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Writing a case report in 10 steps

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• Victoria Stokes , foundation year 2 doctor, trauma and orthopaedics, Basildon Hospital ,
• Caroline Fertleman , paediatrics consultant, The Whittington Hospital NHS Trust
• victoria.stokes1{at}nhs.net

Victoria Stokes and Caroline Fertleman explain how to turn an interesting case or unusual presentation into an educational report

It is common practice in medicine that when we come across an interesting case with an unusual presentation or a surprise twist, we must tell the rest of the medical world. This is how we continue our lifelong learning and aid faster diagnosis and treatment for patients.

It usually falls to the junior to write up the case, so here are a few simple tips to get you started.

First steps

Begin by sitting down with your medical team to discuss the interesting aspects of the case and the learning points to highlight. Ideally, a registrar or middle grade will mentor you and give you guidance. Another junior doctor or medical student may also be keen to be involved. Allocate jobs to split the workload, set a deadline and work timeframe, and discuss the order in which the authors will be listed. All listed authors should contribute substantially, with the person doing most of the work put first and the guarantor (usually the most senior team member) at the end.

Getting consent

Gain permission and written consent to write up the case from the patient or parents, if your patient is a child, and keep a copy because you will need it later for submission to journals.

Information gathering

Gather all the information from the medical notes and the hospital’s electronic systems, including copies of blood results and imaging, as medical notes often disappear when the patient is discharged and are notoriously difficult to find again. Remember to anonymise the data according to your local hospital policy.

Write up the case emphasising the interesting points of the presentation, investigations leading to diagnosis, and management of the disease/pathology. Get input on the case from all members of the team, highlighting their involvement. Also include the prognosis of the patient, if known, as the reader will want to know the outcome.

Coming up with a title

Discuss a title with your supervisor and other members of the team, as this provides the focus for your article. The title should be concise and interesting but should also enable people to find it in medical literature search engines. Also think about how you will present your case study—for example, a poster presentation or scientific paper—and consider potential journals or conferences, as you may need to write in a particular style or format.

Background research

Research the disease/pathology that is the focus of your article and write a background paragraph or two, highlighting the relevance of your case report in relation to this. If you are struggling, seek the opinion of a specialist who may know of relevant articles or texts. Another good resource is your hospital library, where staff are often more than happy to help with literature searches.

How your case is different

Move on to explore how the case presented differently to the admitting team. Alternatively, if your report is focused on management, explore the difficulties the team came across and alternative options for treatment.

Finish by explaining why your case report adds to the medical literature and highlight any learning points.

Writing an abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 100-200 words and should highlight all your key points concisely. This can be harder than writing the full article and needs special care as it will be used to judge whether your case is accepted for presentation or publication.

Discuss with your supervisor or team about options for presenting or publishing your case report. At the very least, you should present your article locally within a departmental or team meeting or at a hospital grand round. Well done!

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ’s policy on declaration of interests and declare that we have no competing interests.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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How to Write a Case Study - All You Wanted to Know

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

Don't Know Where to Start?

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. Request ' write my case study ' assistance from our service.

What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

How to Write a Case Study: A Step-by-Step Guide (+ Examples)

by Todd Brehe

on Jan 3, 2024

If you want to learn how to write a case study that engages prospective clients, demonstrates that you can solve real business problems, and showcases the results you deliver, this guide will help.

We’ll give you a proven template to follow, show you how to conduct an engaging interview, and give you several examples and tips for best practices.

Let’s start with the basics.

What is a Case Study?

A business case study is simply a story about how you successfully delivered a solution to your client.

Case studies start with background information about the customer, describe problems they were facing, present the solutions you developed, and explain how those solutions positively impacted the customer’s business.

Do Marketing Case Studies Really Work?

Absolutely. A well-written case study puts prospective clients into the shoes of your paying clients, encouraging them to engage with you. Plus, they:

• Get shared “behind the lines” with decision makers you may not know;
• Leverage the power of “social proof” to encourage a prospective client to take a chance with your company;
• Build trust and foster likeability;
• Lessen the perceived risk of doing business with you and offer proof that your business can deliver results;
• Help prospects become aware of unrecognized problems;
• Show prospects experiencing similar problems that possible solutions are available (and you can provide said solutions);
• Make it easier for your target audience to find you when using Google and other search engines.

Case studies serve your clients too. For example, they can generate positive publicity and highlight the accomplishments of line staff to the management team. Your company might even throw in a new product/service discount, or a gift as an added bonus.

But don’t just take my word for it. Let’s look at a few statistics and success stories:

5 Winning Case Study Examples to Model

Before we get into the nuts and bolts of how to write a case study, let’s go over a few examples of what an excellent one looks like.

The five case studies listed below are well-written, well-designed, and incorporate a time-tested structure.

1. Lane Terralever and Pinnacle at Promontory

This case study example  from Lane Terralever  incorporates images to support the content and effectively uses subheadings to make the piece scannable.

2. WalkMe Mobile and Hulyo

This case study  from WalkMe Mobile  leads with an engaging headline and the three most important results the client was able to generate.

In the first paragraph, the writer expands the list of accomplishments encouraging readers to learn more.

3. CurationSuite Listening Engine

This is an example of a well-designed printable case study . The client, specific problem, and solution are called out in the left column and summarized succinctly.

4. Brain Traffic and ASAE

This long format case study (6 pages) from Brain Traffic  summarizes the challenges, solutions, and results prominently in the left column. It uses testimonials and headshots of the case study participants very effectively.

5. Adobe and Home Depot

This case study  from Adobe and Home Depot  is a great example of combining video, attention-getting graphics, and long form writing. It also uses testimonials and headshots well.

Now that we’ve gone over the basics and showed a few great case study examples you can use as inspiration, let’s roll up our sleeves and get to work.

A Case Study Structure That Pros Use

Let’s break down the structure of a compelling case study:

Choose Your Case Study Format

In this guide, we focus on written case studies. They’re affordable to create, and they have a proven track record. However, written case studies are just one of four case study formats to consider:

• Infographic

If you have the resources, video (like the Adobe and Home Depot example above) and podcast case studies can be very compelling. Hearing a client discuss in his or her own words how your company helped is an effective content marketing strategy

Infographic case studies are usually one-page images that summarize the challenge, proposed solution, and results. They tend to work well on social media.

Follow a Tried-and-True Case Study Template

The success story structure we’re using incorporates a “narrative” or “story arc” designed to suck readers in and captivate their interest.

Note:  I recommend creating a blog post or landing page on your website that includes the text from your case study, along with a downloadable PDF. Doing so helps people find your content when they perform Google and other web searches.

There are a few simple SEO strategies that you can apply to your blog post that will optimize your chances of being found. I’ll include those tips below.

Craft a Compelling Headline

The headline should capture your audience’s attention quickly. Include the most important result you achieved, the client’s name, and your company’s name. Create several examples, mull them over a bit, then pick the best one. And, yes, this means writing the headline is done at the very end.

SEO  Tip:  Let’s say your firm provided “video editing services” and you want to target this primary keyword. Include it, your company name, and your client’s name in the case study title.

Write the Executive Summary

This is a mini-narrative using an abbreviated version of the Challenge + Solution + Results model (3-4 short paragraphs). Write this after you complete the case study.

SEO  Tip:  Include your primary keyword in the first paragraph of the Executive Summary.

Provide the Client’s Background

Introduce your client to the reader and create context for the story.

List the Customer’s Challenges and Problems

Vividly describe the situation and problems the customer was dealing with, before working with you.

SEO  Tip:  To rank on page one of Google for our target keyword, review the questions listed in the “People also ask” section at the top of Google’s search results. If you can include some of these questions and their answers into your case study, do so. Just make sure they fit with the flow of your narrative.

Detail Your Solutions

Explain the product or service your company provided, and spell out how it alleviated the client’s problems. Recap how the solution was delivered and implemented. Describe any training needed and the customer’s work effort.

Show Your Results

Detail what you accomplished for the customer and the impact your product/service made. Objective, measurable results that resonate with your target audience are best.

List Future Plans

Share how your client might work with your company in the future.

Give a Call-to-Action

Clearly detail what you want the reader to do at the end of your case study.

Talk About You

Include a “press release-like” description of your client’s organization, with a link to their website. For your printable document, add an “About” section with your contact information.

And that’s it. That’s the basic structure of any good case study.

Now, let’s go over how to get the information you’ll use in your case study.

How to Conduct an Engaging Case Study Interview

One of the best parts of creating a case study is talking with your client about the experience. This is a fun and productive way to learn what your company did well, and what it can improve on, directly from your customer’s perspective.

Here are some suggestions for conducting great case study interviews:

When Choosing a Case Study Subject, Pick a Raving Fan

Your sales and marketing team should know which clients are vocal advocates willing to talk about their experiences. Your customer service and technical support teams should be able to contribute suggestions.

Clients who are experts with your product/service make solid case study candidates. If you sponsor an online community, look for product champions who post consistently and help others.

When selecting a candidate, think about customer stories that would appeal to your target audience. For example, let’s say your sales team is consistently bumping into prospects who are excited about your solution, but are slow to pull the trigger and do business with you.

In this instance, finding a client who felt the same way, but overcame their reluctance and contracted with you anyway, would be a compelling story to capture and share.

Prepping for the Interview

If you’ve ever seen an Oprah interview, you’ve seen a master who can get almost anyone to open up and talk. Part of the reason is that she and her team are disciplined about planning.

Before conducting a case study interview, talk to your own team about the following:

• What’s unique about the client (location, size, industry, etc.) that will resonate with our prospects?
• Why did the customer select us?
• How did we help the client?
• What’s unique about this customer’s experience?
• What problems did we solve?
• Were any measurable, objective results generated?
• What do we want readers to do after reading this case study analysis?

Pro Tip:  Tee up your client. Send them the questions in advance.

Providing questions to clients before the interview helps them prepare, gather input from other colleagues if needed, and feel more comfortable because they know what to expect.

In a moment, I’ll give you an exhaustive list of interview questions. But don’t send them all. Instead, pare the list down to one or two questions in each section and personalize them for your customer.

Nailing the Client Interview

Decide how you’ll conduct the interview. Will you call the client, use Skype or Facetime, or meet in person? Whatever mode you choose, plan the process in advance.

Make sure you record the conversation. It’s tough to lead an interview, listen to your contact’s responses, keep the conversation flowing, write notes, and capture all that the person is saying.

A recording will make it easier to write the client’s story later. It’s also useful for other departments in your company (management, sales, development, etc.) to hear real customer feedback.

Use open-ended questions that spur your contact to talk and share. Here are some real-life examples:

Introduction

• Recap the purpose of the call. Confirm how much time your contact has to talk (30-45 minutes is preferable).
• Confirm the company’s location, number of employees, years in business, industry, etc.
• What’s the contact’s background, title, time with the company, primary responsibilities, and so on?

Initial Challenges

• Describe the situation at your company before engaging with us?
• What were the initial problems you wanted to solve?
• What was the impact of those problems?
• When did you realize you had to take some action?
• What solutions did you try?
• What solutions did you implement?
• What process did you go through to make a purchase?
• How did the implementation go?
• How would you describe the work effort required of your team?
• If training was involved, how did that go?

Results, Improvements, Progress

• When did you start seeing improvements?
• What were the most valuable results?
• What did your team like best about working with us?
• Would you recommend our solution/company? Why?

Future Plans

• How do you see our companies working together in the future?

Honest Feedback

• Our company is very focused on continual improvement. What could we have done differently to make this an even better experience?
• What would you like us to add or change in our product/service?

During the interview, use your contact’s responses to guide the conversation.

Once the interview is complete, it’s time to write your case study.

How to Write a Case Study… Effortlessly

Case study writing is not nearly as difficult as many people make it out to be. And you don’t have to be Stephen King to do professional work. Here are a few tips:

• Use the case study structure that we outlined earlier, but write these sections first: company background, challenges, solutions, and results.
• Write the headline, executive summary, future plans, and call-to-action (CTA) last.
• In each section, include as much content from your interview as you can. Don’t worry about editing at this point
• Tell the story by discussing their trials and tribulations.
• Stay focused on the client and the results they achieved.
• Make their organization and employees shine.
• When including information about your company, frame your efforts in a supporting role.

Also, make sure to do the following:

Add Testimonials, Quotes, and Visuals

The more you can use your contact’s words to describe the engagement, the better. Weave direct quotes throughout your narrative.

Strive to be conversational when you’re writing case studies, as if you’re talking to a peer.

Include images in your case study that visually represent the content and break up the text. Photos of the company, your contact, and other employees are ideal.

If you need to incorporate stock photos, here are three resources:

• Deposit p hotos

And if you need more, check out Smart Blogger’s excellent resource: 17 Sites with High-Quality, Royalty-Free Stock Photos .

Proofread and Tighten Your Writing

Make sure there are no grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors. If you need help, consider using a grammar checker tool like Grammarly .

My high school English teacher’s mantra was “tighten your writing.” She taught that impactful writing is concise and free of weak, unnecessary words . This takes effort and discipline, but will make your writing stronger.

Also, keep in mind that we live in an attention-diverted society. Before your audience will dive in and read each paragraph, they’ll first scan your work.  Use subheadings  to summarize information, convey meaning quickly, and pull the reader in.

Be Sure to Use Best Practices

Consider applying the following best practices to your case study:

• Stay laser-focused on your client and the results they were able to achieve.
• Even if your audience is technical, minimize the use of industry jargon . If you use acronyms, explain them.
• Leave out the selling and advertising.
• Don’t write like a Shakespearean wannabe. Write how people speak. Write to be understood.
• Clear and concise writing is not only more understandable, it inspires trust. Don’t ramble.
• Weave your paragraphs together so that each sentence is dependent on the one before and after it.
• Include a specific case study call-to-action (CTA).
• A recommended case study length is 2-4 pages.
• Commit to building a library of case studies.

Get Client Approval

After you have a final draft, send it to the client for review and approval. Incorporate any edits they suggest.

Use or modify the following “Consent to Publish” form to get the client’s written sign-off:

Consent to Publish

Case Study  Title:

I hereby confirm that I have reviewed the case study listed above and on behalf of the [Company Name], I provide full permission for the work to be published, in whole or in part, for the life of the work, in all languages and all formats by [Company publishing the case study].

By signing this form, I affirm that I am authorized to grant full permission.

Company Name:

E-mail Address:

Common Case Study Questions (& Answers)

We’ll wrap things up with a quick Q&A. If you have a question I didn’t answer, be sure to leave it in a blog comment below.

Should I worry about print versions of my case studies?

Absolutely.

As we saw in the CurationSuite  and Brain Traffic  examples earlier, case studies get downloaded, printed, and shared. Prospects can and will judge your book by its cover.

So, make sure your printed case study is eye-catching and professionally designed. Hire a designer  if necessary.

Why are good case studies so effective?

Case studies work because people trust them.

They’re not ads, they’re not press releases, and they’re not about how stellar your company is.

Plus, everyone likes spellbinding stories with a hero [your client], a conflict [challenges], and a riveting resolution [best solution and results].

How do I promote my case study?

After you’ve written your case study and received the client’s approval to use it, you’ll want to get it in front of as many eyes as possible.

Try the following:

• Make sure your case studies can be easily found on your company’s homepage.
• Tweet and share the case study on your various social media accounts.
• Have your sales team use the case study as a reason to call on potential customers. For example: “Hi [prospect], we just published a case study on Company A. They were facing some of the same challenges I believe your firm is dealing with. I’m going to e-mail you a copy. Let me know what you think.”
• Distribute printed copies at trade shows, seminars, or during sales presentations.
• If you’re bidding on a job and have to submit a quote or a Request for Proposal (RFP), include relevant case studies as supporting documents.

Ready to Write a Case Study That Converts?

If you want to stand out and you want to win business, case studies should be an integral part of your sales and marketing efforts.

Hopefully, this guide answered some of your questions and laid out a path that will make it faster and easier for your team to create professional, sales-generating content.

Now it’s time to take action and get started. Gather your staff, select a client, and ask a contact to participate. Plan your interview and lead an engaging conversation. Write up your client’s story, make them shine, and then share it.

Get better at the case study process by doing it more frequently. Challenge yourself to write at least one case study every two months.

As you do, you’ll be building a valuable repository of meaningful, powerful content. These success stories will serve your business in countless ways, and for years to come.

Todd A. Brehe is a professional B2B freelance writer helping SaaS companies create sales-generating case studies, white papers, and blog content. Check out his work or contact him at: https://toddbrehe.com .

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Written by Todd Brehe

6 thoughts on “how to write a case study: a step-by-step guide (+ examples)”.

Just the guide I needed for case studies! Great job with this one!

Hey Todd, great post here. I liked that you listed some prompting questions. Really demonstrates you know what you’re talking about. There are a bunch of Ultimate Guides out there who list the theories such as interview your customer, talk about results, etc. but really don’t help you much.

Thanks, Todd. I’ve planned a case study and this will really come in handy. Bookmarked.

Very good read. Thanks, Todd. Are there any differences between a case study and a use case, by the way?

Hi Todd, Very well-written article. This is the ultimate guide I have read till date. It has actionable points rather than some high-level gyan. Creating a new case study always works better when (1) you know the structure to follow and (2) you work in a group of 3-4 members rather than individually. Thanks for sharing this guide.

Hi Todd. Very useful guide. I learn step by step. Looking forward to continually learning from you and your team. Thanks

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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• Introduction
• About Case Study Reports
• Section A: Overview

Section B: Planning and Researching

• Section C: Parts of a Case Study

Section D: Reviewing and Presenting

• Section E: Revising Your Work

Section F: Resources

• Your Workspace
• Guided Writing Tools

• About Lab Reports
• Section C: Critical Features
• Section D: Parts of a Lab Report

• About Literature Review
• Section C: Parts of a Literature Review
• Section D: Critical Writing Skills

• About Reflective Writing
• Section B: How Can I Reflect?
• Section C: How Do I Get Started?
• Section D: Writing a Reflection

Case Study Report Prepared by University of Guelph

On this page, you will find a comprehensive list of resources provided within this guide. These resources include examples, printable handouts, and additional links.

Summary of Resources

Within this section, we have provided you with

• our sample case study report,
• typical structure of a case study report,
• all of the handouts found within this guide,
• external links and resources, and
• activities and exercises.

Prepared by

Case Study Report Template

Case study report outline template.

This outline sample of a Case Study Report should serve as a useful guide to help you get started.

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Structure of A Case Study Report

Structure of a case study report.

The components of a case study report will vary depending on your institution and your instructor’s preferences. Be sure to refer to your assignment instructions to find out what will be required.

Most case study reports will include the following major sections and components:

• Cover page including basic student and class information
• Table of contents showing where key parts of the report can be found
• Executive summary of the key recommendations and points of the report
• Introduction to the report and identification of the focal problem being faced
• Analysis of the problem and application of course/program content
• Decision criteria and possible alternatives for solving the problem
• Recommendation for solving the problem
• Implementation plan for executing the recommendation and ensuring its success
• Exhibits that help to elaborate upon the content included in the report
• Reference list of any sources that were used at any point in the case study project

Worksheet: Project Schedule Worksheet

Use this helpful worksheet for your Case Study Report .

Download the Project Schedule Worksheet worksheet, or take a look at an Example of a filled out worksheet .

Worksheet: Group Work Contract

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Worksheet: Checklist For Case Study Reports

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Worksheet: Planning for the Presentation

Download the Planning for the Presentation worksheet, or take a look at an example of a filled out worksheet .

Annotated Case Study Report

Section c: reviewing and presenting, example: annotated case study report.

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Alley, M. (1998). The craft of scientific writing. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.

Cook, C. K. (1986). Line by line: How to edit your own writing. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Graff, G., Berkenstein, C. & Durst, R. (2008). They say, I say: The moves that matter in academic writing. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

Hacker, D. & Summers, N. (2001). A Canadian writer’s reference. New York, NY: Bedford/St. Martins.

Hofmann, A. H. (2010). Scientific writing and communication: Papers, proposals, and presentations. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.

Lunsford, A. A. (2005). The everyday writer. (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins.

Rubens, P. (Ed.). (2001). Science and technical writing: A manual of style. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

University of Guelph. (2015). Case Study Report Outline Template . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Worksheet: Project Schedule Worksheet . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Worksheet: Group Work Contract . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Worksheet: Checklist for Case Study Reports . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Worksheet: Planning for the Presentation .

University of Guelph. (2015). Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

Williams, J. & Nadel, I. B. (2004). Style: Ten lessons in clarity and grace. Toronto, ON: Pearson Canada.

Wyrick, J. (2008). Steps to writing well. (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Zinsser, W. (2006). On writing well. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.

Online Resources

Gopen, G. & Swan, J. (1990, Nov./Dec.). The science of scientific writing. American Scientist. Retrieved June 6, 2015 from http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.877,y.0,no., content.true,page.1,css.print/issue.aspx

Purdue University. (2015). Online writing lab. Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/08/

Next: Review and Practice

Now that you have reviewed this guide, you can try our interactive Guided Writing Tools to work on sections of your own Case Study Report.

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A Guide to Writing Quality Case Reports

Robert chait.

1 HCA Florida JFK Hospital, Miami, FL

2 University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL

Graig Donini

3 HCA Healthcare Graduate Medical Education, Brentwood, TN

Michael G. Flynn

Description

Case reports play an essential role in the dissemination of knowledge in medicine. A published case is typically an unusual or unexpected presentation in which the outcomes, clinical course, and prognosis are linked to a literature review in order to place the case into the appropriate context. Case reports are a good option for new writers to generate scholarly output. This article can serve as a template for writing a case report, which includes instructions for creating the abstract and crafting the body of the case report—introduction, case presentation, and discussion. Instructions for writing an effective cover letter to the journal editor are also provided as well as a checklist to help authors prepare their case reports for submission.

Introduction

Case reports are time-honored and play an essential role in disseminating knowledge in medicine. Case reports are “…a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient.” 1 A published case typically involves an unusual or unexpected presentation, new treatment, or alternative diagnostic imaging in which the outcomes, clinical course, and prognosis are linked to a literature review in order to place the case into the appropriate context. 2 Case reports often provide the first discovery of, or insight into, an emerging or rare disease. For example, the first mention of HIV/AIDS in the medical literature came from a case series in 1980. 3 Relative to randomized controlled trials, case reports reside near the bottom of the “hierarchy of evidence” pyramid. 4 In other words, they are not expected to contribute to clinical guidelines in the same way as randomized controlled trials or observational studies. However, case reports can provide insight into new diseases, associations, or treatments that might otherwise be overlooked. Thus, they play a vital role in increasing what we know and what we can learn about new, emerging diseases, and they help improve our management of patient care. 5 In an effort to improve the quality of case report submissions, we will describe the key elements of a well-written case report.

How to Get Started

This article can serve as a template for writing a case report for any publication. However, the following details highlight specific requirements for case reports submitted to the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine . When submitting to another journal, one should read the author guidelines carefully before submitting.

The first step is selecting an appropriate case that may merit publication as a case report. The case may be a rare or unique clinical condition, intervention, complication, or outcome. The important point is that you have identified something worthy of communication to the journal readership. For example, a clinician might ask, “Would the findings from this case cause me to consider a change in my practice?”

Next, it is beneficial to perform a literature search to determine if the case is novel and will interest readers. Starting points include finding the diagnosed condition on UpToDate ® , which will provide links to individual references. 6 Subsequently, a more in-depth search of specialty-specific references on free public databases such as PubMed and the Cases Database should be completed. 5 , 7 , 8 After these initial searches, the authors should have the information they need to determine if their case is suitable for publication.

The literature search should show that the case meets one of the following criteria highlighted in the Journal of Medical Case Reports : 5

• The case is unique in either the course or treatment of the disease or describes a unique presentation not previously described in the medical literature.
• The patient’s side effects or reactions to medication are unique and have not been previously described in the literature.
• The patient’s symptoms were resistant to conventional treatment, or the patient responded to a novel or previously unreported treatment.
• The patient’s symptom complexes were not previously associated with a disease, or there was an uncommon link between the disease and symptoms.

A case report may be accepted for publication even if it does not strictly meet one of the above criteria. Adhering too tightly to the above criteria could prevent valuable information from being disseminated to the medical community. The case should be unusual, but it is more important that it adds something to the medical literature.

Word count limits vary by journal, with some as low as 500 words or as high as 3000 words. The word count of a case report submitted to the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine should be around 2000 words from the introduction to the conclusion, excluding references, tables, figures, and figure legends. The number of tables, figures, or images should be limited to 5, and the references should be limited to 20. The HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine is an online journal where length is not a major issue as with a printed journal, but a concise case report is essential for an audience of busy physicians.

Videos or additional figures/images may be useful for the reader and can be included as supplementary material for HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine submissions. Learning objectives provide helpful information for the reader and may be required for some journals. The authors should consider including learning objectives in their case reports or case series.

Patient Consent

Most journals that publish case reports require patient consent, and some journals have their own consent form. It is important to note that consent is required to disclose protected health information (PHI), which includes case information and patient images. The HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine requires authors to submit a patient consent form along with the case report manuscript.

The Cover Letter

When required, a cover letter gives the editor an introduction to the manuscript. The cover letter is uploaded separately into the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine submission portal and must include the title of the manuscript. The authors should clearly and concisely state why the case report qualifies for publication in the journal. This step is where the authors can make a compelling argument as to why the case is important and why it should be published. Naturally, the introduction section of the case report provides a more detailed description of case-related literature. Thus, authors should only provide the key elements in the cover letter for the benefit of the editor. Finally, include all authors’ full names, institutions, and email addresses in the cover letter and identify at least one corresponding author along with their address.

Provide a clear and concise description of the case that is not more than 15 words in length. Avoid abbreviations and redundancies in the title and avoid hyperbole such as “Unique Case” or “First Reported.” The title is the reader’s introduction to the case, likely the first or only part they will read, and it should provide a clear and accurate description of the case. It is tempting to create a cute or clever title, but researchers have reported that amusing titles can obscure the important elements of the case and make it less likely that the manuscript will be read. 9 , 10 Remember that the case report represents a patient, and their dignity should be protected. A pertinent example is the title from the paper, “A lucky catch: Fishhook injury of the tongue.” 11 We contend that the title cleverness is inappropriate when it is considered that the patient described was 13 months old.

The Abstract

Use headings in the abstract that match the manuscript headings and provide a succinct description of the case. As with the title, the abstract should provide enough information to ensure that the reader understands the scope of the work before investing their time in reading it. Ideally, the abstract should encourage the reader to go further and read the details of the case. The abstract is entered separately into the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine submission portal, but it should also be included in the submitted manuscript file.

Abstract length and style differ by journal. An abstract for the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine must be a succinct description of the key elements of the case and, therefore, should not greatly exceed 300 words. References and citations should not be used in the abstract and only a small number of abbreviations should be included. The abbreviations should be defined for the first use and match those used in the main manuscript.

The abstract should be presented in 3 sections: introduction, case presentation, and conclusion. The abstract’s introduction section illustrates the importance of the case and the rationale for reporting it. The case presentation section should be concise and focused, providing the important details of the patient presentation, including the patient’s age, biological sex, and gender identity. Finally, the conclusions section should provide a short statement that illustrates key elements of the case and its clinical impacts.

Provide 3 to 10 keywords that reflect the primary content of the article. Keywords are essential for indexing the manuscript and facilitating easy online retrieval. However, finding and selecting appropriate keywords can be a challenge. Checking keywords from abstracts describing similar cases can be helpful, as can using the National Library of Medicine (NLM) Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) site. The latter is the NLM-controlled vocabulary thesaurus for indexing PubMed citations. 12

Elements of a Case Report

The main text file of the case report should begin with the title and the abstract. The HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine uses a double-blind peer review process in which the authors and the reviewers are anonymous. Thus, no author-identifying content should be included in the main file, which is why it is important to include the authors’ information in the cover letter. The main sections of the actual case report are the introduction, the case presentation, and the discussion and conclusion. Each of these elements is described below. If you are submitting to another journal, read their guidelines carefully as some journals may have different rules for what to include in the main text file.

The Introduction

The introduction should describe the background of the case, including the disease or disorder, its typical presentation and progression, an explanation of the presentation in the case, and whether it is a new disease. The introduction provides an opportunity to grab the reader’s attention and reiterate the importance of the case. It should be concise and compel the reader to go further. Make sure that all statements of fact in the introduction are properly cited.

The Case Presentation

When presenting the case, start with the patient’s de-identified demographic information, including age, biological sex, and gender identity. We contend that the patient’s race should not reflexively be included in the first paragraph of the case description, unless race is directly relevant to the case. In support of this argument is a recent commentary in the New England Journal of Medicine in which the authors stated, “Clinically relevant and patient-specific socioeconomic considerations, cultural beliefs, and race-related barriers to high-quality health care should be acknowledged and addressed later in the case presentation.” 13

Deidentifying a patient case in accordance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) goes beyond simply removing the patient’s name and date of birth. The Safe Harbor method for deidentification includes 18 items to remove, including geographic divisions smaller than a state, all elements of date (including date of service), age above 90 (refer to the patient as “elderly” or “over 89”), and any unique identifying number (eg, medical record number [MRN]). 14

Describe the case concisely and in chronological order, starting with the chief complaint and significant family, occupational, and social history. 5 Provide key details of the patient’s presentation and clinical findings from the physical exam, vitals at the time of examination, and any images. Follow with significant labs and tests and describe any treatments, procedures, or interventions. Use standard measurement units and include the normal range for positive labs. When using abbreviations, spell out the word for the first use, and use standard abbreviations when available. Also, use the generic name for all medications unless a specific name brand is the emphasis of the case.

Focus the case presentation on positive findings from the history or exam, including negative findings only when relevant to the case or the diagnosis. Finish with a prognosis, follow-up results, if available, and long-term outcomes. Avoid superfluous or other extraneous facts that detract from the understanding of the case. 5

Tables are an effective way to present content when there is a long list of tests/labs or significant demographic or exam data to present. Figures (or images) should be used to show physical, microscopic, histological, or other visual representations of the disease. After making sure that no identifiable information is included in a patient image, consider adding arrows or another means of helping the reader locate specific aspects of the images referred to in the description. Refer to any tables or figures in this section using targets or callouts (eg, “Figure 2”). Tables and figures should be numbered sequentially in the order they are described in the text. Tables should have a descriptive title, and figures should include a caption that describes the image in complete sentences.

The Discussion

The discussion is the authors’ opportunity to distinguish key features of their case, highlight its uniqueness, and identify and compare their case to similar cases in the literature. Appropriate comparisons can only be made if the literature is relevant and up to date. A similar case in the literature does not necessarily detract from the current case. Instead, it provides an opportunity to contrast and define unique elements between cases. All statements of fact and any literature presented must be properly cited in the text.

Beyond these basics, the discussion provides an opportunity to compare the current case to previous literature, contrast findings with previous treatment strategies or outcomes, and provide reasons for possible outcome differences. Authors of previously published works likely had similar challenges and applied similar strategies but may or may not have had the same patient outcomes. The discussion also provides the authors a chance to explain the unique responses of their patients to medications or treatment and provide limited speculation about their success or failure. In short, the discussion is a chance for the authors to employ their clinical expertise to help the reader understand the significance of their case and how to respond should they see a similar case.

The Conclusion

The conclusion starts with a summary, including key elements of the case and its clinical impacts. Do not reiterate case details, but provide a short statement to describe the case, course of treatment, and outcomes. A concluding statement should follow that highlights the relevance of the case, whether it is generalizable, and the contributions the case makes to the literature or potential changes in treatment. Construct your conclusion carefully, avoiding overzealous statements, and make sure your conclusion matches the content and tone expressed in the abstract conclusion.

The HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine follows American Medical Association (AMA) guidelines for formatting and referencing. Briefly, references are numbered consecutively by first use in the main text, using commas to separate when multiple sources are cited. 15

Authorship and Other Contributions

As a general practice, case report authorship is limited to physicians directly involved in the case, and some journals limit the number of authors. For a submission to the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine , there should be no more than 6 authors, without substantial justification from the lead author.

An author is generally considered someone who has made meaningful and substantive intellectual contributions to a published study. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) has established guidelines for authorship. 16 To qualify as an author, one should have met the following 4 criteria:

• “Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND
• Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND
• Final approval of the version to be published; AND
• Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved” 16

Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content. It should also be noted that acquiring or providing funding, data collection, technical or lab support, providing access to space, or supervision do not justify authorship. Rather these activities meet the criteria for a contributor to be acknowledged at the end of the work.

It is highly recommended to use a medical journal writing style and not typical prose that is better left to college essays. Do not be overly verbose but rather clear and concise. Authors should enlist the help of colleagues (both clinical and non-clinical) to act as proofreaders for their manuscripts. Such editing is crucial for presenting a clean and error-free manuscript, giving the work a favorable reception from editors and reviewers. It is recommended that someone fluent in English review the manuscript for style, syntax, and fluidity. Editing or proofreading by itself does not qualify a person to be an author, but these efforts can be acknowledged at the end of the work.

Journal Submission and Review Outcomes

The authors should carefully review the journal information for authors prior to submitting to a journal. The information for authors for the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine can be accessed using the following URL: https://scholarlycommons.hcahealthcare.com/hca-healthcarejournal/styleguide.html .

After the manuscript peer reviews are completed, the typical journal editor decisions are: accept with minor revisions, major revisions required, or reject. When major revisions are required, the manuscript is not accepted but may be accepted if suitable revisions are made. In this situation, authors should carefully respond to each reviewer’s comment in a point-by-point fashion in a separate letter, providing a list of responses for the reviewer to assess. Authors should understand that reviewers are making suggestions based on their experience and knowledge. In most cases, the reviewer is trying to help the authors improve the manuscript, not being abusive or demeaning, but there are all too frequent cases of the latter. 17 In either case, the authors’ responses to a reviewer should be polite and positive without being obsequious. Whenever possible, the authors should revise the manuscript as suggested by the reviewers or they must provide a careful explanation and their rationale when they disagree with the reviewer. Follow the journal instructions for uploading your revised manuscript and reviewer letter(s).

Despite the authors’ best attempt to select a unique case, it may be rejected if it is poorly written or the editor or reviewers did not find it compelling. Do not get discouraged by rejection. Take the advice offered in the rejection letter and look for another journal that might better fit the case. It is also possible that a portion of the case, usually the images, could be published in a journal that features visual media or as a clinical image in the HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine .

A Final Checklist for Case Reports

The HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine has created a checklist to ensure the submitted case report meets all the requirements for publication in the journal ( Appendix A ). The check-list includes the elements presented in this article, and completing it will help the editor to move the work more quickly to peer review.

Appendix A.  HCA Healthcare Journal of Medicine Checklist for Case Reports 18

Funding Statement

This research was supported (in whole or in part) by HCA Healthcare and/or an HCA Healthcare-affiliated entity.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

This research was supported (in whole or in part) by HCA Healthcare and/or an HCA Healthcare-affiliated entity. The views expressed in this publication represent those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official views of HCA Healthcare or any of its affiliated entities.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Format

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

Having trouble making your case studies stand out? Finding it hard to organise your story? You're not alone! 

Many students struggle with case study writing !

Imagine spending a lot of time on your case studies, but they don't grab your reader's interest.  But don't worry! 

In this guide, we will go step by step through case study formatting, along with practical tips to make your research stand out from the rest! By following our step-by-step approach, you can understand how to write a case study assignment well. 

So, let’s get started!

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• 1. How to Format a Case Study 
• 2. Case Study Format Template
• 3. Case Study Format Examples

How to Format a Case Study 

When it comes to crafting a compelling case study, understanding how to write case study format is key to presenting your research effectively. 

If you are wondering how to make case study format, here are the elements to include in your case study paper format.

Create an interesting title for your work. Keep it simple and short.

Here you need to briefly elaborate on the accomplishment. What you have done and how you got there.

Write about the entire story in one paragraph followed by 2-3 bullet points to display the case study contents.

An introduction about what the case study is all about.

Describe the challenges of the customer prior to using your product or service. Explain the long-term goals or objectives that the customer set out to achieve.

In this 2-3 paragraph section describe how your product or service specifically benefited and helped achieve the goals. You can also use percentages to show your contributions.

In the relevant section of your case study, add 1-2 quotes and visuals to support the story you are telling. You can also use icons to summarise information and highlight areas of your research.

Figure out what a study means and look at where else we can learn more are really important for making academic work have a bigger impact.

Call to action is optional but adding one can encourage your readers to take some action after learning your work.

Case Study Formatting Guidelines 

Effective case study formatting is essential to convey your insights clearly and engage your audience. Follow these guidelines to ensure your case study is well-organised and impactful:

• Opt for easily readable fonts like Arial, Calibri, or Times New Roman.
• Maintain a consistent font size, typically 12 points for the body text.
• Set line spacing to double-spaced for the entire document.
• Use bullet points for concise and scannable information presentation.
• Employ numbered lists for sequences of steps or chronological order of events.
• Bold or italicize key phrases to draw attention to critical points; use underline sparingly.
• Choose left, center, or justified alignment based on your overall design.
• Make your headings clear and organized so readers know what's important.

If you need further assistance, check our case study format for students pdf here:

How To Write A Case Study Pdf

Case Study Format Template

Case studies can be used for different purposes. In social sciences, it can help you understand the problems of other people.

In businesses, it can help you earn the trust of potential customers. But do you even know what are the different  types of case study  and how to write one?

Refer to this case study format pdf before you start writing your own document. This student case study format sample contains all the information you might need when gathering information for your case study.

Case Study Format Examples

Case study examples are the best way to learn the basic techniques for writing a great case study on your own. 

Explore these short case study sample pdfs to gain insights into presenting your research cohesively:

For your help, we have also compiled real-life  case study examples  along with a format that you can refer to while writing your own.

APA Case Study Format

If you are asked to write a case study in APA format, keep in mind there are some specific requirements that you need to adhere to.

Here is a case study APA format example for you to learn how to format a case study.

Business Case Study Format

Business case studies can help businesses sell products or services to prospects. Here is a perfect example for you to learn how to write an impressive business case study.

Case Study Format For MBA Students

Case Study Format Nursing

Writing a great nursing case study can be tough. That’s why we have provided a case study format for nursing students to use as a guide in creating their work. 

Refer to this family case study format example if you are writing a nursing case study for the first time.

Nursing Case Study Format

Harvard Business School Case Study Format

Looking for HBS style business case study? Here is one for you to read and take hints and ideas to prepare this type of case study like a professional.

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Medical Case Study Format

Writing medical case studies is helpful in medical practices as it gives a lot of information about different diseases. Look at this example and learn how to write a detailed medical case study.

Case Study Format Psychology 

To study how the human mind works, you need a clear and organised method. Follow this easy psychology case study format to explore the details of psychological research:

Case Study Format Psychology

To sum it up, getting good at writing case studies means combining a clear structure, good storytelling, and smart presentation. If you follow the tips I've shared in this blog, you're on your way to making interesting stories that grab people's attention.

If your case study is causing problems, consider getting professional help. 

Our essay writing company  aims to help you secure top grades by meeting the criteria set by professors. 

Our skilled writers are here to assist with any type of assignment you may have. Explore our case study writing service to relieve your stress and excel academically.

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Keep reading

Quantitative study designs: Case Studies/ Case Report/ Case Series

Quantitative study designs.

• Introduction
• Cohort Studies
• Randomised Controlled Trial
• Case Control
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Study Designs Home

Case Study / Case Report / Case Series

Some famous examples of case studies are John Martin Marlow’s case study on Phineas Gage (the man who had a railway spike through his head) and Sigmund Freud’s case studies, Little Hans and The Rat Man. Case studies are widely used in psychology to provide insight into unusual conditions.

A case study, also known as a case report, is an in depth or intensive study of a single individual or specific group, while a case series is a grouping of similar case studies / case reports together.

A case study / case report can be used in the following instances:

• where there is atypical or abnormal behaviour or development
• an unexplained outcome to treatment
• an emerging disease or condition

The stages of a Case Study / Case Report / Case Series

Which clinical questions does Case Study / Case Report / Case Series best answer?

Emerging conditions, adverse reactions to treatments, atypical / abnormal behaviour, new programs or methods of treatment – all of these can be answered with case studies /case reports / case series. They are generally descriptive studies based on qualitative data e.g. observations, interviews, questionnaires, diaries, personal notes or clinical notes.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to consider when using Case Studies/ Case Reports and Case Series ?

What are the pitfalls to look for?

One pitfall that has occurred in some case studies is where two common conditions/treatments have been linked together with no comprehensive data backing up the conclusion. A hypothetical example could be where high rates of the common cold were associated with suicide when the cohort also suffered from depression.

Critical appraisal tools 

To assist with critically appraising Case studies / Case reports / Case series there are some tools / checklists you can use.

JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Series

JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Reports

Real World Examples

Some Psychology case study / case report / case series examples

Capp, G. (2015). Our community, our schools : A case study of program design for school-based mental health services. Children & Schools, 37(4), 241–248. A pilot program to improve school based mental health services was instigated in one elementary school and one middle / high school. The case study followed the program from development through to implementation, documenting each step of the process.

Cowdrey, F. A. & Walz, L. (2015). Exposure therapy for fear of spiders in an adult with learning disabilities: A case report. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(1), 75–82. One person was studied who had completed a pre- intervention and post- intervention questionnaire. From the results of this data the exposure therapy intervention was found to be effective in reducing the phobia. This case report highlighted a therapy that could be used to assist people with learning disabilities who also suffered from phobias.

Li, H. X., He, L., Zhang, C. C., Eisinger, R., Pan, Y. X., Wang, T., . . . Li, D. Y. (2019). Deep brain stimulation in post‐traumatic dystonia: A case series study. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics. 1-8. Five patients were included in the case series, all with the same condition. They all received deep brain stimulation but not in the same area of the brain. Baseline and last follow up visit were assessed with the same rating scale.

References and Further Reading  

Greenhalgh, T. (2014). How to read a paper: the basics of evidence-based medicine. (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.

Heale, R. & Twycross, A. (2018). What is a case study? Evidence Based Nursing, 21(1), 7-8.

Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. (2019). Study design 101: case report. Retrieved from https://himmelfarb.gwu.edu/tutorials/studydesign101/casereports.cfm

Hoffmann T., Bennett S., Mar C. D. (2017). Evidence-based practice across the health professions. Chatswood, NSW: Elsevier.

Robinson, O. C., & McAdams, D. P. (2015). Four functional roles for case studies in emerging adulthood research. Emerging Adulthood, 3(6), 413-420.

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• Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 9:12 AM
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Blog Graphic Design 15+ Case Study Examples for Business, Marketing & Sales

15+ Case Study Examples for Business, Marketing & Sales

Written by: Alice Corner Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study?

What to include in a professional case study, business case study examples, simple case study examples, marketing case study examples, sales case study examples.

• Case study FAQs

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

A professional case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A professional case study typically includes:

• Company background and history
• The challenge
• How you helped
• Specific actions taken
• Visuals or Data
• Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately. 

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn  how to choose fonts  effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and  brand colors  to Venngage using the  My Brand Kit  tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study. 

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the  accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design. 

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing  because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Case study examples summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case study FAQ s

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers, business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study  from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

• Why do you use our tool or service?
• How often do you use our tool or service?
• What does the process of using our product look like to you?
• If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
• What is the number one benefit you’ve found from using our tool?

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Case Study Report: Difine, Structure and How To Write

Case report study is a document that reflects the execution of the research program, contains the data obtained, their analysis, conclusions and practical recommendations flowing from them. Careful analysis (and not just a description) of the figures and facts obtained is the main task, or rather, the purpose of the report.

Case Study Report Structure

A case study report structure is determined by the purpose of the research, its tasks (purely marketing or more general, theoretical), and its immediate addressee. Logic, the sequence of the description of the data obtained, of course, is related to the sequence of questions in the questionnaire or form, with the sequence of various research procedures but not always exactly repeats it. The author should not miss the data that is momentous both for the researchers themselves and for those who will get acquainted with the results of the research. Building the text, the researcher, proceeds from the logic of the program. He tells how exactly and with what results the tasks set in it are solved. If the program formulated hypotheses, it is necessary to present (based on the received data) their proof or refutation.

A thorough analysis of all available data, identification and detailed description of the most interesting, significant facts and connections is needed. The authors need to pay special attention to the consistency, clarity, literacy of the presentation. An ill-conceived, careless description of the results of the procedure of the investigation itself may misrepresent even a successful work, and the credibility of its authors will disappear. Particularly clearly the shortcomings of the presentation will be visible to those who did not take the direct part in the study. After all, they can not know what you mean or think is not so momentous to specifically talk about it. Business case study report should not be cluttered with numbers; it is better to submit only those data that reveal significant facts and links in the text.

Some tables, lists, other materials can be given in the appendix. It’s also logical to present documentation (questionnaires, interview forms, demand analysis forms), a list of used literature in this part.On the other hand, the actual text part should be supplemented and “backed up” with tables, graphs, diagrams. They will make statements, comparisons, observations more demonstrative, visual and precise and. When listing tables, an author should carefully monitor the correctness of their description.

In many cases, it is useful to include the data about the difficulties encountered by researchers, the impact of these difficulties on the results obtained, and how mistakes and failures will be taken into account in further scientific and practical work.

How to Write a Case Study Report

There is no the universal advice how to write a case study report. However, a standard structure should be followed.

• It is logical to begin with a cover page that includes a topic of a case study, names of investigators and the topic of
• The next part is a summary where a researcher should say in few words about the goal of his work, methods he used and the results received.

In some cases, it is especially momentous to talk in detail about who initiated the study, how it was organized, who helped collect materials on the ground. It should be said when and where the study was conducted; if necessary, this part also explains why this particular place and time was chosen. In this part of the report, data processing methods are usually also characterized. Special attention should be paid to respondents who took part in a study. Depending on the purpose, objectives, and subject of the research, the characteristics of the respondents can be included both in the introductory part of the report and in the next, directly describing and analyzing the data obtained. The first option is usually chosen when the topic of the survey is of an overview nature.

• References and appendixes are additional parts of a case study report. The format for case study report, as a rule, corresponds to the format in conformity with a research itself was made.

How to Present a Case Study Report

In order for the report to be presented in the most favorable light, it is necessary to correctly structure the data obtained during the research and highlight the main points.

For clarity, the text should also include graphics and tables, but should not be oversaturated with them. If this is a marketing study of the target audience using sociological methods, the report becomes more interesting if the classified data and statements based on them (and, in the future, conclusions, and recommendations) are supplemented with concrete names, facts, and live statements of the respondents.

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• How to Write a Case Study?

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How to Create a Case Study + 14 Case Study Templates

Written by: Brian Nuckols

When it comes to high impact marketing content, case studies are at the top of the list for helping show off your brand’s stuff. 

In this post, I’ve put together a few high-level case study design tips as well as 14 professionally designed case study templates that you can use to start designing beautiful case studies today. 

Let’s begin! 

Here’s a short selection of 12 easy-to-edit case study templates you can edit, share and download with Visme. View more templates below:

What is a Case Study?

A case study is a way for you to demonstrate the success you’ve already had with existing clients. When you create a case study, you explore how previous clients have used your product or service to reach their goals. 

In particular, a case study highlights a specific challenge or goal one of your clients was struggling with before they discovered your product. 

It then demonstrates how your work has assisted them on the journey towards overcoming the challenge or accomplishing the goal. 

A case study’s outcome is typically to share the story of a company’s growth or highlight the increase of metrics the company tracks to understand success. 

The case study includes an analysis of a campaign or project that goes through a few steps from identifying the problem to how you implemented the solution. 

How to Write a Case Study

When it comes to adding irresistible design to your content from the start, using a helpful tool is a great start. Sign up for a free Visme account and start highlighting your own client success stories using one of our case study templates today. 

Also, while you’re beginning to transition your case study workflow to include a professional design tool, it’s helpful to review some high level principles you can incorporate into your case study. 

We’ll start by reviewing some of the critical style tips and structural elements to include in your case study before progressing to a more detailed design section. 

Pinpoint Your Main Message

When designing an impactful case study, it’s essential to stay clear on the metrics that you’re highlighting. The process of overcoming business challenges is a dynamic process with many moving parts. 

If you do not stay focused on what matters in your case study, you risk obscuring the big win your client experienced by using your product or service. 

This is why you need to focus on a single message or metric. This is often called the north star metric . 

The north star metric is the single most crucial rate, count or ratio that helped your client move closer towards their goals or overcame an obstacle. 

While north star metrics are context dependent, a useful heuristic you can utilize is to figure out the most predictive metric of your client’s long term success. 

In the template I’ll highlight below, cost per lead was the north star metric that The College for Adult Learning needed to optimize. 

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Use Emotionally Rich Language 

Recently researchers at Presado did an interesting study to understand the types of language that help readers take action. They broke the content included in marketing assets into several categories, including functional, emotional and descriptive. 

In the most successful pieces of content, the researchers found that emotionally coded words were present in 61% of the content’s total volume.

This research shows the benefit of using emotionally engaging content in your case study. While it’s essential to focus on the concrete evidence of how you helped your client get from where they started to a successful outcome, do not forget to highlight the emotional journey. 

Use Data For Concrete Evidence 

Once you’ve decided on the north star metric to highlight and you choose the emotional response you want to reinforce in your case study, it’s important to use actual data from the project to share the concrete results your product helped to achieve. 

To make sure your audience can follow your line of thinking, make sure the data in your case study is precise. If you track data across time, your readers must know whether you chose to track by month or years. 

If there are any apparent trends, you can use color to highlight specific areas in a chart. 

If you want to dig deeper into using data to tell compelling stories, check out our video data storytelling tips to improve your charts and graphs. 

In the template below, The College for Adult Learning case study is an excellent example of how these elements can work together. 

Cost per lead was a critical north star metric, so we chose to emphasize the increase in revenue and a decrease in cost per lead. 

Additionally, the background section uses emotionally rich language by highlighting how the school helps students get ahead with their career goals. Also, the factual data is the centerpiece of this page in the case study.

If you’re ready to share how you impacted a client, use the College for Adult Learning case study template right now! 

Include All Necessary Parts of a Case Study

After you’ve interviewed your client and you’re getting ready to start writing, it’s important to remember each piece you need to cover.

All good case studies consist of five parts: Introduction, Challenge, Solution, Benefit and Result.

While you don’t necessarily need to label each section like that, be sure that the flow makes sense and covers each section fully to give your audience the full scope of your case study.

RELATED: 15 Real-Life Case Study Examples & Best Practices

14 Case Study Templates

Now that we have explored some of the high level strategies you can use to create a business case study, we will transition to 14 case study design templates you can use with Visme. 

1. Fuji Xerox Australia Case Study Template

Use the Fuji Xerox case study template to showcase the concrete results you achieved for your clients. It has sections where you can explain the goals you started with and the results you achieved. 

2. College for Adult Learning Case Study Template

As we’ve explored already, the College for Adult Learning template has sections where you can embrace a data driven storytelling approach while also connecting with your audience using emotionally rich language. 

Utilize the professionally designed business case study to connect with your audience. 

3. Intel Case Study Template

The Intel case study has beautiful visual elements and gives you space to share the project’s context and the goals you set out to achieve. It also allows you to get concrete with the results you achieved. 

You can always use the Visme Brand Kit to incorporate your unique brand colors into this stunning design. 

4. Bit.ly Case Study Template

Bit.ly is a marketing product that helps brands track how they are doing with campaign results. The bit.ly business case study template showcases how they drove impressive results for an eCommerce business. 

You can modify the professionally designed case study template to illustrate the key results you drive for your clients. 

5. NVISIONCenters Case Study Template

The NVISIONCenters case study template is an excellent example of how powerful it is to pair beautiful designs with the results you generate for your clients. In this case study, we see how you can transform your past accomplishments into a powerful marketing asset. 

6. Adobe Case Study Template

The Adobe case study is an exciting example of a business case study because it does a great job illustrating how you can use a specific result to create a powerful marketing asset. 

Adobe had a particular goal of branding to position itself as a leader for the future of digital marketing. LinkedIn sponsored messages was an effective tactic to drive the outcome Adobe needed. 

You can use the Adobe case study template to demonstrate the success of your most effective tactics. 

7. Inkjet Wholesale Case Study Template

The Inkjet wholesale case study template is an excellent choice if you want to experiment with your case study’s visual element. The roadmap to objectives diagram is a powerful graphic that illustrates the journey of a successful campaign. 

8. Neutrogena Case Study Template

If you have a strong visual brand to tell your case study’s story with visuals, the Neutrogena template is a great choice. It is already designed with plenty of space to highlight your visuals. 

When it is all said and done, you have the results section to complete a successful client partnership story.

9. Weebly Case Study Template

The Weebly case study template is your choice if you want to add visual flair to your case study. The beautiful layout is a testament to the power of pairing minimal design with an exciting statistic. 

10. Patagonia Case Study Template

The Patagonia case study is a perfect example of how crucial it is to make design choices based on your brand’s unique personality. 

It is a fantastic choice if you have a project to showcase featuring a brand with a distinct brand aesthetic.  

11. Think With Google Case Study Template

The Think With Google case study template tells the story of a mobile game that needed to create more engagement on their app. 

It is a visually impactful case study design template that you can use to tell a compelling story about your results. 

12. Kleenex Case Study Template

This case study template is the perfect way to show off search marketing results for a client or other highly specific KPIs that you managed to accomplish.

Insert the initial challenge followed by your company’s solution and adjust the included data visualization tools to showcase your specific results.

13. Customer Experience Presentation Case Study Template

The presentation case study template is an excellent choice for blending beautiful visual elements with the ability to give detailed information about the results you generated, as well as showcasing that data in a unique format. 

If you are ready to show how the unique features of your product or service drove real world business results then it is a good choice for your case study. 

14. Webinar Presentation Case Study Template

One small business saw incredible results when using Visme to optimize their webinar workflow. They saved 100 hours of their precious time by incorporating our collaborative design tools. 

We designed the small business template using those results as an example. When you have an eye catching effect to showcase to your audience, you can use this template as a starting point. 

Case Study Design Tips

Now that we’ve explored the 14 templates you can use with Visme to create your case study, let’s take a look at some practical design tips that will take your content to the next level. 

Be Brief In Your Case Study 

In discussions about writing with style, brevity is a common topic. However, it’s also an important design principle. 

Brevity in design is when you find the best way to perform your intended objective in as few steps as possible. 

When designing your case study, make sure you do not add extraneous visual elements where they are not needed. Instead, think of the effect you want to have on your reader and try to do it simply. 

Describe Your Vision Clearly

Earlier in this article, I wrote about the north star metric, your case study’s emotional effect and using data to make the case study concrete. Your design choices should serve to reinforce these primary goals. 

Clarity in design is when all of the visual elements add up to a whole. 

A great example of this is in the small business case study template where the shapes, typography and color scheme all emphasize the main idea that Visme helps the reader save time. 

Create A Consistent Style 

Visual consistency is a fundamental design principle that you can not afford to ignore in your case study. It will help you increase readability and make sure your audience does not get frustrated with jarring visual elements. 

In short, a consistent style is when you use a uniform color scheme, typography and the same kinds of visual elements throughout the case study. 

Use A Case Study Template For Readability

Readability is a crucial element of design, especially for case studies that are experienced on mobile devices. Contrast is an impactful readability principle. 

Make sure any contrasting colors you chose are easy on the eye and your reader does not have to strain to read your case study. 

Use Proper Alignment In Your Case Study 

Alignment is one of the principles of design that sets professionally designed business case study templates apart. Great designers have an intuitive eye for the mathematically based ratios of proximity invisible in sound design and an eyesore in lousy design. 

The good news is that you do not have to be a mathematician nor a professional designer to have a perfect alignment for your case study. Visme utilizes an easy to use drag and drop design tool that helps you achieve proper alignment in your case study. 

Let Your Brand Personality Speak

When we make intentional design decisions, we want to create a positive emotional experience for our audience. One of the best ways to do that is to make decisions that showcase your brand’s unique personality .

Is the case study you are creating like a well dressed business person who is serious, trustworthy and capable of doing a great job? Is it more like an extravert at a party bouncing from person to person lighting up the room? 

There is no right answer, but you need to infuse your viewpoint into the case study you create if you want to create a unique design. 

Start Designing Your Case Study Today 

A professionally designed case study template will help you create a stunning case study. While reviewing some high level design strategies is an important step, a tool like Visme will help you make a real impact on your audience.

If you’re ready to create your next case study, get started with Visme today .

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Brian Nuckols is a writer working in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He enjoys communicating visionary ideas in clear, action oriented language. When he’s not working on content for a transformative company you can find him analyzing dreams, creating music, and writing poetry.

Autism Case Studies: Real-Life Examples and Insights

Stepping into the shoes of individuals with autism spectrum disorder, case studies unlock a world of unique perspectives, challenges, and triumphs that reshape our understanding of neurodiversity. These real-life examples provide invaluable insights into the complex and diverse nature of autism, offering a window into the lives of those affected by this condition. By examining these case studies, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the experiences of individuals with autism and their families, as well as the various approaches to support and intervention that have proven effective.

Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Importance of Case Studies

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by challenges in social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors. Understanding Autism: Meaning, Spectrum, and Beyond is crucial for both professionals and the general public. The spectrum nature of autism means that individuals can experience a wide range of symptoms and abilities, making each case unique.

The prevalence of autism has been steadily increasing over the past few decades, with current estimates suggesting that approximately 1 in 54 children in the United States are diagnosed with ASD. This increase in prevalence has led to a growing awareness of the condition and its impact on individuals, families, and society as a whole.

Case studies play a significant role in advancing our understanding of autism. They provide detailed accounts of individual experiences, allowing researchers, clinicians, and educators to gain insights into the diverse manifestations of ASD. These studies help bridge the gap between scientific research and real-world applications, offering valuable lessons that can inform treatment strategies and support systems.

Understanding Autism Case Studies

Autism case studies serve multiple purposes in the field of autism research and treatment. They offer a comprehensive look at an individual’s life, including their developmental history, challenges, strengths, and responses to various interventions. This holistic approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of autism that goes beyond statistical data or generalized descriptions.

Typically, autism case studies include information such as:

1. Developmental milestones and early signs of autism 2. Diagnostic process and assessment results 3. Family history and environmental factors 4. Specific challenges in areas like communication, social interaction, and behavior 5. Strengths and special interests 6. Educational experiences and accommodations 7. Therapeutic interventions and their outcomes 8. Social and emotional development 9. Family dynamics and support systems 10. Long-term outcomes and quality of life

By examining these various aspects, case studies contribute significantly to autism research and treatment. They help identify patterns and trends across different individuals, highlight effective interventions, and reveal areas that require further investigation. Moreover, case studies often inspire new research questions and hypotheses, driving the field forward.

Autism Case Study Examples: Early Childhood

Early childhood case studies are particularly valuable in understanding the early signs of autism and the impact of early intervention. Let’s explore two examples that illustrate different aspects of autism in young children.

Case Study 1: Early Diagnosis and Intervention

Sarah, a 2-year-old girl, was brought to a pediatrician by her parents who were concerned about her lack of eye contact and delayed speech. After a comprehensive evaluation, Sarah was diagnosed with autism at 26 months old. Her case study highlights the importance of early detection and intervention.

Key points from Sarah’s case: – Early signs included limited eye contact, no babbling by 12 months, and no words by 16 months – Comprehensive evaluation included developmental screening, autism-specific assessments, and observations of behavior – Early intervention program started at 27 months, focusing on speech therapy, occupational therapy, and applied behavior analysis (ABA) – Significant improvements observed in communication and social skills by age 4 – Ongoing support and therapy continued as Sarah transitioned to preschool

This case underscores the potential benefits of early diagnosis and intervention in autism, as discussed in Could Autism Be Cured? Exploring Current Research and Future Possibilities . While a cure may not be currently available, early intervention can significantly improve outcomes for children with autism.

Case Study 2: Challenges in Social Communication

Alex, a 4-year-old boy, was diagnosed with autism at age 3 after his preschool teacher noticed his difficulties in social interactions. His case study focuses on the challenges in social communication often experienced by children with autism.

Key aspects of Alex’s case: – Demonstrated advanced vocabulary and memory but struggled with back-and-forth conversations – Showed intense interest in trains but had difficulty engaging in imaginative play with peers – Experienced sensory sensitivities, particularly to loud noises and certain textures – Intervention focused on social skills training, sensory integration therapy, and parent coaching – Progress noted in turn-taking and initiating interactions with peers after six months of intervention

Alex’s case highlights the complex nature of social communication difficulties in autism and the potential for targeted interventions to support skill development.

Autism Case Study Examples: School-Age Children

As children with autism enter school age, new challenges and opportunities arise. The following case studies illustrate some common experiences of school-age children with autism.

Case Study 3: Academic Challenges and Accommodations

Emma, a 9-year-old girl with high-functioning autism, excelled in mathematics but struggled with reading comprehension and writing. Her case study focuses on the academic challenges faced by many children with autism and the accommodations that can support their learning.

Key elements of Emma’s case: – Demonstrated exceptional skills in mathematical calculations and pattern recognition – Struggled with understanding abstract concepts in literature and expressing ideas in writing – Experienced difficulty with time management and organization – Individualized Education Program (IEP) implemented, including accommodations such as extra time for assignments, use of graphic organizers, and assistive technology for writing – Regular collaboration between teachers, parents, and special education staff to monitor progress and adjust strategies

Emma’s case underscores the importance of recognizing both the strengths and challenges of students with autism and providing appropriate support to help them succeed academically.

Case Study 4: Behavioral Interventions in the Classroom

Michael, an 8-year-old boy with autism, exhibited challenging behaviors in the classroom, including frequent meltdowns and difficulty transitioning between activities. His case study explores the implementation of behavioral interventions in a school setting.

Highlights from Michael’s case: – Displayed strong visual-spatial skills but struggled with verbal instructions and changes in routine – Experienced sensory overload in noisy or crowded environments, leading to meltdowns – Behavioral intervention plan developed, including visual schedules, social stories, and a token economy system – Quiet space provided in the classroom for self-regulation – Teacher and staff training on autism and positive behavior support strategies – Significant reduction in meltdowns and improved ability to transition between activities after three months of consistent intervention

Michael’s case demonstrates the effectiveness of tailored behavioral interventions and environmental modifications in supporting students with autism in the classroom.

Autism Case Study Examples: Adolescents and Adults

As individuals with autism transition into adolescence and adulthood, they face unique challenges and opportunities. The following case studies provide insights into the experiences of older individuals on the autism spectrum.

Case Study 5: Transition to Adulthood and Employment

David, a 22-year-old man with autism, navigated the transition from high school to employment. His case study focuses on the challenges and successes experienced during this critical period.

Key aspects of David’s case: – Graduated from high school with strong academic performance in computer science – Struggled with social anxiety and executive functioning skills – Participated in a transition program focusing on job skills, independent living, and social skills – Secured an internship at a local tech company through a supported employment program – Benefited from workplace accommodations, including a quiet workspace and clear, written instructions – Successfully transitioned to full-time employment after six months of internship

David’s case highlights the importance of targeted support during the transition to adulthood and the potential for successful employment outcomes for individuals with autism. Inspiring Autism Success Stories: Journeys of Triumph and Transformation provides additional examples of individuals who have overcome challenges to achieve their goals.

Case Study 6: Relationships and Social Support

Olivia, a 28-year-old woman diagnosed with autism in adulthood, focused on building relationships and developing a support network. Her case study explores the social aspects of autism in adulthood.

Key elements of Olivia’s case: – Late diagnosis at age 25 provided clarity and understanding of lifelong social difficulties – Joined an autism support group and found a sense of community – Engaged in social skills training and cognitive-behavioral therapy to address anxiety – Developed strategies for navigating social situations in personal and professional contexts – Formed meaningful friendships within the autism community and beyond – Advocated for autism awareness and acceptance in her workplace

Olivia’s case underscores the ongoing importance of social support and skill development for adults with autism, as well as the potential for personal growth and advocacy.

Key Findings and Patterns Across Autism Case Studies

Examining multiple case studies reveals several common themes and patterns in the experiences of individuals with autism:

1. Diverse presentations: Each case study demonstrates the unique combination of strengths and challenges experienced by individuals with autism, reinforcing the notion of autism as a spectrum disorder.

2. Importance of early intervention: Cases involving early diagnosis and intervention often show more positive long-term outcomes, highlighting the critical nature of early support.

3. Individualized approaches: Successful interventions are typically tailored to the specific needs, interests, and strengths of each individual, rather than following a one-size-fits-all approach.

4. Ongoing support needs: Many individuals with autism benefit from continued support and accommodations throughout their lives, albeit in different forms as they age.

5. Potential for growth and achievement: Case studies frequently demonstrate significant progress and accomplishments when appropriate support and interventions are provided.

6. Impact of environment: The role of supportive families, educators, and communities is evident in many successful cases, underscoring the importance of creating autism-friendly environments.

7. Comorbid conditions: Many case studies reveal the presence of co-occurring conditions such as anxiety, ADHD, or sensory processing difficulties, highlighting the need for comprehensive care.

8. Importance of self-advocacy: As individuals with autism grow older, the ability to self-advocate and communicate their needs becomes increasingly important for their success and well-being.

Effective interventions and support strategies that emerge from these case studies include:

– Early, intensive behavioral interventions – Structured teaching methods (e.g., TEACCH) – Social skills training and peer-mediated interventions – Assistive technology and visual supports – Sensory integration therapies – Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety and emotional regulation – Vocational training and supported employment programs – Parent and family education and support

The importance of individualized approaches in autism treatment cannot be overstated. What works for one person may not be effective for another, and interventions often need to be adjusted over time as an individual’s needs change. This personalized approach is crucial for maximizing outcomes and quality of life for individuals with autism.

Autism case studies provide invaluable insights into the lived experiences of individuals on the spectrum, offering a nuanced understanding that goes beyond clinical definitions or statistical data. Through these real-life examples, we gain a deeper appreciation for the challenges faced by individuals with autism and their families, as well as the potential for growth, achievement, and fulfillment.

The case studies explored in this article highlight several key points:

1. The diverse nature of autism spectrum disorder and the unique combination of strengths and challenges each individual experiences 2. The potential benefits of early diagnosis and intervention 3. The importance of tailored support and accommodations across different life stages 4. The ongoing need for understanding and acceptance of neurodiversity in society

As we look to the future, autism research and case studies will continue to play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the condition and developing more effective interventions. Exploring Autism: Key Research Questions and Discussion Topics for In-Depth Understanding provides insight into some of the critical areas that researchers are currently investigating.

Future directions for autism research and case studies may include:

– Long-term follow-up studies to better understand outcomes across the lifespan – Exploration of the impact of various interventions on brain development and functioning – Investigation of the experiences of underrepresented groups within the autism community – Development and evaluation of new technologies to support individuals with autism – Examination of the economic and societal impacts of improved support for individuals with autism

As our understanding of autism continues to evolve, it is crucial that we maintain a commitment to supporting individuals on the spectrum and their families. By fostering acceptance, providing appropriate interventions, and creating inclusive environments, we can help ensure that individuals with autism have the opportunity to reach their full potential and lead fulfilling lives.

Autism for Dummies: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding and Supporting Individuals on the Spectrum offers additional resources for those seeking to learn more about autism and how to support individuals on the spectrum.

In conclusion, autism case studies serve as powerful tools for understanding, empathy, and progress in the field of autism research and support. By continuing to share and learn from these individual stories, we can work towards a more inclusive and supportive world for all individuals on the autism spectrum.

References:

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

2. Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., et al. (2018). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1-23. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/ss/ss6706a1.htm

3. Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., et al. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: the Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics, 125(1), e17-e23.

4. Kasari, C., Gulsrud, A., Freeman, S., Paparella, T., & Hellemann, G. (2012). Longitudinal follow-up of children with autism receiving targeted interventions on joint attention and play. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(5), 487-495.

5. Landa, R. J. (2018). Efficacy of early interventions for infants and young children with, and at risk for, autism spectrum disorders. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(1), 25-39.

6. Lord, C., Brugha, T. S., Charman, T., et al. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6(1), 1-23.

7. Magiati, I., Tay, X. W., & Howlin, P. (2014). Cognitive, language, social and behavioural outcomes in adults with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review of longitudinal follow-up studies in adulthood. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 73-86.

8. National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

9. Reichow, B., Hume, K., Barton, E. E., & Boyd, B. A. (2018). Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (5).

10. Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Anderson, K. A., Wagner, M., & Narendorf, S. C. (2013). Postsecondary employment experiences among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(9), 931-939.

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Kolkata Doctor Rape-Murder: Post-Mortem Report Reveals 150 Gram Is Uterus Weight, Not Semen; DNA Analysis Crucial

Reported By : Madhuparna Das

Edited By: Pragati Ratti

Last Updated: August 16, 2024, 17:24 IST

New Delhi, India

Students join other protesters in a midnight rally protesting against the murder of a 31 year old post-graduate trainee demanding proper investigation in Kolkata. (Image: PTI)

Senior forensic scientists and police officers have clarified to News18 that the DNA analysis will be crucial in determining the exact number of individuals responsible for the crime.

The post-mortem report of the Kolkata doctor who was allegedly raped and murdered has dismissed claims floating on social media quoting reports of 150 grams of semen, or even 150 mg of semen found on her body. The actual post-mortem report has specified that the 150 grams mentioned refers to the weight of the victim’s interior or internal genitalia, particularly the uterus, and not the weight of any fluid.

Forensic scientists and doctors always document the weight of organs in such reports, and in this case, the 150 grams pertains to anatomical measurements, not fluid quantity, a senior forensic scientist, who has seen the post-mortem report, told News18.

In a crucial development in the case of the gruesome death of a young doctor at RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, News18 has accessed exclusive details from the post-mortem report and investigation notes, which may cast doubt on the claims circulating on social media and otherwise about the quantity of semen found on the victim’s body. The post-mortem was conducted by a panel of three doctors, which include at least two women forensic scientists-doctors. The team consisted two doctors of RG Kar Medical College and another from NRS Medical College.

The forensic team, arriving at the crime scene almost five hours after the incident, found that the fluids had turned into a smear. They collected samples from the affected areas and surface, but no liquid or fluid was gathered, as it had already congealed.

The collected samples, including any residual blood, semen, and vaginal swabs, were submitted to the Central Forensic Laboratory in Kolkata on August 12, three days after the crime was committed. The process of collecting forensic elements, storing it properly and doing the paperwork and submitting it to the central forensic laboratory needs to go through a protocol which takes time, said a senior police officer.

The report from the Central Forensic Laboratory is expected by Wednesday and will be forwarded to the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), as authorised by the Kolkata Police. This report will include detailed DNA profiling to identify the perpetrator or perpetrators involved in the crime. Senior forensic scientists and police officers have clarified to News18 that the DNA analysis will be crucial in determining the exact number of individuals responsible for the crime.

Case Hangs in Balance on DNA Profiling

News18 spoke with senior forensic experts, who have served in central forensic laboratory and other senior IPS officers who have worked in detecting sensitive and complicated cases of rape and murder. According to the senior central forensic scientist, the uterus is the crucial organ that preserves the fluid, swab or semen for a really long time.

“Once it is collected and put inside the machine for DNA profiling, there cannot be any external influence whatsoever. The profiling takes time, but it delivers almost accurate results,” said the senior scientist.

The scientist elaborated the critical details related to the preservation and quantification of evidence in the case. In this specific case, the uterus of the victim – a key organ in forensic examination, was preserved and its weight was 150 grams, as it was documented. The collected samples, including any residual blood, semen and vaginal swab, were mixed with other bodily fluids and examined by a panel of experts.

“The DNA samples can come in detail. It will show if the DNA is of one person or if it is mixed, as in case of multiple perpetrators,” he added.

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: characterizing multimodal long-form summarization: a case study on financial reports.

Abstract: As large language models (LLMs) expand the power of natural language processing to handle long inputs, rigorous and systematic analyses are necessary to understand their abilities and behavior. A salient application is summarization, due to its ubiquity and controversy (e.g., researchers have declared the death of summarization). In this paper, we use financial report summarization as a case study because financial reports are not only long but also use numbers and tables extensively. We propose a computational framework for characterizing multimodal long-form summarization and investigate the behavior of Claude 2.0/2.1, GPT-4/3.5, and Cohere. We find that GPT-3.5 and Cohere fail to perform this summarization task meaningfully. For Claude 2 and GPT-4, we analyze the extractiveness of the summary and identify a position bias in LLMs. This position bias disappears after shuffling the input for Claude, which suggests that Claude seems to recognize important information. We also conduct a comprehensive investigation on the use of numeric data in LLM-generated summaries and offer a taxonomy of numeric hallucination. We employ prompt engineering to improve GPT-4's use of numbers with limited success. Overall, our analyses highlight the strong capability of Claude 2 in handling long multimodal inputs compared to GPT-4. The generated summaries and evaluation code are available at this https URL .

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Case report

• Open access
• Published: 15 August 2024

Infection of Mycoplasma hominis in the left lower leg amputation wound of a patient with diabetes: a case report

• Li-Chen Kuo 1 , 2 ,
• Yu-Hsiang Tseng 3 ,
• Lee-Wei Chen 3 ,
• Tso-Ping Wang 1 ,
• Ciao-Shan Chen 1 &
• Herng-Sheng Lee 1  

Journal of Medical Case Reports volume  18 , Article number:  380 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Mycoplasma hominis is typically found on the mucosal epithelium of the human genital tract, with infections being rare. However, when the mucosal barrier is compromised or in individuals with weakened immune systems, this microorganism can trigger infections in both intragenital and extragenital sites. This study offers a comprehensive overview of infections caused by the rare pathogen M. hominis . This overview helps laboratories identify M. hominis infections in a timely manner, thereby enabling earlier clinical intervention for patients.

Case presentation

A 75-year-old Taiwanese man with type 2 diabetes mellitus initially underwent a left lower extremity amputation following a severe infection caused by necrotizing fasciitis. Subsequently, a poorly healing wound developed at the site of amputation. Upon culturing the wound abscess, M. hominis was isolated and identified as the causative agent.

Conclusions

Through this case, we present clinical and microbiological observations along with a review of the literature to deepen our understanding of M. hominis . Our findings can be used to develop laboratory diagnostic protocols and innovative therapeutic approaches.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Mycoplasma hominis , a commensal bacterium residing in the genital tract, lacks a conventional bacterial cell wall and is characterized by a negative Gram stain. Cultivation of M. hominis requires specific conditions, such as blood and chocolate agar plates, incubated at 37 °C with 5–10% CO 2 .The colonies are small (0.2 mm in diameter), translucent, and easily mistaken for droplets, necessitating prolonged incubation for proper development. When conventional Gram staining fails to detect microbes, suspicions of M. hominis presence arise, prompting subculture on specialized media. Various commonly used agar media, such as SP4 agar supplemented with arginine, Hayflick agar, and A7 agar, often incorporate penicillin G for enhanced selectivity. The incubation of agar plates under anaerobic conditions at 35 °C for a minimum of 5 days is recommended. Colony observation under stereomicroscopy aids identification based on their characteristic “fried egg” appearance [ 1 ]. However, reliance solely on blood or chocolate agar may not always yield reliable results, as demonstrated in our case, where bacterial growth was not detected in the second wound culture. Molecular diagnostic methods, such as matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF MS) or 16S rRNA sequencing, can be used to accurately identify M. hominis .

Although infections with M. hominis are rare, they predominantly affect the mucosal epithelium of the genital tract. However, compromised mucosal integrity or immune function can lead to infections in both intragenital and extragenital regions. An understanding of Mycoplasma infections requires an understanding of the effects of various factors, such as glycemic index, mineral balance, and oxidative stress; the evolutionary pathways of intracellular pathogens; and the interaction of these pathogens with our immune response—in addition to the genetic bases underlying these mechanisms. These factors play a critical role in the selection of pathogen populations over time, both locally and systemically, during the course of infection. Although M. hominis is commonly found in the urinary tract of humans, reports of this rare pathogen in diabetes-related foot infections are scarce in the English language literature, possibly due to cross-contamination. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive description of infections caused by M. hominis to assist laboratories in timely identification, which is crucial for early and effective treatment.

We present the case of a 75-year-old Taiwanese man with a medical history of end-stage renal disease undergoing hemodialysis via a left arm arteriovenous fistula. He also presented with hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and type II diabetes mellitus (DM) with retinopathy as comorbidities. Due to painful, erythematous changes and a nonhealing wound over left ankle persisting for 3 months, he sought assistance in our emergency room. His vital signs were within normal limits, with a blood pressure of 114/54 mmHg, temperature of 37.3 °C, a pulse of 71 beats per minute, and respiratory rate of 16 per minute. A physical examination revealed a 2-cm chronic wound with turbid, orange discharge over the left leg and necrotic tissue over the left ankle (Fig.  1 a). Laboratory tests revealed a white blood cell count of 7080/μL, with differential counts showing neutrophils at 38%, lymphocytes at 23%, monocytes at 18%, eosinophils at 12%, and basophils at 3%. His C-reactive protein level was elevated to 10.2 mg/dL. A computed tomography scan of the left lower extremity revealed gas formation within the subcutaneous and intermuscular fascial planes over the foot and leg, raising suspicion of necrotizing fasciitis. Consequently, empirical antibiotic therapy with piperacillin/tazobactam was initiated, and the patient was admitted for further management. Subsequent fasciectomy revealed necrosis of the ankle joint capsule, joint pus formation, necrosis of the plantar and dorsal foot periosteum (Fig.  1 b), and necrosis of the lateral compartment muscles of the lower leg (Fig.  1 c). Wound culture led to the identification of Proteus mirabilis and Peptostreptococcus anaerobius infections, prompting a change in antibiotic therapy to cefoxitin based on sensitivity testing. However, the wound emitted purulent discharge and a foul odor, and poor circulation was noted in the left lower extremity. Therefore, below-knee amputation was performed. Although initial wound cultures exhibited no bacterial growth, purulent discharge persisted from the medial part of the amputated stump 3 days later, prompting a third wound culture. Given the negative result of the second culture, the possibility of a rare pathogen was considered, leading to incubation of the third wound culture on anaerobic blood agar at 35 °C under 5% CO 2 for 5 days, which revealed pinpoint-sized colonies resembling water droplets (Fig.  1 d). These colonies tested negative on a gram stain, but MALDI–TOF MS findings led to the identification of these colonies as M. hominis . Genetic sequencing confirmed this identification (Fig.  1 e). Accordingly, antibiotic therapy was changed to intravenous levofloxacin, which resulted in resolution of purulent discharge and closure of the wound. The patient was then discharged without complications. The clinical treatment process is detailed in the supplementary file.

a A chronic wound , 2 cm in size (arrow). b Operative finding showed ankle joint capsule necrosis (1), joint pus formation (2), and plantar and dorsal foot periosteum necrosis (3). c Lateral compartment of lower leg part muscle necrosis (arrow). d Formation of pinpoint-sized colonies resembling water droplets on agar. e Result of gene sequencing performed by Genomics Bioscience and Tech. Co., Ltd. The solid blue dots (M1110221-140) in the phylogram tree belong to the Mycoplasma hominis group in our case

M. hominis is difficult to culture in microbiology laboratories due to its slow growth, which may lead to human error. In a case initially managed with piperacillin/tazobactam, the antibiotic regimen was changed to cefoxitin following the detection of Proteus mirabilis and Peptostreptococcus anaerobius in wound cultures. Despite this adjustment, the wound infection persisted until M. hominis was isolated, emphasizing delayed treatment potentially attributable to concurrent bacterial infections. Subsequent treatment with levofloxacin led to a resolution of the infection.

Infections caused by M. hominis can occur through both intragenital and extragenital routes. In genital tract infections, transmission to newborns during birth is a concern [ 2 ]. Extragenital infections can manifest in various forms, such as septic arthritis [ 3 ], prosthetic joint infections [ 4 ], central nervous system infections [ 5 ], infective endocarditis [ 6 ], abscess formation, secondary infections in joint replacement surgery [ 7 ], and wound infections [ 8 ]. Catheterization has also been associated with M. hominis , potentially due to the use of indwelling catheters used during surgery or hematogenous transmission to surgical sites [ 9 ]. However, identifying the source of infection in such cases can often be challenging.

Poorly controlled glycemia in patients with diabetes poses a risk of M. hominis infection, potentially affecting wound healing processes. The elusive nature of the bacterium prompts suspicion of infection when wound repair is suboptimal and conventional abscess cultures yield negative results. Detecting M. hominis necessitates specialized culture conditions, including 5–10% CO 2 or anaerobic conditions at 35 °C for several days. Molecular techniques such as MALDI–TOF MS and gene sequencing aid in its identification.

Recent research has uncovered the influence of various factors on immune function and cellular permeability, thereby affecting homeostasis. These factors include Glutathione (GSH)/Glutathione disulfide (GSSG) [ 10 ], vitamin E, magnesium [ 11 ], and cellular ion concentrations [ 12 ]. Additionally, cellular aging and cycling can affect stress-tolerant cell subpopulations, immune function, infection risk, and antibiotic resistance [ 13 ]. Phenotypic heterogeneity in immune cells among individuals with diabetes may contribute to increased susceptibility to infections [ 14 ]. Antioxidants such as glutathione and plasma copper levels may play a pivotal role in immune modulation [ 15 ], particularly in patients with diabetes.

The literature provides therapeutic insights for fungal infections [ 16 ] and suggests innovative strategies for treating Naegleria and intracellular pathogens, including M. hominis infections, particularly in immune-compromised patients with diabetes, autoimmune diseases, different types of neoplasia, and neurodegenerative diseases. These insights offer the potential for complete cure. These theoretical perspectives can be used to revolutionize future research approaches and deepen our understanding of immune modulation along with regeneration pathways, thereby informing treatment strategies for M. hominis infections and a wide range of other illnesses.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

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Clinical audit of cases and outcomes of patients admitted to the intensive care unit at Kamuzu Central Hospital, Lilongwe, Malawi

• Akim Nelson Bwanali   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-2070-0041 1 ,
• Leonard Munthali 1 ,
• Upile Napolo 1 ,
• Adriano Focus Lubanga 1 ,
• Rodwell Gundo 2 &
• Samuel L. Mpinganjira 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  19019 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Health care

In 2016, a new, improved and modern intensive care unit was constructed at Kamuzu Central Hospital in Lilongwe, Malawi. Having been operational for about 4 years, there has not been a systematic audit to gauge its performance. Therefore, this quantitative retrospective cohort study aimed at investigating the performance of the intensive care unit at Kamuzu Central Hospital in Lilongwe, Malawi. We analysed the patterns of admission through 250 clinical cases and their respective outcomes spanning from 1st January 2019 to 31st December 2019 using STATA. Descriptive and inferential statistics were computed. We also had a follow-up discussion with the Head of the unit to better understand the unit’s functioning. Out of the 250 admissions, we evaluated 249 case files. About 30.8% of all patients were referred from the main operating theatre, and 20.7% from the casualty (emergency medicine). Head injury (26.7%) and peritonitis (15.7%) were the commonest causes of admission. The overall mortality was 52.2% with more females (57.5%) dying than males (47.9%). Head injury and peritonitis had the highest contribution to the mortality accounting for 25.3% and 16.9% of all deaths respectively. In conclusion, despite the new unit registering an improved performance compared to the old unit’s 2012 mortality of 60.9%, the current mortality rate of 52.2% generally reflects a suboptimal performance. The intensive care unit is still grappling with a number of challenges that need immediate attention including few working beds, shortage of critical care specialists and nursing staff and lack of standard admission criteria.

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Introduction.

An Intensive Care Unit (ICU) is an organized system for the provision of care to critically ill patients that provides intensive and specialized medical and nursing care. It harbours enhanced capacity for monitoring, and multiple techniques for physiologic organ support such as mechanical ventilation to sustain life during a period of life-threatening organ system insufficiency 1 .

To function optimally, such an ICU must be complemented with a good infrastructure, consistent supply of drugs, advanced medical equipment and well trained personnel 2 . Since the onset of critical care provision, the global community has witnessed dramatic improvements in recovery of those with critical illnesses and injuries 3 . This is precisely true for developed countries whose resources enable ICUs to function optimally 4 .

Developing countries, in contrast, often fail to operationalize the same high quality of care 3 , 4 , 5 . In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), ICUs often run on limited equipment and healthcare providers usually with no specialized training in critical care 5 . These differences on the quality of critical care provision between developed and developing countries have led to profound differences. Not surprising, their ICUs register mortality rates as low as 8% in comparison to 64% as reported by other low-income country studies 6 , 7 , 8 . Unfortunately there is limited data on impact that subpar critical care is having on the performance of the whole health sector 9 .

Mortality and outcomes of ICU admission have been variable across studies in Africa. For instance, a study in Uganda found an overall mortality of 25% in comparison to 41% found in Tanzania 3 , 10 . Multiple studies in SSA have reported numerous factors associated with poor outcomes in ICU which include advanced age, urgency of admission and development of in-hospital complications 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 .

The challenges and poor critical care performance highlighted above could be heightened in Malawi due to an especially increased demand of critical care to provide for the rapidly growing population, thereby placing a further burden on the already strained healthcare workforce. However, there is limited local data on factors that influence outcome of patients admitted to the ICU in Malawi.

Malawi built her first 5-bed ICU in 1990, at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH) 15 . In 2016, the ICU at KCH was transferred to a new building with more space, beds and equipment, to cater for the population of the central region. This new ICU has 8 beds with 1 presidential suite bed. A previous study conducted in the old ICU at KCH showed that the ICU admits an average of 22 patients per month with 5 functional beds a time due to limited staff. Alarmingly, one study in 2012 at KCH ICU revealed a general mortality of 60.9% with sepsis as the commonest causes of death 16 . Since commencement of the newly constructed ICU there is no systemic study done to assess its performance and ascertain any improvement from the old ICU. Therefore, we aimed to assess clinical outcomes of patients, commonest causes of mortality for patients admitted at KCH ICU and compare the performance of the new ICU with the old one.

Materials and methods

Study setting.

This study was conducted at KCH newly-built ICU. KCH has an 8-bed capacity ICU with only 5 operational beds to serve a population of 7,523,340 in the central region of Malawi 17 . This creates a ratio 1 bed available for every 1.5 million people. The ratio of the ICU beds to the total number of hospital beds at is 1:150. The unit is currently being run by the head of the anaesthesia department. However, there is no intensivist. At any point in time, there is a clinician/anaesthetist on-call and 5 nurses on-duty. Thus a nurse to patient ratio of 1:1 is usually maintained. Among the 21 nurses allocated to the ICU, only one of them underwent special critical care training. Additionally, there is no established team that carries out ward rounds. As such, the referring units periodically come to evaluate their respective patients.

The ICU is for both paediatric and adult patients. Each ICU bed has a ventilator, perfuser, an infusion pump, a multi-parameter monitor and an oxygen concentrator. A defibrillator and a 12-lead ECG are available for use at any bed needed. However, the ICU does not have the following; a portable X-ray, an ultrasound machine and an arterial blood gas analyser.

Study design

This was a quantitative retrospective review conducted at KCH ICU. We aimed to review 250 case files of patients ever admitted in this ICU between January 2019 and December 2019. They were conveniently sampled.

Data collection

All data was collected by the primary investigators for the study (ANB, LM and UN). The data collection period span from 1 September, 2021 to 14 September, 2021.We collected data from the ICU register book onto a case reporting form. Variables included patient’s code number (that we assigned), referring unit, age, sex, diagnosis, interventions done, length of admission and their outcome. The length of stay in the ICU was measured in calendar days based on the admission and discharge dates. Additionally, we held a follow-up discussion with the Head of Unit to gain further insights into the functioning of the unit.

Data management and analysis

The data was then cleaned and transferred into an Excel 2016 electronic file which was kept on a password-secured personal laptop and backed up on a secure online drive.

We employed descriptive statistics to describe our sample. Categorical variables were summarized into frequencies and percentages and presented in frequency distribution tables, graphs and pie charts. Continuous data was summarized as means, standard deviations and medians and further summarized and displayed into frequency polygons/histogram.

Comparison of categorical variables was performed using Chi squared test. Correlation between the variables were tested using the Pearson correlation co-efficient. A P -value of less that 0.05 was considered significant. Statistical analyses were conducted using STATA 16.

Ethical considerations

The approval to conduct the study was obtained from Kamuzu University of Health Sciences (KUHES) research and ethics committee, reference number U.03/20/3027. Further approval was obtained from the hospital director and the Head of ICU at KCH. The study was conducted in accordance to the ethical rules and regulation as stipulated in the KUHES ethics guidelines. The need of informed consent was waived by KUHES research ethics since the study did not involve any physical interaction with the patient. The study has no anticipated risk, as it involved secondary analysis of routinely collected data. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, we de-identified and disaggregated the data. Only the primary researchers accessed the data.

Demographic profile

A total of 250 case files for patients of all age groups admitted to the ICU in a period spanning from January 1st, 2019 to December 31st, 2019 were reviewed. Males made up 57% of the cases (Table 1 ). The age of the patients ranged from less than 1 to 87 with a mean of 30 ± 18.4 years and had a mean length of admission of 4.93 ± 5.06 days.

Of the 250 cases, some patients had missing variables. 0.4% were missing sex, another 0.4% had no outcome recorded, 0.8% had undocumented age, 1.2% did not have referring unit and another 1.2% did not have a diagnosis.

The commonest diagnoses at admission were head injury and peritonitis which contributed 26.7% and 15.7% respectively (Fig.  1 ). Most of the patients were referred from the main operating theatre (30.8%), followed by the Casualty (20.7%) and the Ethel Mutharika (EM) Maternity High Dependency Unit (HDU) (10.5%) (Fig.  2 ). Most of the patients required mechanical ventilation (90.8%). A smaller proportion were given catecholamines (24.8%) and an even smaller proportion underwent Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) (2.4%). Over half of the admissions took place in the second half of the year (54.4%) (Fig.  3 ).

Causes of admission to the ICU. Head injury (26.7%) and peritonitis (15.8) were the commonest causes of admission to the ICU.

Relative contributions of various referring units to the ICU admissions. Most patients were referred from the main operating theatre and casualty (emergency medicine department). Key: Ethel Mutharika; HDU, High Dependency Unit; OT, Operating theatre.

Number of admissions in quarters of the year. Most admissions took place in the third and fourth quarters of the year 2019.

Treatment outcomes

The study revealed an in-ICU mortality rate of 52%. The mortality was higher amongst females with a mortality rate of 57.5% (compared to 47.9% in males) (Table 1 ). Cardiac arrest and pulmonary oedema were conditions with the highest in-ICU mortality of over 70% each. However, head injury and peritonitis had the highest contribution to the mortality accounting for 25.3% and 16.9% of all deaths respectively. The highest mortality rate was observed in those older than 50 years (65.1%) and the paediatric group (62.5%) (Fig.  4 ).

Composition of age groups in the overall mortality. Most deaths were contributed by the 30–49 age group (30%). The paediatric population (children) contributed a combined quarter of the mortality.

Follow-up discussion with the head of unit

It transpired that the unit operates on substandard admission criteria that is not supported by any disease severity and outcome prediction scoring systems. Admission of patients into the unit is mainly based on the admitting officer’s clinical judgement, resulting in subjective admission of patients into the ICU.

This study aimed at bringing to light the performance of the ICU. Despite the new ICU registering an improved performance compared to the old ICU, the mortality rate of 52.2% generally reflects a suboptimal performance compared to other ICUs within the SSA.

Our study portrayed inadequacy of ICU beds with a shocking ratio of only 1 bed available for every 1.5 million people. Another study done at another tertiary hospital in the same country showed a similar ratio 6 . Elsewhere, in Uganda and other parts of Africa, the ratio still stands at 1 to 1 million 5 . This is in massive contrast to Western countries. For example, there is 1 bed for every 293 people in the USA and 1 for every 163 people in Germany. Surprisingly, the demand for critical care services is arguably more enormous in sub-Saharan Africa. This is because the high incidence of road traffic accidents and infectious diseases in developing countries places an additional burden on critical care services 18 . Sadly, the discipline of critical care is heavily eluded from priority in these settings as it gets minute proportion of the health sector funding 4 . Sufficient resource allocation to the specialty of critical care is therefore required to improve provision of care to the critically ill and their overall prognosis.

The results of our study portrayed head trauma to be the most common diagnosis within the ICU with a total percentage of 26.7%, of cases of which 86% of the head injury patients were males. This could be attributed to a rising incidence of road traffic accidents (RTAs). A study conducted in 2017 showed that there has been a rapidly growing burden of RTAs at KCH in Lilongwe with a prediction that the burden will double by 2030 18 . 76.4% of those with road traffic injuries were males with an average age of 24.2. With young productive males losing days at work and their lives due to devastating injuries, this leads to a reduction in the productive population of the nation. This ultimately affects the economy. It is said that in Malawi there is an estimated impact of 5% to the GDP 18 . This therefore, calls for a multi-sectoral approach to address the key causes of admission to the ICU including ensuring road traffic safety.

Our study revealed an overall mortality of 52.2%. A study conducted in 2012 at KCH’s previous ICU found an overall mortality of 60.9%, thus signifying a reduction of approximately of 8% with the new ICU 16 . This may be attributed to the increase in resources. However, a study conducted at another tertiary level hospital Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital (QECH) displayed an overall mortality was 23.6% which is significantly lower than that of KCH although QECH had a lower bed capacity 6 . The differences may be explained by the fact that at KCH’s ICU patients are not attended by physicians on a daily basis. Additionally, the lack of a standard ICU admission criteria means some patients are admitted in a moribund state, which only serves to increase the overall mortality. Another study in South Africa showed an overall mortality of 13.6%, which is another alarming difference 19 . That study ICU has 16 beds and full time specialist cover which seems to make a big difference to the outcome of patients. Of note is that they also use a scoring system known as the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS 3) to assess severity of patients presenting to the ICU. The scoring system helps predict the realistic outcome of the patients. In contrast, at KCH the admission criteria does not have any scoring system (mainly based on admitting officer’s clinical judgement) resulting in subjective admission of patients into the ICU. We should therefore have an anaesthesiologist to do daily ward rounds on patients and implement an ICU scoring system.

This study revealed a mortality rate of up to 62.5% among the paediatric patients admitted in the ICU. In a study done at another tertiary hospital in the same country, the paediatric mortality rate was 32% 6 . These findings are comparable to similar studies done across Africa. The mortality rates reported lie within the range 20–60% 20 , 21 . This is alarming, considering the fact that children comprise a quarter or less of the ICU patients. Interestingly, some studies done in resource-rich settings have demonstrated better outcomes in critically ill children managed in dedicated Paediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) as compared to those managed in general ICU 22 . However, studies in dedicated PICU in Rwanda and South Africa contradict such a finding with mortality rates of 50% and 56% respectively 23 . This highlights the general subpar provision of critical care in developing countries. Keys to improving the overall intensive care provision could prove useful in reducing child mortality during care.

Our study established that critical care medicine is still underdeveloped in low resource settings. For Malawi, it showed that over 50% of the patients die. Most of the patients were admitted due to surgical conditions with head injury and peritonitis being the commonest causes of admission and head injury contributing the highest to mortality. Most of the patients were referred from the main operating theatre.

Recommendations

The study recommends provision of medical and nursing staff with adequate training and expertize to provide critical care medicine. The study and other similar studies across SSA persistently highlight the key challenge of inadequate staffing contributing to high mortality rates among the critically ill patients. This requires raising political commitment toward critical care by increasing financial resources allocated to the specialty which is currently neglected.

Furthermore, it is crucial to develop and utilise an evidence-based and standardized ICU admission criteria. As our study has reported, most patients are admitted based on the admitting officer’s clinical judgement resulting in admitting patients who may have little chance of benefitting from critical care. There is therefore, a need to establish legitimate admission criteria to ensure that the limited ICU resources are used on patients with the best possible chance of benefitting from critical care.

Finally, we also recommend an improved electronic documentation system for the provision of ICU care. This could ensure an effective evaluation of the performance of the ICU.

Study limitations

Some of the required data about the patients was missing from the registry. This just goes to show how poor the level of documentation within the hospital is. Secondly, we were unable to determine the exact causes of death due to unavailability of autopsy data. Furthermore, we were unable to follow up on the patients that were transferred out, to determine their survival rate as their files were not in the ICU. Additionally, due to the lack of a clear admission criteria or scoring system, we do not know which patients truly qualified for ICU care. Last but not least, data was only collected for the year 2019 despite the new ICU being operational for 4 years hence the results are subject to confounding factors associated with the year 2019. Besides, the study was conducted at one hospital, hence, generalization of the findings is limited.

Data availability

The data obtained and/or analysed during the study is available and can be provided upon a reasonable request made to the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the Manuscript Writing Workshop funded by the Africa Center of Excellence in Public Health and Herbal Medicine (ACEPHEM) which provided the authors with timely technical support and expertise when preparing the manuscript. They also acknowledge the technical expertize provided by Mr Andrew Kumitawa, a biostatistician, when conducting statistical analyses.

This study was supported by funding provided by the Kamuzu University of Health Sciences for undergraduate research projects.

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School of Global and Public Health, Kamuzu University of Health Sciences, Blantyre, Malawi

Akim Nelson Bwanali, Leonard Munthali, Upile Napolo, Adriano Focus Lubanga & Samuel L. Mpinganjira

School of Nursing, Kamuzu University of Health Sciences, Blantyre, Malawi

Rodwell Gundo

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Contributions

Study conception and design: A.N.B., L.M., U.N., R.G. Data collection and management: A.N.B., L.M., U.N. Data analysis and interpretation: A.N.B., A.F.L., L.M., U.N., S.L.M., R.G. Manuscript drafting and writing: A.N.B., A.F.L., L.M., U.N., S.L.M., R.G. Manuscript reviewing, revising and final approval: A.N.B., A.F.L., L.M., U.N., S.L.M., R.G. Supervision: S.L.M., R.G. All authors have substantially contributed to the interpretation of relevant literature, and have been involved in writing the article or revising it for intellectual content.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Akim Nelson Bwanali .

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Bwanali, A.N., Munthali, L., Napolo, U. et al. Clinical audit of cases and outcomes of patients admitted to the intensive care unit at Kamuzu Central Hospital, Lilongwe, Malawi. Sci Rep 14 , 19019 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66810-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66810-7

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• Intensive care unit (ICU)

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