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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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GUIDANCE ON SUBMISSION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ABSTRACTS

General guidance

Authors should refer to the general information and guidelines contained in the Society’s “Guidance for Submission of Abstracts”. The general guidance therein applies to qualitative research abstracts. This includes the maximum permitted limit of 250 words, and the instruction that abstracts should be structured. In keeping with all submissions to the Society, subsequent presentation must reflect and elaborate on the abstract. Research studies or findings not referred to in the abstract should not be presented.

This document contains specific guidance on the content of qualitative research abstracts.

How guidance on content is to be applied by authors and Council.

Council recognises that the nature of qualitative research makes its comprehensive communication within short abstracts a challenge.  Therefore, whilst the key areas to be included within abstracts are set out below, it is recognised that emphasis on each area will vary in different cases, and that not every listed sub-area will be covered.  Certain elements are likely to receive greater attention at the time of presentation than within the abstract.  In particular, presentation of the paper should include sufficient empirical data to allow judgement of the conclusions drawn.

Content of abstracts

• Research question/objective and design: clear statement of the research question/objective and its relevance. Methodological or theoretical perspectives should be clearly outlined.
• Population and sampling: who the subjects were and what sampling strategies were used .
• Methods of data collection: clear exposition of data collection: access, selection, method of collection, type of data, relationship of researcher to subjects/setting (what data were collected, from where/whom, by whom)
• Quality of data and analysis: strategies to enhance quality of data analysis e.g. triangulation, respondent validation; and to enhance validity e.g. attention to negative cases, consideration of alternative explanations, team analysis, peer review panels
• Application of critical thinking to analysis: attention to the influence of the researcher on data collected and on analysis. Critical approach to the status of data collected
• Theoretical and empirical context: evidence that design and analysis take into account and add to previous knowledge
• Conclusions: justified in relation to data collected, sufficient original data presented to substantiate interpretations, reasoned consideration of transferability  to groups/settings beyond those studied

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on 1 March 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the UK during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your topic, but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialised terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyse,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

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Next, summarise the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalisability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarise the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 150–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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• Neurol Res Pract

How to use and assess qualitative research methods

Loraine busetto.

1 Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Wolfgang Wick

2 Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuro-Oncology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

Christoph Gumbinger

Associated data.

Not applicable.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. The most common methods of data collection are document study, (non-) participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. For data analysis, field-notes and audio-recordings are transcribed into protocols and transcripts, and coded using qualitative data management software. Criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, sampling strategies, piloting, co-coding, member-checking and stakeholder involvement can be used to enhance and assess the quality of the research conducted. Using qualitative in addition to quantitative designs will equip us with better tools to address a greater range of research problems, and to fill in blind spots in current neurological research and practice.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed. This article is intended for beginning qualitative researchers in the health sciences as well as experienced quantitative researchers who wish to broaden their understanding of qualitative research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as “the study of the nature of phenomena”, including “their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived” , but excluding “their range, frequency and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect” [ 1 ]. This formal definition can be complemented with a more pragmatic rule of thumb: qualitative research generally includes data in form of words rather than numbers [ 2 ].

Why conduct qualitative research?

Because some research questions cannot be answered using (only) quantitative methods. For example, one Australian study addressed the issue of why patients from Aboriginal communities often present late or not at all to specialist services offered by tertiary care hospitals. Using qualitative interviews with patients and staff, it found one of the most significant access barriers to be transportation problems, including some towns and communities simply not having a bus service to the hospital [ 3 ]. A quantitative study could have measured the number of patients over time or even looked at possible explanatory factors – but only those previously known or suspected to be of relevance. To discover reasons for observed patterns, especially the invisible or surprising ones, qualitative designs are needed.

While qualitative research is common in other fields, it is still relatively underrepresented in health services research. The latter field is more traditionally rooted in the evidence-based-medicine paradigm, as seen in " research that involves testing the effectiveness of various strategies to achieve changes in clinical practice, preferably applying randomised controlled trial study designs (...) " [ 4 ]. This focus on quantitative research and specifically randomised controlled trials (RCT) is visible in the idea of a hierarchy of research evidence which assumes that some research designs are objectively better than others, and that choosing a "lesser" design is only acceptable when the better ones are not practically or ethically feasible [ 5 , 6 ]. Others, however, argue that an objective hierarchy does not exist, and that, instead, the research design and methods should be chosen to fit the specific research question at hand – "questions before methods" [ 2 , 7 – 9 ]. This means that even when an RCT is possible, some research problems require a different design that is better suited to addressing them. Arguing in JAMA, Berwick uses the example of rapid response teams in hospitals, which he describes as " a complex, multicomponent intervention – essentially a process of social change" susceptible to a range of different context factors including leadership or organisation history. According to him, "[in] such complex terrain, the RCT is an impoverished way to learn. Critics who use it as a truth standard in this context are incorrect" [ 8 ] . Instead of limiting oneself to RCTs, Berwick recommends embracing a wider range of methods , including qualitative ones, which for "these specific applications, (...) are not compromises in learning how to improve; they are superior" [ 8 ].

Research problems that can be approached particularly well using qualitative methods include assessing complex multi-component interventions or systems (of change), addressing questions beyond “what works”, towards “what works for whom when, how and why”, and focussing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation [ 7 , 9 – 12 ]. Using qualitative methods can also help shed light on the “softer” side of medical treatment. For example, while quantitative trials can measure the costs and benefits of neuro-oncological treatment in terms of survival rates or adverse effects, qualitative research can help provide a better understanding of patient or caregiver stress, visibility of illness or out-of-pocket expenses.

How to conduct qualitative research?

Given that qualitative research is characterised by flexibility, openness and responsivity to context, the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research [ 13 , 14 ]. As Fossey puts it : “sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation are related to each other in a cyclical (iterative) manner, rather than following one after another in a stepwise approach” [ 15 ]. The researcher can make educated decisions with regard to the choice of method, how they are implemented, and to which and how many units they are applied [ 13 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , this can involve several back-and-forth steps between data collection and analysis where new insights and experiences can lead to adaption and expansion of the original plan. Some insights may also necessitate a revision of the research question and/or the research design as a whole. The process ends when saturation is achieved, i.e. when no relevant new information can be found (see also below: sampling and saturation). For reasons of transparency, it is essential for all decisions as well as the underlying reasoning to be well-documented.

Iterative research process

While it is not always explicitly addressed, qualitative methods reflect a different underlying research paradigm than quantitative research (e.g. constructivism or interpretivism as opposed to positivism). The choice of methods can be based on the respective underlying substantive theory or theoretical framework used by the researcher [ 2 ].

Data collection

The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [ 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 ].

Document study

Document study (also called document analysis) refers to the review by the researcher of written materials [ 14 ]. These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.

Observations

Observations are particularly useful to gain insights into a certain setting and actual behaviour – as opposed to reported behaviour or opinions [ 13 ]. Qualitative observations can be either participant or non-participant in nature. In participant observations, the observer is part of the observed setting, for example a nurse working in an intensive care unit [ 18 ]. In non-participant observations, the observer is “on the outside looking in”, i.e. present in but not part of the situation, trying not to influence the setting by their presence. Observations can be planned (e.g. for 3 h during the day or night shift) or ad hoc (e.g. as soon as a stroke patient arrives at the emergency room). During the observation, the observer takes notes on everything or certain pre-determined parts of what is happening around them, for example focusing on physician-patient interactions or communication between different professional groups. Written notes can be taken during or after the observations, depending on feasibility (which is usually lower during participant observations) and acceptability (e.g. when the observer is perceived to be judging the observed). Afterwards, these field notes are transcribed into observation protocols. If more than one observer was involved, field notes are taken independently, but notes can be consolidated into one protocol after discussions. Advantages of conducting observations include minimising the distance between the researcher and the researched, the potential discovery of topics that the researcher did not realise were relevant and gaining deeper insights into the real-world dimensions of the research problem at hand [ 18 ].

Semi-structured interviews

Hijmans & Kuyper describe qualitative interviews as “an exchange with an informal character, a conversation with a goal” [ 19 ]. Interviews are used to gain insights into a person’s subjective experiences, opinions and motivations – as opposed to facts or behaviours [ 13 ]. Interviews can be distinguished by the degree to which they are structured (i.e. a questionnaire), open (e.g. free conversation or autobiographical interviews) or semi-structured [ 2 , 13 ]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview guide (or topic guide/list) in which the broad areas of interest, sometimes including sub-questions, are defined [ 19 ]. The pre-defined topics in the interview guide can be derived from the literature, previous research or a preliminary method of data collection, e.g. document study or observations. The topic list is usually adapted and improved at the start of the data collection process as the interviewer learns more about the field [ 20 ]. Across interviews the focus on the different (blocks of) questions may differ and some questions may be skipped altogether (e.g. if the interviewee is not able or willing to answer the questions or for concerns about the total length of the interview) [ 20 ]. Qualitative interviews are usually not conducted in written format as it impedes on the interactive component of the method [ 20 ]. In comparison to written surveys, qualitative interviews have the advantage of being interactive and allowing for unexpected topics to emerge and to be taken up by the researcher. This can also help overcome a provider or researcher-centred bias often found in written surveys, which by nature, can only measure what is already known or expected to be of relevance to the researcher. Interviews can be audio- or video-taped; but sometimes it is only feasible or acceptable for the interviewer to take written notes [ 14 , 16 , 20 ].

Focus groups

Focus groups are group interviews to explore participants’ expertise and experiences, including explorations of how and why people behave in certain ways [ 1 ]. Focus groups usually consist of 6–8 people and are led by an experienced moderator following a topic guide or “script” [ 21 ]. They can involve an observer who takes note of the non-verbal aspects of the situation, possibly using an observation guide [ 21 ]. Depending on researchers’ and participants’ preferences, the discussions can be audio- or video-taped and transcribed afterwards [ 21 ]. Focus groups are useful for bringing together homogeneous (to a lesser extent heterogeneous) groups of participants with relevant expertise and experience on a given topic on which they can share detailed information [ 21 ]. Focus groups are a relatively easy, fast and inexpensive method to gain access to information on interactions in a given group, i.e. “the sharing and comparing” among participants [ 21 ]. Disadvantages include less control over the process and a lesser extent to which each individual may participate. Moreover, focus group moderators need experience, as do those tasked with the analysis of the resulting data. Focus groups can be less appropriate for discussing sensitive topics that participants might be reluctant to disclose in a group setting [ 13 ]. Moreover, attention must be paid to the emergence of “groupthink” as well as possible power dynamics within the group, e.g. when patients are awed or intimidated by health professionals.

Choosing the “right” method

As explained above, the school of thought underlying qualitative research assumes no objective hierarchy of evidence and methods. This means that each choice of single or combined methods has to be based on the research question that needs to be answered and a critical assessment with regard to whether or to what extent the chosen method can accomplish this – i.e. the “fit” between question and method [ 14 ]. It is necessary for these decisions to be documented when they are being made, and to be critically discussed when reporting methods and results.

Let us assume that our research aim is to examine the (clinical) processes around acute endovascular treatment (EVT), from the patient’s arrival at the emergency room to recanalization, with the aim to identify possible causes for delay and/or other causes for sub-optimal treatment outcome. As a first step, we could conduct a document study of the relevant standard operating procedures (SOPs) for this phase of care – are they up-to-date and in line with current guidelines? Do they contain any mistakes, irregularities or uncertainties that could cause delays or other problems? Regardless of the answers to these questions, the results have to be interpreted based on what they are: a written outline of what care processes in this hospital should look like. If we want to know what they actually look like in practice, we can conduct observations of the processes described in the SOPs. These results can (and should) be analysed in themselves, but also in comparison to the results of the document analysis, especially as regards relevant discrepancies. Do the SOPs outline specific tests for which no equipment can be observed or tasks to be performed by specialized nurses who are not present during the observation? It might also be possible that the written SOP is outdated, but the actual care provided is in line with current best practice. In order to find out why these discrepancies exist, it can be useful to conduct interviews. Are the physicians simply not aware of the SOPs (because their existence is limited to the hospital’s intranet) or do they actively disagree with them or does the infrastructure make it impossible to provide the care as described? Another rationale for adding interviews is that some situations (or all of their possible variations for different patient groups or the day, night or weekend shift) cannot practically or ethically be observed. In this case, it is possible to ask those involved to report on their actions – being aware that this is not the same as the actual observation. A senior physician’s or hospital manager’s description of certain situations might differ from a nurse’s or junior physician’s one, maybe because they intentionally misrepresent facts or maybe because different aspects of the process are visible or important to them. In some cases, it can also be relevant to consider to whom the interviewee is disclosing this information – someone they trust, someone they are otherwise not connected to, or someone they suspect or are aware of being in a potentially “dangerous” power relationship to them. Lastly, a focus group could be conducted with representatives of the relevant professional groups to explore how and why exactly they provide care around EVT. The discussion might reveal discrepancies (between SOPs and actual care or between different physicians) and motivations to the researchers as well as to the focus group members that they might not have been aware of themselves. For the focus group to deliver relevant information, attention has to be paid to its composition and conduct, for example, to make sure that all participants feel safe to disclose sensitive or potentially problematic information or that the discussion is not dominated by (senior) physicians only. The resulting combination of data collection methods is shown in Fig.  2 .

Possible combination of data collection methods

Attributions for icons: “Book” by Serhii Smirnov, “Interview” by Adrien Coquet, FR, “Magnifying Glass” by anggun, ID, “Business communication” by Vectors Market; all from the Noun Project

The combination of multiple data source as described for this example can be referred to as “triangulation”, in which multiple measurements are carried out from different angles to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study [ 22 , 23 ].

Data analysis

To analyse the data collected through observations, interviews and focus groups these need to be transcribed into protocols and transcripts (see Fig.  3 ). Interviews and focus groups can be transcribed verbatim , with or without annotations for behaviour (e.g. laughing, crying, pausing) and with or without phonetic transcription of dialects and filler words, depending on what is expected or known to be relevant for the analysis. In the next step, the protocols and transcripts are coded , that is, marked (or tagged, labelled) with one or more short descriptors of the content of a sentence or paragraph [ 2 , 15 , 23 ]. Jansen describes coding as “connecting the raw data with “theoretical” terms” [ 20 ]. In a more practical sense, coding makes raw data sortable. This makes it possible to extract and examine all segments describing, say, a tele-neurology consultation from multiple data sources (e.g. SOPs, emergency room observations, staff and patient interview). In a process of synthesis and abstraction, the codes are then grouped, summarised and/or categorised [ 15 , 20 ]. The end product of the coding or analysis process is a descriptive theory of the behavioural pattern under investigation [ 20 ]. The coding process is performed using qualitative data management software, the most common ones being InVivo, MaxQDA and Atlas.ti. It should be noted that these are data management tools which support the analysis performed by the researcher(s) [ 14 ].

From data collection to data analysis

Attributions for icons: see Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , also “Speech to text” by Trevor Dsouza, “Field Notes” by Mike O’Brien, US, “Voice Record” by ProSymbols, US, “Inspection” by Made, AU, and “Cloud” by Graphic Tigers; all from the Noun Project

How to report qualitative research?

Protocols of qualitative research can be published separately and in advance of the study results. However, the aim is not the same as in RCT protocols, i.e. to pre-define and set in stone the research questions and primary or secondary endpoints. Rather, it is a way to describe the research methods in detail, which might not be possible in the results paper given journals’ word limits. Qualitative research papers are usually longer than their quantitative counterparts to allow for deep understanding and so-called “thick description”. In the methods section, the focus is on transparency of the methods used, including why, how and by whom they were implemented in the specific study setting, so as to enable a discussion of whether and how this may have influenced data collection, analysis and interpretation. The results section usually starts with a paragraph outlining the main findings, followed by more detailed descriptions of, for example, the commonalities, discrepancies or exceptions per category [ 20 ]. Here it is important to support main findings by relevant quotations, which may add information, context, emphasis or real-life examples [ 20 , 23 ]. It is subject to debate in the field whether it is relevant to state the exact number or percentage of respondents supporting a certain statement (e.g. “Five interviewees expressed negative feelings towards XYZ”) [ 21 ].

How to combine qualitative with quantitative research?

Qualitative methods can be combined with other methods in multi- or mixed methods designs, which “[employ] two or more different methods [ …] within the same study or research program rather than confining the research to one single method” [ 24 ]. Reasons for combining methods can be diverse, including triangulation for corroboration of findings, complementarity for illustration and clarification of results, expansion to extend the breadth and range of the study, explanation of (unexpected) results generated with one method with the help of another, or offsetting the weakness of one method with the strength of another [ 1 , 17 , 24 – 26 ]. The resulting designs can be classified according to when, why and how the different quantitative and/or qualitative data strands are combined. The three most common types of mixed method designs are the convergent parallel design , the explanatory sequential design and the exploratory sequential design. The designs with examples are shown in Fig.  4 .

Three common mixed methods designs

In the convergent parallel design, a qualitative study is conducted in parallel to and independently of a quantitative study, and the results of both studies are compared and combined at the stage of interpretation of results. Using the above example of EVT provision, this could entail setting up a quantitative EVT registry to measure process times and patient outcomes in parallel to conducting the qualitative research outlined above, and then comparing results. Amongst other things, this would make it possible to assess whether interview respondents’ subjective impressions of patients receiving good care match modified Rankin Scores at follow-up, or whether observed delays in care provision are exceptions or the rule when compared to door-to-needle times as documented in the registry. In the explanatory sequential design, a quantitative study is carried out first, followed by a qualitative study to help explain the results from the quantitative study. This would be an appropriate design if the registry alone had revealed relevant delays in door-to-needle times and the qualitative study would be used to understand where and why these occurred, and how they could be improved. In the exploratory design, the qualitative study is carried out first and its results help informing and building the quantitative study in the next step [ 26 ]. If the qualitative study around EVT provision had shown a high level of dissatisfaction among the staff members involved, a quantitative questionnaire investigating staff satisfaction could be set up in the next step, informed by the qualitative study on which topics dissatisfaction had been expressed. Amongst other things, the questionnaire design would make it possible to widen the reach of the research to more respondents from different (types of) hospitals, regions, countries or settings, and to conduct sub-group analyses for different professional groups.

How to assess qualitative research?

A variety of assessment criteria and lists have been developed for qualitative research, ranging in their focus and comprehensiveness [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. However, none of these has been elevated to the “gold standard” in the field. In the following, we therefore focus on a set of commonly used assessment criteria that, from a practical standpoint, a researcher can look for when assessing a qualitative research report or paper.

Assessors should check the authors’ use of and adherence to the relevant reporting checklists (e.g. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)) to make sure all items that are relevant for this type of research are addressed [ 23 , 28 ]. Discussions of quantitative measures in addition to or instead of these qualitative measures can be a sign of lower quality of the research (paper). Providing and adhering to a checklist for qualitative research contributes to an important quality criterion for qualitative research, namely transparency [ 15 , 17 , 23 ].

Reflexivity

While methodological transparency and complete reporting is relevant for all types of research, some additional criteria must be taken into account for qualitative research. This includes what is called reflexivity, i.e. sensitivity to the relationship between the researcher and the researched, including how contact was established and maintained, or the background and experience of the researcher(s) involved in data collection and analysis. Depending on the research question and population to be researched this can be limited to professional experience, but it may also include gender, age or ethnicity [ 17 , 27 ]. These details are relevant because in qualitative research, as opposed to quantitative research, the researcher as a person cannot be isolated from the research process [ 23 ]. It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ].

Sampling and saturation

The aim of qualitative sampling is for all variants of the objects of observation that are deemed relevant for the study to be present in the sample “ to see the issue and its meanings from as many angles as possible” [ 1 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 27 ] , and to ensure “information-richness [ 15 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection (e.g. five interviews) is followed by data analysis, followed by more data collection to find variants that are lacking in the current sample. This process continues until no new (relevant) information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant – which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ] . In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ].

This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. This is generally referred to as “ purposive sampling” , in which researchers pre-define which types of participants or cases they need to include so as to cover all variations that are expected to be of relevance, based on the literature, previous experience or theory (i.e. theoretical sampling) [ 14 , 20 ]. Other types of purposive sampling include (but are not limited to) maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. In the above EVT example, a purposive sample could include all relevant professional groups and/or all relevant stakeholders (patients, relatives) and/or all relevant times of observation (day, night and weekend shift).

Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i.e. it goes back and forth between data collection and analysis, revising and improving the approach where necessary. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview (especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded) are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ]. In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list (or tree), and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team. This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data.

Member checking

Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ]. For example, interviewees can be provided with (summaries of) their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ]. Respondents’ feedback on these issues then becomes part of the data collection and analysis [ 27 ].

Stakeholder involvement

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants (i.e. “members”, see above) but as consultants to and active participants in the broader research process [ 31 – 33 ]. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and (future) patients alike [ 34 , 35 ]. Using the example of patients on or nearing dialysis, a recent scoping review found that 80% of clinical research did not address the top 10 research priorities identified by patients and caregivers [ 32 , 36 ]. In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself.

How not to assess qualitative research

The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Protocol adherence

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies – in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process.

Sample size

For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 – 39 ]. Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i.e. who was included and why.

Randomisation

While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Relevant disadvantages include the negative impact of a too large sample size as well as the possibility (or probability) of selecting “ quiet, uncooperative or inarticulate individuals ” [ 17 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

Interrater reliability, variability and other “objectivity checks”

The concept of “interrater reliability” is sometimes used in qualitative research to assess to which extent the coding approach overlaps between the two co-coders. However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement. Relatedly, it is not relevant for the quality or “objectivity” of qualitative research to separate those who recruited the study participants and collected and analysed the data. Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis. This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e.g. on whether something might have been meant as a joke [ 18 ].

Not being quantitative research

Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand. Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se – unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research. In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component.

The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using (only) quantitative designs. Seeing qualitative and quantitative methods as equal will help us become more aware and critical of the “fit” between the research problem and our chosen methods: I can conduct an RCT to determine the reasons for transportation delays of acute stroke patients – but should I? It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Take-away-points

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations.

Authors’ contributions

LB drafted the manuscript; WW and CG revised the manuscript; all authors approved the final versions.

no external funding.

Availability of data and materials

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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January 27th, 2015

How to write a killer conference abstract: the first step towards an engaging presentation..

34 comments | 133 shares

Estimated reading time: 6 minutes

Helen Kara responds to our previously published guide to writing abstracts and elaborates specifically on the differences for conference abstracts. She offers tips for writing an enticing abstract for conference organisers and an engaging conference presentation. Written grammar is different from spoken grammar. Remember that conference organisers are trying to create as interesting and stimulating an event as they can, and variety is crucial.

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The Impact blog has an  ‘essential ‘how-to’ guide to writing good abstracts’ . While this post makes some excellent points, its title and first sentence don’t differentiate between article and conference abstracts. The standfirst talks about article abstracts, but then the first sentence is, ‘Abstracts tend to be rather casually written, perhaps at the beginning of writing when authors don’t yet really know what they want to say, or perhaps as a rushed afterthought just before submission to a journal or a conference.’ This, coming so soon after the title, gives the impression that the post is about both article and conference abstracts.

I think there are some fundamental differences between the two. For example:

• Article abstracts are presented to journal editors along with the article concerned. Conference abstracts are presented alone to conference organisers. This means that journal editors or peer reviewers can say e.g. ‘great article but the abstract needs work’, while a poor abstract submitted to a conference organiser is very unlikely to be accepted.
• Articles are typically 4,000-8,000 words long. Conference presentation slots usually allow 20 minutes so, given that – for good listening comprehension – presenters should speak at around 125 words per minute, a conference presentation should be around 2,500 words long.
• Articles are written to be read from the page, while conference presentations are presented in person. Written grammar is different from spoken grammar, and there is nothing so tedious for a conference audience than the old-skool approach of reading your written presentation from the page. Fewer people do this now – but still, too many. It’s unethical to bore people! You need to engage your audience, and conference organisers will like to know how you intend to hold their interest.

Image credit:  allanfernancato  ( Pixabay, CC0 Public Domain )

The competition for getting a conference abstract accepted is rarely as fierce as the competition for getting an article accepted. Some conferences don’t even receive as many abstracts as they have presentation slots. But even then, they’re more likely to re-arrange their programme than to accept a poor quality abstract. And you can’t take it for granted that your abstract won’t face much competition. I’ve recently read over 90 abstracts submitted for the  Creative Research Methods conference in May  – for 24 presentation slots. As a result, I have four useful tips to share with you about how to write a killer conference abstract.

First , your conference abstract is a sales tool: you are selling your ideas, first to the conference organisers, and then to the conference delegates. You need to make your abstract as fascinating and enticing as possible. And that means making it different. So take a little time to think through some key questions:

• What kinds of presentations is this conference most likely to attract? How can you make yours different?
• What are the fashionable areas in your field right now? Are you working in one of these areas? If so, how can you make your presentation different from others doing the same? If not, how can you make your presentation appealing?

There may be clues in the call for papers, so study this carefully. For example, we knew that the  Creative Research Methods conference , like all general methods conferences, was likely to receive a majority of abstracts covering data collection methods. So we stated up front, in the call for papers, that we knew this was likely, and encouraged potential presenters to offer creative methods of planning research, reviewing literature, analysing data, writing research, and so on. Even so, around three-quarters of the abstracts we received focused on data collection. This meant that each of those abstracts was less likely to be accepted than an abstract focusing on a different aspect of the research process, because we wanted to offer delegates a good balance of presentations.

Currently fashionable areas in the field of research methods include research using social media and autoethnography/ embodiment. We received quite a few abstracts addressing these, but again, in the interests of balance, were only likely to accept one (at most) in each area. Remember that conference organisers are trying to create as interesting and stimulating an event as they can, and variety is crucial.

Second , write your abstract well. Unless your abstract is for a highly academic and theoretical conference, wear your learning lightly. Engaging concepts in plain English, with a sprinkling of references for context, is much more appealing to conference organisers wading through sheaves of abstracts than complicated sentences with lots of long words, definitions of terms, and several dozen references. Conference organisers are not looking for evidence that you can do really clever writing (save that for your article abstracts), they are looking for evidence that you can give an entertaining presentation.

Third , conference abstracts written in the future tense are off-putting for conference organisers, because they don’t make it clear that the potential presenter knows what they’ll be talking about. I was surprised by how many potential presenters did this. If your presentation will include information about work you’ll be doing in between the call for papers and the conference itself (which is entirely reasonable as this can be a period of six months or more), then make that clear. So, for example, don’t say, ‘This presentation will cover the problems I encounter when I analyse data with homeless young people, and how I solve those problems’, say, ‘I will be analysing data with homeless young people over the next three months, and in the following three months I will prepare a presentation about the problems we encountered while doing this and how we tackled those problems’.

Fourth , of course you need to tell conference organisers about your research: its context, method, and findings. It will also help enormously if you can take a sentence or three to explain what you intend to include in the presentation itself. So, perhaps something like, ‘I will briefly outline the process of participatory data analysis we developed, supported by slides. I will then show a two-minute video which will illustrate both the process in action and some of the problems encountered. After that, again using slides, I will outline each of the problems and how we tackled them in practice.’ This will give conference organisers some confidence that you can actually put together and deliver an engaging presentation.

So, to summarise, to maximise your chances of success when submitting conference abstracts:

• Make your abstract fascinating, enticing, and different.
• Write your abstract well, using plain English wherever possible.
• Don’t write in the future tense if you can help it – and, if you must, specify clearly what you will do and when.
• Explain your research, and also give an explanation of what you intend to include in the presentation.

While that won’t guarantee success, it will massively increase your chances. Best of luck!

This post originally appeared on the author’s personal blog and is reposted with permission.

Note: This article gives the views of the author, and not the position of the Impact of Social Science blog, nor of the London School of Economics. Please review our  Comments Policy  if you have any concerns on posting a comment below.

About the Author

Dr Helen Kara has been an independent social researcher in social care and health since 1999, and is an Associate Research Fellow at the Third Sector Research Centre , University of Birmingham. She is on the Board of the UK’s Social Research Association , with lead responsibility for research ethics. She also teaches research methods to practitioners and students, and writes on research methods. Helen is the author of Research and Evaluation for Busy Practitioners (2012) and Creative Research Methods in the Social Sciences (April 2015) , both published by Policy Press . She did her first degree in Social Psychology at the LSE.

About the author

Dr Helen Kara has been an independent researcher since 1999 and also teaches research methods and ethics. She is not, and never has been, an academic, though she has learned to speak the language. In 2015 Helen was the first fully independent researcher to be conferred as a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences. She is also an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the Cathie Marsh Institute for Social Research, University of Manchester. She has written widely on research methods and ethics, including Research Ethics in the Real World: Euro-Western and Indigenous Perspectives (2018, Policy Press).

34 Comments

Personally, I’d rather not see reading a presentation written off so easily, for three off the cuff reasons:

1) Reading can be done really well, especially if the paper was written to be read.

2) It seems to be well suited to certain kinds of qualitative studies, particularly those that are narrative driven.

3) It seems to require a different kind of focus or concentration — one that requires more intensive listening (as opposed to following an outline driven presentation that’s supplemented with visuals, i.e., slides).

Admittedly, I’ve read some papers before, and writing them to be read can be a rewarding process, too. I had to pay attention to details differently: structure, tone, story, etc. It can be an insightful process, especially for works in progress.

Sean, thanks for your comment, which I think is a really useful addition to the discussion. I’ve sat through so many turgid not-written-to-be-read presentations that it never occurred to me they could be done well until I heard your thoughts. What you say makes a great deal of sense to me, particularly with presentations that are consciously ‘written to be read’ out loud. I think where they can get tedious is where a paper written for the page is read out loud instead, because for me that really doesn’t work. But I love to listen to stories, and I think of some of the quality storytelling that is broadcast on radio, and of audiobooks that work well (again, in my experience, they don’t all), and I do entirely see your point.

Helen, I appreciate your encouraging me remark on such a minor part of your post(!), which I enjoyed reading and will share. And thank you for the reply and the exchange on Twitter.

Very much enjoyed your post Helen. And your subsequent comments Sean. On the subject of the reading of a presentation. I agree that some people can write a paper specifically to be read and this can be done well. But I would think that this is a dying art. Perhaps in the humanities it might survive longer. Reading through the rest of your post I love the advice. I’m presenting at my first LIS conference next month and had I read your post first I probably would have written it differently. Advice for the future for me.

Martin – and Sean – thank you so much for your kind comments. Maybe there are steps we can take to keep the art alive; advocates for it, such as Sean, will no doubt help. And, Martin, if you’re presenting next month, you must have done perfectly well all by yourself! Congratulations on the acceptance, and best of luck for the presentation.

Great article! Obvious at it may seem, a point zero may be added before the other four: which _are_ your ideas?

A scientific writing coach told me she often runs a little exercise with her students. She tells them to put away their (journal) abstract and then asks them to summarize the bottom line in three statements. After some thinking, the students come up with an answer. Then the coach tells the students to reach for the abstract, read it and look for the bottom line they just summarised. Very often, they find that their own main observations and/or conclusions are not clearly expressed in the abstract.

PS I love the line “It’s unethical to bore people!” 🙂

Thanks for your comment, Olle – that’s a great point. I think something happens to us when we’re writing, in which we become so clear about what we want to say that we think we’ve said it even when we haven’t. Your friend’s exercise sounds like a great trick for finding out when we’ve done that. And thanks for the compliments, too!

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Thank you very much for the tips, they are really helpful. I have actually been accepted to present a PuchaKucha presentation in an educational interdisciplinary conference at my university. my presentation would be about the challenges faced by women in my country. So, it would be just a review of the literature. from what I’ve been reading, conferences are about new research and your new ideas… Is what I’m doing wrong??? that’s my first conference I’ll be speaking in and I’m afraid to ruin it!!! I will be really grateful about any advice ^_^

First of all: you’re not going to ruin the conference, even if you think you made a bad presentation. You should always remember that people are not very concerned about you–they are mostly concerned about themselves. Take comfort in that thought!

Here are some notes: • If it is a Pecha Kucha night, you stand in front of a mixed audience. Remember that scientists understand layman’s stuff, but laymen don’t understand scientists stuff. • Pecha Kucha is also very VISUAL! Remember that you can’t control the flow of slides – they change every 20 seconds. • Make your main messages clear. You can use either one of these templates.

A. Which are the THREE most important observations, conclusions, implications or messages from your study?

B. Inform them! (LOGOS) Engage them! (PATHOS) Make an impression! (ETHOS)

C. What do you do as a scientist/is a study about? What problem(s) do you address? How is your research different? Why should I care?

Good luck and remember to focus on (1) the audience, (2) your mission, (3) your stuff and (4) yourself, in that order.

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I don’t know whether it’s just me or if perhaps everybody else encountering problems with your site. It appears as if some of the text in your content are running off the screen. Can someone else please comment and let me know if this is happening to them as well? This could be a issue with my browser because I’ve had this happen before. Thank you

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Thank you Dr Kara for the great guide on creating killer abstracts for conferences. I am preparing to write an abstract for my first conference presentation and this has been educative and insightful. ‘ I choose to be ethical and not bore my audience’.

Thank you Judy for your kind comment. I wish you luck with your abstract and your presentation. Helen

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Dear Dr. Helen Kara, Can there be an abstract for a topic presentation? I need to present a topic in a conference.I searched in the net and couldnt find anything like an abstract for a topic presentation but only found abstract for article presentation. Urgent.Help!

Dear Rekha Sthapit, I think it would be the same – but if in doubt, you could ask the conference organisers to clarify what they mean by ‘topic presentation’. Good luck!

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Qualitative vs. quantitative data in research: what's the difference?

If you're reading this, you likely already know the importance of data analysis. And you already know it can be incredibly complex.

At its simplest, research and it's data can be broken down into two different categories: quantitative and qualitative. But what's the difference between each? And when should you use them? And how can you use them together?

Understanding the differences between qualitative and quantitative data is key to any research project. Knowing both approaches can help you in understanding your data better—and ultimately understand your customers better. Quick takeaways:

Quantitative research uses objective, numerical data to answer questions like "what" and "how often." Conversely, qualitative research seeks to answer questions like "why" and "how," focusing on subjective experiences to understand motivations and reasons.

Quantitative data is collected through methods like surveys and experiments and analyzed statistically to identify patterns. Qualitative data is gathered through interviews or observations and analyzed by categorizing information to understand themes and insights.

Effective data analysis combines quantitative data for measurable insights with qualitative data for contextual depth.

What is quantitative data?

Qualitative and quantitative data differ in their approach and the type of data they collect.

Quantitative data refers to any information that can be quantified — that is, numbers. If it can be counted or measured, and given a numerical value, it's quantitative in nature. Think of it as a measuring stick.

Quantitative variables can tell you "how many," "how much," or "how often."

Some examples of quantitative data :  

How many people attended last week's webinar? 

How much revenue did our company make last year? 

How often does a customer rage click on this app?

To analyze these research questions and make sense of this quantitative data, you’d normally use a form of statistical analysis —collecting, evaluating, and presenting large amounts of data to discover patterns and trends. Quantitative data is conducive to this type of analysis because it’s numeric and easier to analyze mathematically.

Computers now rule statistical analytics, even though traditional methods have been used for years. But today’s data volumes make statistics more valuable and useful than ever. When you think of statistical analysis now, you think of powerful computers and algorithms that fuel many of the software tools you use today.

Popular quantitative data collection methods are surveys, experiments, polls, and more.

Quantitative Data 101: What is quantitative data?

Take a deeper dive into what quantitative data is, how it works, how to analyze it, collect it, use it, and more.

Learn more about quantitative data →

What is qualitative data?

Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data is descriptive, expressed in terms of language rather than numerical values.

Qualitative data analysis describes information and cannot be measured or counted. It refers to the words or labels used to describe certain characteristics or traits.

You would turn to qualitative data to answer the "why?" or "how?" questions. It is often used to investigate open-ended studies, allowing participants (or customers) to show their true feelings and actions without guidance.

Some examples of qualitative data:

Why do people prefer using one product over another?

How do customers feel about their customer service experience?

What do people think about a new feature in the app?

Think of qualitative data as the type of data you'd get if you were to ask someone why they did something. Popular data collection methods are in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation.

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What are the differences between qualitative vs. quantitative data?

When it comes to conducting data research, you’ll need different collection, hypotheses and analysis methods, so it’s important to understand the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data:

Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable. Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and relating to language.

Quantitative data tells us how many, how much, or how often in calculations. Qualitative data can help us to understand why, how, or what happened behind certain behaviors .

Quantitative data is fixed and universal. Qualitative data is subjective and unique.

Quantitative research methods are measuring and counting. Qualitative research methods are interviewing and observing.

Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical analysis. Qualitative data is analyzed by grouping the data into categories and themes.

As you can see, both provide immense value for any data collection and are key to truly finding answers and patterns. 

More examples of quantitative and qualitative data

You’ve most likely run into quantitative and qualitative data today, alone. For the visual learner, here are some examples of both quantitative and qualitative data: 

Quantitative data example

The customer has clicked on the button 13 times. 

The engineer has resolved 34 support tickets today. 

The team has completed 7 upgrades this month. 

14 cartons of eggs were purchased this month.

Qualitative data example

My manager has curly brown hair and blue eyes.

My coworker is funny, loud, and a good listener. 

The customer has a very friendly face and a contagious laugh.

The eggs were delicious.

The fundamental difference is that one type of data answers primal basics and one answers descriptively. 

What does this mean for data quality and analysis? If you just analyzed quantitative data, you’d be missing core reasons behind what makes a data collection meaningful. You need both in order to truly learn from data—and truly learn from your customers. 

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

Both types of data has their own pros and cons. 

Advantages of quantitative data

It’s relatively quick and easy to collect and it’s easier to draw conclusions from. 

When you collect quantitative data, the type of results will tell you which statistical tests are appropriate to use. 

As a result, interpreting your data and presenting those findings is straightforward and less open to error and subjectivity.

Another advantage is that you can replicate it. Replicating a study is possible because your data collection is measurable and tangible for further applications.

Disadvantages of quantitative data

Quantitative data doesn’t always tell you the full story (no matter what the perspective). 

With choppy information, it can be inconclusive.

Quantitative research can be limited, which can lead to overlooking broader themes and relationships.

By focusing solely on numbers, there is a risk of missing larger focus information that can be beneficial.

Advantages of qualitative data

Qualitative data offers rich, in-depth insights and allows you to explore context.

It’s great for exploratory purposes.

Qualitative research delivers a predictive element for continuous data.

Disadvantages of qualitative data

It’s not a statistically representative form of data collection because it relies upon the experience of the host (who can lose data).

It can also require multiple data sessions, which can lead to misleading conclusions.

The takeaway is that it’s tough to conduct a successful data analysis without both. They both have their advantages and disadvantages and, in a way, they complement each other. 

Now, of course, in order to analyze both types of data, information has to be collected first.

Let's get into the research.

Quantitative and qualitative research

The core difference between qualitative and quantitative research lies in their focus and methods of data collection and analysis. This distinction guides researchers in choosing an appropriate approach based on their specific research needs.

Using mixed methods of both can also help provide insights form combined qualitative and quantitative data.

Best practices of each help to look at the information under a broader lens to get a unique perspective. Using both methods is helpful because they collect rich and reliable data, which can be further tested and replicated.

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is based on the collection and interpretation of numeric data. It's all about the numbers and focuses on measuring (using inferential statistics ) and generalizing results. Quantitative research seeks to collect numerical data that can be transformed into usable statistics.

It relies on measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. By employing statistical methods to analyze the data, it provides a broad overview that can be generalized to larger populations.

In terms of digital experience data, it puts everything in terms of numbers (or discrete data )—like the number of users clicking a button, bounce rates , time on site, and more. 

Some examples of quantitative research: 

What is the amount of money invested into this service?

What is the average number of times a button was dead clicked ?

How many customers are actually clicking this button?

Essentially, quantitative research is an easy way to see what’s going on at a 20,000-foot view. 

Each data set (or customer action, if we’re still talking digital experience) has a numerical value associated with it and is quantifiable information that can be used for calculating statistical analysis so that decisions can be made. 

You can use statistical operations to discover feedback patterns (with any representative sample size) in the data under examination. The results can be used to make predictions , find averages, test causes and effects, and generalize results to larger measurable data pools. 

Unlike qualitative methodology, quantitative research offers more objective findings as they are based on more reliable numeric data.

Quantitative data collection methods

A survey is one of the most common research methods with quantitative data that involves questioning a large group of people. Questions are usually closed-ended and are the same for all participants. An unclear questionnaire can lead to distorted research outcomes.

Similar to surveys, polls yield quantitative data. That is, you poll a number of people and apply a numeric value to how many people responded with each answer.

Experiments

An experiment is another common method that usually involves a control group and an experimental group . The experiment is controlled and the conditions can be manipulated accordingly. You can examine any type of records involved if they pertain to the experiment, so the data is extensive. 

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research does not simply help to collect data. It gives a chance to understand the trends and meanings of natural actions. It’s flexible and iterative.

Qualitative research focuses on the qualities of users—the actions that drive the numbers. It's descriptive research. The qualitative approach is subjective, too. 

It focuses on describing an action, rather than measuring it.

Some examples of qualitative research: 

The sunflowers had a fresh smell that filled the office.

All the bagels with bites taken out of them had cream cheese.

The man had blonde hair with a blue hat.

Qualitative research utilizes interviews, focus groups, and observations to gather in-depth insights.

This approach shines when the research objective calls for exploring ideas or uncovering deep insights rather than quantifying elements.

Qualitative data collection methods

An interview is the most common qualitative research method. This method involves personal interaction (either in real life or virtually) with a participant. It’s mostly used for exploring attitudes and opinions regarding certain issues.

Interviews are very popular methods for collecting data in product design .

Focus groups

Data analysis by focus group is another method where participants are guided by a host to collect data. Within a group (either in person or online), each member shares their opinion and experiences on a specific topic, allowing researchers to gather perspectives and deepen their understanding of the subject matter.

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So which type of data is better for data analysis?

So how do you determine which type is better for data analysis ?

Quantitative data is structured and accountable. This type of data is formatted in a way so it can be organized, arranged, and searchable. Think about this data as numbers and values found in spreadsheets—after all, you would trust an Excel formula.

Qualitative data is considered unstructured. This type of data is formatted (and known for) being subjective, individualized, and personalized. Anything goes. Because of this, qualitative data is inferior if it’s the only data in the study. However, it’s still valuable. 

Because quantitative data is more concrete, it’s generally preferred for data analysis. Numbers don’t lie. But for complete statistical analysis, using both qualitative and quantitative yields the best results. 

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A perfect digital customer experience is often the difference between company growth and failure. And the first step toward building that experience is quantifying who your customers are, what they want, and how to provide them what they need.

Access to product analytics is the most efficient and reliable way to collect valuable quantitative data about funnel analysis, customer journey maps , user segments, and more.

But creating a perfect digital experience means you need organized and digestible quantitative data—but also access to qualitative data. Understanding the why is just as important as the what itself.

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Qualitative vs. Quantitative: Key Differences in Research Types

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Let's say you want to learn how a group will vote in an election. You face a classic decision of gathering qualitative vs. quantitative data.

With one method, you can ask voters open-ended questions that encourage them to share how they feel, what issues matter to them and the reasons they will vote in a specific way. With the other, you can ask closed-ended questions, giving respondents a list of options. You will then turn that information into statistics.

Neither method is more right than the other, but they serve different purposes. Learn more about the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research and how you can use them.

What Is Qualitative Research?

What is quantitative research, qualitative vs. quantitative research: 3 key differences, benefits of combining qualitative and quantitative research.

Qualitative research aims to explore and understand the depth, context and nuances of human experiences, behaviors and phenomena. This methodological approach emphasizes gathering rich, nonnumerical information through methods such as interviews, focus groups , observations and content analysis.

In qualitative research, the emphasis is on uncovering patterns and meanings within a specific social or cultural context. Researchers delve into the subjective aspects of human behavior , opinions and emotions.

This approach is particularly valuable for exploring complex and multifaceted issues, providing a deeper understanding of the intricacies involved.

Common qualitative research methods include open-ended interviews, where participants can express their thoughts freely, and thematic analysis, which involves identifying recurring themes in the data.

Examples of How to Use Qualitative Research

The flexibility of qualitative research allows researchers to adapt their methods based on emerging insights, fostering a more organic and holistic exploration of the research topic. This is a widely used method in social sciences, psychology and market research.

Here are just a few ways you can use qualitative research.

• To understand the people who make up a community : If you want to learn more about a community, you can talk to them or observe them to learn more about their customs, norms and values.
• To examine people's experiences within the healthcare system : While you can certainly look at statistics to gauge if someone feels positively or negatively about their healthcare experiences, you may not gain a deep understanding of why they feel that way. For example, if a nurse went above and beyond for a patient, they might say they are content with the care they received. But if medical professional after medical professional dismissed a person over several years, they will have more negative comments.
• To explore the effectiveness of your marketing campaign : Marketing is a field that typically collects statistical data, but it can also benefit from qualitative research. For example, if you have a successful campaign, you can interview people to learn what resonated with them and why. If you learn they liked the humor because it shows you don't take yourself too seriously, you can try to replicate that feeling in future campaigns.

Types of Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data captures the qualities, characteristics or attributes of a subject. It can take various forms, including:

• Audio data : Recordings of interviews, discussions or any other auditory information. This can be useful when dealing with events from the past. Setting up a recording device also allows a researcher to stay in the moment without having to jot down notes.
• Observational data : With this type of qualitative data analysis, you can record behavior, events or interactions.
• Textual data : Use verbal or written information gathered through interviews, open-ended surveys or focus groups to learn more about a topic.
• Visual data : You can learn new information through images, photographs, videos or other visual materials.

Quantitative research is a systematic empirical investigation that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. This approach seeks to understand, explain or predict phenomena by gathering quantifiable information and applying statistical methods for analysis.

Unlike qualitative research, which focuses on nonnumerical, descriptive data, quantitative research data involves measurements, counts and statistical techniques to draw objective conclusions.

Examples of How to Use Quantitative Research

Quantitative research focuses on statistical analysis. Here are a few ways you can employ quantitative research methods.

• Studying the employment rates of a city : Through this research you can gauge whether any patterns exist over a given time period.
• Seeing how air pollution has affected a neighborhood : If the creation of a highway led to more air pollution in a neighborhood, you can collect data to learn about the health impacts on the area's residents. For example, you can see what percentage of people developed respiratory issues after moving to the neighborhood.

Types of Quantitative Data

Quantitative data refers to numerical information you can measure and count. Here are a few statistics you can use.

• Heights, yards, volume and more : You can use different measurements to gain insight on different types of research, such as learning the average distance workers are willing to travel for work or figuring out the average height of a ballerina.
• Temperature : Measure in either degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Or, if you're looking for the coldest place in the universe , you may measure in Kelvins.
• Sales figures : With this information, you can look at a store's performance over time, compare one company to another or learn what the average amount of sales is in a specific industry.

Quantitative and qualitative research methods are both valid and useful ways to collect data. Here are a few ways that they differ.

• Data collection method : Quantitative research uses standardized instruments, such as surveys, experiments or structured observations, to gather numerical data. Qualitative research uses open-ended methods like interviews, focus groups or content analysis.
• Nature of data : Quantitative research involves numerical data that you can measure and analyze statistically, whereas qualitative research involves exploring the depth and richness of experiences through nonnumerical, descriptive data.
• Sampling : Quantitative research involves larger sample sizes to ensure statistical validity and generalizability of findings to a population. With qualitative research, it's better to work with a smaller sample size to gain in-depth insights into specific contexts or experiences.

You can simultaneously study qualitative and quantitative data. This method , known as mixed methods research, offers several benefits, including:

• A comprehensive understanding : Integration of qualitative and quantitative data provides a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Qualitative data helps explain the context and nuances, while quantitative data offers statistical generalizability.
• Contextualization : Qualitative data helps contextualize quantitative findings by providing explanations into the why and how behind statistical patterns. This deeper understanding contributes to more informed interpretations of quantitative results.
• Triangulation : Triangulation involves using multiple methods to validate or corroborate findings. Combining qualitative and quantitative data allows researchers to cross-verify results, enhancing the overall validity and reliability of the study.

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Vignettes: an innovative qualitative data collection tool in Medical Education research

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• Published: 05 June 2024

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• Sylvia Joshua Western   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4397-6746 1 ,
• Brian McEllistrem 1 ,
• Jane Hislop 1 ,
• Alan Jaap 1 &
• David Hope 1  

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This article describes how to make use of exemplar vignettes in qualitative medial education research. Vignettes are particularly useful in prompting discussion with participants, when using real-life case examples may breach confidentiality. As such, using vignettes allows researchers to gain insight into participants’ thinking in an ethically sensitive way.

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Vignettes are written, visual, or oral stimuli portraying realistic events in a focussed manner, purposefully aligned with the research objectives and paradigms to elicit responses from research participants [ 1 ]. They have been used in qualitative research to explore physical, social, and mental health–related topics. Although clinical vignettes are widely used in teaching and assessment, vignettes are under-utilised as a research tool in medical education. In this article, we outline the ways in which we found vignettes to be helpful in addressing our research aims prompting a conversation on how they might be used in other medical education research contexts, particularly when working with sensitive issues.

We used vignettes within individual semi-structured interviews, to explore how medical educators interpreted different test-wise behaviours (“ skills and strategies that are not related to the construct being measured on the test but that facilitate an increased test score ”[ 2 ]). We opted to use vignettes for the following reasons:

Akin to clinical vignettes, they enable usage of anonymised and fictionalised version of real-life case studies, protecting the identity and confidentiality of the original individuals [ 3 ]. Vignettes retained the essence of the event but potential identifiers or personal information from the original were redacted or anonymized.

Realistic scenarios support the exploration of sensitive topics which can generate authentic ethical dilemmas. Instead of asking “Have you ever tried to trick your examiner into giving you more marks”? - a question which might cause distress or harm to participants, we could posit a vignette and ask our participants for a third-person perspective. Vignettes therefore promote participants’ psychological safety by providing an alternative non-confronting and safer avenue to discuss value-laden constructs [ 1 ].

When discussing complex ambiguous topics, they provide a focus to help participants orient to the specific matter at hand [ 3 ]. Vignettes help define and communicate the context, setting, character, and situation succinctly.

Using an established framework of Skilling & Stylianides [ 1 ], we constructed five vignettes portraying a spectrum of test-wise behaviours. We drew on informal conversations with stakeholders, online forums, our professional experience, academic literature, and knowledge of the local context to draft the vignettes. Our aim was to understand how people make meaning, what guided their decisions and reactions to test-wise behaviours. Following feedback from experts and several pilot interviews, we revised the vignettes. As such we found that the process of building vignettes was iterative, collaborative, and continuously evolving.

Using previous case studies employing vignettes for data collection, we reflected on the iterative process of constructing, peer and expert reviewing, piloting, and deploying vignettes to eight participants. Participants were staff and students at Edinburgh Medical School. By contemplating the decision-making pathway that aided vignette construction, studying the reflective notes of the interviewer, thematically analysing interview transcripts, and engaging in an ongoing discussion and feedback loops with our expert and supervisory panel, we identified eight factors making vignettes especially useful:

By controlling the age, sex, and ethnicity of subjects, we could explore how participants interpreted and reacted to different test-wise behaviours of different students.

Following discussion, participants commented on the realism of the vignettes, allowing for iteration of the vignettes over time.

Vignettes facilitated subjective interpretation of complex situations and allowed for intentional reflection on thoughts and actions.

Participants had the agency to discuss their own attitudes in relation to the vignettes and used them to explore their real-life experiences.

We tailored the frequency and type of vignette based on the participant’s role, and selected vignettes to explore issues under-discussed in previous interviews.

Criticising real actions and guidelines can be challenging. Discussing hypothetical vignettes allowed for openness, honesty, and pragmatic answers.

Exposing participants to novel vignettes helped the researchers compare their expectations and beliefs to participant views. Participants found the vignettes plausible, which suggested the researchers had a defensible understanding of the topic.

We can compare the interpretation of the same vignette by different individuals in different roles to understand the underlying rationale for their differing perspectives. Follow-up interviews allow for the exploration of changes over time.

Figure  1 shows an exemplar vignette with excerpts of participant responses. Rather than ask how they would feel if an exam candidate used false empathy to conceal their lack of content knowledge, we used Nat vignette (in Fig.  1 ) as a realistic case study to facilitate discussion. The broader themes in the left side of the infographic (Fig.  1 ) speak to some of the factors identified previously, acting as a teaser facilitating the readers to think through the participant responses. For example, the snippet “I can think of it happening to me at least once” connects to plausibility and realism - the participant thinks that this is a plausible scene in their context, and it seems real to them.

Example vignette with excerpts of participant responses

Firstly, a challenge we faced pertained to participant engagement. While all participants found the example vignette (in Fig.  1 ) both plausible and relatable, the pattern of engagement varied among them. Some used it as a springboard to delve into their own real-life stories, while others found it challenging to reconcile the artificial and hypothetical nature of the vignette. The effectiveness of vignettes hinges on participant engagement. Drawing from our experience and the supporting literature, we found that vignettes must be relatable [ 3 ], plausible [ 3 ], and situated in context [ 1 ]. Participants must be oriented to the vignette method before interview and be given the vignettes at appropriate times during the interview. It is essential when using vignettes to gauge and promote engagement during the interview. Tailored questions and prompts are helpful strategies to promote such engagement. Secondly, we agree that however realistic vignettes are, they are “not real”, therefore participants’ responses to hypothetical vignettes might not perfectly align with their reactions to real-life situations, for instance, considering their underlying motivational relevance to the different contexts - research environment and real-life [ 3 ]. Researchers should remain aware of these challenges and interpret their findings with caution [ 3 ].

In conclusion, our use of vignettes was an innovative alternative to using high-stakes, confidential real-life case examples in qualitative research. Usage of vignette opens new possibilities in medical education research: they can be used within questionnaire surveys, individual and focus group interviews, or as ethnographic field notes. They offer a versatile approach to allow exploration of high-stakes, sensitive, and ethically contentious issues with participants in a safe way. Therefore, researchers can benefit significantly from applying vignettes in their own research.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Skilling K, Stylianides GJ. Using vignettes in educational research: a framework for vignette construction. Int J Res Method Educ. 2020;43(5):541–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2019.1704243 .

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Jenkins N, Bloor MJ, Fischer J, Berney L, Neale J. Putting it in context: the use of vignettes in qualitative interviewing. Qual Res. 2010;10(2):175–98.

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Western, S.J., McEllistrem, B., Hislop, J. et al. Vignettes: an innovative qualitative data collection tool in Medical Education research. Med.Sci.Educ. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-024-02074-0

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Admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) is a stressful experience for patients and their family members. While the focus of management is primarily on medical care, there can be other areas which are overlooked. The purpose of this study was to investigate the needs and experiences of ICU patients and family members.

This qualitative study involved four trained researchers conducting in-depth interviews (IDI) based on a semi-structured interview guide. The participants were ICU patients and family members. All IDIs were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Four researchers independently analyzed the data via thematic analysis with the aid of QDA Miner Lite®. The themes and subthemes were generated and confirmed by literature and expert opinion.

Six IDIs were conducted with three patients and three family members, whose ages ranged from 31 to 64 years old. One pair of participants consisted of a patient and his respective family member, while the other four participants did not have a familial relationship with each other. Three main themes emerged from the analysis: (I) critical care services; (II) physical spaces; and (III) monitoring technology. Medical, psychological, physical, and social needs for critical care services were expressed by both patients and family members. Patients’ needs in clinical spaces were highlighted as a conducive ICU environment with ambient temperature and controlled noise levels. In non-clinical spaces, family members expressed a need for more chairs in the waiting area. Participants expressed the need for call bells as well as patients’ negative perceptions of medical equipment alarms in the ICU when it pertained to monitoring technology.

This study provides an in-depth view at the needs and experiences of ICU patients and family members who have a variety of unmet needs. This understanding is critical for guiding ICU personnel and stakeholders in their efforts to humanize ICU care.

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Critical care is a multidisciplinary and inter-professional specialty that manages patients with acute, and life-threatening organ dysfunction. Admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) causes distress to both patients and their families [ 1 ]. ICU patient care emphasizes a holistic approach that not merely focuses on medical care but also aims to fulfill patients’ and families’ needs [ 2 , 3 ]. The needs identified by the patients warded in ICUs across different countries are broadly categorized as physical, medical, psychological, and social needs [ 4 ]. Generally, ICU patients desire individualized care from the medical personnel and prompt medical attention when the need arises. The patients also need to understand their medical conditions to make decisions on treatment priorities and at the same time to alleviate fear, anxiety, and panic attacks. A secure environment that creates a sense of security, fosters self-worth and motivation toward recovery is essential [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].

A sense of hope is an important need for family members of patients who are admitted to the ICU. Additionally, they require reassurance from the ICU personnel that the care provided is in the patient’s best interest [ 1 ]. Having an adequate understanding and attempting to meet the families’ needs would improve their ability to cope with the ICU admissions of their loved ones [ 9 ]. There is a slight geographical variation in family member’s needs. In Hong Kong and Malaysia, family members needed assurance that the patients were adequately cared for [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. The primary concerns in Saudi Arabia were information, reassurance, spiritual healing, and support [ 13 ]. Moving west, in the United Kingdom, the needs were access to maintain proximity to patients; a positive and supportive environment; information; and hope [ 14 ]. An open communication and regular updates build mutual trust between the ICU personnel and the family members. In Ireland, families expressed their needs for truthful updates on the patient’s condition; understanding ICU admission is a dynamic and continuous process; being with their relatives; having the nurses’ assurances; and support for coping [ 15 ]. The difference in priorities and needs globally reflect disparities in culture, religion, and healthcare. In Malaysia, the challenge in providing culturally sensitive intensive care is further compounded due to its multiracial composition with diverse cultural and religious backgrounds.

Patient experience is defined as interactions that patients have with the healthcare system, including their management plan, the providers, and the providers’ practices in the healthcare institution [ 16 ]. Their experience in the ICU affects them physically and psychologically. The common physical discomforts experienced include pain, sleepiness, discomfort, inactivity or over-activity, noise, thirst, headache, discomfort associated with endotracheal tubes, and swallowing difficulties. Psychologically, they are affected by their disease progression, medical treatment, and perception of care concerning the manner and behavior of the ICU personnel. Patients reported hallucinations, fear, worry, anxiety, melancholy, loneliness, death thoughts, panic, uneasiness, uncertainty and despair [ 17 ]. These areas of patient experience can be easily overlooked when their critical illnesses are the primary focus of the managing team.

Family members experience distress when they learn that their loved ones have been admitted to the ICU. Emotional helplessness is experienced by family members when their need for information, reassurance, help, and support have not been met. They experience a lack of control, uncertainty, and loneliness. They undergo intense emotional changes whenever there is a morbid change in the status of their relatives. Family members are frustrated when their experiences deviate from their expectations, which are affected by their cultural background [ 18 ]. Gauging the needs and experiences of patients and their family members is a crucial step forward in establishing humanized ICU care. This study aims to learn about the needs and experiences of critically ill patients and their family members in a local setting.

Study design and setting

This exploratory qualitative study was conducted from February to March 2020 in a multidisciplinary ICU of a tertiary government hospital in Malaysia. The ICU had two wards with a total of 23 beds, with 1200 to 1400 admissions per year. A multi-disciplinary team of 150 to 160 personnel in the ICU includes two consultant intensivists, ICU trainees, anaesthesiologists, anaesthesia-trained medical officers, staff nurses, physiotherapists, pharmacists and attendants. The staff nurses in the ICU worked in shifts, and the medical doctors were subject to an on-call arrangement. The patients’ families were permitted to visit them twice a day, one at a time, between 1 pm and 2 pm and again between 5 pm and 6.30 pm. Due to the lack of a waiting room, family members were compelled to wait in the corridor outside the ICU during visiting hours. The corridor was furnished with seats for ten to fifteen individuals. During non-visiting hours, family members were called by phone if medical doctors wished to discuss the patient’s medical condition with family members. Family conferences were often held in the nursing manager’s office or the Intensivist’s office, while daily patient updates to family members were typically delivered at the bedside.

Sample and recruitment

Inclusion criteria.

Patients who were 18 and above, Malaysian, able to read and speak English, Malay or Mandarin, had their first ICU encounter, admitted to the ICU for at least 72 h to make sure there was enough time to establish their needs [ 11 , 19 ], had a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) of 15, a Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS) of 0, a negative Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM-ICU), and an overall stable health condition at the discretion of consultant intensivists, were fit to participate in a 60-minute interview. Patients were recruited based on different characteristics such as age, gender, and the types of specialty care they received in order to enrich the data.

Family members, not limited to first-degree relatives, who had been the main person interacting with critical care personnel and were willing to share their experience were invited for interviews. The patients and the family members invited to the study were not necessarily related or paired as certain patients may not fit the eligibility criteria to participate in this study while their family members were.

Exclusion criteria

Patients with language or communication barriers, with underlying psychiatric disorders or newly diagnosed psychiatric disorders during ICU admission and those with intellectual impairment were excluded. Family members of critically ill patients with unstable vital signs or whose death was considered imminent were not included in this study out of respect for the grieving needs of the family members [ 19 ].

Interviewers

There were a total of four interviewers (ELL, SLL, CCC and JYA), all of whom were trained in qualitative research. Two of the interviewers held graduate degrees in medicine, while the other two held graduate degrees in pharmacy. Prior to the interview, the interviewers did not know the participants nor did they establish a relationship with them. Interviewers were guided by a semi-structured interview guide, which ensured consistency in the domains covered during each IDI. Additionally, prior to the actual data collection, trial interviews were conducted among the interviewers. These trial interviews served the purpose of establishing a shared understanding of the interview guide and techniques, thereby ensuring a more uniform approach across the IDIs.

Sample size and sampling method

Patients and their family members were recruited through purposive sampling. The potential patients were identified during daily ward rounds, and the family members were identified via prior interaction for patients’ updates by the treating intensivist. The participants who agreed to participate were then referred to the interviewers for a scheduled face-to-face interview.

A semi-structured interview guide in English was created separately for patients and family members based on existing literature that reported patients’ and families’ needs in ICU [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ], as well as expert opinion. The domains were perception of the ICU, the experience of interacting with the health care personnel working in the ICU, information required, perspectives on medical care, the need for privacy (only applicable for patients), types of support needed, and requirements of facilities in the ICU. Subsequently, these guides were translated into Malay and Mandarin by native speakers of Malay and Chinese. Each language’s interview guide was pre-tested to ensure the comprehensibility of terms and phrases used in the interview guide.

Data collection

Approval to conduct this study was obtained from the Medical Research and Ethics Committee, Ministry of Health Malaysia with the protocol number NMRR-19-3358-51827 (IIR) prior to data collection.

Each participant signed a written informed consent form before data collection. The sociodemographic information of the participants was collected prior to the IDIs. The IDI sessions with the patients were conducted at the bedside, with curtains or blinds drawn to provide privacy. IDI sessions for family members were held in a private office room inside the ICU. Only two interviewers and a participant were present during each IDI. The IDIs lasted 40 to 60 min and were all audio-recorded. There were no additional interviews conducted. This study was terminated after the sixth IDI due to the prohibition on visitors and researchers entering the ICU, as well as possible changes in participants’ perspectives during the COVID-19 pandemic. All IDIs in this study were conducted before the implementation of pandemic-related movement restrictions in Malaysia [ 24 ]. Despite this, the last two consecutive IDIs did not yield any new themes, indicating that data saturation had been reached.

Data analysis

Three patients and three family members participated in this study. Coincidentally, there was only one pair of patient-family members who took part in this study. The remaining four participants were not patient-family members paired. The data collected from the patient-family member pair were analyzed separately.

The audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and the transcripts were not returned to the participants for verification. Data management was conducted using QDA Miner Lite®, and data analysis was performed following the six steps of thematic analysis established by Braun and Clark [ 25 ]. All researchers (ELL, SLL, CCC, and JYA) familiarized themselves with the transcript, and each transcript was independently coded by two researchers, with any disputes of coding being resolved by discussion and consensus between researchers. Emerging themes were later categorized based on the five domains of care for critically ill patients, reported by the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine. The domains are (I) critical care services, (II) physical space, (III) monitoring technology, (IV) human resources, and (V) research and quality improvement [ 26 ]. Relevant sub-themes were grouped under respective themes. Study findings were further validated by the literature and expert opinion. Non-English quotes were translated into English by one researcher and were cross-checked by another researcher to ensure the accuracy of the translation.

The participants’ age ranged from 31 to 64 years old. The patients’ median age was 42 (IQR = 15.5) while the family members’ median age was 60 (IQR = 14.5). There were three Malay and three Chinese. Four of them were females and were all married. Four of the six participants had completed secondary school, one had completed primary school, and the other had completed university education. ICU stays ranged from 6 to 182 days (Table  1 ).

A total of three themes emerged in this study: (I) critical care services, (II) physical space, (III) monitoring technology; with several subthemes identified under each of them (Table  2 ).

Theme 1: critical care services

Critical care services needs and what the participants had experienced were not limited to the immediate need for the treatment of individual patients, but also the services that extend beyond basic care. The patients’ and family members’ need for critical services were further classified into medical, physical, psychological and social needs.

Medical needs

The medical needs of patients and their family members were identified based on their experience during the patients’ ICU stay. The needs include continuous pain relief management, effective ICU communication, a decision-making process, the provision of continuity of care and culturally competent care.

Continuous pain relief management

Pain experience was one of the concerns of ICU patients, the continuous need for pain relief has been reiterated by the patients in this study. Necessary analgesics that could not be provided on time have been a concern of ICU patients.

… if I need the medication to alleviate toothache, he (staff) could not give [the pain medication] immediately, [he will] delay in giving [the pain medication]. (Patient #3)

Effective communication in the ICU

This is part of the essential medical need that occurred between “patient-critical care personnel,“ “family members-patient” and “family members-critical care personnel”. “Patient-critical care personnel”: The patients described that they were unable to communicate their needs to the critical care personnel due to endotracheal tube barriers.

Like that time when I was inserted with the [breathing] tube, [and] my urine catheter was blocked, I was unable to call people [for help]. (Patient #3)

“Family member-patient”: the family members had difficulties learning about the needs of the intubated patients.

We (family members) could not guess what he (intubated patient) was saying. (Family member #2)

“Family members-critical care personnel”: Ineffective communication was seen in the non-synchronized conveying of patient information among ICU personnel. Family members were confused by the disparities in the information provided by different ICU personnel.

When I came in [to ICU], I told [the nurse that] Dr. XXX allowed me to come in [to see my wife] (family member presumed wife’s condition worsened)… I was taken aback (when the nurse responded that), “No, her condition is improving. Why do you want to come (for a visit)?“ (Family member #1)

Besides, a lack of designated communication channels in the ICU by having specific personnel and allocation of a specific time that allows the family members to get patients’ updates has been raised. The family members were uncertain about who and how to obtain patients’ information updates.

We could not find a suitable person to ask [regarding patients’ condition], [and] we do not know who to ask [for patients’ condition]. (Family member #2)

While some family members attempted to obtain information from the nurse, they were instructed to meet the doctors for updates. In contrast, doctors were perceived as rarely seen in the ward during family visiting hours, making it difficult for family members to obtain information.

But initially, we could not differentiate between who was a doctor and who was a nurse. Sometimes when I asked the nurse, she would say, “you [have to] wait for [the] doctor.” But we hardly saw the doctor when we were here [in ICU during family visiting hours]. (Family member #2)

Owing to the difficulty in locating the person in charge, a form of communication channel was suggested. The family members preferred bedside name tags that identified the person in charge of a specific patient, allowing them to directly request patient information from that individual.

Unless the name [of staff in charge] is stated, [then] I will find the person [directly]. That is [one of the] possible [solutions]. (Family member #3)

Cultural competence care

The ability of ICU personnel to provide culturally competent care to patients from diverse backgrounds that take into account language, communication styles, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behavioural diversity was identified as a need in critical care services [ 27 ]. The inadequacy of providing cultural competence care was recognised as an issue where some patients encounter language barriers when seeking medical care, necessitating the search for native-speaking critical care personnel to communicate their needs.

[About] Communication… because I am not very fluent in Bahasa Melayu (Malay language) … So when I see [a] Chinese nurse, I will ask her to help to translate. (Patient #2)

Cultural competent care has not been confined to medical care; addressing the beliefs of family members in terms of patients’ nutrition intake was notably a need. A few family members were unsatisfied with the food provided by the hospital to the patients, believing it to be less nutritious for patients.

Yes, sometimes I see one piece of chicken and some porridge with some squash, [which is] not suitable [for patients]. (Family member #2)

Participation in patient care

This study revealed that family members were willing to learn and perform simple care for their loved ones in the ICU. A family member articulated her willingness to acquire basic skills from the healthcare providers in order to ensure the sustenance of patient care.

Then, my son-in-law (who is a healthcare professional) taught me something easier, like how to help him (patient) to do phlegm suction (…) so when we see him (visit the patient in ICU), we will do [phlegm suction] by ourselves. (Family Member #2)

Decision making

The lack of medical treatment knowledge among the participants made them follow the decision of the medical doctors to receive critical care for the patients.

[We] listen to the doctors regarding all [medical treatment]. We totally have no idea [on medical treatment]. (Family member #2)

Psychological needs

The principal psychological needs in the ICU evolve around the elements, making them feel safe in the ICU. The elements include “knowing”, “hoping”, “trusting” and “regaining control”. These elements are greatly influenced by family and friends, ICU personnel, and religion [ 28 ]. This study identified that ICU personnel and religious support were highlighted by the family members as perceived psychological needs of the patients. Patient counselling service was mentioned as an important psychological need for patients in the ICU.

ICU personnel support

The ICU personnel is regarded as crucial in terms of providing patients with support and encouragement to live [ 28 ]. Some family members believed that the doctors’ encouragement would be more effective in motivating the patients than the families themselves.

[When] Dr. XXX passed by, he will encourage him (patient) [by saying]: “Uncle [you have] improved a lot over these few days.” (Family member #2)

The impact of ICU personnel on the patients’ psychological needs is perceived as substantial, including in a negative way. The family members believed that negative words would harm the patients. Therefore, they requested the doctor in charge to be cautious when disclosing information to patients.

Doctors’ words (information on patient’s condition) will affect patients (…) Hope [that we] can know [about the patient’s condition], but [we preferred that the doctor] do not disclose [the negative information] in front of the patient. (Family member #2)

Religious support

Some of the patients expressed a need for religious support while in the ICU.

Maybe listening to the radio. My husband helped on the radio and played verses from Al-Quran. (Patient #1)

Patient counselling

The family members agreed that patient counselling service would be one of the best ways to support the patients psychologically.

It is even better to counsel the patient because the patients need encouragement. (Family member #3)

Physical needs

Comfortable bed-bath.

Some of the patients had negative experiences with bed-bath by having to take late-night showers in cold water. There was a need to use warm water for bathing among the ICU patients.

[It was] eleven (o’clock at night) that [the staff] helped me to shower using … cold water. How [could I] bear with this (showering at night with cold water)? I told them (the staff) that … I would like to use warm water [instead]. He (the staff) agreed [to bring warm water], but what he brought over was cold water. He (staff) told me that … he (staff) would help me to shower at a faster speed. That time I was suffering. (Patient #2)

Social needs

Longer visiting hours.

The patients needed longer visiting hours to meet each of their loved ones during hospitalization in the ICU.

Because they (family members) only [had] one hour [of visiting time]. If it can be extended, [then] we (patient and family member) can talk [longer]… A lot of people (visitors) come [to visit me], [I have] not get to talk to each visitor (within the visiting hour) … So [it will be good] to have longer visiting hours. (Patient #2)

Theme 2: physical spaces

The physical spaces in the ICU are divided into clinical and non-clinical spaces. The clinical space includes the presence of a discrete location where it accommodates the beds, devices, and rooms; a nursing station; and multiple computer stations that are essential in patient care. The pantry, a room for medical personnel to rest, seminar rooms close by, and a place for families to wait are all part of the non-clinical space, which is outside of the physical boundaries of the patient care area [ 29 ]. The experience of physical space in the clinical area was described by the patients as a cold and noisy environment. Unmet needs for non-clinical spaces included a lack of visitor chairs in the waiting area.

Clinical spaces

Conducive ward.

Some patients complained of the cold environment in the ICU which resulted in the need to cover themselves with thick layers of blankets.

The air conditioner was too cold. I needed to cover three layers of blankets, yet [I was] still feeling cold. (Patient #3)

Family members were concerned about patients who were unable to sleep at night owing to the noisy environment in the ICU.

My husband (patient) complained to me that there were a few nights he could not sleep because they (the staff) kept talking loudly. (Family member #3)

Non-clinical spaces

Conducive waiting area.

Meanwhile, the participants raised the issue of insufficient chairs for family members in the waiting area, suggesting that the situation could be improved by adding a few additional chairs, especially for elderly visitors.

I thought that a few more chairs could be added outside the ICU because there were too many people (visitors). Sometimes, some elderly [visitors] do not have chairs to sit on and they need to climb up [the stairs to reach ICU]; yet there was only one row of chairs … I thought it (ICU) should have been equipped with few more chairs. (Family member #3)

Theme 3: monitoring technology

One of the aspects that distinguish critical care from traditional hospital treatment would be the availability of devices with advanced technologies that provide continuous monitoring of a patient’s physiologic status in an ICU [ 29 ]. The monitoring technology identified by the participants could be classified into medical devices and non-medical devices. The medical devices in the ICU frequently emitted alarms that startled the patients. On the other hand, the family members were concerned about malfunctioning call bells, which is an important non-medical device.

Perception of medical equipment alarms

The ICU was thought to be well-equipped with a variety of medical devices by the majority of the participants. Some were unconcerned about the devices that were attached, while others perceived a sense of hopelessness and fear hearing the alarms and seeing the lights emitted by the medical devices.

All sorts of sounds (from the devices), [it was] scary (…) [I felt] like no hope [in the ICU]. (Patient #1)

One of the family members believed it was dangerous to leave a patient in an isolated room without a functioning emergency call bell, especially if the patient has a health condition that causes breathing difficulties.

Yes, [you are] right. Sometimes they may be in danger, such as having breathing problems or any other condition, [it is] better to have the bell for them to press, otherwise it is very dangerous [in such a situation]. (Family member #3)

Discussions and recommendations

This study uncovered the needs and experiences of critically ill patients and their families in the ICU concerning the critical care services, physical environment, and equipment in the ICU. While previous local studies have focused on the family members of ICU patients [ 11 , 12 ], this qualitative study in Malaysia investigates the needs and experiences of critically ill patients as well as their family members.

The main medical need that is deemed unmet for the ICU patients in this study would be insufficient pain treatment. This inadequacy was attributed to difficulties in assessing and accurately locating pain, as well as poor awareness among healthcare personnel, particularly among patients who did not undergo any surgical procedures [ 30 ]. However, a culture of addressing pain in critically ill patients should be fostered, as dealing with pain complaints promptly has been shown to result in a less stressful stay [ 17 , 31 ]. One step forward could be reinforcing adherence to the appropriate pain management strategy supported by the Malaysia Ministry of Health [ 32 ].

Effective communication in the ICU is reiterated as an essential need of patients and family members. Critically ill patients who received invasive mechanical ventilation experienced communication difficulties. At the same time, ICU personnel and families reported difficulties in understanding patients’ needs as well [ 33 , 34 ]. The utilization of aided or unaided augmentative and alternative communication systems could assist in meeting this demand, and this should be implemented according to the local culture and setting [ 35 ].

The family members in this study had a great desire for up-to-date patients’ information, as identified as a fundamental need of family members [ 9 ]. They needed to know about the patients’ progress and prognosis, why certain activities were conducted for the patients, and who to call when they were away [ 36 , 37 ]. In Malaysia, patients’ information is disclosed by medical doctors and reinforced by nurses to the family members [ 38 ]. However, the medical doctors in the ICU tend to prioritise patients’ care, which may result in insufficient time for communication or difficulty locating them when they are managing other patients [ 34 ]. Hence, to establish family-centered care in the ICU and obtain standardised patient information promptly, a consensus for a point person, frequency and types of contact should be made between ICU personnel and family members [ 39 ]. However, these proposals should be addressed further among the ICU team in order to better adapt to the local system.

Family members’ participation in various patient care activities has been reported, ranging from massage, bathing, eye and mouth care, to positioning and adjusting equipment [ 40 ]. This study captured family members’ willingness to learn and participate in patient care. Such a desire to assist the patient, who is their loved one, stems from the kinship and relationship between family members and the patient, precipitating their desire to assist the patient [ 41 ]. Also, being able to get involved in patient care reduces family members’ fear and helplessness when their loved ones are critically ill. Family members’ involvement in patient care during the ICU stay also provides an opportunity for them to acquire relevant skills that enables them to care for the patient after discharge [ 26 ]. Nonetheless, such involvement necessitates additional attention and careful supervision from healthcare providers, which adds to their workload and may cause task delays [ 41 , 42 ]. Concerns about poor quality patient care, accidental extubation, and failure to adhere to infectious control measures have also been raised when family members are involved in patient care [ 43 ]. Hence, a clear policy is formed in the local ICU to direct the selection of patients and family members, the level of their involvement in patient care, and to offer ongoing supervision while they are involved in patient care.

In terms of the psychological needs of the patients, family members acknowledged the ICU personnel as vital individuals for providing psychological support to the patients. This involves requesting that ICU personnel selectively share information with patients to offer hope to patients. Typically, the Asian family culture wishes to shield their loved ones from unpleasant news. However, this request violates the medical ethics of patient autonomy [ 44 ]. Therefore, the ICU personnel has to be trained with strong communication and negotiation skills when challenged with a need for selective non-disclosure [ 45 ]. Apart from that, patients’ need of religious support and counselling have also been articulated in this study. Spiritual distress is common among ICU patients, and thus religious support (such as praying with the patient, discussing religious topics, and fostering religious growth) is regarded as a source of encouragement and hope [ 46 ]. Meanwhile, psychological support (such as counselling, stress management, and coping strategies) provided during ICU stay has been shown to reduce post-traumatic stress disorder and the need for psychiatric medication among patients [ 47 ]. In the local ICU, spiritual support is always offered to the family based on the patients’ religious beliefs. Such effort in supporting patients’ religious and counselling needs is thus to be applauded and should be more proactively offered to those who are in need, although identifying spiritual needs is rather difficult.

The unmet physical need highlighted by the ICU patients would be an unpleasant experience during bed-bath with cold water late at night. This finding is similar to a study in Istanbul that found bed-bath was prevalent between midnight and five o’clock in the morning [ 48 ]. This practice could be due to a less busy schedule during midnight for the nurses to conduct bed-baths. Aside from the timing of bed-baths, the water temperature should be ideal. It is recommended that bed-bathing timing be based on individual patient preference [ 49 ], with the water temperature set at 40 to 42.5 o C [ 50 ]. Though bed-bath may cause some discomfort to patients, it is vital in preserving patients’ hygiene and improving health outcomes [ 51 ].

Patients’ social needs, including seeing their family members [ 17 ], cannot be met due to the restricted visiting hours. Permission for flexible visiting hours to accommodate family members who have other commitments or different working schedules can facilitate family involvement in patient care. However, this has to be carefully considered taking into consideration the consequences on nursing care and disturbance to other patients [ 52 ]. Developing defined yet flexible visiting policies by tailoring visiting hours based on the needs of patients, families, and healthcare personnel may be more feasible and acceptable to all [ 53 ]. Currently, extended visiting hours in the ICU have been offered to family members of selected patients, particularly patients requiring long-term care. The provision of flexible visiting hours allows family members to engage in patient care with the assistance of the nurses.

Intolerable cold environments emerged as a negative experience for ICU patients when they were asked about the need for clinical spaces in the ICU. As part of the infection control recommendations, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that hospital wards maintain a temperature of 21-24 o C [ 54 ]. However, the cold environment may not be well tolerated by patients [ 55 ]. To strike a balance between CDC recommendations and patients’ comfort, patients could be reassured and given extra blankets to assist them to cope with the cold environment in the ICU.

In the aspect of non-clinical space, family members expressed the need for additional waiting chairs to be placed outside the ICU. Driving this need is the desire of families for reassurance and to be in close proximity with their loved ones during the critical phase [ 11 , 56 ]. In the United States, family members desired a comfortable waiting area where they could find solace in the company of other relatives of critically ill patients [ 57 ]. Unfortunately, at the ICU where the study was conducted, there was no designated ICU waiting room for family members. A hospital waiting-lounge facility is available within a five-minute walking distance from the ICU, but not all of the family members were aware of this facility [ 58 ]. They should be informed of the availability of the facility during the initial meeting with the ICU personnel.

The need for functioning call bells was raised by the participants, especially for patients who were placed in the isolated unit in the ICU. In case of an emergency, this medical device facilitates communication and connectivity of patients with healthcare providers. Patients felt safer knowing that they could reach healthcare providers for care or assistance when needed [ 59 , 60 ]. It is important for the ICU personnel to monitor the function of the call bell and to set up a call bell response system. However, due to structural limitations in this ICU, functional call bells were unable to be installed, and the team was continually exploring alternatives.

Consistent with the reports of other studies, some of the devices in the ICU emit sounds and alarms, which are a source of distress for the patients [ 55 , 61 , 62 ]. The alarms may trigger anxiety in patients, which, when combined with the patients’ lack of familiarity with the meaning of the sounds and alarms, causes them to perceive them as a threat [ 63 , 64 ]. This situation can be improved by minimizing the effects of the alarms by providing earplugs or setting “quiet times” [ 65 , 66 ]. Practicing light down and reducing alarms to create “quiet times” at night have been implemented in this ICU.

Strengths, limitations and recommendations

This research was undertaken just before the COVID-19 epidemic. The pandemic resulted in policy adjustments, including modifications to the visiting policy. Therefore, the data collection was stopped at the sixth participant when the Malaysian government declared a “Movement Controlled Order” on March 18, 2020, in response to the health emergency. Nonetheless, data from all six IDIs revolved around the same themes and no new themes emerged, data for the themes is thus saturated. Additionally, this study provides a baseline understanding of the needs and experiences of both critically ill patients and their families in Malaysia. Future research should focus on the disparities between the needs and experiences of critically ill patients and family members before and after the pandemic, and if the policy changes implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic affected their needs and experiences.

This study provides a comprehensive look at the needs and experiences of critically ill patients and their families. Some of the concerns are acknowledged as having no immediate solution. The study’s findings, on the other hand, would aid ICU professionals in recognising and communicating the needs of patients and families in order to foster mutual understanding. Addressing the challenges outlined in this study could provide insights into organisational and systemic reforms to humanise ICU care.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Intensive Care Unit

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Acknowledgements

The team thanks all staff in ICU Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun Ipoh for facilitating the interview sessions conducted in ICU. The team would also like to thank the Director General of Health, Malaysia, for his permission to publish this article.

The authors received no funding for conducting this research.

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E-Li Leong, Chii-Chii Chew, Ju-Ying Ang, Sharon-Linus Lojikip & Philip-Rajan Devesahayam

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All authors contributed to the idea and drafting of the study protocol. CCC, JYA, ELL and SLL were involved in in-depth interviews and thematic analysis. KWF and PRD were involved in the final confirmation of the thematic analysis. ELL, CCC, JYA and SLL contributed to the writing of the manuscript. KWF and PRD contributed to the critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read, reviewed and approved the final version.

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Approval to conduct this study was obtained from the Medical Research and Ethics Committee, Ministry of Health Malaysia with the protocol number NMRR-19-3358-51827 (IIR). The study was adhere to the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from participants prior to the initiation of the in-depth interview.

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Leong, EL., Chew, CC., Ang, JY. et al. The needs and experiences of critically ill patients and family members in intensive care unit of a tertiary hospital in Malaysia: a qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res 23 , 627 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09660-9

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Received : 03 January 2023

Accepted : 06 June 2023

Published : 13 June 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09660-9

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