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Make Your Note

Culture is What We are, Civilization is What We Have

• 24 Jan 2024

"Culture is the widening of the mind and of the spirit."

 - Jawaharlal Nehr u

The concepts of culture and civilization are often used interchangeably , yet they represent distinct aspects of human existence . Culture embodies the essence of who we are as individuals and as communities, while civilization refers to the tangible achievements and structures we have created as a society. 

Culture refers to the shared beliefs , values, customs , traditions, behaviors, language, art, and other elements that characterize a particular group of people, whether that group is defined by nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, or some other commonality. Culture encompasses the way individuals within a society or community perceive and interact with the world around them. It is a complex and multifaceted concept that influences people's worldviews , behaviors , and identities . It is the foundation upon which human identity is built. It encompasses the beliefs , values, customs, traditions, and shared knowledge that are transmitted from generation to generation . Culture is deeply rooted in the human experience , and it shapes our thoughts , behaviors , and interactions with others. It is a dynamic and ever-evolving force that reflects the diversity and complexity of human societies across the globe.

It provides individuals with a sense of identity and belonging . It connects people to their roots , helping them understand their heritage and where they come from. Cultural practices, languages, and rituals become powerful tools for expressing one's identity and affiliations. It serves as a moral compass , guiding individuals and communities in determining what is right and wrong . It establishes the ethical framework through which people make decisions and navigate the complexities of life.

Culture fosters creativity and self-expression. It is a source of inspiration for art, music, literature, and all forms of human creativity . Cultural expressions are vehicles for telling stories , sharing experiences , and connecting with others on a profound level. Cultural beliefs and values are the fundamental principles that guide how people within a culture understand the world and make moral or ethical judgments . These beliefs can include religious, philosophical, or ethical viewpoints. It is often expressed through various customs and traditions. These can include rituals, ceremonies, festivals, and everyday practices that are passed down from generation to generation. Language is a central element of culture, as it allows people to communicate and express their thoughts, emotions, and ideas . Each culture may have its own language or dialect , and language often carries cultural nuances and meanings . Its expressions through art, music, literature, dance, and other creative forms are essential to understanding a culture's aesthetics, values, and historical narratives.

Culture also sets social norms , which govern acceptable behavior within a society . These norms may include rules about etiquette, gender roles, and interpersonal interactions. Food is an integral part of culture , and culinary traditions vary widely across different cultures. Traditional dishes and cooking methods often carry significant cultural meaning. The clothing and fashion choices of a culture can be influenced by climate, history, religion, and social norms. These choices often reflect cultural identity. Religious beliefs and practices are a significant part of many cultures , influencing everything from daily rituals to major life events. 

A culture's history, including its historical events, heroes, and symbols , plays a crucial role in shaping its identity and worldview.  The structure of families and social hierarchies within a culture can greatly impact social interactions and relationships.

Civilization , on the other hand, is the external manifestation of human achievement. It refers to the material and structural advancements that societies have made throughout history. Civilization encompasses the development of technology, infrastructure, governance, and institutions that enable human progress and organization . It is a complex and multifaceted concept that refers to an advanced stage of human social and cultural development characterized by various distinctive features. It is marked by significant technological innovations that improve the quality of life. These innovations include agriculture, transportation, medicine, communication, and many others. They have transformed how we live, work, and interact with the world. It gives rise to organized societies with intricate social hierarchies and political systems. Institutions such as governments , legal frameworks, and educational systems are integral to the functioning of civilizations .

The growth of civilizations is often characterized by urbanization and the construction of infrastructure . Cities become hubs of culture, commerce , and innovation , while infrastructure such as roads, bridges , and buildings supports the needs of the population of the growing society. This process is a common feature in the historical development of many civilizations throughout human history. 

While culture and civilization represent distinct aspects of human existence , they are interconnected and mutually influential . Culture provides the values, traditions, and shared narratives that underpin the development of civilization , shaping its trajectory and character . Conversely, civilization creates the conditions for the preservation and dissemination of culture , ensuring its continuity across generations.

Culture influences the choices and priorities of a society as it develops. Cultural values and norms play a pivotal role in shaping the direction of technological advancements, governance structures, and social institutions within a civilization. As civilization advances, it often leads to cultural exchanges and the blending of diverse traditions . For example, the Silk Road facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices between East and West , enriching both civilizations.

Culture is the essence of who we are as individuals and communities , while civilization represents the tangible achievements and structures that we have created as a society . Both culture and civilization are intertwined , with culture serving as the foundation and civilization as the external manifestation of human progress. Recognizing and valuing this interplay between culture and civilization is essential for understanding the complex tapestry of human identity and history . It reminds us that our cultural heritage is not just a relic of the past but a living force that continues to shape our present and future.

"Civilization is not the multiplication of wants but the deliberate and voluntary renunciation of many of them." 

- M K Gandhi

Key Components of Civilization

Civilization describes a complex way of life characterized by urban areas, shared methods of communication, administrative infrastructure, and division of labor.

Arts and Music, Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Civics, World History

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Civilization describes a complex way of life that came about as people began to develop networks of urban settlements. The earliest civilizations developed between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E., when the rise of agriculture and trade allowed people to have surplus food and economic stability. Many people no longer had to practice farming , allowing a diverse array of professions and interests to flourish in a relatively confined area. Civilizations first appeared in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq) and later in Egypt. Civilizations thrived in the Indus Valley by about 2500 B.C.E., in China by about 1500 B.C.E. and in Central America (what is now Mexico) by about 1200 B.C.E. Civilizations ultimately developed on every continent except Antarctica.

Characteristics of Civilization

All civilizations have certain characteristics. These include: large population centers ; monumental architecture and unique art styles; shared communication strategies; systems for administering territories; a complex division of labor ; and the division of people into social and economic classes . The development of urban settlements, cities, is the primary characteristic of a civilization. The other attributes that define civilization are built around urbanization .

Urban Areas

Large population centers, or urban areas, allow civilizations to develop, although people who live outside these urban centers are still part of that region’s civilization. Rural residents of civilizations may include farmers, fishers, and traders, who regularly sell their goods and services to urban residents. The huge urban center of Teotihuacan, in modern-day Mexico, for example, had as many as 200,000 residents between 300 and 600 C.E.

The development of the Teotihuacano civilization was made possible in part by the rich agricultural land surrounding the city. As land was cultivated , fewer farmers could supply more food staples , such as corn and beans, to more people. Trade also played a part in Teotihuacan’s urban development. Much of the wealth and power of Teotihuacan was due to excavating and trading the rich deposits of obsidian around the city. Obsidian is a hard volcanic rock that was highly valued as a cutting tool. Teotihuacano merchants traded (exported) obsidian to surrounding cultures in exchange for goods and services imported to Teotihuacano settlements.

All civilizations work to preserve their legacy by building large monuments and structures. This is as true today as it was thousands of years ago. For example, the ancient monuments at Great Zimbabwe are still consistently used as a symbol of political power in the modern nation of Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe, constructed between 1100 and 1450, describes the ruins of the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. At its peak, Great Zimbabwe was inhabited by more than 10,000 people and was part of a trading network that extended from the Maghreb , through the eastern coast of Africa, and as far east as India and China.

Great Zimbabwe is a testament to the sophistication and ingenuity of ancestors of the local Shona people. Politicians like Robert Mugabe, the president who led Zimbabwe for nearly 40 years in the 20th and 21st centuries, built their entire political identities by associating themselves with the ancient civilization’s monumental architecture. Buildings are not the only monuments that define civilizations. The distinct artistic style of Great Zimbabwe included representations of native animals carved in soapstone. The stylized stone sculptures known as “Zimbabwe Birds”, for example, remain an emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on the nation’s flag, currency , and coats of arms.

Shared Communication

Shared communication is another element that all civilizations share. Shared communication may include spoken language; alphabets ; numeric systems; signs, ideas, and symbols; and illustration and representation. Shared communication allows the infrastructure necessary for technology , trade, cultural exchange , and government to be developed and shared throughout the civilization. The Inca civilization, for example, had no written script that we know of, but its complex khipu system of accounting allowed the government to conduct censuses of its population and production across the vast stretch of the Andes. A khipu is a recording device made of a series of strings knotted in particular patterns and colors.

Written language in particular allows civilizations to record their own history and everyday events—crucial for understanding ancient cultures. The world's oldest known written language is Sumerian, which developed in Mesopotamia around 3100 B.C.E. The most familiar form of early Sumerian writing was called cuneiform , and was made up of different collections of wedge (triangle) shapes. The earliest Sumerian writing was record-keeping. Just like written records of modern civilizations, Sumerian cuneiform kept track of taxes , grocery bills , and laws for things like theft.

Written language was a key part of shared communication during the Islamic Golden Age , which flourished in southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia from the seventh to the 13th centuries. So-called “ Arabic numerals ” and the Arabic language were shared communications that allowed diverse cultures across the Arabic world to contribute the dazzling advances in mathematics, science, technology, and the arts.

Infrastructure and Administration

All civilizations rely on government administration—bureaucracy. Perhaps no civilization better exemplifies this than ancient Rome . The word “civilization” itself comes from the Latin word civis, meaning "citizen." Latin was the language of ancient Rome, whose territory stretched from the Mediterranean basin all the way to parts of Great Britain in the north and the Black Sea to the east. To rule an area that large, the Romans, based in what is now central Italy, needed an effective system of government administration and infrastructure. Romans used a variety of methods to administer their republic and, later, empire .

Engineering , for instance, was a key part of Roman administration. Romans built a network of roads so that communication between far-away territories was as efficient as possible. Roads also made travel by the Roman military much easier. Romans built structures of their civilization everywhere they went: aqueducts supplied freshwater to towns for improved sanitation and hygiene , for example.

Language also played a part in Roman infrastructure. Romans spread the Latin language throughout southern Europe. The so-called " Romance languages " (Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, and Italian) are called that because they all developed from the Roman language: Latin. Having a similar language made communication and leadership easier for Rome in its far-flung territories. Roman leaders relied on a series of legal codes for administration. These codes helped structure laws between different parts of Roman territory, as well as between rich and poor , men and women, slave and free. Roman laws included restrictions on marriage, ownership of land, and access to professions such as priesthoods. 

One of Rome’s most lasting contributions to Western Civilization was the establishment of legal culture itself. Roman law was largely public , and jurists created such formalities as legal language and procedure that would define European law for centuries. In fact, “Roman law” describes the legal system used throughout Western Europe through the 18th century.

Finally, Romans used local leaders, as well as Romans, to administer the law in their territories. Residents were more familiar with their own leaders, and more likely to follow their announcements. Israeli leaders worked with Roman authorities in the Roman territory of Palestine, for example, while British leaders often worked with Romans on the island of Great Britain. Some people born in Roman territories eventually became Roman emperors : The emperor Constantine, for instance, was born in what is now Serbia; the emperor Hadrian may have been born in what is now Spain. This interaction reduced conflict between Rome and its territories.

Division of Labor

Civilizations are marked by complex divisions of labor. This means that different people perform specialized tasks. In a purely agricultural society, members of the community are largely self-sufficient, and can provide food, shelter, and clothing for themselves. In a complex civilization, farmers may cultivate one type of crop and depend on other people for other foods, clothing, shelter, and information. Civilizations that depend on trade are specially marked by divisions of labor.

The city of Timbuktu, in what is now Mali, was an important trading center for several African civilizations. Residents of Timbuktu specialized in trading such goods as gold, ivory , or enslaved people. Other residents provided food or shelter for trade caravans traveling on camels from the Sahara. The urban center of Timbuktu was also a center of learning. Its division of labor included not only merchants, but doctors, religious leaders, and artists.

Class Structure

The last element that is key to the development of civilizations is the division of people into classes. This is a complex idea that can be broken down into two parts: income and type of work performed. Changing classes has traditionally been difficult and happens over generations . Classes can mean groups of people divided by their income. This division is sometimes characterized as “economic class.” Modern Western Civilization often divides economic classes into wealthy , middle-class, and poor. In medieval civilizations of Europe, there were fewer economic classes. Kings and queens had enormous amounts of money and land. Serfs , or people who worked the land, had almost nothing. Eventually, a merchant economic class developed.

Class can also refer to the type of work people perform. There are many divisions of social class. Social class is often associated with economic class, but not strictly defined by it. In the ancient civilization of China, there were four major types of social classes. Scholars and political leaders (known as shi) were the most powerful social class. Farmers and agricultural workers (nong) were the next most-powerful group. Artists (gong), who made everything from horseshoes to silk robes, were the next order of social class. At the bottom of the social classes were the merchants and traders, who bought and sold goods and services. Known as shang, these merchants were often much wealthier than the other classes but had a lower social status.

Development of Civilization

Civilizations expand through trade, conflict, and exploration . Usually, all three elements must be present for a civilization to grow and remain stable for a long period of time. The physical and human geography of Southeast Asia allowed these attributes to develop in the Khmer civilization. The Khmer flourished in parts of what are now Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar between 800 and 1400.

The Khmer maintained vibrant trading relationships throughout East Asia, the Indian subcontinent , and even Europe and Africa through the Silk Road , a collection of both overland and maritime trade routes . The Silk Road linked the spice and silk markets of Asia with the merchants of Europe. Southeast Asia’s extensive network of waterways facilitated trade, with the Khmer capital of Angkor being built on the shores of Southeast Asia’s largest freshwater lake, Tonle Sap. The outflowing Tonle Sap River is a tributary of the mighty Mekong River, which connects Southeast Asia with the Tibetan Plateau in the north and the South China Sea in the south. In addition to material goods, the Khmer civilization facilitated a powerful trade in ideas. In particular, the Khmer were instrumental in spreading the influence of Buddhist and Hindu cultures from the Indian subcontinent to Southeast and East Asia.

The primary conflicts of the Khmer civilization were waged with neighboring communities—the Cham, the Vietnamese, and the Thai. The Cham were a collection of kingdoms in what is today central and southern Vietnam, while the ancient Vietnamese influence extended through what is today northern Vietnam. Thai kingdoms such as Sukothai and Ayutthaya flourished in what are now Thailand, Cambodia, and Malaysia. The Khmer civilization was founded on the consistent resistance of political pressure from the Cham and Vietnamese, but it ultimately could not withstand pressure from Thai civilizations. Thousands of Thai peoples migrated from the north (what is now the Yunnan region of China), establishing small kingdoms in the southwest of the Khmer Empire. Eventually, these kingdoms became strong enough to annex Khmer territory, leading to Ayutthaya’s conquest of the Khmer capital of Angkor in 1431.

Exploration and Innovation

The Khmer civilization relied heavily on rice farming, and developed a complex irrigation system to take advantage of the rivers and wetlands that dotted their territory. An efficient series of irrigation canals and reservoirs , called barays , allowed fewer farmers to produce more rice. This, in turn, allowed more people to pursue nonagricultural lifestyles and migrate to great urban areas, such as Angkor. Angkor, the capital of the ancient Khmer civilization, is home to one of the largest most distinctive religious monuments in the world, Angkor Wat.

Angkor Wat was originally constructed as a series of shrines to the Hindu god Vishnu in the early 12th century, although it became a Buddhist temple complex less than a hundred years later. Angkor Wat and its sister complex, Angkor Thom, are beautiful examples of classic Khmer architecture. The towering, stepped pyramid towers of Angkor Wat are called “temple mountains.” The towers are surrounded by open gallery walkways, and the entire structure is enclosed by a wall and square moat . The thousands of square meters of wall space at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom are decorated by thousands of bas-reliefs and sculptures depicting Hindu stories and characters. The Khmer monument at Angkor Wat helps define the modern nation of Cambodia today. It is the nation’s primary tourist attraction, a World Heritage Site , and even appears on the Cambodian flag.

Fall of Civilizations

Many civilizations have flourished and then failed or fell apart. There are many reasons for this, but many historians point to three patterns in the fall of civilizations: internal change, external pressure, and environmental collapse . The fall of civilizations is never the result of a single event or pattern. Sometimes, civilizations seem to “disappear” entirely.

Internal Change

Population dynamics are the most pervasive forces of internal change to a civilization. A sudden population shift or a shift in demographics may force a civilization’s infrastructure to break down. Populations may grow, due to migration or a period of unusual health. Populations may shrink, due to disease , extreme weather , or other environmental factors. Finally, populations may redefine themselves. As civilizations grow, cities may grow larger and become more culturally distinct from rural, agricultural areas. Large empires may extend across such large regions that languages, cultures, and customs may dilute the identity of the empire’s residents.

Internal changes contributed to the collapse of the Maya civilization, which had thrived in Mesoamerica for more than a thousand years. The “Classic Maya” collapse happened relatively quickly in the 800s. Diseases such as dysentery and lethal hemorrhagic fevers killed and disabled thousands of Mayans. Millions more were forced to relocate from cities to more rural areas . Such huge population shifts reduced the ability of the Maya to communicate, administrate, and unite against outside forces and natural disasters (such as drought ).

External Pressure

The clearest example of external pressure on a civilization is foreign invasion or sustained warfare . Protecting a civilization’s borders can be extremely expensive and demand a strong military at the expense of developing or maintaining other aspects of a civilization. External pressure can lead to the relatively abrupt end of a civilization (and, often, the adoption of another). The fall of the Aztec Empire with the arrival of European conquistadores is such an example.

External pressures can also lead to the gradual diminishing of a civilization. The “fall” of what we often think of as Ancient Egypt is a good example of how external pressures can redefine a civilization over hundreds of years. Egypt had faced longstanding, intermittent conflict on its borders, with competing civilizations such as the Nubians (to the south), the Assyrians (in the Middle East), and the Libyans (to the west). Later, Egypt encountered the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome, and eventually became part of the Roman Empire. Ancient Egypt also faced external pressures not directly associated with armed conflict. The powerful forces of Christianity and Islam influenced the eradication of both hieroglyphics , the writing system of Ancient Egypt, and its polytheistic religion.

Environmental Collapse

Some anthropologists think that both natural disasters and misuse of the environment contributed to the decline of many civilizations. Natural hazards such as drought, floods , and tsunamis , become natural disasters as they impact civilizations. Drought contributed to the fall of civilizations such as the Maya and the Indus Valley or Harappan civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization in what is now Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The Indus Valley Civilization depended on seasonal monsoon rains to supply water for drinking, hygiene, and irrigation. Climate change made monsoons much more unpredictable and seasonal flooding less reliable. Harappans suffered from water-borne diseases and were unable to effectively irrigate their crops. The collapse of Minoan civilization, a major influence on Ancient Greece, is often associated with a catastrophic eruption of the Thera volcano on the island of what is now Santorini. The eruption caused a massive tsunami that reduced the population, trading capabilities, and influence of the Minoans.

Human activity can also strain the environment to the point of a civilization’s collapse. One of several factors contributing to the collapse of the Viking outpost in Greenland, for instance, was the failure of European settlers to adapt to Greenland’s climate and soil . Farming methods that were successful in the rich, loamy soils of Northern Europe were ill-suited to Greenland’s colder, thinner soil and shorter growing seasons . The land could not support the crops necessary to sustain Viking livestock , including goats, cattle, and sheep. In addition, the land itself was harvested for peat , the outpost’s primary construction material. The Vikings in Greenland also faced internal pressures, such as a weak trading system with Europe, and external pressures, such as a hostile relationship with their Inuit neighbors.

‘Lost Civilizations’

History and myth are rich with “lost civilizations,” entire ways of life that seemed to flourish and then disappear from the historical record. The disappearance of the Ancestral Puebloan civilization is one such mystery. Ancestral Puebloan civilization thrived in what is now the Four Corners region of the United States: the states of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.

Ancestral Puebloan civilization developed around 1200 B.C.E. and thrived for more than a thousand years. Ancestral Puebloan civilization was marked by monumental architecture in the form of apartment-like cliff dwellings and large urban areas known as pueblos. Culturally diverse Ancestral Puebloans were connected by a complex road system, a standard style of religious worship, and a unique art style evidenced by pottery and petroglyphs .

Ancestral Puebloans seem to have abandoned their urban areas around 1300 C.E. The disappearance of this civilization remains a mystery, although most scientists say Ancestral Puebloans engaged in warfare with their Navajo neighbors, internal groups competed for land and resources, and sustained droughts reduced Ancestral Puebloan ability to irrigate crops in the arid Southwest. The Pueblo people never disappeared, of course: Diverse groups developed their own, competing civilizations after the Ancestral Puebloans migrated or fell apart. These groups include the Zuni and Hopi civilizations.

Cradle of Civilization The southern part of the modern country of Iraq is called the "Cradle of Civilization." The worlds first cities, writing systems, and large-scale government developed there.

World Powers The so-called "Group of 7" (G7) is an organization of the seven wealthiest democracies in the world. Seven of the eight countries are part of Western civilization: the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Italy. The only G7 member from outside Western civilization is Japan. Japan is usually considered its own civilization. Representatives from the G7 usually meet once a year, and discuss international issues, including the spread of disease, economic development, terrorism, and climate change.

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Related Resources

Civilization

Civilization (from the Latin civis =citizen and civitas = city ) is a term applied to any society which has developed a writing system, government, production of surplus food, division of labor, and urbanization . The term is difficult to define because not all 'civilizations' include every one of the above facets. The term is often used, therefore, to suggest a highly developed culture .

The first civilizations include:

• Indus Valley Civilization : c. 7000 to c. 600 BCE
• Mesopotamia 's Sumerian civilization: c. 6000-1750 BCE
• Egyptian civilization: c. 6000-30 BCE

Although the Göbekli Tepe civilization (c. 10000 BCE) and China are sometimes included in this list, the above were already well-established by the time of China's prehistoric Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BCE) and its cities , while the people of Göbekli Tepe seem to have been semi-nomadic and moved on after building the site. Others, such as the Minoan , Mycenaean , and Gandhara civilizations, all formed after China's Xia Dynasty.

At the same time, China highlights the difficulty of defining 'civilization' as there were already permanent settlements (though not 'cities') along the Yellow River by 5000 BCE. Mesopotamia, as the site of the Fertile Crescent , is famously known as the 'cradle of civilization' which saw the rise of the first cities, but this designation was made prior to the identification of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1924-1925 or the discovery of Göbekli Tepe (first recorded in 1963) in 1994.

Even so, Mesopotamia is still regarded as the birthplace of civilization as the people who built Göbekli Tepe are thought to have been semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers and the Indus Valley Civilization did not begin constructing its great cities until the Mature Harappan Period (c. 2800 to c. 1900 BCE) whereas the city of Eridu in Mesopotamia was founded c. 5400 BCE and the oldest cities in Egypt date to c. 4000 BCE. The construction of cities has always been considered a primary requirement for a culture to be regarded as a civilization even if it lacks a writing system (as in the case of the Inca ) which is also understood as a central civilizing attribute.

Civilizations developed from hunter-gatherers who first established semi-permanent and then permanent communities after settling into an agrarian lifestyle and began to produce surplus food. An abundance of food meant that not everyone had to work the land to eat, and so a division of labor was established with people working different jobs and purchasing food by that work, for example, potters who would sell their ceramics.

Division of labor led to the production of surplus artifacts, which, along with food, could be offered in trade to other communities. Long-distance trade, it is thought, led to the development of writing systems in maintaining business agreements. The rudimentary form of government that had worked with a small community had, by this stage, become more highly developed and centralized and usually included a religious component, leading to the construction of temples and a written body of literature concerning the gods. All of these aspects taken together are, more or less, recognized as constituting a civilization.

Concept of Civilization

The concept of 'civilization' as a state of cultural development superior to others – as the term is often used in the present day – was first developed by the Greeks. The historian Herodotus (l. c. 484-425/413 BCE) famously made the distinction between 'civilized' Greeks and 'barbarous' non-Greeks in his Histories, as noted by scholar Roger Osborne:

The word 'civilization' was first used in eighteenth-century France, but the western idea of a civilized society dates back to ancient Greece and Rome . During the classical period, Greeks began to see themselves as not just different from, but better than, other peoples. When Herodotus, writing in the mid-fifth century BCE, referred to 'the barbarians', this was really a shorthand term for non-Greeks; but by the time of Aristotle , a hundred years later, barbarians and barbarous nations could be defined by certain types of behavior – their treatment of slaves, a barter rather than money economy – that were frowned on by the civilized Greeks. Barbarians had, through their cultural habits, become lesser people than the Greeks, who were seen by themselves, and later Europeans, as the epitome of civilization. (3)

This became the prevailing view in the West and, in some scholarly and political circles, still is, but 'civilization' is no longer understood by anthropologists and scholars as a qualifying term suggesting one culture is better than another but, rather, to define what a 'mature culture' is. To this end, as noted, for a culture to be regarded as a 'civilization,' it should have developed:

• a writing system
• surplus food
• division of labor
• urbanization

Of these five, urbanization is often emphasized, as a 'civilization' cannot be nomadic. The establishment of cities is a central aspect of any civilization because a sedentary community is understood as the first step in the development of any of the other aspects.

This is why, when this concept is applied to the people of the Göbekli Tepe civilization, they are not considered one of the earliest 'civilizations' because they were semi-nomadic. At a certain point c. 12000-11000 years ago, a pre-agricultural, hunter-gatherer society in the region of modern-day Turkey began forming permanent settlements and then worked together to build the structure known today as Göbekli Tepe (a modern-day designation meaning "Potbelly Hill" – the original name of the site is unknown). The purpose of Göbekli Tepe is undetermined – though most scholars believe it was a temple – as is the reason why it was buried and abandoned in antiquity.

Although this society did construct permanent housing, it seems it may have only been for the purpose of building Göbekli Tepe, and sometime after that had been accomplished, they moved on; it would be left to others to build the cities which would come to define 'civilization.'

Mesopotamia & the Rise of the City

Mesopotamia and its Fertile Crescent is known as the 'cradle of civilization' because it is understood as the first to develop the aspects one recognizes today as 'civilizing,' and this began in the region of Sumer . The term 'fertile crescent' was first coined by the Egyptologist James Henry Breasted in his 1916 work Ancient Times: A History of the Early World, where he observes:

This fertile crescent is approximately a semi-circle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the south-east corner of the Mediterranean , the centre directly north of Arabia , and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf. (193-194)

The Sumerians , who lived in the region, invented or developed all five of the criteria for a culture to be regarded as a 'civilization' following the rise of the cities as well as

• the concept of time
• long-distance trade
• domestication of animals
• mathematics and astronomy
• agricultural techniques and innovations
• religious rituals
• medical practices and texts
• astrology and the zodiac
• scientific thought and technology.

The Neolithic Age in the region (c. 7000 BCE) saw the development of animal husbandry and agriculture , which led to permanent settlements and the establishment of some rudimentary form of government and religion .

These cultural advances were furthered during the Chalcolithic Period ( Copper Age, 5900-3200 BCE) and the Ubaid Period (c. 5000-4100 BCE), which gave rise to the first cities, and the urbanization process was then fully embraced during the Uruk Period (4100-2900 BCE). The earliest city cited by the Sumerians themselves is Eridu (c. 5400 BCE), although Uruk (c. 4500) and Ur (c. 3800) may have actually been inhabited earlier in some form based on archaeological evidence. By the time of the Early Bronze Age (3000-2119 BCE), Mesopotamia was "the most densely urbanized region in the ancient world" (Bertman, 201) and recognizable as a civilization. Scholar Paul Kriwaczek comments:

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With the city came the centralized state, the hierarchy of social classes, the division of labour, organized religion, monumental building, civil engineering, writing, literature, sculpture , art, music , education, mathematics and law , not to mention a vast array of new inventions and discoveries, from items as basic as wheeled vehicles and sailing boats to the potter's kiln, metallurgy and the creation of synthetic materials. And on top of all that was the huge collection of notions and ideas so fundamental to our way of looking at the world, like the concept of numbers, or weight, quite independent of actual items counted or weighed – the number ten, or one kilo – that we have long forgotten that they had to be discovered or invented. (20-21)

The aspects of civilization 'discovered or invented' by the Sumerians have come to help define the term in the present day. Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer, in his History Begins at Sumer , lists 39 'firsts' originating in the region:

The First Schools The First Case of 'Apple Polishing' The First Case of Juvenile Delinquency The First ' War of Nerves' The First Bicameral Congress The First Historian The First Case of Tax Reduction The First ' Moses ' The First Legal Precedent The First Pharmacopoeia The First 'Farmer's Almanac' The First Experiment in Shade-Tree Gardening Man's First Cosmogony and Cosmology The First Moral Ideals The First 'Job' The First Proverbs and Sayings The First Animal Fables The First Literary Debates The First Biblical Parallels The First 'Noah' The First Tale of Resurrection The First 'St. George' The First Case of Literary Borrowing Man's First Heroic Age The First Love Song The First Library Catalogue Man's First Golden Age The First 'Sick' Society The First Liturgic Laments The First Messiahs The First Long-Distance Champion The First Literary Imagery The First Sex Symbolism The First Mater Dolorosa The First Lullaby The First Literary Portrait The First Elegies Labor's First Victory The First Aquarium

Further inventions or innovations include the wheel, mass-produced bricks and ceramics, the map, the sail, possibly the dog collar, beer , the straw (used for drinking beer), cylinder seals and envelopes, epic poetry, and genres of literature.

As Kriwaczek notes, urbanization encouraged the rapid development of many aspects of civilization but had its downside as cities grew larger and natural resources diminished. Farmlands, necessary not only for produce used in trade but to feed the population, were steadily developed for housing and industry. The prosperity of the cities also drew the attention of others, who then moved against them in military campaigns of conquest . Ur, considered the largest city in the world between 2030-1980 BCE, fell to Elam c. 1750, ending the Sumerian civilization. Long before that happened, however, Ur – like many of the Mesopotamian cities – had used up its resources and was forced to import more goods from other regions. As this trend continued, the city became unsustainable and was abandoned by 450 BCE.

Other Civilizations

Urbanization – though not civilization – is understood to have spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt, but the Egyptians recognized the danger of overextending their cities. The central cultural value of ancient Egypt was ma'at – balance, harmony – ordained by the gods and personified in the goddess Ma'at. The Egyptians believed their region was the best on earth and had been given to them as a gift by the gods who had entrusted them to care for it. The Mesopotamians had a similar belief as co-workers with the gods to maintain order but had nothing comparable to the Egyptian ma'at .

The Egyptians, therefore, took greater care to control the size of their cities, preferring smaller urban centers to such a degree that historians and scholars up until the late 20th century often concluded that Egypt had no cities. The Egyptian civilization was able to avoid the fall and abandonment of cities by the specialization of urban communities. Unlike Mesopotamia, not every Egyptian city had a huge temple or industry requiring a seemingly endless supply of natural resources. Cities like Karnak and Thebes , Memphis , and Per-Ramesses were religious, political, or industrial centers, but others were maintained on a more modest scale.

Whether Mesopotamia influenced Egyptian civilization or vice versa – or they first developed independently – continues to be debated. It is possible both were influenced by another, often overlooked, in the Levant . The Palestinian city of Jericho is recognized as the oldest in the world, dating back to 9000 BCE, and featuring the first protective walls, an aspect of urbanization that would not be seen in Mesopotamia until c. 4100 BCE and in Egypt much later.

It is also possible the development of both cultures was influenced by the Indus Valley Civilization, which had established trade with both Egypt and Mesopotamia by the Early Harappan Period (c. 5500-2800 BCE). How these people may have influenced other civilizations is difficult to determine as their writing system, the Indus script , remains undeciphered. The Indus Valley Civilization exemplifies another aspect commonly associated with 'first civilizations' – the development of permanent settlements by rivers – as seen in Mesopotamia with the Tigris and Euphrates, in Egypt with the Nile , and in China with the Yellow River.

This same paradigm holds for any civilization no matter when or where it developed as the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica (c. 1200 to c. 400 BCE), the Maya civilization (c. 1500 BCE to c. 950 CE), and the Inca Empire (c. 1425-1532 CE) all seem to have originated near fresh water. This is hardly surprising since water is a basic necessity for human life, and prehistoric hunter-gatherers also gravitated toward water sources.

The Inca present an interesting challenge in defining 'civilization' as they never developed a writing system but were definitely a civilization. This is also true of the Moundbuilders of North America during the Archaic Period (c. 8000-1000 BCE), who had no writing system and whose cities do not seem to have conformed to the standard definition of 'city' as they were more large towns surrounded by the homes of the working class and, sometimes, a protective wall .

There is no evidence that the North Americans of Watson Brake (c. 3500 BCE) or Poverty Point (c. 1700-1100 BCE) or Moundville (c. 1100 to c. 1450) had any kind of writing system, but they were all part of the recognized civilization of North America. Cahokia (c. 600 to c. 1350) was the largest pre-Columbian city in North America, with trade established across the continent, a central government, surplus food supply, and division of labor – but no writing system. Even so, like the Inca, the indigenous peoples of North America are recognized as a civilization.

'Civilization' is a term that remains loosely defined, and the modern Western understanding of that term is remarkably recent. Up until the mid-19th century, no one even knew Sumer had ever existed outside of a mention in the Bible . Egyptian hieroglyphics and Mesopotamian cuneiform were not deciphered until the 1820s and 1850s, respectively, and the Indus Valley Civilization's city of Harappa was only discovered in 1829 and left unexcavated and undefined until 1924-1925. Prior to these advances, Western scholars considered Greece the 'cradle of civilization' whose culture was adapted and developed by Rome, but, in reality, Greece and Rome were latecomers in the development of civilization.

Many civilizations went unrecognized up through the 20th century, such as the African Kingdom of Zimbabwe, whose capital, Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100 to c. 1550), is understood today as an architectural masterpiece. The West African kingdoms, including the Yoruba with their capital at Ife (founded c. 500), were also ignored as they did not conform to the definition of 'civilization' as it was understood at the time. As more information has come to light, and long-held nationalistic and racialist narratives have been rejected, the definition of 'civilization' has changed and become far more inclusive. The five essential facets defining a civilization in the present day will most likely be modified and revised in the next 100 years as they have already been challenged and continue to be.

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Bibliography

• Bertman, S. Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press, 2005.
• Breasted, J. H. Ancient times, a History of the Early World. Ginn & Co. , 2012.
• Dunbar-Ortiz, R. An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States . Beacon Press, 2015.
• Ebrey, P. B. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
• Keay, J. India: A History. Grove Press, 2016.
• Kramer, S. N. History Begins at Sumer. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
• Kriwaczek, P. Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization. St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.
• Mann, C. C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Vintage Books, 2006.
• Miller, J. Maxwell & Hayes, John H. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press, 2006.
• Osborne, R. Civilization: A New History of the Western World. Pegasus Books, 2008.
• Scarre, C. & Fagan, B. M. Ancient Civilizations. Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Shaw, I. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2006.
• Van De Mieroop, M. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
• Wilkinson, T. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2013.

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 1, indus river valley civilizations.

• Indus Valley civilization
• The Vedic Period
• Sanskrit connections to English
• Hinduism: core ideas of Brahman, Atman, Samsara and Moksha.
• Ancient India

• The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• Important innovations of this civilization include standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
• Little is understood about the Indus script, and as a result, little is known about the Indus River Valley Civilization’s institutions and systems of governance.
• The civilization likely ended due to climate change and migration.

Geography and time-frame

Urban infrastructure and architecture, innovation and exchange, religion, language, and culture, institutions and hierarchies, what do you think.

• Why was it important that the Harappans developed standardized weights and measures?
• Do you think there is enough evidence to support the idea that Harappans were peaceful and enjoyed social equality?
• How did the Indus Valley Civilization interact with the river networks in the region? Were there any detrimental effects of the location in such a dense river network?
• What do you think is the most plausible explanation for the decline of this civilization?
• Partially adapted from "The Indus River Valley Civilizations" from Boundless World History, "CC BY-SA 4.0"

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English Compositions

Short Essay on Civilization [100, 200, 400 Words] With PDF

In this session, you are going to learn how you can write short essays on Civilization. There will be three different sets of essays in this session covering different word limits. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 100 Words

A civilization is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. In the prehistoric era, human beings lived in caves and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and settle down. With time, these settlements grew larger and became towns, cities and states. People began to do organized works like agriculture, mining and keeping domesticated livestock.

Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Thus, from the prehistoric men who lived in the wild, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. Some examples of such civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 200 Words

The word civilization comes from the Latin word ‘civitas’ or ‘city’. Thus, in simple words, a civilization is a complex society made up of a group of cities. However, there are many other things like cultural and technological developments that are necessary for a society to be considered a civilization. So, a more accurate definition of civilization would be that it is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. Society should also be settled and not live a nomadic life. 

In the prehistoric era, people lived in caves alone or with their family members and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and form nomadic societies. They moved together from place to place in search of food. With time, the practice of farming was developed and people began to settle down. Slowly, these settlements grew larger and became towns, cities and states.

Division of labour occurred and people began to do organized works like agriculture, mining and keeping domesticated livestock. Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Thus, from the prehistoric men who lived in the wild, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. Some of the famous civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 400 Words

The word civilization comes from the Latin word ‘civitas’ or ‘city’. Thus, in simple words, a civilization can be defined as a complex society made up of a group of cities. However, there are many other things like cultural, urban and technological developments that are necessary for a society to be considered a civilization. So, a more accurate definition of civilization would be that it is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. Society should also be settled and not live a nomadic life. 

In the prehistoric era, people lived in caves alone or with their family members and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and form nomadic societies. They moved together from place to place in search of food and shelter. With time, the practice of farming was developed and people began to settle down beside rivers and other water bodies.

These settlements kept growing larger and became towns, cities and states. Instead of every person having to gather their food, division of labour occurred and the jobs were divided among people. Some farmed, some made pottery, some kept livestock while others made clothes and furniture. Art, music and entertainment also became a huge part of people’s lives.

Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Written languages were developed. These societies looked a lot like the societies we live in today. Thus, from the prehistoric man who lived in the wild and had to fend for himself, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. 

The definition of civilization, however, is not perfect. When the word was first coined, it was used by people to differentiate between their culture, which they felt was morally superior as well as highly developed, and other cultures which they considered morally inferior and backward. They called themselves civilised and referred to the others as barbarians. This led them to try to conquer and “civilise” the people whom they saw as barbaric. This, in turn, led to various native cultures around the world being terrorised, killed and forced to give up their unique ideas, identities and ways of life. 

This definition of civilization also excludes cultures like the Incan empire which had complex societies, religion, division of labour and technological prowess, from being considered a civilization just because they didn’t have a written language. Some examples of proper civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

I have tried to write these essays in a very simple language for a better and easier understanding of all kinds of students. If you still have any kind of confusion regarding this topic, let me know through the comment section below. Keep browsing our website for more such sessions on various important topics. 

Thank you. 

Essay on the Indus Valley Civilisation | Indian History

In this essay we will discuss about Indus Valley Civilisation:- 1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation 2. Race of Indus Civilisation 3. Date 4. Town Planning and Architecture 5. Social Life of the People 6. Economic Life of the People 7. Religion of the People 8. Art and Craft 9. Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture 10. Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

• Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation
• Race of Indus Civilisation
• Date of Indus Civilisation
• Town Planning and Architecture of Indus Civilisation
• Social Life of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Economic Life of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Religion of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Art and Craft of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture
• Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation

1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation:

For a long time it was believed that Indians are stay at home people and our civilization was only of recent origin. But the excavation at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which led to the dis­covery of Indus Valley civilization, has set all these doubts at naught.

It has now been established beyond all doubts that India possessed one of the advanced civilisation at a time when the English people were still living in the jungle age. This unique and important civilisation of the pre-historic times in India was for the first time discovered by Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee in 1921 and 1922.

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Further excavation were carried out along the Indus between Rupar at the foot of Shimla hills and Sutkagendor, 300 miles close to Karachi, where similar remains were discovered. In recent years excavation at village Alamirpur near Meerut and in Saurashtra have also revealed the similar remains.

All these discoveries point to the existence of an advanced civilisation in pre-historic India which is now popularly known as Indus Valley Civilization or Harappa Culture.

Though this civilisation is termed as Indus civilisation it covered even area beyond the Indus Valley. It extended from the upper Sutlej to the Gulf of Camba in the South and from Makran coast of the Arabian Sea in the west to the Jamuna-Ganges coun­try in the east. Thus the Indus civilisation was the largest of the early civilisations.

2. Race of Indus Civilisation:

There has been much contro­versy amongst the historians regarding the race to which the people of Indus Valley civilisation belonged. Different scholars have tried to speculate, mainly on the basis of human skeletons and skulls found in the ruins, about their race.

While some scholars are of the opinion that they were Aryans. This point is not acceptable to Sir John Marshall. Marshall holds that this civilisation was quite different from the earlier Vedic civilisation and that it was quite different from that of the Aryans.

According to Gorden Childe, the people of Indus Valley were of Sumerian race. However, he fails to give convincing and substantial proof in support of this view. RD. Banerjee has expressed the view that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation were Dravidians.

However, if we take the funeral customs of the people of Indus Valley, it would be difficult to accept this contention. On the basis of the finds discovered Dr. Guha has expressed the view that the people belonged to a mixed race. Thus we find that there is great difficulty in ascertaining the race to which the people of Indus Valley civilisation belonged.

Most probably many races contributed to the evolution of Indus Valley culture and perhaps Aryans also formed an important part of them. There is every reason to believe that the Indus’ Valley culture was a synthesis of the Aryan and non-Aryan cultures and its authorship cannot be ascribed to any particular race. But one thing can be said with certainty that the Indus Valley civilisation was of a very high order.

3. Date of the Indus Valley Civilisation:

The Indus Valley, civilisation combines the features of the Neolithic and copper age. The excavation at Mohenjo-Daro have brought to light seven different it layers of buildings, which have assigned to three different period viz., early, intermediate and late. The early layers lie submerged under sub-soil water.

After due consideration the scholars have assigned 500 years to every age, and come to the inclusion that this civilisation must be having an early beginning because it must have taken the people quite a long time to develop such a urban life. Another criteria adopted by the scholars in determining the age of the Indus civilisation is discovery of seals m Mesopotamia, which are dated back to 2500 B.C.

On the basis of these seals and other available material the scholars have suggested that the upper most layer belong to the period 230C-2200 B.C. and the lower layers must have belonged to earlier period. Therefore, the period which is roughly assigned to the Indus civilisation ranges between 2500 B.C. to 500 B.C.

4. Town Planning and Architecture of Indus Valley Civilisation:

All the cities of the Indus Valley civilisation such as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhuduro, Lohumjudaro etc., display the remarkable skill of the Indus valley civilisation in town planning and sanitation.

Of a these Mohenjo-Daro is better preserved and its excavation has revealed the points that the successive cities were built according In tin plan. This city was built after careful planning, as is clear from streets which though vary in width yet intersect at right angles.

These streets thus divide the entire city into square or rectangular blocks, which are further intersected by narrow lanes. Some of the streets are very long and wide. At least one street has been traced which is more than half a mile long and at places over 30 wide. All the roads are aligned east to the west and north to south. The corners of the streets were rounded so that loads should not get dislodged.

The bricks used for the pavements were comparatively of small size and were plain surfaced. L shaped bricks were occasion­ally used for corners. Mud mortar was universally used. The plaster of the wall was mainly of mud or gypsum.

The city had an elaborate drainage system, consisting of horizontal and vertical drains, street drains, soak-pits, etc. The architecture of Mohenjo- Daro though not quite artistic and beautiful was quite utilitarian. The peoples used burnt bricks in building walls, pavements, bath rooms, drains, etc.

Some sun-baked bricks were used for the foundation. The foundations were usually very deep. The buildings were generally erected on high platform to protect them against floods, which seem to have been quite common.

Dr. A.D. Pusalker has greatly admired the town planning of the Indus Valley people and says, “A visitor to the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro is struck by the remarkable skill in town planning and sanitation displayed by the ancients, and as an English writer has observed, feels himself surrounded by ruins of some present- day working-town in Lancashire.”

He has divided the buildings unearthed into three categories:

(1) Dwelling houses or residential buildings

(2) Larger buildings and

(3) Public baths.

The size of the Dwelling houses differed from one and another. The small houses consisted of minimum two rooms while the big ones had large number of rooms and often could be mistaken for the palaces. Each house had a wall and drain which were connected with the main street drain.

Vertical drain pipes suggest that bath rooms were constructed in upper storeys also. The presence of the stairways also suggests that the houses used to be double-storey; The entrance to the houses were placed in narrow by-ways and windows were non-existent.

The roofs were floored by placing reed matting of veans and covering them with mud. The planning of the houses does not suggest any purdah. The size of the doors used in the houses varied from 3 feet 4 inches to 7 feet and 10 inches.

In addition to the dwelling houses certain spacious and large buildings also-existed. Some of these possessed large pillared halls about 80 ft. square. These buildings were probably supposed to be temples, municipal or assembly halls.

Another important feature of the houses which deserves mention was that the people were very fond of baths. In every house a special place was set aside for a bath-room. The floor of the bath-room was water-tight with a clear slope towards one corner. The water of the bath-room would pass to the latrine which was generally situated between bath-room and the outer wall of the house.

People were probably in the habit of taking bath daily. The love of the people for the bath is further confirmed from the discovery of a public bath at Mohenjo-Daro. This bath was 30 X 23 X 3 feet and was surrounded by varandah, galleries and rooms on all sides. It was constructed of the burnt bricks and was connected with the fine drainage system for filling and emptying it.

The swimming baths were filled with the water from the wells, which were built of burnt bricks. With a view to keep the wells neat and clean steps were provided. In addition to the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, a bath has also been discovered at Harappa which measures 39 X 13 X 8 feet.

The walls of this bath were plastered with gypsum and lime morter. People used these baths on religious occasions as well as otherwise. Thus we find that the people of Indus Valley civilization attached great signifi­cance to the bath like the Hindus.

Careful study of the above features of town planning viz. ade­quate water supply, efficient drainage system, and existence of pucca houses shows that the art of town planning and architecture was quite advanced. The presence of lamp posts at intervals indicates that the system of street lighting also existed.

In short we can agree with Dr. R.C. Majumdar and say that the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-Daro reveal that “on this site a large, populous and flou­rishing town, whose inhabitants freely enjoyed, to a degree unknown elsewhere in the ancient world, not only the sanitary conveniences but also the luxuries and comforts of a highly developed municipal life.”

5. Social Life of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

It has already been observed that the people of Mohenjo-Daro were of cosmopolitan character. Evidently these people were attracted by the fertility and productivity of the area and came from different parts of Asia.

1. Food and Drinks:

The people of the Indus Valley were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They cultivated wheat, bailey rice and bred cattle sheep, fish and poultry for food. They also used fish as food. They were also in the habit of taking fruits and vegetables and date was the most favorite fruit of the people.

As regards, the non-vegetarian food they took beef, mutton, poultry, flesh etc.. This has been proved by the discovery of half-burnt bones, found in the houses, lanes and streets.

2. Domestication of Animals:

The Indus Valley people domes­ticated various types of animals. The most common amongst them were the buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, cow etc. They worshipped the humped bull which has been proved by the various seals. It is not fully’ known whether the people of Indus Valley knew about the horse.

However, certain scholars have taken certain bones recovered on the upper-most layer as bones of the horse, while the others have denied. The people also knew about wild animals like lion, rhino­ceros, tiger, monkey, bear etc. In addition they also knew about similar animals like mongoose, squirrel, parrot, peacock, cat etc. This is borne out by the presence of large number of clay models or toys of these animals.

3. Dress and Ornaments:

As regards the dresses no actual specimens of clothing have fallen into the hands of the excavators and we have to make conjectures about their dress from the various figures. Most probably both cotton and woolen clothes were used by the people. The clothes were sewn as has been indicated by the discovery of needles.

We can form an idea about the dress used by the people from the various sculptures of the age. It appears that the women used loin cloth bound by a girdle. In fact there was very little difference between the dress of the males and the females. Most of the people used lower garments which resembles the modern dhoti along with the upper garments which was a type of a shawal.

The people of Indus Valley were great lovers of fashion. Men kept various types of beards and whiskers. The women were also very fashion conscious and bore fan-shaped hair dress. Various objects of head dressing like ivory combs, bronze mirrors have been discovered.

People were in the habit of using antimony also. The discovery of various toilet jars made of ivory, metal pottery and stone have led the scholars to the conclusion that the people were in the habit of using powder.

The authors of Vedic age have also observed:

“Small cockle shells containing a red ochre rouge, lumps of green earth white face paint, and black beauty substance show that the belles in ancient Sind attended to beauty and toilet culture. It is interesting to note that Chanu-daro finds indicate use of lip-sticks”.

Both men and women were in the habit of using ornaments. These ornaments were made of clay and various metals like gold, silver, copper, bronze etc., Certain ornaments like necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were used by both men and women. On the other hand ornaments like girdles, nose studs, ear-rings and anklets were used by women alone.

4. Sports and Games:

The people had great love for sports and games and a number of evidences are available to this effect. Some of the prominent games of the tune were dice playing. This is indicated by the presence of large number of dieses during the course of excavation. People were also fond of hunting.

This is proved by the various seals on which men are shown as hunting wild goats and a large anti-lopes with bows and arrows. People also delighted in birds fighting. Fishing was used both as game as well as regular profession.

The children had special love for clay modelling as is proved by the presence of large number of crude models of men and women and animals, whistles, cattle etc. But probably the greatest source of amusement for the- people was music and dance. This is proved by the figure of a bronze dancing girl and terra cotta figures.

5. Disposal of the Dead:

From the evidence, we find three methods were used for the disposal of the dead person:

Firstly, the dead body was buried.

Secondly, after burning the dead body the remains of the dead body were buried under earth.

Thirdly, the dead bodies were left for the wild animals.

Almost all the three methods have been discovered but according to Sir John Marshall, the second method was the most popular.

6. Household Articles:

A number of household articles have been unearthed at Mohenjo-Daro. These articles include cake moulds, dippers, beakers, bowls, dishes, gobies, basins, pans, saucers, etc. These articles are made of stone, shell, ivory, metal etc.

It is note­worthy that during this period the copper and bronze replaced stone models for the manufacture of household objects. In addition certain needles, axis, sans, sickles, knives, fish hooks, chisels have also been discovered.

6. Economic Life of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

The various objects recovered at the site of Mohenjo-Daro suggest that it was a prosperous city. The people were fully acquain­ted with agriculture and different types of agriculture. Implements like sickle have been discovered. The common agricultural products of the time were wheat, barley, vegetables, cotton etc.

As the laud of the Indus Valley was quite productive and had sufficient irrigation facilities, the agriculture seems to have been the main stay-of the people. In addition to this people domesticated animals for econo­mic purposes. The main animals which were domesticated by the people of Indus Valley included cow, bulls, buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel etc.

1. Industry:

Mohenjo-Daro was a great industrial centre and a number of industries were practiced there. But probably the most important of these industries was weaving. This is proved by the discovery of a number of spindles and spinning wheels in the various houses of Indus Valley. This suggest that spinning of cotton and wool was quite common.

In addition the people of Indus Valley also knew the practice of dyeing. People also knew the art of using metals like gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, led etc. and they produced various articles with these metals. But probably the most important industry of the Indus Valley people was pottery.

The earthen pots of those days which have been discovered now can be broadly classified into two categories—hand made and wheel made. The discovery of number of pottery kilns shows that the pots were burnt in kilns. People produced a variety of pots, certain pots were meant for daily use and were plain while other pots were meant for the preservation of valuables and were painted.

2. Trade and Commerce:

The city of Mohenjo-Daro was a great trading centre and both internal and external trade was carried on from there. The international trade was mainly carried on by the land routes in which bullock-carts were used. The people of Mohenjo-Daro had trade relations with the people living in South India, Cen­tral India and North-Western India, is proved by the common use of precious and semi-precious stones.

The trade with foreign coun­tries was mainly carried through water routes. This has been proved by the representation of a boat on a seal. Trade was particularly carried with countries of Western Asia. The chief articles sent to the foreign countries were the clothes.

The presence of certain objects of Indus Valley civilisation in Sumeria suggest that India had trade re­lations with that country also. Scholars have expressed the opinion that Mohenjo-Daro was economically prosperous city only because it was a flourishing centre of trade and commerce.

3. Weights and Measures:

A large number of weights have been discovered from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. These weights differ a great deal in size. While some of the weights are so heavy that they could not be picked up with hands and were used with the help of ropes, while the others were so small that it appears that they were used exclusively by the jewelers.

But the most common weight which was used by the people of Indus Valley is cubical in shape. The people of Indus Valley also knew about the footage system. It appears that the State exercised strict control over weights and measures.

7. Religion of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

As regards the religion of the Indus Valley people nothing can be said with certainty because the excavation have not revealed any temples, shrines, altars or cult objects. However, we can make some conjectures, about their religious beliefs from the various seals and objects of sculptures.

This testimony clearly indicate that the people had quite an advanced type of religious faith. At least, one thing, is quite clear that the iconic and an iconic cults existed side by side.

The principal deity of the people was Mother-Goddess, a prototype of the ‘Power’ (which later developed into Shakti). A number of standing and semi-nude female figure, wearing a girdle or band round her loins, with an elaborate head dress and collar, etc. have been discovered.

Mackary has suggested that some sort of oil or incense was burnt before this goddess to please her. Human sacrifices were offered to the Mother-Goddess as is proved by the seal. The animal sacrifices were quite common. In addition to the Mother-Goddess, people worshipped a three-headed-deity which can be recognised as a prototype of historic Shiva.

It has been suggested by certain scholars that the Aryans borrowed Siva cult from the Indus Valley people. The cult of animal worship was also quite common. The animals were not only worshipped but were also regarded as Vahana of the gods viz. bull was regarded as the vehicle of Lord Siva.

At Mohenjo-Daro we get a number of evidence of animal, tree and image worship also. Yoga also played an impor­tant part in the religious practice as is proved by the presence of ‘ring-stones’ and ‘chess-men’.

The image worship was certainly known to the people of Indus Valley as is indicated by the crossed legged figure on a table discovered recently. On this tablet devotees are shown kneeling to the right and left to the figure and the snake be­hind the worshipper.

Water played an important role in the religious beliefs of the people, as is evident from the presence of the Great Bath. Certain scholars have suggested that the Great Bath was the temple of the River God. Certain scholars have also suggested that before perfor­ming the Puja people used to take bath in the Great Bath for their purification.

8. Art and Craft of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

The people of the Indus Valley did not make much progress in the field of fine arts and crafts. The various tools, weapons, vessels, houses and public buildings which have been dis­covered lack artistic touch.

We have also not come across any monumental sculpture in any of the remains. Although the people of Indus Valley could not produce works of art on a large scale, they displayed notable artistic achievement at-least in seal engravings, especially those of animals.

The various figurines and amulets also show their art at great height. A few stone images found at Harappa are specimens of an excellent finish and show a high degree of deve­lopment in the art of the sculpture. But probably most outstanding artistic work produced by the Indus Valley people is the bronze ‘dancing girl’.

As one writer has said:

“She is naked but wears bracelets, right up to the shoulder. She is standing in a provocative posture, with one arm on her hip and one lanky leg half-bent. This young woman has an air of lively pertness quite unlike anything in the work of other ancient civilizations. It has been suggested that this ‘dancing girl’ is a representative of a class of temple dancers and prostitutes, such as existed in contemporary Middle Eastern civiliza­tion and were an important feature of later Hindu culture, but this has as yet not been historically established. It is not certain that the girl is a dancer, much less a temple dancer.”

Some of the important crafts which flourished during the Indus Valley civilization period were that of pottery, carpentry, masonry, blacksmith, ivory work, stone cutting etc. The people also knew about spinning as is proved by the presence of large number of spindle wheels.

The Art of Writing and Script:

The inscriptions on the seals discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro prove that the people of Indus Valley knew some sort of writing. Their script has been characterized as pictographic, each sign standing for a particular word or object. It appears the people wrote from left to right but in some cases they first wrote from right to left and then from left to right and so on.

According to Basham, “The Indus script may have been inspired by the earliest Sumerian script which proba­bly antedates it slightly, but it bears little resemblance to an” of the scripts of ancient Middle East.”

Nothing can be said for certainty about the language or the script used by the Indus Valley people, because the script has not so far teen un-deciphered. However, certain scholars regard this script as Sanskrit while other considers it as Dravidian. But R. B. Dikshit is of the view that the people of Indus Valley developed an indepen­dent script of their own.

Certain scholars have tried to advocate that the script of the Indus Valley people was identical to the one used by the people in Egypt, Sumeria and other countries of West Asia. However, nothing can be said for certain about the script of the Indus Valley people except that it was pictographic.

9. Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture:

In the absence of any written material or historical evidence scholars have made various speculations regarding the causes for the Decline or destruction of Indus Valley civilisation.

Some of the causes advanced by the scholars are as follows:

Firstly, some scholars contend that due to decrease in rainfall, Sindh might have become desert and people might have migrated to some other place.

Secondly, certain scholars believe that the earthquake or cyclone might have been responsible for the decadence of Indus Valley culture.

Thirdly, it is argued that the great wealth of the people of the Valley attracted wild tribes from the hills, who might have brought about the destruction of the Indus Valley civilisation. Certain skele­tons have been unearthed which provide testimony to this view.

It cannot be said for certain as to who were the invaders who destroyed the Indus Valley civilisation. There is also a possibility that the Aryans who were better equipped might have conquered Indus Valley people. In support of this view it is pointed out that Rig-Veda contains a reference to the conflict between the Aryans and non-Aryans and the destruction of the walled cities of non-Aryans.

Fourthly, archaeologists have attributed the decline of the Valley civilisation to the progressive decay of the land due to cultivation, neglect or destruction of the irrigation facilities and the continuous exploitation of land and firewood for brick manufacture.

Finally, scholars believe that the decline of Indus Valley culture might have taken place due to the change of course by Indus liver. As a result of this change the fertile Indus Valley was converted into a tract of sand and people were forced to leave the place. However, all these views are mere conjectures and nothing can be said for certain about the causes of the decline of Indus Valley civilisation.

10. Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation:

The Indus Valley civilisation had made very rich contribution to the modern Hindu culture. In fact many of the features found in the Indus Valley civilisation have been adopted by the Hinduism. Siva as a deity is as popular with the people today as it was during the time of the Indus Valley civilisation.

Similarly the cult of Linga and Yoni is also prevalent throughout the country and was taken from the Indus Valley people. The worship of trees and plants is also in vogue in many parts of the country. Certain plants like Tulsi and Pinal are worshipped.

The animal worship which was popular with the Indus Valley people is also found at present. Certain sacred animals, cows and bulls are worshipped even today. Certain animals and birds still regarded as the vehicles or vahana of certain deities.

Therefore, we can conclude that there is an organic relation­ship between the ancient culture of the Indus Valley and Hinduism of today. The religion of the Indus Valley people was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.

Related Articles:

• Indus Valley Civilization in India | Indian History
• Essay on Indus Civilisation
• History of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Indus Valley Civilisation: Origin, Evolution and Characteristics

• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Culture and Civilization

On the other extreme,  civilization is the breakthrough of the human society meaning that it is the advanced level of social and human development.

People often conflate the terms culture and civilization and end up using them synonymously.   Go through with the article presented before you, to have a deeper understanding of the difference between culture and civilization.

Content: Culture Vs Civilization

Comparison chart.

Definition of Culture

The term ‘culture’ is a Latin origin of the world ‘cultus’, which refers to cultivating or refining something, in such a way that it provides admiration and respect. In finer terms, culture is the way people live, reflected in the language they spoke, food they eat, clothes they wear and the Diety they follow or worship. It expresses the manner in which one thinks and do things.

In other words, culture is the set of knowledge, experiences and behaviours which is commonly shared by a group of people. It is something that a person gains through learning.

Culture includes art, knowledge, belief, customs, traditions, morals, festivals, values, attitudes, habits and so on which are inherited by a person as a member of society. It is everything; an individual achieves as a member of a social group. It can be seen in the literature, music, dance forms, religious practices, dressing style, food habits, ways of greeting others, recreation and enjoyment. Different cultures can be found in different places, as it varies from region to region.

Definition of Civilization

Civilization is described as a process of civilizing or say developing the state of human society, to the extent that the culture, industry, technology, government, etc. reaches the maximum level. The term ‘civilization’ is derived from a Latin term ‘civis’ which indicates ‘someone who resides in a town’.

The term ‘civilization’ is not confined to town; rather it talks about adopting better ways of living, and making best possible use of nature’s resources, so as to satisfy the needs of the group of people. Further, it stresses on systematising society into various groups that work collectively and constantly to improve the quality of life, regarding food, education, dress, communication, transportation, and the like.

Key Differences Between Culture and Civilization

The following points are noteworthy, so far as the difference between culture and civilization is concerned:

• The term ‘culture’ refers to the embodiment of the manner in which we think, behave and act. On the contrary, the improved stage of human society, where members have the considerable amount of social and political organisation and development, is called Civilization.
• Our culture describes what we are, but our civilization explains what we have or what we make use of.
• Culture is an end; it has no measurement standards. As against this, civilization has precise measurement standards, because it is a means.
• The culture of a particular region can be reflected in religion, art, dance, literature, customs, morals, music, philosophy, etc. On the other hand, the civilization is exhibited in the law, administration, infrastructure, architecture, social arrangement, etc. of that area.
• Culture denote the greatest level of inner refinement, and so it is internal. Unlike, civilization which is external, i.e. it is the expression of state of the art technology, product, devices, infrastructure and so forth.
• Change in culture is observed with time, as in the old thoughts and traditions lost with the passage of time and new ones are added to it which are then transmitted from one generation to another. On the flip side, civilization is continuously advancing, i.e. the various elements of civilization like means of transportation, communication, etc. are developing day by day.
• Culture can evolve and flourish, even if the civilization does not exist. In contrast, civilization cannot grow and exist without culture.

Therefore, one should not confuse culture for civilization. However, both are created by human beings and expresses, the way we led our lives. These two gives us the ideas, ideals, values and ways to live a decent and lavish life.

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Deloar says

May 25, 2018 at 5:49 pm

Cletus Ushie says

March 17, 2019 at 8:23 am

Nice Clarification! Thanks.

Josué Peña says

October 22, 2019 at 9:44 pm

Great article, you make such good work on these.

December 22, 2021 at 1:33 pm

Good that you expressed these points of demarcation.

prince donkor says

April 22, 2022 at 11:37 pm

i really love this article very educative for my research work.

Mizanur Rahman says

September 21, 2023 at 8:14 am

Good and useful. But would have been better in simpler language

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Civilization in Ancient Egypt Essay

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The basic element of ancient civilization in Egypt besides its geography is religion. The government, literature, astronomy, medicine and arts formed their basis on religion.

It is therefore justified to say that religion was integral to the Egyptians way of life. Since the earliest beginnings of religion in Egypt, changes in religious themes, way of worship and how the worship was conducted have been observed as will be explored in this essay.

People in ancient Egypt ranging from the peasants, merchants, priests, workers, to individual kings worshipped their own gods formulated in the pre-dynastic Egypt and expressed in pictures.

Initially, animals were included in the Egyptian religious cults. That is perhaps why archeologist found preserved graves where cats, gazelles, bulls and sheep were carefully buried (Patricia 112). The worship of pictures did not last for long as they were turned into human portraits.

This, also referred to as anthropomorphism, was unique in the sense that the pictures took human form but retained an animal’s body or head. The Egyptians believed that these gods had human emotions, drank, ate, gave birth, went into battle, lived among people and died.

The reigns of these gods were believed to merge at times and in other instances overlap. In fact, their reign during this time in ancient Egypt did not have an organized hierarchy structure. The power of their gods relied on the power of the reigning king. A powerful king would imply a powerful god and so it was also with the name, location and dominance of the kings (Rosalie 1803).

Additionally, religious names were believed to be very powerful and full of mystery. For instance, in the normal society, people would die or get afflicted when certain traditional rituals were done to their names. In the same respect, certain names were used to express or describe phenomenon that were good and beneficial.

In religion, the Egyptians gave to their gods’ names that were descriptive or qualities such as majestic, virile or strong. Each god had five names and as aforementioned, was worshipped at different times, for different purposes and in different locations depending on the myth.

Examples of gods who were worshipped at that time included Ptah and Osiris the earth gods, Horus, Bat and Hathor were gods of the heaven and Amaunet, amon and Antaios were examples of gods that were worshipped depending on the location (Patricia 111).

In ancient Egypt, the kings played an integral part in religion by connecting the gods and Egyptians. Until around the third dynasty, the kings were believed to be a bridge crossing over the chasm that divided gods and men.

Besides, the priests’ roles were equally important in ancient Egypt and included reading scrolls before religious events, preparing images and statutes, caring for the image gods, and acting as voice of the oracles, stewards of granaries and temple riches and being pinnacles of decisions of their gods.

Furthermore, the ancient religion allowed the use of magic that was commonplace. Warding of evil was done through wearing of amulets, magical texts, spells, concoctions and rituals were used and their successes and their failures were attributed to the gods.

It is important to understand that the ancient religion in Egypt was centralized despite the hierarchy of deities. This indicates a sharp contrast between Egypt and Mesopotamia where in the latter, religion was decentralized. Also, the focus of Egyptian temple was for worship unlike in Sumer where it was for religious, economic and political functions.

The civilization of ancient Egypt happened at the same time Mesopotamian civilization was taking place in other areas in the nations of the Akkadians, Babylonians and the Sumerians (Rosalie 1802). Hence, most other parts of the world were also going through major revolutions in the religious spheres.

For instance, the Egyptian civilization is believed to have originated from the west and other neighboring nations as well as some internal influences. As mentioned before, civilization in ancient religious practices saw the worship of animals turned into the worship of image and pharaoh’s role as a mediator between gods and people changing to a position where he considered himself a divine being.

The rule of pharaoh which was believed to have a qualities such as righteousness, order, justice and truth brought stability and harmony which earlier on was not manifested in image worship (Oesterdiekhoff 103). Due to this and other related factors, religion created optimism, confidence and acted as a unifying factor.

It is important to note that Egyptians believed in life after death and judging by the continuous rhythmic cycle of life and death and their unchanging universe, sought to change their lifestyle in order to meet the predictable patterns of life. In this sense, they began farming, built irrigation canals and pyramids that today give a reflection of extreme centralization created by religion and which brought a significant change in Egypt.

The Hebrews also played a significant role in the civilization of ancient Egypt. The influence exerted by the Hebrews on the western intellectual tradition and the western society was so immense that affected the patterns and activities of other great institutions.

According to the Hebrews, there is only one God to whom they are committed to worship and follow his laws as stated in the Old Testament. The heroes of the Jews unlike the Egyptians were men and women and not gods and goddesses. These heroes represented both the strong and the weak men and women.

The Egyptians and the Sumerians had adopted the worship of many gods also referred to as polytheism and as mentioned earlier on, the dominance of the gods depended on the kings. The Hebrews on the other hand, believed their God was sovereign and practiced monotheism.

The Hebrews believed that the worship of idol gods that like in the case of ancient Egypt was not ideal as it represented an incapable god put in images making them less sovereign. Further, the Hebrews believed that the Egyptians could not obtain freedom from idol worship.

The arrival of the Hebrews into Egypt brought a different influence to the ancient Egyptian way of worship. Their belief system and the sovereign expression of their God in the rescue mission of the Israelites from Egypt played a key role in creating change in the religious atmosphere in Egypt (Oesterdiekhoff 108-109).

The reactions from various circles concerning civilization of ancient Egypt display a mixture of feelings. Some scholars believe that ancient Egypt before civilization was of a unique distinction. Actually, according to history, it is believed that they were the first people to create a state embodying aspiration of the Egyptian race and the spiritual beliefs in the nation-state.

The ancient state of Egypt which lasted for up to 3000 years showed a determined durability, assurance and extraordinary strength demonstrated by its framework of culture and an unmistakable purity of style. The indisputable unity that existed between culture, state and religion fell and what is seen to have remained is its peculiar geographical setting (Rosalie 1803).

Indeed, religion in ancient Egypt led to myriad of other changes that impacted the society politically, socially and economically. For instance, early developments in religion shaped the political systems and structures in ancient Egypt. Most of the rules and leadership dynamics used by Egypt rulers were largely borrowed from religion. The religiously-influenced political and social structures created other avenues and modalities on how people interacted.

The sharing of religious activities in ancient Egypt has offered the world a broad perspective in understanding early social developments in Egypt. Contemporary life would have been rather blank in terms of rich history and perhaps, it would have been cumbersome to comprehensively bridge the past and modern history on religion and worse still, connect the future history with that of the past.

Works Cited

Oesterdiekhoff, W. George. “Ancient Sun Cults: Understanding religious rites in terms of developmental psychology.” Mankind Quarterly , 48.1 (2007): 99-116.

Patricia, Spencer. “Dance in ancient Egypt.” Near Eastern Archaeology, 66.3 (2003): 111-112.

Rosalie, David. “The art of medicine: The art of healing in ancient Egypt: a scientific reappraisal.” The Lancet , 372.9652 (2008): 1802-1803.

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Essay on Indian Culture and Tradition 1000+ Words

Indian culture and tradition, akin to a captivating mosaic, are comprised of myriad vibrant components that constitute the nation’s multifaceted heritage. With deep historical roots, they are commemorated through various avenues such as festivals, art forms, and daily customs. As we embark on this essay, we will delve into the profound essence and importance of Indian culture and tradition. This exploration will encompass their distinctive attributes, their societal significance, and their enduring pertinence.

Diversity in Unity

Indian culture and tradition are renowned for their diversity. India is home to a multitude of languages, religions, cuisines, and customs. Despite this diversity, there is a strong sense of unity that binds the nation together.

Historical Significance

India’s culture and traditions have evolved over thousands of years. The Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedas, and the teachings of ancient sages have all played a role in shaping the culture we see today.

Festivals and Celebrations

India is known for its vibrant festivals, such as Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, and more. These celebrations bring people together, fostering a sense of unity and joy.

Cultural Art Forms

Indian culture finds expression in various art forms such as classical dance, including Bharatanatyam and Kathak, as well as music, encompassing Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, and theater. Furthermore, these art forms boast a rich historical heritage and persistently flourish in contemporary times.

Traditional Clothing

Indian clothing is a reflection of culture and tradition. Attire like the saree, dhoti, and kurta are not just clothing items but symbols of identity.

Expert Opinions

Cultural scholars like Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan emphasize the role of culture in shaping society and providing a sense of identity. They believe that culture is a dynamic force that evolves with time.

Spiritual Practices

Religion and spirituality play a significant role in Indian culture. Practices like meditation, yoga, and visiting temples or mosques are common ways for individuals to connect with their spirituality.

Traditional Medicine

Ayurveda, India’s traditional system of medicine, has been practiced for centuries. It emphasizes holistic well-being and natural healing methods.

Family Values

Indian culture places a strong emphasis on family values. Respect for elders, strong family bonds, and the concept of joint families are integral to Indian society.

Conclusion of Essay on Indian Culture and Tradition

In conclusion, Indian culture and tradition, as a testament to the country’s rich history, diversity, and unity, provide a sense of identity and belonging to millions of people. Moreover, as India continues to evolve in the modern world, it is crucial to preserve and celebrate these cultural treasures. By valuing diversity, promoting cultural exchange, and passing on traditions to future generations, we can ensure that Indian culture and tradition continue to thrive and enrich the lives of all who embrace them. Consequently, India’s cultural heritage is a source of pride and inspiration, forming a tapestry of traditions that we must cherish and protect for generations to come.

Also Check: Simple Guide on How To Write An Essay

Culture is what we are, civilization is what we have.

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INTRODUCTION Culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.” It is “the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.” It is “an organised body of conventional understanding manifest in art and artifact, which, persisting through tradition, characterises a human group.” It is “the quintessence of all natural goods of the world and of those gifts and qualities which, while. belonging to man, lie beyond the immediate sphere of his needs and wants.” In sum culture is what we are. A civilization is a complex human society, usually made up of different cities, with certain characteristics of cultural and technological development. In many parts of the world, early civilizations formed when people began coming together in urban settlements.The word “civilization” relates to the Latin word “civitas” or “city.” This is why the most basic definition of the word “civilization” is “a society made up of cities.” But early in the development of the term, sociologists used “civilization” and “civilized society” to differentiate between societies they found culturally superior (which they were often a part of), and those they found culturally inferior (which they referred to as “savage” or “barbaric” cultures). Still, most sociologists agree on some criteria to define a society as a civilization. First, civilizations have some kind of urban settlements and are not nomadic. With support from the other people living in the settlement, labor is divided up into specific jobs (called the division of labor), so not everyone has to focus on growing their own food. From this specialization comes class structure and government, both aspects of a civilization. Another criterion for civilization is a surplus of food, which comes from having tools to aid in growing crops. Writing, trading, artwork and monuments, and development of science and technology are all aspects of civilizations. In sum civilization is what we have. CULTURE IS WHAT WE ARE

• Culture is an accumulation which a new generation inherits. It is a heritage into which a child is born. Thus a person lacking in culture is an impossibility because individuals of necessity share in the culture of their group. The essential point in regard to culture is that it is acquired by man as a member of society and persists through tradition.
• The essential factor in this acquisition through tradition is the ability to learn from the group. Man learns his behaviour and behaviour which is learnt denotes his culture. Singing, talking, dancing and eating belong to the category of culture. Moreover, the behaviours are not his own but are shared by others.
• They have been transmitted to him by someone, be it his school teacher, his parents or friend. It is the product of human experience, i.e., it is man-made. It is the sum of what the group has learned about living together under the particular circumstances, physical and biological, in which it has found itself.
• Thus culture is a system of learned behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of a group. Man begins to learn it since his birth. By picking up the culture and by tapping the heritage of his past, man becomes distinctively human. Man has, therefore, been called the’ culture-bearing animal.
• Culture is an acquired quality: Culture is not innate. Traits learned through socialization, habits and thoughts are what is called culture. Culture is learned. Any behaviour which is socially acquired is called learned behaviour.
• Culture is social, not individual heritage of man: It is inclusive of the expectations of the members of the groups. It is a social product which is shared by most members of the group.
• Culture is idealistic: Culture embodies the ideas and norms of a group. It is a sum-total of the ideal patterns and norms of behaviour of a group. It is the manifestation of human mind in the course of history.
• Culture is the total social heritage: Culture is linked with the past. The past endures because it lives in culture. It is passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs.
• Culture fulfills some needs: Culture fulfills those ethical and social needs of the groups which are ends in themselves.
• Culture is an integrated system: Culture possesses an order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other and any new element which is introduced is also integrated.
• Language is the chief vehicle of culture: Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and future. This he is enabled to do because he possesses language which transmits to him what was learnt in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom. Culture evolves into more complex forms through division of labour which develops special skills and increases the interdependence of society’s members.

CIVILIZATION IS WHAT WE HAVE

• Civilization denoted utilitarian things used as apparatus. To understand the term ‘culture’ clearly it would be desirable to distinguish it from ‘civilization.’ Writers have many different concepts of civilization. Civilization is considered to have begun at the time of writing and the advent of metals.
• As history begins with writing, so does civilization. Ogburn and Nimkoff conceived of civilization as the latter phase of the superorganic culture. Some based civilization on civil organisation as contrasted to clan or kinship organisation. Since civil organisation was found more commonly in large towns, so people living in these towns were called ‘civilized.’
• Others reserve the word ‘civilization’ for some selected part of a culture. Brooks Adam thinks of civilization as being essentially a highly developed organisation. His concept implies order maintained over an area by governmental power. To Arnold Toynbee, a civilization is essentially a religious and ethical system holding sway over an area often larger than a state or nation.
• Such a system is unified by customs, institutions and ideologies. Some sociologists divide culture into two parts—the material and non-material. By material is meant concrete objects, like dwellings, pens, radio, articles of clothing, utensils, tools, books and paintings; by non-material is meant the abstract creations of man such as language; literature, science, art, law, and religion.
• The sociologists John Lewis Gillin and John Phillip Gillin employed the term, ‘culture’ to designate the ideas and techniques behind the concrete objects, and “Cultural equipment” to describe the objects themselves. According to them, civilization is a more complex and evolved form of culture. MacIver uses the word “Civilization” to denote utilitarian things—the whole mechanism and social organism, techniques and material instruments—which have been devised by man in his endeavour to control the conditions of his life.
• These things operate as means to ends. They are wanted because by using them as means we can secure certain satisfactions. Civilization in this sense would include the radio, the ballot box, the telephone, rail-roads, the schools, the banks and the tractor, etc. All these belong to the realm of civilization. A. W. Green holds that “A culture becomes civilization only when it possesses written language, science, philosophy, as specialized division of labour and a complex technology and political system. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION:
• Civilization has a precise standard of measurement, but not culture: Civilization is susceptible of being quantitatively measured on the grounds of efficiency. When comparing the products of civilization we can prove which is superior and which is inferior. Their efficiency can be estimated and in fact be measured. A lorry runs faster than a bullock cart, an aeroplane runs faster than a lorry, a power loom produces more than a handloom. The tractor is superior to the hand plough. The modern currency system is superior to the barter system. None can dispute these facts. Or the contrary, there is no measuring rod by which we can assess the cultural objects. Different ages and different groups have their own standards of judgments. No discussion about tastes ; if possible. Thus the paintings of Picasso may appear to some are abomination while to others them are invaluable models of art T some Bernard Shaw is a better dramatist than Shakespeare. Some like folk songs, others prefer film songs.
• Civilization is always advancing, but not culture: “Civilization not only marches, it marches always ahead, provided there is no catastrophic break of social continuity in the same direction.” Civilization “how’s a persistent upward trend. It is unilinear and cumulative and tends to advance indefinitely. Since man invented automobile, it has continuously improved. Similar is the case with other means of transportation like railway, ship, aeroplane which are constantly growing more swift, more efficient and better designed. They are vastly superior to those employed by our ancestors. Culture, on the other hand, advances slowly and is often subject to retrogression. It does not march assuredly to higher or improved standards. Our paintings are not as good as or better than those of Ajanta Caves. Can we say that our poetry, drama and literature are superior to those of ancient times?
• Civilization is passed on without effort, but not culture: Culture is transmitted on a different principle from that of civilization. The former can only be assimilated by the like-minded. It can be had only by those who are worthy of it. No one without the quality of the artist can appreciate art, nor classical music can be judged by those who do not have an ear for it. Civilization in general makes no such demand. We can enjoy its products without sharing the capacity which creates them. Everyone can use the breeze from a ceiling fan whether he knows the mechanism of the fan or not.
• The works of civilization can be improved by any body but that is not possible in the case of culture: Lesser minds can improve the work of the great inventors, but lesser artists instead of improving may rather spoil the poems of Milton or Tagore. The accomplishments of culture can be perfected only by the persons who produced them. Again, the product of the artist is more revelatory of his personality than is that of the technician. Culture, being the immediate expression of the human spirit, can advance only if that spirit is capable of finer efforts, has itself something more to express.
• Civilization is external and mechanical while culture is internal and organic: Civilization is inclusive of external things, culture is related to internal thoughts, feelings, ideals, values etc. MacIver remarks, “Civilization is what we have, culture is what we are.’ In Mathew Arnold’s words, culture is “the study of perfection and of harmonious perfection; general perfection and perfection which consists in becoming something, rather than in having something, in an inward condition of the mind and spirit, not in an outward set of circumstances.”
• Civilization is borrowed without change or loss, but not culture: The transference of civilization from one generation to another is quick and easy. Given adequate means of communication things of civilization can quickly spread to the whole world. Radio, television. X-ray, automobiles are no longer the monopoly of any one country. The corporate form of industry has encroached everywhere on older forms. The factory has displaced the domestic system of production. Even the savage is ready to give up the bow and spear and to adopt the gun. The new techniques of constructing buildings and building roads nave everywhere been adopted. Culture, on the other hand, has an intrinsic quality and can only be imbibed. It will have a limited appeal. In India we have borrowed much western civilization, but not western culture. Though there may be some cultural “borrowings” but they are insignificant compared to the borrowings of civilization. It is only a few aspects of culture which are borrowed and even in this act of borrowing, borrowed culture is largely modified by the personality of the borrowers. Thus it is clear that expansion of a civilization follows different principles from those which determine cultural development. Civilization proceeds more rapidly, more simply, less selectively, always spreading outward from the foci of technological advance.

CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION ARE INTERDEPENDENT :

• Culture and civilization, different as they are, will hardly exist apart from each other. The two are not only interdependent but also interactive. The articles of civilization called artifacts are influenced by culture called “mentifacts” and culture is influenced by articles of civilization. Man does not simply want a thing but he wants a thing which may also be beautiful and appealing to his senses. Here culture influences civilization. An automobile or radio may be a useful thing, but the models and finish are determined by our culture. Similarly, our philosophies, novels, and all our learning have been much influenced by the printing press. The tools of the primitive communities are not merely tools, they are more than that. They are the symbols of culture. The numerous articles like pot, clothing, coins, tools, etc. found in excavations reveal the culture of primitive people. Likewise a constitution or code of laws is not simply a means of government, but it at the same time expresses the spirit of a people and is treasured as the embodiment of culture. In this way the objects that fall mainly in the realms of civilization have generally a cultural aspect.
• All the cultural expressions depend on some technical medium and technical process. The expression of art is limited and modified by technical requirements. It is impossible to translate a poem into a foreign language and to give in that language the entire significance of the original blending of meaningful sound and rhythms. Often an artist finds himself hampered by the difficulties of expression when he wants to communicate to others some experience he has had or some scene he has witnessed. He has constantly to struggle to master his medium. Thus civilization puts limitations under which we are to live and pursue our satisfactions. It determines the degree in which cultural activity, of whatever kind, is released or limited. CULTURE ALSO AFFECTS CIVILIZATION:
• The people must interpret their inventions, new devices, techniques and power in the light of the valuations. Every people, and every age had its characteristic ways of looking at things, its characteristic attitudes and its own thought forms and philosophies. Civilization cannot escape from the influence of the creed and the standards and the styles of age.
• Culture has a consistency of its own which is sometimes very hard to defeat. Culture succeeds civilization in case of a clash between the two. Every change in culture valuations has its repercussions on the civilizational structure of the group. We can say that civilization is a ship “which can set sail to various ports. The port we sail to remains a cultural choice. Without the ship we could not sail at all. According to the character of the ship we sail fast or slow, take longer or shorter voyages; our lives are also accommodated to the conditions of shipboard and our experiences vary accordingly. But the direction in which we travel is not predestinated by the design of the ship. The more efficient it is, the more ports lie within the range of our choosing. In short, civilization is the driving force of society: culture is its steering wheel.” CONCLUSION

Not only civilization and culture are interdependent, the two are interactive. Culture responds to the stage of technological development. Thus the form of literary art has been greatly affected by the development of printing. Before the advent of the cinematograph, the dramatic performances were costly and could be enjoyed only by a few rich people. But today through films the performances are enjoyed by a large number of people in different and distant places. The evolution of the means of communication has had a profound effect on the modes of expression. Civilization, as MacIver points out, is a vehicle of culture. In the past the influence of civilization on culture was less observed, but in our own age, with its rapid technological development, the fact has become a commonplace. Our philosophies, arts and ethics are being modified and deflected by our civilization. Due to the scientific instruments which have given us better insight into the universe, we have become less superstitious.

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Indian Culture and Tradition Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian culture and tradition.

India has a rich culture and that has become our identity. Be it in religion, art, intellectual achievements, or performing arts, it has made us a colorful, rich, and diverse nation. The Indian culture and tradition essay is a guideline to the vibrant cultures and traditions followed in India. 

India was home to many invasions and thus it only added to the present variety. Today, India stands as a powerful and multi-cultured society as it has absorbed many cultures and moved on. People here have followed various religion , traditions, and customs.

Although people are turning modern today, hold on to the moral values and celebrates the festivals according to customs. So, we are still living and learning epic lessons from Ramayana and Mahabharata. Also, people still throng Gurudwaras, temples, churches, and mosques. 

The culture in India is everything from people’s living, rituals, values, beliefs, habits, care, knowledge, etc. Also, India is considered as the oldest civilization where people still follows their old habits of care and humanity.

Additionally, culture is a way through which we behave with others, how softly we react to different things, our understanding of ethics, values, and beliefs.

People from the old generation pass their beliefs and cultures to the upcoming generation. Thus, every child that behaves well with others has already learned about their culture from grandparents and parents.

Also, here we can see culture in everything like fashion , music , dance , social norms, foods, etc. Thus, India is one big melting pot for having behaviors and beliefs which gave birth to different cultures. 

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Indian Culture and Religion

There are many religions that have found their origin in age-old methods that are five thousand years old. Also, it is considered because Hinduism was originated from Vedas.

Thus, all the Hindu scriptures that are considered holy have been scripted in the Sanskrit language. Also, it is believed that Jainism has ancient origin and existence in the Indus valley. Buddhism is the other religion that was originated in the country through the teachings of Gautam Buddha. 

There are many different eras that have come and gone but no era was very powerful to change the influence of the real culture. So, the culture of younger generations is still connected to the older generations. Also, our ethnic culture always teaches us to respect elders, behave well, care for helpless people, and help needy and poor people.

Additionally, there is a great culture in our country that we should always welcome guest like gods. That is why we have a famous saying like ‘Atithi Devo Bhava’. So, the basic roots in our culture are spiritual practices and humanity. 

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Essay on Cultural Heritage of India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Cultural Heritage of India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Cultural Heritage of India

Introduction.

India, a country known for its diverse cultures, is rich in cultural heritage. This heritage is a treasure trove of art, architecture, traditions, and values.

Art and Architecture

India’s cultural heritage is also reflected in its festivals. Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, Pongal, and Durga Puja are celebrated with great enthusiasm.

Traditions and Values

Indian traditions, like yoga and Ayurveda, have gained global recognition. Respect for elders, non-violence, and truthfulness are core Indian values.

India’s cultural heritage is a blend of various elements. It’s a symbol of unity in diversity and continues to inspire generations.

250 Words Essay on Cultural Heritage of India

India, an ancient civilization, is a treasure trove of cultural heritage. This rich heritage, spanning millennia, is a testament to the country’s diverse and vibrant history. It presents a unique blend of art, architecture, music, dance, and philosophy that has evolved over time, influenced by various dynasties, religions, and foreign invasions.

Indian art and architecture reflect a deep understanding of aesthetics and spirituality. The grandeur of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, the intricate carvings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves, the majestic Mughal architecture, and the Dravidian and Nagara styles of temple architecture are all part of India’s cultural heritage.

Literature and Philosophy

India’s literary heritage is vast and varied. The Vedas, Upanishads, epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana, and works of classical poets like Kalidasa are invaluable contributions to world literature. Indian philosophy, with its six schools of thought, explores profound questions about existence, morality, and the cosmos.

Music and Dance

India’s music and dance forms are deeply intertwined with its spiritual traditions. From the sacred rhythms of Bharatanatyam to the soulful melodies of the Hindustani and Carnatic music, these art forms express a wide range of human emotions.

India’s cultural heritage is a vivid tapestry of diverse elements, each contributing to a holistic understanding of human civilization. It is a testament to the country’s resilience, adaptability, and creativity. As we move forward, it is crucial to preserve and promote this rich heritage, ensuring its continuity for future generations.

500 Words Essay on Cultural Heritage of India

Religious diversity.

Religion is one of the most defining aspects of India’s cultural heritage. Home to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, India has also embraced Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. Each religion has influenced India’s cultural fabric, contributing to a multitude of festivals, rituals, and architectural marvels.

Literature and Languages

India’s literary heritage is vast and varied, with ancient texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the works of Kalidasa. The linguistic diversity in India is astounding, with over 2000 distinct languages. This linguistic diversity has led to a rich treasury of literature, folk tales, music, and dance forms in different regions.

Indian art and architecture reflect the country’s historical evolution and religious diversity. From the intricate carvings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves, the grandeur of Mughal architecture, the colorful frescoes of Rajasthan, to the Dravidian and Hoysala architecture of South India, each art form tells a unique story of its time and region.

Dance and Music

Indian cuisine, with its diverse regional dishes and culinary techniques, is an essential part of its cultural heritage. The use of varied spices, grains, fruits, and vegetables in Indian cuisine is a testament to the country’s agricultural diversity. The cuisine has also been influenced by various historical and cultural interactions with other societies.

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Essay on Harappan Civilization in 1000+ Words

• Updated on  
• Apr 8, 2024

Essay on Harappan Civilization: Harappan Civilization is one of the four oldest civilizations in the world: Mesopotamia (Iraq), Egypt, the Indus Valley (Harapan), and China. According to Archaeological excavations, the Harappan Civilization existed from 3300 to 1300 BCE. Based on the findings, the existence of this civilization was divided into three phases; the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE, the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, and the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE. 

Table of Contents

• 1 Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators
• 2 Town Planning in Harappan Civilization
• 3 Harappan Civilization Religion
• 4 Social Life
• 5 Trade and Commerce
• 6 Arts and Craft
• 7 Script and Language
• 8 Decline of Harappan Civilization

‘I like the evening in India, the one moment when the sun balances on the rim of the world.’ – James Cameroon

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Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators

The Harappan Civilization was first discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. He was an Indian Archaeologist, who was working under the guidance of Colonel Meke and Sir John Marshal. Daryaram discovered the city of Harappan in the Montgomery district of Punjab, on the left bank of river Ravi. After India’s partition, the city is located in Pakistan.

• At Harappan, Dayaram found a row of 6 granaries, stone lingam and yoni figurines, a virgin goddess seal, wheat and barley in a wooden mortar, and dancing Natraja.
• In 1922, another Indian archaeologist, RD Banerjee, discovered Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district of Sindh, on the right bank of the River Indus (Pakistan). In Mohenjodaro, he found a Pashupati seal, a bronze image of a dancing girl, three cylindrical seals, and a seated male sculpture of the priest King, the Great Granary, and the Great Bath.
• After 9 years of rigorous search, NG Majumdar excavated Chanhudaro in Sindh, Pakistan. The findings at this site included shops for shell ornament makers, bead makers, metal workers, and other precious stones.
• Apart from the above-mentioned sites, other places were also discovered in the following years. Kalibangan in Rajasthan was discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori, an Italian Indologist.
• Interestingly, four more sites were discovered in the Indian state of Gujarat alone. These were: Dholavira and Surkotada in the Rann of Kutch; Lothal near the Gulf of Cambay, and Rangpur on the left bank of river Mahi.

Quick Read: Essay on Indian Independence Day

Did You Know: Harappa Was the First City to be Discovered? That is why this civilization is often known as the Harappan Civilization.

Town Planning in Harappan Civilization

Town planning in the Harappan Civilization was not uniform. However, the grid system is unique in itself. Streets were cutting across one another at right angles (90 degrees). This divided the entire town into large, rectangular blocks.

• The town was divided into two sections or parts: the Upper Part (Citadel) and the Lower Part.
• The Citadel was fortified on the Western side of the town and consisted of public buildings for members of the ruling class.
•  The Lower town was located on the Eastern side where common people lived.
• One interesting town-planning feature of the Harappan Civilization was the Underground Drainage System, which connected all houses to the street drains.
• At Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath was discovered. The Great Bath was used for religious bathing. It was systematically designed so that steps at either end lead to the surface. Alongside the Great Bath, there were changing rooms as well.
• At Harappa, Six rows of Granaries were discovered.
• Common houses in the lower town were made up of burnt bricks, and they included a square courtyard, which had several rooms on all sides. The bathrooms were tiled and the windows did not face the main streets.
• On streets, lamp posts were also installed, indicating the existence of street lighting.

Quick Read: Viksit Bharat Essay

Harappan Civilization Religion

Indus Valley people had their own deities and gods. Pashupati Mahadeva, or Proto Shiva, was the chief male deity. Two deer presented at his feet, and a seal encircled by a buffalo, elephant, tiger, and rhino appeared to him. The four animals were facing in different directions.

• Mother Goddess was the female deity. She was depicted in various styles. There were also signs of Phallus and Yoni worship.
• In Lothal, Kalibangan, and Harappa, evidence of fire worship has been found. The Unicorn bull and the Pipal tree were also worshipped.
• The Harappans also believed in evil powers, and there were signs of using amulets as protection against them.

Social Life

Harappan people followed a highly developed urban way of life. The society mainly consisted of middle-class urban people. There was evidence of various classes, like priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, and labourers 

• The dress of men consisted of two clothes; the upper and lower cotton garments. There is evidence of wool and necklaces.
• The vanity case reveals that the Harappan women knew the art of wall painting. 
• Ploughed fields have shown the evidence of domestication of animals like buffaloes, oxen, sheep, asses, elephants, pigs, and dogs.
• Products like wheat, pulses, and barley were produced in Harappa. The Eastern part of the civilization showed evidence of rice cultivation.

Trade and Commerce

The Harappan people were constantly engaged in domestic and international trade. There is no evidence of metallic or hard money. Only a barter system was practiced. 

• Trade was based on the production of agricultural, industrial, and forest products.
• Weights and measures in Harappa were made of limestone and steatite.
• Mesopotamian cylindrical seals have been found in Mohenjodaro.

Arts and Craft

The Harappans were aware of bronze and used it to make their tools. Bead making and jewelry of gold and silver have been found.

• Cotton fabrics were used in summer and woollen in winter.
• Both plain and painted pottery have been found. Pots were decorated with human figures, plants, animals, and geometrical patterns.
• Seals were made up of steatite pictures of unicorns, bulls, buffalo, tigers, and rhinoceros. Seals were used to mark the ownership of property.

Script and Language

Harappan scripts and language are undeciphered. It means the language in which they are written is not known to us. Scripts are pictographic, where fish are mostly represented.

• The overlapping of letters shows that scripts were written from right to left in the first line and from left to right in the second line. This writing style is called Boustrophedon.
• At Dholavira in Gujarat, a signboard inscription bearing 10 pictographs has been found.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

Archaeologists and historians have cited several reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization. The most widely accepted factors are external aggression, climate change, and epidemics, which might have led to the decline of the Harappan civilization.

Ans: Harappan Civilization is one of the four oldest civilizations in the world: Mesopotamia (Iraq), Egypt, the Indus Valley (Harapan), and China. The Harappan Civilization was first discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. He was an Indian Archaeologist, who was working under the guidance of Colonel Meke and Sir John Marshal. Town planning in the Harappan Civilization was not uniform. However, the grid system is unique in itself. Streets were cutting across one another at right angles (90 degrees). This divided the entire town into large, rectangular blocks.

Ans: The Harappan Civilization was first discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. He was an Indian Archaeologist, who was working under the guidance of Colonel Meke and Sir John Marshal. 

Ans: Archaeologists and historians have cited several reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization. The most widely accepted factors are external aggression, climate change, and epidemics, which might have led to the decline of the Harappan civilization.

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Socio-religious life of the harappan people.

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More than 4000 years ago there flourished a civilization in the north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent. It derived its name from the main river of the region and is known as the Indus Valley Civilization. A culture is also named after the site from where it came to be known for the first time. Since it was at Harappa that the relics of this civilization were first discovered it is also known as the Harappan civilization.

For a long time it was the general belief of the scholars that Indian history began with the advent of the Aryans in India. Later there came a change in this assumption. In 1921-22 A.D., under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India, Sir John Marshall, R.D. Bannerjee and Dayaram Sahani discovered the remains of an ancient civilization at Mohenjo-Daro (meaning ‘Mound of the Dead’) in the Larkana district of Sindh and in Harappa in the Montgomery district of Punjab, now both in Pakistan. In the words of Sir John Marshall,

“With the discoveries in the Indus Valley we have to revise our ideas of the antiquity of the Indian civilization. As early as 3000 BC, India was superior to the western civilization in city organisation.”

As a matter of fact the Harappan culture was urban in nature with exceptional skill in building and town-planning in their civic life. Major excavations undertaken at the Indus sites have given us a fair idea about other aspects of civilization including society, economy, religion, technology etc.

Sites of Excavation:

At the time of Partition of India in 1947, hardly forty settlements belonging to this civilization had come to limelight. But over the last fifty years, thanks to our researchers, they have brought into picture around 1400 settlements, changing the previous idea completely.

In terms of political boundaries of today, of these 1400 sites, nearly 925 settlements are in India and some 475 in Pakistan. These 1400 settlements are distributed over a very wide area. The area sprawled up to Sutkagender in Baluchistan in the west, Alamgirpur in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Daimabad in Ahmadnagar district (Maharashtra) in the South and Manda in Akhnoor district (Jammu and Kashmir) in the north. Thus the total extent of the civilization covered an area of about 1600 kilometers from east to west. In the northern and southern directions the area covered was about 1400 kilometers.

The total area over which the civilization flourished was more than twenty times the area of the Egyptian civilization and more than twelve times the area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations combined. In toto, it covered an area of about 12, 50,000 square kilometers and the settlements were mostly located on river banks.

Harappa is an important archaeological Indus site now in Pakistan. According to A.L. Basham, “Harappa was regarded as another capital of the Indus Empire.” This expression is rather loosely used for there is no concrete evidence to prove that the system of government was that of an empire. It is situated at a distance of about 170 kilometers to the west of Lahore. If R.D. Bannerjee discovered Mohenjo-Daro, Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahani is credited with the discovery of Harappa.

Anions the major Harappan sites mention may be made of Ganawarivvala, Rakhigarhi, Auri, Chunho-daro, Lohun-jo-daro, Noa, Rupar, Kalibangan, Dholavira etc. Each of these cities was surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers as well as forests that were inhabited by different pastoral groups, bands of hunters and food-gatherers.

Social Life:

The ruins and various evidences of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro along with other sites reveal a great deal about the socio-cultural life of the people of Indus valley. An analysis of the findings gives us sufficient information about their highly developed social life. The civilization itself was a glorious conglomeration of people of various origins. As the civilization centred around city culture the social life of the people bore touches of an urban influence. Their civic life was highly disciplined and quite scientific. The inhabitants preferred to live in a proper hygienic atmosphere, as is proved by their town-planning systems.

Origin of Race:

On examination of skulls and bones discovered during excavation it is known that people owing their origin to Proto-Austroloid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean and Alpine stock lived in the Harappan cities. These town-dwellers lived a life of ease, peace and prosperity. S.R. Sharma states that “the social system of the Indus people was even superior to that of Egypt and Babylon.” In fact their social life was far better than that of their contemporaries anywhere in the world. As the people of Harappan culture maintained a high standard of social life, they obviously enjoyed a good number of amenities of city life. The chief characteristics of their social organisations are given below.

The diet of the Harappan people consisted of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Wheat was their staple food grain. Barley, date-palm, maize and rice were also popular foodstuff. Fish was commonly used. Non-vegetarian food also included mutton, poultry, chicken, pork, turtles etc. Milk was a favorite drink. Different types of vegetables and fruits seemed to have been known to the people of Harappan culture.

Dress and Ornament:

Since the climate of the area was tropical, naturally people preferred to use garments conductive to tropical climate. Several figurines of males and females have been found at the excavation sites that give us a clear idea about their costumes. Cotton fabrics were in common use though use of wool was not unknown to them.

Their dress habits were simple. One statue shows the use of two pieces of cloth—one for the upper portion and the other for the lower portion of the body. The upper garment was like a modern shawl that was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right so as to leave the right arm free and in the sitting posture it came down up to the feet. The lower garment was like a modern dhoti. There was very little difference in the garments worn by males and females.

The Harappan people were fond of luxury and comfort. The discovery of ivory combs, bronze mirrors and razors shows the interest of people in the use of their own attire. Both men and women liked stylish combing of hair. They combed their hair into different braids and men kept short beards and long whiskers and sometimes the upper lip was shaved. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled into a knot on the top of the head.

People knew the art of toilet and cosmetics. Various toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone have been discovered at Harappan sites. Ladies were well-acquainted with toilet culture. It appears that they knew the use of collyrium, powder, cream and possibly lipstick too. All these go on to prove that the Harappans were quite conscious of their own beauty.

Amusement and Recreation:

Since the people of Harappan culture were city-dwellers they had various pastimes for useful recreation of their leisure. They entertained themselves by playing indoor games like dicing, dancing and singing. Further hunting, fishing, arranging animal and bird fights formed other sources of amusement.

From the excavation sites a number of toys made of copper, ivory, clay and other materials have come to light. These toys were made in the shape of human beings and animals like bulls, monkeys etc. Clay-modeling was another major pastime of the Harappans. The Harappans used to engage themselves through these constructive hobbies.

Household items:

A number of household items used by the Harappans have been unearthed at different sites. These items were made of gold, silver, copper and bronze. One interesting thing to be noted is that these people did not know the use of iron. Earthen vessels of exquisite designs prepared by the potter’s wheel show the technical skill of the people. The surface of these articles was fine and polished and they were at times ornamented with the figures of birds, animals, trees and clay-knobs.

Among the earthen pots the commonly used articles included plates, dish with stand, bowls, goblets, pans, saucers, jars, pitchers, jars with covers etc. Many tools of practical utility like needle, axe, saw, sickle, knife, fishing hook, bed-stead, stool and chair have been found. This shows that they used cots, mats and reeds. For children clay figures of men, women and clay-carts with wheels were made in large numbers.

These household items show the Harappans artistic bent of mind. They made paintings of black on red ware. Several seals of terracotta with artistic designs bear evidence of their refined taste and skill. Pictorial motifs and geometrical designs found on various articles point out the artistic skill of Harappan inhabitants.

Weapons of War:

Although the Harappans were a peace loving people they used various weapons for self-defence. These weapons included axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows. Swords, shields, helmets or any such protective gears were not used. These weapons were made of copper or bronze. Their inferior quality suggests that the Harappan soldiers were not quite sophisticated in warfare.

We have little knowledge about the drugs and medicines used by the Harappan people. The horns of deer and antelope were used as medicines. The use of ‘neem’ as an anti-psoric medicine was also known to them. Their limited medical knowledge helped them to cure themselves to some extent.

Domestication of animals:

The Harappan people knew the art of domesticating animals for their personal use. These animals were bulls, buffaloes, sheep, pigs, dogs, elephants and camels. They used carts drawn by bullocks. It is doubtful whether horse was domesticated. It is evident that they were familiar with wild animals like tigers, bears, rhinoceros, squirrels and monkeys. The idea of domesticating animals for human use speaks of the Harappans’ advanced thinking in this regard.

Disposal of the Dead:

Different methods of disposing the dead were practiced by the people of Harappan culture. The common method of disposing the dead body was burning the corpse. The second method was to leave the dead in dense jungles or other inaccessible places to be eaten up by birds and animals. The bones were collected afterwards. Another method was to bury the dead.

The absence of cemetery at Mohenjo-Daro and a large burial ground found at Harappa show that uniform burial rites were not followed everywhere. According to Sir John Marshall, the process of burning was very common to the people. The ashes were sometimes placed in the urns and at other times un burnt bones were collected in jars. Earthen pots containing food grains were placed in the grave and in some cases the body was buried with ornaments.

Social Stratification:

The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three sections:

(a) The elite class associated with the citadel,

(b) A well-to-do middle class and

(c) A relatively weaker class occupying the lower towns that were generally fortified.

Some of the craftsmen and labourers, however, resided outside the fortified area. We do not know whether these divisions were based purely on economic factors or had a socio-religious basis. At Kalibangan site of Harappan culture it appears that the priests lived in the upper part of the citadel and performed rituals on altars of fire in the lower part of it.

The different aspects of Harappan society discussed above show that the people led a highly developed, peaceful, fun-loving and comfortable life. Social rules and norms were well regulated and their mode of living was well disciplined. As a result, social life was simple and contented.

Women in the Harappan society seemed to enjoy high respect. The worship of Mother Goddess stands as clear proof to the esteemed position of Harappan women. They were treated equally by their male counterparts.

Religious belief:

The affluent Harappan society was deeply religious in nature. In the absence of ruins of any temple, altar or statue of gods, we have to rely only on figurines and seals of religious significance to have an idea regarding their religious belief. Generally, there are two aspects of a religion.

(a) The conceptual or philosophical aspect and

(b) The practical or ritualistic aspect.

The conceptual part of religion is generally found in the metaphysical texts whereas the ritualistic part is found in the material methods. Since the scripts on the Harappan seals have not yet been deciphered by the scholars, it is difficult to know the metaphysical aspect of their religion. But the abundance of material remains from the Harappan sites help us to form ideas about the practical aspect of their religious faith. Figurines similar to those of the Harappan people have been found in many countries between Persia and Aegean Sea.

From these available sources we can form an idea about their religion:

1. Worship of the Mother Goddess.

2. Worship of a male god, probably Shiva or Pasupatin.

3. Worship of animals in natural or semi-human form.

4. Worship of trees and plants in their natural state and the spirits dwelling in them.

5. Worship of inanimate stones or other objects in the form of linga or yoni symbols.

6. Worship of sacred incense-burners or chrematheism.

7. De-monophobia or faith in magic and charms.

8. Practice of Yoga. (Source : Ancient India, NCERT)

Worship of Mother Goddess:

One of the most important aspects of Harappan religion was worship of Mother Goddess. A large number of terracotta figurines in various postures have been unearthed from the ruins. These statues are believed to be of Mother Goddess. Most of these images are shown wearing saree, necklace and waist band.

One interesting seal from Harappa shows one female figure standing upside down with outstretched legs and a tree sprouting from her womb. Scholars opine that she symbolizes the Goddess of Fertility or Plant Goddess. In another seal we find a female figure with upraised arms before whom stands a man brandishing a sword.

This posture leads the historians to conclude that some form of sacrifice was prevalent among the Harappans. Besides, earthen images of pregnant women, women carrying children etc. are ample proof of worship of the Mother Goddess because she was believed to be the source of creation and energy.

Worship of a male god:

Another prominent religious belief among the Harappans was the worship of a male god. In one particular seal we find a male figure meditating with a headgear adorned with horns of a buffalo being surrounded by animals like elephants, tigers, deer etc. This explains to a certain extent the later concept of the master of animals known as “Pasupatin”. The images of bulls or oxen on the Harappan seals also prove the point that they were worshippers of Shiva.

Another seal describes the picture of a god in the same yogic posture with a Naga kneeling in prayer before him with uplifted hands on either side. All these findings clearly point towards- the concept of later Shiva worship in Hindu religion.

Animal worship was another typical feature of Harappan religious belief. Worship of certain common animals like elephants, rhinoceros, tigers and bulls was quite prevalent. Worship of the Naga deity or serpent worship was equally in vogue. But among all animals, bull worship was most prominent. The bull was usually worshipped, associated with Lord Shiva. But the absence of cow on the seals is very conspicuous. There is also the image of an imaginary unicorn in some seals. All these animals were worshipped with reverence by the Harappan people.

Worship of trees and plants:

In addition to the worship of Shiva and Shakti both in human and symbolic forms, the Harappan people followed the practice of the worship of stones, trees and animals because they believed that these were the abode of various spirits, good or bad. Pictures of trees on the seals, in some cases horned animals and human beings standing under trees, a deity standing between two branches of a peepal tree, are clear evidences of tree-worship. There are stray references with regard to the worship of Neem and Banyan trees.

The Harappans had great regard for water. They regarded water to be very sacred and purifying. The discovery of a large number of wells, tanks and public baths in the ruins found on the banks of the Indus river hints upon the idea of self-purification of the body which was a prelude to any worship. In all probabilities, like the water of the Ganga, the water of the Indus river received equal reverence from the inhabitants of the civilization.

Worship of stones or other objects:

Another peculiarity of Harappan religious belief was the worship of stones in the form of linga and yoni as sources of potency. One terracotta piece from Kalingbangan shows pictures of linga and yoni on one seal. Most probably such seals were worshipped by the Harappans. But there is no definite knowledge whether linga and yoni were worshipped separately symbolizing Shiva and Shakti.

Chrematheism:

The linga and yoni worship by the Harappans was associated with chrematheism, as illustrated in the worship of sacred incense burneio. A number of clay tablets, rings, terracotta cakes found from the ruins suggest their use in rituals. There are seals carrying the figure of a unicorn and other sacred animals associated with altar or dhoopdani.

Demonophobia:

Like most primitive inhabitants of other civilisations the Harappan people harboured faith in magic and charms. Their blind belief in the existence of spirits prompted them to have faith in various practices of black magic to get rid of their evil influence.

Practice of Yoga:

The last aspect of Harappan religion attached much importance to the practice of Yoga. A large number of terracotta figurines show individuals in various yogic postures or asanas. The Harappans practised yoga for both physical exercise and as religious rites.

As a matter of fact modern Hinduism possesses many of the above features of Harappan religious faith and practices. The worship of Mother Goddess, worship of Shiva in both iconic and phallic form, worship of free spirits, trees, animals and other popular features of Hinduism were well established in India long before the origin of Vedic civilisation. Shaivism and Shaktism of later period owe their origin to Harappan culture. In the words of Wheeler,

“The Indus Valley Civilisation was a melange of much that already know of third millennium Asiatic religious observance augmented by specific manifestations of later Hinduism.” Therefore, we cannot but conclude with the words of R.C. Majumdar that there is “an organic relationship between the ancient culture of Indus valley and the Hinduism of today. In a real sense the religion of Indus people was a linear progenitor of Hinduism.”

Legacy of Harappan Culture:

Harappan civilization is the most ancient civilization of Indian history. It gave to the world the first taste of urban life. Their highly developed civic life had its manifestations in their socio-cultural habits and practices. The Harappan social life was well-regulated and systematic. Various facets of their social activities as well as trends give us a picture of their decent style of living by our ancestors. In fact, modern Indian life owes much of its origin to Harappan culture. To them goes the credit for producing the earliest specimens of pottery, harnessing animals for use by humans and innovating creative use of leisure.

The religious legacy left by the Harappans is equally praiseworthy. The foundation of Hindu religion was laid during this period upon which the superstructure was raised later by the Aryans. The Hindu religious beliefs, myths, traditions etc. have in a sense deep-rooted connection with the Harappan religious ways. After coming to limelight in 1922 A.D., this ancient culture has established the fact that it has greatly contributed to the essence of modern Indian life.

V.G. Childe has rightly remarked in his book, “New Light on Most Ancient East”,

“Indus Civilisation represents a very perfect adjustment of human life to a specific environment that can only have resulted from years of patient effort. And it forms the basis of modern Indian culture.”

To conclude with the words of Sir John Marshall,

“The Indus Valley Civilisation has been mainly an independent and indigenous growth, a product of the Indian soil marked by certain specifically Indian features not present in any other early civilization. Indeed the Indus Valley civilisation is no less individual and national than other great river valley civilizations of antiquity.”

Related Articles:

• Top 6 Cause of Decline of the Harappan Culture
• Socio-Religious Life of Vedic People

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Deciphering the Legacy of the Olmec Civilization

This essay about the Olmecs highlights their significant impact on Mesoamerican cultural and social development from 1500 BCE to 400 BCE. Known for their monumental basalt head sculptures, the Olmecs demonstrated advanced artistry and honored rulers or deities. They excelled in agriculture, trade, and communal organization, establishing centers like La Venta. Their complex religious system included gods and ritual practices. Despite their decline around 400 BCE, the Olmecs left a lasting legacy that influenced later Mesoamerican civilizations in art, politics, and spirituality.

How it works

Olmecs, old civilization, that flowers in Mesoamerica with close 1500 To our era to 400 To our era, stand how the foundational post of cultural and social development in a region. Comfortably within the limits of magnificent tropical landscapes of contemporary Veracruz and sharp Seasoning in Mexico, Olmecs strained, deep influence, that resonated through the later cultures of Mesoamerican.

Central to the inheritance Olmec – them distinctive monumental art, what is exceptionally characterized by portrait huge heads cut from a basalt. These monumental sculptures, by submitting individuals with distinctly native properties and ceremonies by head-dresses, confirm to Olmecs’ moved forward mastery and their reliable honour of rulers or deities.

After their artistic achievements, Olmecs showed wonderful movements in agriculture, trade, and communal organization. They set the refined ceremonies centers for example La Venta and dignity of Lorenzo, that served as centers for religious rituals, political management, and commercial activity. The presence of luxurious commodities and certificate of remote trade networks underline economic mastery of Olmecs’ and cultural exchange within the limits of Mesoamerica.

Religiously, Olmecs developed the complicated system of faith, that included the pantheon of Gods and ritual practices. Their deities, by the way figures like and the grass-snake covered by a feather God of jaguar, the played substantial roles in religious ceremonies are celites to support of space order and guaranteeing of agricultural sufficiency. Rituals for example bloodletting and potential are created from a human victim were integral to Olmec of life of spiritual, removing their deep connecting to the natural world and a celestial zmusza. Without regard to their cultural achievements, decline of civilization of Olmec close 400 To our era becomes the theme of academic debates and research. Theories in relation to their decline are situated from external influences to social revolution or co-operating with nearby cultures. Their enigmatic nature of disappearance prolongs to fuel an archaeological query and summer residence of existent certificate of other translation.

Upon completion, Olmecs left a patient inheritance that formed the cultural landscape of old Mesoamerica. Their artistic innovations, organizational difficulty, and religious practices put foundational foundation for later civilizations, influencing on artistic styles, political structures, and to the spiritual faith during a region. As strong research extends our understanding of this enigmatic civilization, prolong Olmecs oczarowywa? and enrich our knowledge of the early American cultures.

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Hayek, the Accidental Freudian

In November, 1977, on a still-sticky evening along Louisiana’s Gulf Coast, the Austrian economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek boarded a flight bound for Chile and settled into his seat in first class. He was headed to the Valparaíso Business School, where he was scheduled to receive an honorary degree. Upon arrival in Santiago, the Nobel laureate was greeted at the airport by the dean of the business school, Carlos Cáceres. They drove toward the Pacific Coast, stopping for a bite to eat in the city of Casablanca, which had a restaurant known for its chicken stew. After their meal, they steered north to Viña del Mar, a seaside resort city in Valparaíso, where Hayek would take long walks on the beach, pausing now and then to study the stones in the sand.

To the casual observer, it seemed like a typical autumnal recessional, the sort of trip that illustrious scholars enjoy at the end of their careers. This one had a wintrier purpose. In addition to being a fan of Hayek, Cáceres sat on a special board of advisers to the military dictator Augusto Pinochet , who had overthrown Chile’s democratically elected Socialist leader, Salvador Allende , in a violent coup four years earlier. Cáceres would go on to serve as Pinochet’s central banker, finance minister, and interior minister. He helped design the country’s 1980 constitution, which nested a neoliberal economy in the spikes of an authoritarian state. Like many of his market-minded colleagues in the regime, Cáceres wanted the world to see the dictatorship—steeped in kidnapping, torture, and murder—as he saw it: on the road to freedom. A visit from Hayek, an internationally renowned theorist of capitalism and liberty, might help.

If Hayek had any qualms about his role, he did not express them. To the contrary: after a personal meeting with Pinochet, the philosopher told reporters that he had explained to the tyrant that “unlimited democracy does not work.” Pinochet “listened carefully” and asked Hayek to send his writing on the topic. Hayek had his secretary mail a chapter from his forthcoming book, the third volume of “ Law, Legislation and Liberty, ” which included a discussion of emergency rule. After commending the dictatorship for not “being obsessed with popular commitments or political expectations of any kind,” Hayek reported to the media that “the direction of the Chilean economy is very good,” and “an example for the world.” The regime, Cáceres later told Hayek, welcomed his words.

In the following years, Hayek continued to defend the regime, describing its leaders as “educated, reasonable, and insightful men” and Pinochet as “an honorable general.” To a doubting public, Hayek explained that dictators can cleanse democracies of their “impurities.” He reassured critics that he had “not been able to find a single person even in much maligned Chile who did not agree that personal freedom was much greater under Pinochet than it had been under Allende.” It was one of the rare instances when his perception of the country matched reality; as a respondent pointed out, “such absolute unanimity only exists when those who disagree have been imprisoned, expelled, terrified into silence, or destroyed.”

Hayek made his voyage to Santiago more than a quarter century after the years covered in “ Hayek: A Life ,” the first half of Bruce Caldwell and Hansjoerg Klausinger’s projected two-volume biography. The trip is naturally not discussed in this volume, which ends in 1950, yet it is embedded in virtually every sentence of Hayek’s developing thought and being. Decades before he set foot on Chilean soil, Hayek envisioned economic freedom as a form of élite domination. His economy required no intervention of an authoritarian state to be coercive and unfree. It was already coercive and unfree, by design. The question we’re left with, at the end of 1950, is not how Hayek, theorist of liberty, could have come to the aid of Pinochet but, given his theory of the economy, how could he not?

Friedrich August Edler von Hayek was born on May 8, 1899, in his parents’ apartment in Vienna. Two miles away, Sigmund Freud was putting the finishing touches on “ The Interpretation of Dreams .” “ Fin-de-siècle Vienna ” invokes a century-straddling city whose violent metamorphosis, from the crown jewel of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to the capital of the Austrian Republic, released into the world a distinctive swirl of psychoanalysis and logical positivism, fascism and atonal music. Though often omitted from the city’s syllabus, Hayek’s writings are among its lasting texts.

His family story reads like a novel by Joseph Roth or Thomas Mann. Hayek’s paternal great-great-grandfather, a textile manufacturer in Moravia, was ennobled at the end of the eighteenth century; his son squandered his wealth in the course of the nineteenth. Hayek’s maternal great-grandfather was knighted for service to the Emperor at the siege of Arad. Both sides of the family were beneficiaries of a century’s creative accounting that, by the collapse of the Empire in 1918, had bestowed a “von” upon eight thousand members of the bourgeoisie. Though the Republic abolished the use of titles in 1919, Hayek continued to use his until 1945, when it became a liability in his arguments with the left.

A high-minded liberalism is often attributed to these branches of the Austrian bourgeoisie, but fascist and proto-fascist ornaments adorn the Hayek family tree. His grandfather ran for political office, twice, as a follower of Karl Lueger, whom Adolf Hitler claimed as an inspiration. Hayek’s father helped found a racially restrictive association of physicians to oppose the increasing number of Jews in the medical profession. His mother pored over “Mein Kampf” and welcomed the Anschluss. His brother Heinz, who had moved to Germany for a job in 1929, joined the S.A. in 1933 and the Nazi Party in 1938, for reasons of conviction and career, then underwent a de-Nazification trial after the war.

Whatever hold Hayek’s family had upon him in his youth, it loosened during the First World War. While serving at the Italian front, he briefly fell under the spell of the writings of the German Jewish industrialist Walther Rathenau. Upon returning home, Hayek enrolled at the University of Vienna, where he studied with the author of the Austrian constitution, Hans Kelsen, a Jewish social democrat. When capitalism became his passion and economics his profession, Hayek helped found a discussion group of students and faculty, most of them Jewish or of Jewish descent. Exposed “to the best type of Jewish intelligentsia . . . who proved to be far ahead of me in literary education and general precociousness,” Hayek planted his flag of free markets in the field of enlightenment and cosmopolitanism.

Its perimeter extended only so far. In 1923, he travelled to the United States, believing that an “acquaintance” with the country was “indispensable for an economist.” Already primed by Oswald Spengler ’s “ The Decline of the West ,” which he read in 1920, Hayek was appalled by what he saw. The culture was lowbrow, its tastes crass and banal. The women were “horrible . . . walking paint pots.” New York City was crowded and noisy. Americans cared too much about money. Good living required inordinate wealth. Like a socialist who can’t abide the working class, Hayek couldn’t bear the reality of commercial civilization. He chose enchantment instead.

The task of psychoanalysis, Freud wrote in 1917, is “to prove to the ego that it is not even master in its own house, but must content itself with scanty information of what is going on unconsciously in its mind.” Despite his animus toward Freud, whom he called “probably . . . the greatest destroyer of culture,” Hayek launched a similar strike at the “economic man” of mainstream analysis. Against the idea of the “quasi-omniscient individual” who operates in a “perfect market in which everybody knows everything,” Hayek created what he would later call an “anti-rationalistic” approach to economics and social life.

Before 1937, Hayek, by his own account, was a conventional thinker. He had joined the London School of Economics in 1931, where he hewed to the conservative maxims of Austrian economics. He argued for tight money and the gold standard, supported wage cuts and austerity, and tried to assemble a theory of prices and the business cycle from pieces he had been collecting since his dissertation days in Vienna. With his articles “Economics and Knowledge” (1937) and “The Use of Knowledge in Society” (1945), Hayek broke free of these strictures and started his “own way of thinking.” It was “the most exciting moment” of his career, generating a “feeling of sudden illumination, sudden enlightenment.”

Hayek believed that what we see in the economy, what we can know, is limited and constrained. We know small facts: how to jiggle the handle of a machine in our office; who’s available on the weekend to fix that part that always breaks just so; which supplier will replace it when it’s beyond repair. If we, or a limited group of us, were alone in the world with those facts, like Robinson Crusoe on his island, we might know the whole of the economy. But we’re not. We share the economy with a great many others, scattered across the globe. We can’t know their infinitesimal facts any more than they can know ours. Straitened by time and place, each of us possesses only a “special knowledge of circumstances of the fleeting moment not known to others.”

These fragments of economic knowledge are often unconscious; we can’t render them as propositions or in words. A skilled manager can inspire his employees to do excellent work without being able to explain what he did to inspire them.

But if all this knowledge is local and unique, if much of it is unspoken and inferred, how do we produce and consume on a global scale? How does my knowledge get registered by buyers and sellers thousands of miles away? And if the facts of my economic situation change, as they invariably do, how do those buyers and sellers learn of those changes and respond in kind?

For Hayek, the answer lay in the movement of prices. Imagine the global market in lithium, which is crucial to batteries. One day, the price of lithium increases. Maybe demand has gone up: an affordable electric car has rolled off the assembly line, or an efficient energy grid has come online. Maybe supply has come down: a vein of ore in Australia has been thoroughly mined, or workers at a salt flat in Chile have gone on strike. The source of the scarcity is irrelevant to us. Not only does it not matter, Hayek says, “it is significant that it does not matter.” All we know and need to know is the facts of our economic situation. The higher price of lithium raises the price of a new cell phone, so I hold off on upgrading my phone. When the price of lithium goes back down—the Chilean workers settle with management or suppliers find a new source in Australia—I get my phone.

Hayek marvelled at this concert of unknowingness. Like a psychoanalytic symptom, prices condense and communicate fragments of knowledge that are obscure to the conscious mind. The movement of prices effects a change in our “dispositions”—what we want, how much of it we want, what and how much we’re willing to give up to get it—again, without our knowing why, or that we even had such a disposition in the first place. Hayek called this a sort of “social mind”—though, unlike the Freudian mind, he thought it must remain inaccessible. We are all prisoners of a knowledge that allows us to move in dimly lit corridors, bumping into one another, our weight shifting ever so slightly as we try to keep moving in line.

Hayek’s market seems to conjure a wondrous democracy of unreason. No one has comprehensive vision; we coöperate without supervision or sight. But it also invites a question: Where does something like innovation come from? It can’t be from the masses or the majority, the wageworkers whose horizons are limited. Conforming to their values would probably “mean the stagnation, if not the decay, of civilization.” For innovation to occur, he wrote, a few “must lead, and the rest must follow.”

It turns out that knowledge is distributed unequally across Hayek’s market. “Only from an advanced position does the next range of desires and possibilities become visible,” he wrote. A few men, of discrete outline and distinctive purpose, occupy that position, imposing themselves on the many. “The selection of new goals” is made by an élite “long before the majority can strive for them.” There is much unreason but little democracy. There is also little freedom. Hayek cares a great deal about freedom, but he believes that it, too, does its most important work in exclusive quarters. “The freedom that will be used by only one man in a million,” he wrote, “may be more important to society and more beneficial to the majority than any freedom that we all use.”

Hayek’s contortions—his attempts to preserve commitments both to freedom and to élitism—are most evident in his concept of coercion. Coercion, Hayek tells us in the first chapter of “ The Constitution of Liberty ,” his magnum opus on free societies, is “such control of the environment or circumstances of a person by another that, in order to avoid greater evil, he is forced to act not according to a coherent plan of his own but to serve the ends of another.” By way of example, let’s say an investor pulls his money out of a company that I work for, forcing me to lose my job. Thanks to my salary and benefits, I’d taken out a mortgage, started a family, and enrolled my children in school. I had a plan and a purpose for my life. Because of that investor, both are now threatened. His actions have rendered “the alternatives before me . . . distressingly few and uncertain.” Because of him, I may be “impelled” by the threat of starvation “to accept a distasteful job at a very low wage,” which leaves me “ ‘at the mercy’ of the only man willing to employ me.” Even so, Hayek insists that I have not been coerced.

How can that be? Hayek suddenly introduces a new element to his analysis, which is scarcely mentioned in that opening chapter on freedom. “So long as the intent of the act that harms me is not to make me serve another person’s ends,” he writes, “its effect on my freedom is not different from that of any natural calamity.” The investor didn’t seek to harm me, to make me give up my plans and purposes, in the service of his ends. He just happened to harm me in the service of his ends. He’s like a monster wave. Monster waves aren’t coercive; they’re simply telling us to take our surfboard elsewhere.

Hayek’s is an economy in which a few can act, with all the power of nature, while the rest of us are acted upon. That domination is directly derived from his vision of the economy and his conception of freedom. It is a commitment obscured by Hayek’s readers, not only his right-wing defenders but also his left-wing critics. The latter tend to focus on other sources of domination or unfreedom: the cruel and carceral state that enforces Hayek’s neoliberal order; the remote global institutions that put that order beyond the reach of democratic citizens; the patriarchal family that offers tutorials in submission to the market; and the construction of the enterprising self that is so emblematic of contemporary capitalism.

Persuasive as these readings are, they don’t quite capture that moment of élite domination in the Hayekian market, when the “innovations” of a seeing and knowing few have “forced a new manner of living” on the unseeing and unknowing many, whose function is neither to invest nor amass but to yield, not to the economy or the state but to their superior. It was a moment that Hayek came to know all too well in his personal life.

The great trial of Hayek’s life was his twenty-four-year marriage to Helena (Hella) Fritsch, much of which he spent trying to get out of. Caldwell and Klausinger devote the last three chapters of their biography to the divorce—and for good reason, even if they can’t see it. In Hayek’s anguished bid to end his marriage, we find, just as Freud would have anticipated, the private pathology of the public philosophy, the knowledge problem in practice. That we should discover those pathologies in a marriage is less remarkable than it might seem. From the treatises of antiquity to the novels of Jane Austen to the economics of Thomas Piketty , writers of all sorts have understood the overlap between unions of soul and contracts of need.

Before Hella, there was Lenerl—Helene Bitterlich, a distant cousin whom Hayek fell in love with after the First World War, and who shared his feelings. Sexually inexperienced and hopeless around women, Hayek didn’t make a move. Eventually, another man did, and Lenerl accepted his proposal. Hayek began seeing Hella, and they married in 1926. Within a decade, he confessed to Hella that he had married her on the rebound from Lenerl. He secretly arranged to be with Lenerl at a future point and asked Hella for a divorce. She refused the divorce and any further discussion of it.

After the Second World War, Hayek resumed his efforts. Because he intended to support Hella and their children after the divorce, he resolved to get a higher-paying job in America. For two years, he crisscrossed the Atlantic, sometimes without telling Hella the purpose of his trips. By 1948, he had an offer from the University of Chicago. When he disclosed his plan to Hella, she again refused to grant him a divorce. He had his attorney scour the country’s various divorce laws, including Reno’s. Hella, too, spoke with a lawyer, who made clear that Hayek could not divorce her without her consent.

That Hayek and Hella should have found themselves in the marital equivalent of a Hayekian market—uncertain about each other’s plans, ignorant of each other’s moves, captive to each other’s tacit knowledge—did not give him perspective or pause. Instead, he did what victims, and left-wing critics, of the market often do. In a letter to Hella, he insisted on the objective facts of the situation and asserted the rationality and right of his position. He forgot the first rule of Hayekian economics, that all data is subjective. Hella told him that if he left her, she would have a nervous breakdown, forcing him to return to take care of their children. Then she resumed her silence.

Hayek tried a different tack, drawn from another page of his economic writing. In “The Meaning of Competition,” Hayek had taken issue with the economist George Stigler’s claim that “economic relationships are never perfectly competitive if they involve any personal relationships between economic units.” Hayek countered that the corollary of imperfect knowledge in a competitive market is the trust that we must invest in other individuals, who supply us with goods and services. We depend on our personal connections—and connections to those connections—to send us to the best doctor, restaurant, or hotel. Personal networks, and the reputations that move along them, make markets work and give market actors a competitive edge.

Seeking to alter the terms of his contest with Hella, Hayek leveraged his power and connections to get a better vantage, to see further than Hella and to make the world work for him. He knew he couldn’t take the job at Chicago without resolving his divorce, but he couldn’t put Chicago off indefinitely. With his network of academic friends and private donors, he secured a temporary appointment at the university for the winter quarter of 1950. That bought him time. It also involved considerable subterfuge, toward his wife, friends, and colleagues and supervisors at the London School of Economics, who were led to believe that he would return to Britain.

To get a divorce in America, Hayek needed to establish residence in a state other than Illinois, which had restrictive divorce laws. There could be no whiff of his using the state simply to get the divorce; he’d have to get a job there and give up his appointment at L.S.E. He secured a temporary post at the University of Arkansas for the spring quarter of 1950. He arranged for his mother to move to London, if necessary, to help take care of the children and make sure Hella made no sudden moves.

“The choreography was precise,” Caldwell and Klausinger write. In the course of two days in February, while he was in America, Hayek resigned from L.S.E. and informed Hella that he was leaving her. If she wanted him to support her and the children, she had to grant him the divorce. On the advice of a lawyer, Hayek gathered more evidence of their incompatibility. He hired a handwriting expert from Vienna, who determined, from letters written by Hella and Hayek, that she was “remote from the facts of life” and he “prevails in life and knows how to master it.” In July, they were divorced. A month later, he was married to Lenerl.

The story has a final Hayekian twist. Responding to the Labour government’s drastic devaluation of the pound, Hella’s attorneys had wisely stipulated that Hayek’s alimony payments be set out in dollars. Hayek agreed, though not without sniffing that her lawyers “were interested solely in their fees.” Hayek’s L.S.E. colleague, the economist Lionel Robbins, tussled with him over whether he had got a raw deal. Robbins, once Hayek’s best friend, had sided with Hella during the divorce and become one of her close advisers. He dismissed Hayek’s complaints: “Your conception of justice is very different from mine.” ♦

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