network” (p. 82). Thus, it is imperative to guarantee security measures when operating a Voice over Internet Protocol network.

Since the management of a VoIP system requires implementation of numerous safety procedures, it is hard to guarantee the quality of service. Among the challenges that affect a VoIP network include firewall delays, jitter, encryption-produced latency and blockage of call setups (Cheng & Lai, 2010). One of the benefits of VoIP over other communication networks is that it is cost-effective. The VoIP system compresses the electronic traffic of an organization into a single physical network.

Thus, it saves an institution from the cost of procuring a private branch exchange (PBX). To explore the challenges that affect VoIP networks, this paper will give an overview of the system. It will discuss the equipment, data handling, cost, speed, and security issues that affect a VoIP network. Additionally, the paper will discuss the quality of service issues..

Overview of VoIP

Many people who have the knowledge of data communication might have “little background in transmitting voice or real-time imaging in a packet-switched environment” (Cheng & Lai, 2010, p. 86).

VoIP technology is a novel concept to many people. Most people assume that it is possible to transmit voice messages over the normal network infrastructures without changing them. The reality is that installation a VoIP system results in numerous complications to the ordinary network. A majority of these challenges are made severe by security considerations.

VoIP Equipment

There are different types of Voice over Internet Protocol systems. Almost every computer can support VoIP services. Apple Macintosh iChat, Microsoft NetMeeting, and Linux platforms provide some VoIP services (Chong & Matthews, 2004). Voice over Internet Protocol is the infrastructure that helps to “dial telephone numbers and communicate with people on the other end of a connection who have a VoIP system” (Chong & Matthews, 2004, p. 109).

The increase in demand for VoIP services has led to the development of multiple products. The conventional telephone handsets are developed with additional features to support VoIP services. Some handsets are equipped with a small liquid-crystal display (screen), which helps to configure their advanced functionalities like call-park and conference calls.

Apart from modification of the conventional telephone handsets, VoIP technology has led to the invention of conferencing units. The groups offer services akin to those of the ordinary conference calling phone systems. The only difference is that conferencing units enable users to synchronize data communication services.

The invention of VoIP network has led to an adjustment of the average personal computer (PC) to create a “softphone”. A “softphone” is a collection of a headset, personal computer, software and a cheap connection service (Endler & Collier, 2006). The primary disadvantage of a “softphone” system is that it is prone to privacy and security issues. Personal computers that are connected to the internet get infested with viruses, worms and a multitude of malicious software.

Therefore, it is hard to guarantee the security of a voice message transmitted through a “softphone” system (Endler & Collier, 2006). Besides, personal computers are mostly connected to data networks. Hence, the use of “softphone” system makes it impractical to split data and voice networks. Voice over Internet Protocol system comprises numerous apparatus like routers, call processors, protocols, gateways, and firewalls.

Data handling

Endler and Collier (2006) assert, “Before any voice can be sent, a call must be placed” (p. 24). For a conventional phone system, call placement entails dialing the number of the intended recipient. The telephone company’s system processes the dialed number and connects the caller to the consignee.

Voice over Internet Protocol system operates differently. Once the user dials a number, a composite sequence of packet exchanges ensues in line with a VoIP signaling protocol. The challenge is that while computer systems are distinguished by their Internet Protocol (IP) address, the user dials a regular telephone number to initiate a call. For the call to be completed, the phone number has to be connected to the IP address of the called party.

A set of rules is used to identify the IP address that matches with the recipient’s phone number. Once the recipient answers a call, the voice is changed into a digital signal and split into a series of packets. The entire process begins by changing analog voice pointers to digital. Because digitized voice demands a vast number of bits, “a compression algorithm is used to reduce the volume of data to be transmitted” (Endler & Collier, 2006, p. 31).

The compressed information is entered into data packets for secure transmission. The voice packets use the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP). Each packet has a unique header field that contains the information used to reconstruct the packets to obtain the voice signal.

One reason many institutions opt to use the VoIP system is that it is cheap compared to other modes of communication. The VoIP system does not use the switched telephone networks. Consequently, it is cheap to transmit voice messages over long distances. The VoIP system does not send voice traffic over the ordinary telecommunication line configurations (Jiang & Henning, 2000). Instead, the traffic travels over private data network lines or the internet.

Voice over Internet Protocol is also cheap since it consolidates all of an institution’s electronic traffic. An institution does not require procuring distinct private branch exchange tile lines for each type of traffic. Even though installing the VoIP system is expensive, a company enjoys noteworthy savings by managing a single network (Jiang & Henning, 2000).

An institution does not incur the cost of maintaining a telephony system. Moreover, the work of the system administrator becomes less tasking. The administrator manages a single instead of multiple networks. A company does not require hiring different workers to manage voice and data networks.

Speed and Quality

Theoretically, Voice over Internet Protocol can minimize the usage of bandwidth and enhance the quality of communication compared to the traditional public switched telephone network. Jiang and Henning (2000) posit, “The use of high bandwidth media, combined with high quality of digitized voice, makes VoIP a flexible alternative for speech transmission” (p. 84). However, the circumstances are quite intricate. System administrators encounter challenges in the effort to channel all the traffic of an organization through a single network.

The network becomes overcrowded leading to delays. The bandwidth usage depends on the digitization of voice by circuits, codecs or software procedures that encrypt and decrypt data for communication.

Therefore, minimizing the usage of the bandwidth may result in sluggish encryption and transmission processes (Jiang & Henning, 2000). Technologists are in the process of enhancing the quality and speed of transmitting voice messages through VoIP systems. Indeed, a majority of the organizations that uses VoIP systems do not detect momentous dilapidation in quality or speed.

Security Issues

The introduction of Voice over Internet Protocol system increases the demand for security measures within a company. A business requires guaranteeing the safety of both its data and voice. The federal government agencies have the duty to safeguard a lot of classified and unclassified data.

The agencies need to protect both the financial and sensitive information. On the other hand, public and private corporations require safeguarding their communications. Bradbury (2007) argues that in an ordinary office telephone system, “security is a more valid assumption” (p. 484).

One can hardly intercept communications. To block the communication, one needs to tamper with the private branch exchange of an institution or access the telephone line. Only institutions that transmit sensitive and classified information opt to encrypt voice traffic. The same does not happen for the Internet-related connections. Information sent via the internet is prone to interceptions. Thus, it is imperative to encrypt it to ensure that it is safe.

Bradbury (2007) alleges that the packets mailed via the internet go through systems that not under the control of both the sender and the recipient. If a hacker accesses one of the systems, they can install programs and screen packets for sensitive information. It underlines the reason people use encryption software to transmit data over the VoIP systems.

The existing internet structural design does not offer the security measures analogous to those of the traditional phone lines. The only way to secure the Voice over Internet Protocol system is to apply security techniques like the ones used to protect data networks. Currently, institutions use firewalls and encryption to secure the VoIP systems.

Quality of Service Issues

According to Bai and Ito (2006), quality of service is paramount to the functionality and effectiveness of a VoIP system. In spite of the installation cost, a VoIP system enhances communication within an organization. However, the discharge of varied security procedures affects the quality of service. For instance, the use of firewalls affects the speed of call setups. Moreover, it results in call delays, jitters, and encryption-produced latency.

Bai and Ito (2006) argue “Quality of service issues is central to VoIP security” (p. 801). If organizations were able to guarantee the quality of service, they would have been in a position to use the security measures used to safeguard data networks.

Nevertheless, it is hard to use most security measures used to secure data networks due to the time-critical state of the Voice over Internet Protocol networks. Also, VoIP systems do not tolerate packet loss and disruptions. The primary quality of service issues related to VoIP includes latency, packet loss, and jitter among others.

According to Kumar (2006), latency in Voice over Internet Protocol refers to the duration that it takes a voice data to travel from the sender to the receiver.

Preferably, institutions would like to use a network that has as low latency as possible. Nevertheless, there are realistic lower limits on the holdup of VoIP. For one-way traffic, the upper bound is 150 milliseconds (ms) (Kumar, 2006). The 150 ms limit corresponds to the present latency limit witnessed in local calls across the public switched telephone network lines in the United States.

The latency bound for international calls is 400 milliseconds. Calls made via the Voice over Internet Protocol network must satisfy the 150 ms limit to imitate the quality of service that the present phones offer. The time constraint experienced in VoIP systems leaves diminutive room for mistakes in packet delivery (Kumar, 2006). Further, it makes it difficult for institutions to implement many security techniques.

The process of data encryption and shipment across the United States may take up to 130 milliseconds. The time taken to transmit voice data across the North American continent may be less than 100 milliseconds. Security discharge and queuing take between 20 and 50 milliseconds.

Kumar (2006) maintains that delay does not only arise at the terminals of the system. Every leap along the system results in a fresh queuing delay and probably a processing latency for the case of a safety checkpoint. Also, transmission of big packets may lead to bandwidth jamming and increased latency. Therefore, Voice over Internet Protocol networks work well with small packages.

Toral, Torres, Hernandez, and Estrada (2008) define jitter as the inconsistent packet delays. It results from limited bandwidth conditions in VoIP networks and may have severe effects on the overall quality of service. Toral et al. (2008) claim, “Variations in delays can be more detrimental to the quality of service than the actual delays” (p. 14).

Jitter may lead to erroneous reassembling of packets. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) depends on User Datagram Protocol (UDP). As a result, jumbled packets are not reconstructed at the protocol level. Nonetheless, RTP enables programs to reorganize the packets using the timestamp and sequence number fields. The cost of rearranging the packets is intractable when dealing with the stretched time limits of voice over Internet Protocol.

An increase in jitter results in the packets arriving at the terminal in bursts. Therefore, to manage jitter at the terminals, it is imperative to use a buffer. Toral et al. (2008) allege that for a buffer to be effective, it has to release the packets after every 150 milliseconds to minimize variations in delays.

Toral et al. (2008) maintain that the buffer implementation gets complicated when it is hard to tell if a missing packet is lost or delayed. If a latency is principally unreliable, the system cannot rely on historical delay times to determine the condition of a missing packet. Apart from the buffer, individuals can use firewalls and routers to manage jitter.

They can also use network elements that process data based on its urgency. Another way that an institution might mitigate jitter in its VoIP system is by enhancing the usage of the bandwidth. Nevertheless, it is hard to improve bandwidth usage without compromising the security of the data.

Packet Loss

Melvin and Murphy (2007) maintain that Voice over Internet Protocol is extremely intolerant of packet loss. Packet loss may arise as a result of excess latency. Some packets fail to reach the destination on time leading to them being cast off to accommodate the newer ones. Packet loss may also arise due to jitter. The primary reason VoIP is prone to packet loss is because it relies on the Real-time Transport Protocol.

A packet may reach the destination after its adjacent packets have been removed from the buffer, thus rendering it redundant (Melvin & Murphy, 2007). VoIP packets are normally minuscule and carry little information. Hence, it might be hard for a person to detect the missing words in case of packet loss. The only disadvantage is that packets are not lost separately. Bandwidth overcrowding and other sources of packet loss interfere with all the packages that are in transit.

The loss of a single packet might not affect the meaning of the intended message. Nevertheless, probabilistically “the loss of one packet means the loss of several packets” (Tadeus, 2004, p. 179). In other words, the loss of a single packet may result in the loss of numerous packets, thus degrading the quality of service.

Although it is hard to use an efficient delivery protocol like Transmission Control Protocol to enhance the quality of service, one can still minimize the challenge of packet loss. Tadeus (2004) argues that one cannot ensure that all the packets reach the intended destination. If one has an adequate bandwidth, they can send redundant information to cancel the prospect of loss. The problem is that it is hard to get such bandwidth.

The introduction of redundant information results in latency and, at times, aggravates packet loss. Steps are underway to develop novel codecs like internet Low Bit-rate Codec that tolerate packet loss. The codecs will guarantee that the meaning of a message does not change despite the loss of some packets.

The development of Voice over Internet Protocol network is a complex process that must be handled with great care. The network managers can hardly detect the numerous challenges that affect data packets. The incorporation of a VoIP system into an already overworked network may be detrimental to an organization. There is no approved solution to the challenges, which affect voice data that is in transit via a VoIP network.

Organizations must use different solutions selectively according to the nature of VoIP system that they use. Institutions can run secure VoIP systems; however, they have to incur a high cost with respect to installing security measures. Until the experts come up with a reliable and efficient method of running a VoIP network, organizations should operate their systems cautiously. They should ensure that they acquire the correct software and establish the appropriate network infrastructure.

Bai, Y., & Ito, M. (2006). A study for providing better quality of service to VoIP users. Advanced Information Networking and Applications, 1 (2), 799-804.

Bradbury, D. (2007). The security challenges inherent in VoIP. Computers & Security, 26 (7), 485-487.

Cheng, F., & Lai, W. (2010). An overview of VoIP and P2P copyright and lawful-interception issues in the United States and Taiwan. Digital Investigation, 7 (2), 81-89.

Chong, H., & Matthews, H. (2004). Comparative analysis of traditional telephone and voice-over-internet protocol (VoIP) systems. Electronics and the Environment, 3 (1), 106-111.

Endler, D., & Collier, M. (2006). Hacking exposed VoIP: Voice over IP security secrets & solutions , New York: McGraw-Hill.

Jiang, W., & Henning, S. (2000). Analysis of on-off patterns in VoIP and their effect on voice traffic aggregation. Computer Communications and Networks, 4 (1), 82-87.

Kumar, A. (2006). An overview of voice over internet protocol (VoIP). Rivier College Online Academic Journal, 2 (1), 1-13.

Melvin, H., & Murphy, L. (2007). Time synchronization for VoIP quality of service. Internet Computing, 6 (3), 57-63.

Tadeus, U. (2004). Quality of service in VoIP communication. International Journal of Electronics and Communications, 58 (3), 178-182.

Toral, H., Torres, D., Hernandez, C., & Estrada, L. (2008). Self-similarity, packet loss, jitter, and packet size: Empirical relationships for VoIP. Electronics, Communications and Computer, 5 (3), 11-16.

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Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) Setup: Case Study Analysis

48 Pages Posted: 4 Nov 2022

GPDCM Jayasekara

University of Plymouth; NSBM Green University Town

Date Written: April 22, 2022

Voice over internet protocol, sometimes known as VoIP, is a technology that allows users to make free phone calls or video calls over the internet. Voice over IP (VoIP) is a technology that allows you to transmit your voice from an analogue transmission to a digital one. After that, you can make a direct phone call. IP telephony, broadband, and broadband telephony are all terms that can be heard. VoIP services are subject to fluctuations. As previously stated, VoIP frameworks give clients the option of selecting their own equipment. Calls can now be made using a variety of devices, including traditional telephones, IP telephones, personal computers, and cell phones, ensuring that telephone calls are no longer restricted to a single device. As a result, VoIP has made tremendous strides forward in the communication field. Voice over IP (VoIP) is an example (VoIP). Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method of communicating over the internet.

Keywords: VOIP, Setup, Project, IP Phone, Call Testing

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

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University of plymouth ( email ).

Plymouth United Kingdom 0701245270 (Phone)

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VoIP Research Papers: Ideas to Consider

VoIP technologies became a real breakthrough in communication. They considerably reduced costs on distant telephony and enhanced the effectiveness of different voice applications and services.

However, VoIP technologies are still not completely recognized. You can learn more about them while working on VoIP research papers .

Writing research papers on VoIP is an ordinary assignment for those studying Science and Technology. So, we are glad to help you with writing research papers on VoIP!

Several ideas for VoIP research papers are introduced below:

Idea#1 for VoIP research papers

Investigate what prevents VoIP from being adopted. It may be:

• Quality issues;
• Costs on switching;
• Communication bandwidth;
• Data security, etc

Idea#2 for VoIP research papers

Examine VoIP as a category of software/hardware. It allows people to use the Internet as communication transmission. Write about the providers in research papers on VoIP . Vonage is a good example in this case.

Idea#3 for VoIP research papers

Find out how this technology has evolved and present the history of its development in research papers on VoIP. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of VoIP. Work with original sources to make your paper more valid.

Idea#4 for VoIP research papers

Write how this technology affects today’s business world and relations between countries. You may interview people, visit forums, and so on to gather enough information for such VoIP research papers.

If you need more help with writing VoIP research papers, you may use some past papers on this topic. Study how other students develop this idea and think how you can do your best! Good luck!

Our site will be helpful for those who need more ideas for a research paper on UML or research papers on wireless.

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• Racism is caused by …

Compare-Contrast Essay Topics for High School

As the name indicates, in compare-and-contrast essays, writers show the similarities and differences between two things. They combine descriptive writing with analysis, making connections and showing dissimilarities. The following ideas work well for compare-contrast essays. ( Find 80+ compare-contrast essay topics for all ages here. )

• Public and private schools
• Capitalism vs. communism
• Monarchy or democracy
• Dogs vs. cats as pets

• Paper books or e-books
• Two political candidates in a current race
• Going to college vs. starting work full-time
• Working your way through college as you go or taking out student loans
• iPhone or Android
• Instagram vs. Twitter (or choose any other two social media platforms)

Descriptive Essay Topics for High School

Bring on the adjectives! Descriptive writing is all about creating a rich picture for the reader. Take readers on a journey to far-off places, help them understand an experience, or introduce them to a new person. Remember: Show, don’t tell. These topics make excellent descriptive essays.

• Who is the funniest person you know?
• What is your happiest memory?
• Tell about the most inspirational person in your life.
• Write about your favorite place.
• When you were little, what was your favorite thing to do?
• Choose a piece of art or music and explain how it makes you feel.
• What is your earliest memory?

• What’s the best/worst vacation you’ve ever taken?
• Describe your favorite pet.
• What is the most important item in the world to you?
• Give a tour of your bedroom (or another favorite room in your home).
• Describe yourself to someone who has never met you.
• Lay out your perfect day from start to finish.
• Explain what it’s like to move to a new town or start a new school.
• Tell what it would be like to live on the moon.

Expository and Informative Essay Topics for High School

Expository essays set out clear explanations of a particular topic. You might be defining a word or phrase or explaining how something works. Expository or informative essays are based on facts, and while you might explore different points of view, you won’t necessarily say which one is “better” or “right.” Remember: Expository essays educate the reader. Here are some expository and informative essay topics to explore. ( See 70+ expository and informative essay topics here. )

• What makes a good leader?
• Explain why a given school subject (math, history, science, etc.) is important for students to learn.
• What is the “glass ceiling” and how does it affect society?
• Describe how the internet changed the world.
• What does it mean to be a good teacher?

• Explain how we could colonize the moon or another planet.
• Discuss why mental health is just as important as physical health.
• Describe a healthy lifestyle for a teenager.
• Choose an American president and explain how their time in office affected the country.
• What does “financial responsibility” mean?

Humorous Essay Topics for High School

Humorous essays can take on any form, like narrative, persuasive, or expository. You might employ sarcasm or satire, or simply tell a story about a funny person or event. Even though these essay topics are lighthearted, they still take some skill to tackle well. Give these ideas a try.

• What would happen if cats (or any other animal) ruled the world?
• What do newborn babies wish their parents knew?
• Explain the best ways to be annoying on social media.
• Invent a wacky new sport, explain the rules, and describe a game or match.

• Imagine a discussion between two historic figures from very different times, like Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth I.
• Retell a familiar story in tweets or other social media posts.
• Describe present-day Earth from an alien’s point of view.
• Choose a fictional character and explain why they should be the next president.
• Describe a day when kids are in charge of everything, at school and at home.

Literary essays analyze a piece of writing, like a book or a play. In high school, students usually write literary essays about the works they study in class. These literary essay topic ideas focus on books students often read in high school, but many of them can be tweaked to fit other works as well.

• Discuss the portrayal of women in Shakespeare’s Othello .
• Explore the symbolism used in The Scarlet Letter .
• Explain the importance of dreams in Of Mice and Men .
• Compare and contrast the romantic relationships in Pride and Prejudice .

• Dissect the allegory of Animal Farm and its relation to contemporary events.
• Interpret the author’s take on society and class structure in The Great Gatsby .
• Explore the relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia.
• Discuss whether Shakespeare’s portrayal of young love in Romeo and Juliet is accurate.
• Explain the imagery used in Beowulf .

Narrative and Personal Essay Topics for High School

Think of a narrative essay like telling a story. Use some of the same techniques that you would for a descriptive essay, but be sure you have a beginning, middle, and end. A narrative essay doesn’t necessarily need to be personal, but they often are. Take inspiration from these narrative and personal essay topics.

• Describe a performance or sporting event you took part in.
• Explain the process of cooking and eating your favorite meal.
• Write about meeting your best friend for the first time and how your relationship developed.
• Tell about learning to ride a bike or drive a car.
• Describe a time in your life when you’ve been scared.

• Share the most embarrassing thing that ever happened to you.
• Tell about a time when you overcame a big challenge.
• Tell the story of how you learned an important life lesson.
• Describe a time when you or someone you know experienced prejudice or oppression.
• Explain a family tradition, how it developed, and its importance today.
• What is your favorite holiday? How does your family celebrate it?
• Retell a familiar story from the point of view of a different character.
• Describe a time when you had to make a difficult decision.
• Tell about your proudest moment.

Persuasive Essay Topics for High School

Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative , but they rely less on facts and more on emotion to sway the reader. It’s important to know your audience, so you can anticipate any counterarguments they might make and try to overcome them. Try these topics to persuade someone to come around to your point of view. ( Discover 60 more intriguing persuasive essay topics here. )

• Do you think homework should be required, optional, or not given at all?
• Everyone should be vegetarian or vegan.
• What animal makes the best pet?
• Visit an animal shelter, choose an animal that needs a home, and write an essay persuading someone to adopt that animal.
• Who is the world’s best athlete, present or past?
• Should little kids be allowed to play competitive sports?
• Are professional athletes/musicians/actors overpaid?
• The best music genre is …

• Is democracy the best form of government?
• Is capitalism the best form of economy?
• Students should/should not be able to use their phones during the school day.
• Should schools have dress codes?
• If I could change one school rule, it would be …
• Is year-round school a good idea?

A research essay is a classic high school assignment. These papers require deep research into primary source documents, with lots of supporting facts and evidence that’s properly cited. Research essays can be in any of the styles shown above. Here are some possible topics, across a variety of subjects.

• Which country’s style of government is best for the people who live there?
• Choose a country and analyze its development from founding to present day.
• Describe the causes and effects of a specific war.
• Formulate an ideal economic plan for our country.
• What scientific discovery has had the biggest impact on life today?

• Analyze the way mental health is viewed and treated in this country.
• Explore the ways systemic racism impacts people in all walks of life.
• Defend the importance of teaching music and the arts in public schools.
• Choose one animal from the endangered species list, and propose a realistic plan to protect it.

What are some of your favorite essay topics for high school? Come share your prompts on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out the ultimate guide to student writing contests .

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How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward

Journalists, researchers and the public often look at society through the lens of generation, using terms like Millennial or Gen Z to describe groups of similarly aged people. This approach can help readers see themselves in the data and assess where we are and where we’re headed as a country.

Pew Research Center has been at the forefront of generational research over the years, telling the story of Millennials as they came of age politically and as they moved more firmly into adult life . In recent years, we’ve also been eager to learn about Gen Z as the leading edge of this generation moves into adulthood.

But generational research has become a crowded arena. The field has been flooded with content that’s often sold as research but is more like clickbait or marketing mythology. There’s also been a growing chorus of criticism about generational research and generational labels in particular.

Recently, as we were preparing to embark on a major research project related to Gen Z, we decided to take a step back and consider how we can study generations in a way that aligns with our values of accuracy, rigor and providing a foundation of facts that enriches the public dialogue.

A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations.

We set out on a yearlong process of assessing the landscape of generational research. We spoke with experts from outside Pew Research Center, including those who have been publicly critical of our generational analysis, to get their take on the pros and cons of this type of work. We invested in methodological testing to determine whether we could compare findings from our earlier telephone surveys to the online ones we’re conducting now. And we experimented with higher-level statistical analyses that would allow us to isolate the effect of generation.

What emerged from this process was a set of clear guidelines that will help frame our approach going forward. Many of these are principles we’ve always adhered to , but others will require us to change the way we’ve been doing things in recent years.

Here’s a short overview of how we’ll approach generational research in the future:

We’ll only do generational analysis when we have historical data that allows us to compare generations at similar stages of life. When comparing generations, it’s crucial to control for age. In other words, researchers need to look at each generation or age cohort at a similar point in the life cycle. (“Age cohort” is a fancy way of referring to a group of people who were born around the same time.)

When doing this kind of research, the question isn’t whether young adults today are different from middle-aged or older adults today. The question is whether young adults today are different from young adults at some specific point in the past.

To answer this question, it’s necessary to have data that’s been collected over a considerable amount of time – think decades. Standard surveys don’t allow for this type of analysis. We can look at differences across age groups, but we can’t compare age groups over time.

Another complication is that the surveys we conducted 20 or 30 years ago aren’t usually comparable enough to the surveys we’re doing today. Our earlier surveys were done over the phone, and we’ve since transitioned to our nationally representative online survey panel , the American Trends Panel . Our internal testing showed that on many topics, respondents answer questions differently depending on the way they’re being interviewed. So we can’t use most of our surveys from the late 1980s and early 2000s to compare Gen Z with Millennials and Gen Xers at a similar stage of life.

This means that most generational analysis we do will use datasets that have employed similar methodologies over a long period of time, such as surveys from the U.S. Census Bureau. A good example is our 2020 report on Millennial families , which used census data going back to the late 1960s. The report showed that Millennials are marrying and forming families at a much different pace than the generations that came before them.

Even when we have historical data, we will attempt to control for other factors beyond age in making generational comparisons. If we accept that there are real differences across generations, we’re basically saying that people who were born around the same time share certain attitudes or beliefs – and that their views have been influenced by external forces that uniquely shaped them during their formative years. Those forces may have been social changes, economic circumstances, technological advances or political movements.

When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

The tricky part is isolating those forces from events or circumstances that have affected all age groups, not just one generation. These are often called “period effects.” An example of a period effect is the Watergate scandal, which drove down trust in government among all age groups. Differences in trust across age groups in the wake of Watergate shouldn’t be attributed to the outsize impact that event had on one age group or another, because the change occurred across the board.

Changing demographics also may play a role in patterns that might at first seem like generational differences. We know that the United States has become more racially and ethnically diverse in recent decades, and that race and ethnicity are linked with certain key social and political views. When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

Controlling for these factors can involve complicated statistical analysis that helps determine whether the differences we see across age groups are indeed due to generation or not. This additional step adds rigor to the process. Unfortunately, it’s often absent from current discussions about Gen Z, Millennials and other generations.

When we can’t do generational analysis, we still see value in looking at differences by age and will do so where it makes sense. Age is one of the most common predictors of differences in attitudes and behaviors. And even if age gaps aren’t rooted in generational differences, they can still be illuminating. They help us understand how people across the age spectrum are responding to key trends, technological breakthroughs and historical events.

Each stage of life comes with a unique set of experiences. Young adults are often at the leading edge of changing attitudes on emerging social trends. Take views on same-sex marriage , for example, or attitudes about gender identity .

Many middle-aged adults, in turn, face the challenge of raising children while also providing care and support to their aging parents. And older adults have their own obstacles and opportunities. All of these stories – rooted in the life cycle, not in generations – are important and compelling, and we can tell them by analyzing our surveys at any given point in time.

When we do have the data to study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won’t always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. While generational labels are simple and catchy, there are other ways to analyze age cohorts. For example, some observers have suggested grouping people by the decade in which they were born. This would create narrower cohorts in which the members may share more in common. People could also be grouped relative to their age during key historical events (such as the Great Recession or the COVID-19 pandemic) or technological innovations (like the invention of the iPhone).

By choosing not to use the standard generational labels when they’re not appropriate, we can avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences.

Existing generational definitions also may be too broad and arbitrary to capture differences that exist among narrower cohorts. A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations. The key is to pick a lens that’s most appropriate for the research question that’s being studied. If we’re looking at political views and how they’ve shifted over time, for example, we might group people together according to the first presidential election in which they were eligible to vote.

With these considerations in mind, our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens. We’ll only talk about generations when it adds value, advances important national debates and highlights meaningful societal trends.

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Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center .

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