list of experimental psychologists

• The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

While each year thousands and thousands of studies are completed in the many specialty areas of psychology, there are a handful that, over the years, have had a lasting impact in the psychological community as a whole. Some of these were dutifully conducted, keeping within the confines of ethical and practical guidelines. Others pushed the boundaries of human behavior during their psychological experiments and created controversies that still linger to this day. And still others were not designed to be true psychological experiments, but ended up as beacons to the psychological community in proving or disproving theories.

This is a list of the 25 most influential psychological experiments still being taught to psychology students of today.

1. A Class Divided

Study conducted by: jane elliott.

Study Conducted in 1968 in an Iowa classroom

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise, or better yet, a psychological experiment, to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

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2. Asch Conformity Study

Study conducted by: dr. solomon asch.

Study Conducted in 1951 at Swarthmore College

Experiment Details: Dr. Solomon Asch conducted a groundbreaking study that was designed to evaluate a person’s likelihood to conform to a standard when there is pressure to do so.

A group of participants were shown pictures with lines of various lengths and were then asked a simple question: Which line is longest? The tricky part of this study was that in each group only one person was a true participant. The others were actors with a script. Most of the actors were instructed to give the wrong answer. Strangely, the one true participant almost always agreed with the majority, even though they knew they were giving the wrong answer.

The results of this study are important when we study social interactions among individuals in groups. This study is a famous example of the temptation many of us experience to conform to a standard during group situations and it showed that people often care more about being the same as others than they do about being right. It is still recognized as one of the most influential psychological experiments for understanding human behavior.

3. Bobo Doll Experiment

Study conducted by: dr. alburt bandura.

Study Conducted between 1961-1963 at Stanford University

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups:

• one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll
• another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll
• the third formed a control group

Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves. The other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104. This is compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models.

While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7. This is compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models. The Bobo Doll Experiment showed a groundbreaking way to study human behavior and it’s influences.

4. Car Crash Experiment

Study conducted by: elizabeth loftus and john palmer.

Study Conducted in 1974 at The University of California in Irvine

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique. This means that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

5. Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

Study conducted by: leon festinger and james carlsmith.

Study Conducted in 1957 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: The concept of cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting:

This conflict produces an inherent feeling of discomfort leading to a change in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to minimize or eliminate the discomfort and restore balance.

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, after an observational study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood. Out of this study was born an intriguing experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith where participants were asked to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). Participant’s initial attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a participant waiting in the lobby that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the next participant that the boring experiment would be fun. When the participants were later asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that cognitive dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

6. Fantz’s Looking Chamber

Study conducted by: robert l. fantz.

Study Conducted in 1961 at the University of Illinois

Experiment Details: The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye. On the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

7. Hawthorne Effect

Study conducted by: henry a. landsberger.

Study Conducted in 1955 at Hawthorne Works in Chicago, Illinois

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light in a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity. The workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa.

The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out. They increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon.

The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.

8. Kitty Genovese Case

Study conducted by: new york police force.

Study Conducted in 1964 in New York City

Experiment Details: The murder case of Kitty Genovese was never intended to be a psychological experiment, however it ended up having serious implications for the field.

According to a New York Times article, almost 40 neighbors witnessed Kitty Genovese being savagely attacked and murdered in Queens, New York in 1964. Not one neighbor called the police for help. Some reports state that the attacker briefly left the scene and later returned to “finish off” his victim. It was later uncovered that many of these facts were exaggerated. (There were more likely only a dozen witnesses and records show that some calls to police were made).

What this case later become famous for is the “Bystander Effect,” which states that the more bystanders that are present in a social situation, the less likely it is that anyone will step in and help. This effect has led to changes in medicine, psychology and many other areas. One famous example is the way CPR is taught to new learners. All students in CPR courses learn that they must assign one bystander the job of alerting authorities which minimizes the chances of no one calling for assistance.

9. Learned Helplessness Experiment

Study conducted by: martin seligman.

Study Conducted in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania

Seligman’s experiment involved the ringing of a bell and then the administration of a light shock to a dog. After a number of pairings, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened. As soon as the dog heard the bell, he reacted as though he’d already been shocked.

During the course of this study something unexpected happened. Each dog was placed in a large crate that was divided down the middle with a low fence. The dog could see and jump over the fence easily. The floor on one side of the fence was electrified, but not on the other side of the fence. Seligman placed each dog on the electrified side and administered a light shock. He expected the dog to jump to the non-shocking side of the fence. In an unexpected turn, the dogs simply laid down.

The hypothesis was that as the dogs learned from the first part of the experiment that there was nothing they could do to avoid the shocks, they gave up in the second part of the experiment. To prove this hypothesis the experimenters brought in a new set of animals and found that dogs with no history in the experiment would jump over the fence.

This condition was described as learned helplessness. A human or animal does not attempt to get out of a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.

10. Little Albert Experiment

Study conducted by: john b. watson and rosalie rayner.

Study Conducted in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University

The experiment began by placing a white rat in front of the infant, who initially had no fear of the animal. Watson then produced a loud sound by striking a steel bar with a hammer every time little Albert was presented with the rat. After several pairings (the noise and the presentation of the white rat), the boy began to cry and exhibit signs of fear every time the rat appeared in the room. Watson also created similar conditioned reflexes with other common animals and objects (rabbits, Santa beard, etc.) until Albert feared them all.

This study proved that classical conditioning works on humans. One of its most important implications is that adult fears are often connected to early childhood experiences.

11. Magical Number Seven

Study conducted by: george a. miller.

Study Conducted in 1956 at Princeton University

Experiment Details:   Frequently referred to as “ Miller’s Law,” the Magical Number Seven experiment purports that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This means that the human memory capacity typically includes strings of words or concepts ranging from 5-9. This information on the limits to the capacity for processing information became one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.

The Magical Number Seven Experiment was published in 1956 by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University’s Department of Psychology in Psychological Review .  In the article, Miller discussed a concurrence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory.

In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (such as 10 different tones varying only in pitch). The person responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before).

Performance is almost perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli is increased. This means that a human’s maximum performance on one-dimensional absolute judgment can be described as an information store with the maximum capacity of approximately 2 to 3 bits of information There is the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.

12. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Study conducted by: ivan pavlov.

Study Conducted in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia

Pavlov began with the simple idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. He observed that dogs do not learn to salivate when they see food. This reflex is “hard wired” into the dog. This is an unconditioned response (a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Pavlov outlined that there are unconditioned responses in the animal by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and then measuring its salivary secretions. In the experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. What he found was that the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. The dog had learned to associate the bell and the food. This learning created a new behavior. The dog salivated when he heard the bell. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

This theory came to be known as classical conditioning.

13. Robbers Cave Experiment

Study conducted by: muzafer and carolyn sherif.

Study Conducted in 1954 at the University of Oklahoma

Experiment Details: This experiment, which studied group conflict, is considered by most to be outside the lines of what is considered ethically sound.

In 1954 researchers at the University of Oklahoma assigned 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys from similar backgrounds into two groups. The two groups were taken to separate areas of a summer camp facility where they were able to bond as social units. The groups were housed in separate cabins and neither group knew of the other’s existence for an entire week. The boys bonded with their cabin mates during that time. Once the two groups were allowed to have contact, they showed definite signs of prejudice and hostility toward each other even though they had only been given a very short time to develop their social group. To increase the conflict between the groups, the experimenters had them compete against each other in a series of activities. This created even more hostility and eventually the groups refused to eat in the same room. The final phase of the experiment involved turning the rival groups into friends. The fun activities the experimenters had planned like shooting firecrackers and watching movies did not initially work, so they created teamwork exercises where the two groups were forced to collaborate. At the end of the experiment, the boys decided to ride the same bus home, demonstrating that conflict can be resolved and prejudice overcome through cooperation.

Many critics have compared this study to Golding’s Lord of the Flies novel as a classic example of prejudice and conflict resolution.

14. Ross’ False Consensus Effect Study

Study conducted by: lee ross.

Study Conducted in 1977 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: In 1977, a social psychology professor at Stanford University named Lee Ross conducted an experiment that, in lay terms, focuses on how people can incorrectly conclude that others think the same way they do, or form a “false consensus” about the beliefs and preferences of others. Ross conducted the study in order to outline how the “false consensus effect” functions in humans.

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In the first part of the study, participants were asked to read about situations in which a conflict occurred and then were told two alternative ways of responding to the situation. They were asked to do three things:

• Guess which option other people would choose
• Say which option they themselves would choose
• Describe the attributes of the person who would likely choose each of the two options

What the study showed was that most of the subjects believed that other people would do the same as them, regardless of which of the two responses they actually chose themselves. This phenomenon is referred to as the false consensus effect, where an individual thinks that other people think the same way they do when they may not. The second observation coming from this important study is that when participants were asked to describe the attributes of the people who will likely make the choice opposite of their own, they made bold and sometimes negative predictions about the personalities of those who did not share their choice.

15. The Schacter and Singer Experiment on Emotion

Study conducted by: stanley schachter and jerome e. singer.

Study Conducted in 1962 at Columbia University

Experiment Details: In 1962 Schachter and Singer conducted a ground breaking experiment to prove their theory of emotion.

In the study, a group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that induces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. The research participants were told that they were being injected with a new medication to test their eyesight. The first group of participants was informed the possible side effects that the injection might cause while the second group of participants were not. The participants were then placed in a room with someone they thought was another participant, but was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

What Schachter and Singer were trying to understand was the ways in which cognition or thoughts influence human emotion. Their study illustrates the importance of how people interpret their physiological states, which form an important component of your emotions. Though their cognitive theory of emotional arousal dominated the field for two decades, it has been criticized for two main reasons: the size of the effect seen in the experiment was not that significant and other researchers had difficulties repeating the experiment.

16. Selective Attention / Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Study conducted by: daniel simons and christopher chabris.

Study Conducted in 1999 at Harvard University

Experiment Details: In 1999 Simons and Chabris conducted their famous awareness test at Harvard University.

Participants in the study were asked to watch a video and count how many passes occurred between basketball players on the white team. The video moves at a moderate pace and keeping track of the passes is a relatively easy task. What most people fail to notice amidst their counting is that in the middle of the test, a man in a gorilla suit walked onto the court and stood in the center before walking off-screen.

The study found that the majority of the subjects did not notice the gorilla at all, proving that humans often overestimate their ability to effectively multi-task. What the study set out to prove is that when people are asked to attend to one task, they focus so strongly on that element that they may miss other important details.

17. Stanford Prison Study

Study conducted by philip zimbardo.

Study Conducted in 1971 at Stanford University

The Stanford Prison Experiment was designed to study behavior of “normal” individuals when assigned a role of prisoner or guard. College students were recruited to participate. They were assigned roles of “guard” or “inmate.”  Zimbardo played the role of the warden. The basement of the psychology building was the set of the prison. Great care was taken to make it look and feel as realistic as possible.

The prison guards were told to run a prison for two weeks. They were told not to physically harm any of the inmates during the study. After a few days, the prison guards became very abusive verbally towards the inmates. Many of the prisoners became submissive to those in authority roles. The Stanford Prison Experiment inevitably had to be cancelled because some of the participants displayed troubling signs of breaking down mentally.

Although the experiment was conducted very unethically, many psychologists believe that the findings showed how much human behavior is situational. People will conform to certain roles if the conditions are right. The Stanford Prison Experiment remains one of the most famous psychology experiments of all time.

18. Stanley Milgram Experiment

Study conducted by stanley milgram.

Study Conducted in 1961 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: This 1961 study was conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. It was designed to measure people’s willingness to obey authority figures when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. The study was based on the premise that humans will inherently take direction from authority figures from very early in life.

Participants were told they were participating in a study on memory. They were asked to watch another person (an actor) do a memory test. They were instructed to press a button that gave an electric shock each time the person got a wrong answer. (The actor did not actually receive the shocks, but pretended they did).

Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” every time they answered a question incorrectly. The experimenters asked the participants to keep increasing the shocks. Most of them obeyed even though the individual completing the memory test appeared to be in great pain. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to. They increased the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks.

This experiment showed that humans are conditioned to obey authority and will usually do so even if it goes against their natural morals or common sense.

19. Surrogate Mother Experiment

Study conducted by: harry harlow.

Study Conducted from 1957-1963 at the University of Wisconsin

Experiment Details: In a series of controversial experiments during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Harry Harlow studied the importance of a mother’s love for healthy childhood development.

In order to do this he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be raised by two “surrogate mothers.” One of the surrogates was made of wire with an attached bottle for food. The other was made of soft terrycloth but lacked food. The researcher found that the baby monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother, thereby proving that affection plays a greater role than sustenance when it comes to childhood development. They also found that the monkeys that spent more time cuddling the soft mother grew up to healthier.

This experiment showed that love, as demonstrated by physical body contact, is a more important aspect of the parent-child bond than the provision of basic needs. These findings also had implications in the attachment between fathers and their infants when the mother is the source of nourishment.

20. The Good Samaritan Experiment

Study conducted by: john darley and daniel batson.

Study Conducted in 1973 at The Princeton Theological Seminary (Researchers were from Princeton University)

Experiment Details: In 1973, an experiment was created by John Darley and Daniel Batson, to investigate the potential causes that underlie altruistic behavior. The researchers set out three hypotheses they wanted to test:

• People thinking about religion and higher principles would be no more inclined to show helping behavior than laymen.
• People in a rush would be much less likely to show helping behavior.
• People who are religious for personal gain would be less likely to help than people who are religious because they want to gain some spiritual and personal insights into the meaning of life.

Student participants were given some religious teaching and instruction. They were then were told to travel from one building to the next. Between the two buildings was a man lying injured and appearing to be in dire need of assistance. The first variable being tested was the degree of urgency impressed upon the subjects, with some being told not to rush and others being informed that speed was of the essence.

The results of the experiment were intriguing, with the haste of the subject proving to be the overriding factor. When the subject was in no hurry, nearly two-thirds of people stopped to lend assistance. When the subject was in a rush, this dropped to one in ten.

People who were on the way to deliver a speech about helping others were nearly twice as likely to help as those delivering other sermons,. This showed that the thoughts of the individual were a factor in determining helping behavior. Religious beliefs did not appear to make much difference on the results. Being religious for personal gain, or as part of a spiritual quest, did not appear to make much of an impact on the amount of helping behavior shown.

21. The Halo Effect Experiment

Study conducted by: richard e. nisbett and timothy decamp wilson.

Study Conducted in 1977 at the University of Michigan

Experiment Details: The Halo Effect states that people generally assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to:

• be intelligent
• be friendly
• display good judgment

To prove their theory, Nisbett and DeCamp Wilson created a study to prove that people have little awareness of the nature of the Halo Effect. They’re not aware that it influences:

• their personal judgments
• the production of a more complex social behavior

In the experiment, college students were the research participants. They were asked to evaluate a psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group was shown one of two different interviews with the same instructor. The instructor is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke English with a noticeable accent. In the first video, the instructor presented himself as someone:

• respectful of his students’ intelligence and motives
• flexible in his approach to teaching
• enthusiastic about his subject matter

In the second interview, he presented himself as much more unlikable. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

After watching the videos, the subjects were asked to rate the lecturer on:

• physical appearance

His mannerisms and accent were kept the same in both versions of videos. The subjects were asked to rate the professor on an 8-point scale ranging from “like extremely” to “dislike extremely.” Subjects were also told that the researchers were interested in knowing “how much their liking for the teacher influenced the ratings they just made.” Other subjects were asked to identify how much the characteristics they just rated influenced their liking of the teacher.

After responding to the questionnaire, the respondents were puzzled about their reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items. The students had no idea why they gave one lecturer higher ratings. Most said that how much they liked the lecturer had not affected their evaluation of his individual characteristics at all.

The interesting thing about this study is that people can understand the phenomenon, but they are unaware when it is occurring. Without realizing it, humans make judgments. Even when it is pointed out, they may still deny that it is a product of the halo effect phenomenon.

22. The Marshmallow Test

Study conducted by: walter mischel.

Study Conducted in 1972 at Stanford University

In his 1972 Marshmallow Experiment, children ages four to six were taken into a room where a marshmallow was placed in front of them on a table. Before leaving each of the children alone in the room, the experimenter informed them that they would receive a second marshmallow if the first one was still on the table after they returned in 15 minutes. The examiner recorded how long each child resisted eating the marshmallow and noted whether it correlated with the child’s success in adulthood. A small number of the 600 children ate the marshmallow immediately and one-third delayed gratification long enough to receive the second marshmallow.

In follow-up studies, Mischel found that those who deferred gratification were significantly more competent and received higher SAT scores than their peers. This characteristic likely remains with a person for life. While this study seems simplistic, the findings outline some of the foundational differences in individual traits that can predict success.

23. The Monster Study

Study conducted by: wendell johnson.

Study Conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa

Experiment Details: The Monster Study received this negative title due to the unethical methods that were used to determine the effects of positive and negative speech therapy on children.

Wendell Johnson of the University of Iowa selected 22 orphaned children, some with stutters and some without. The children were in two groups. The group of children with stutters was placed in positive speech therapy, where they were praised for their fluency. The non-stutterers were placed in negative speech therapy, where they were disparaged for every mistake in grammar that they made.

As a result of the experiment, some of the children who received negative speech therapy suffered psychological effects and retained speech problems for the rest of their lives. They were examples of the significance of positive reinforcement in education.

The initial goal of the study was to investigate positive and negative speech therapy. However, the implication spanned much further into methods of teaching for young children.

24. Violinist at the Metro Experiment

Study conducted by: staff at the washington post.

Study Conducted in 2007 at a Washington D.C. Metro Train Station

During the study, pedestrians rushed by without realizing that the musician playing at the entrance to the metro stop was Grammy-winning musician, Joshua Bell. Two days before playing in the subway, he sold out at a theater in Boston where the seats average $100. He played one of the most intricate pieces ever written with a violin worth 3.5 million dollars. In the 45 minutes the musician played his violin, only 6 people stopped and stayed for a while. Around 20 gave him money, but continued to walk their normal pace. He collected $32.

The study and the subsequent article organized by the Washington Post was part of a social experiment looking at:

• the priorities of people

Gene Weingarten wrote about the social experiment: “In a banal setting at an inconvenient time, would beauty transcend?” Later he won a Pulitzer Prize for his story. Some of the questions the article addresses are:

• Do we perceive beauty?
• Do we stop to appreciate it?
• Do we recognize the talent in an unexpected context?

As it turns out, many of us are not nearly as perceptive to our environment as we might like to think.

25. Visual Cliff Experiment

Study conducted by: eleanor gibson and richard walk.

Study Conducted in 1959 at Cornell University

Experiment Details: In 1959, psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk set out to study depth perception in infants. They wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behavior or if it is something that we are born with. To study this, Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment.

They studied 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl. The infants were placed one at a time on a visual cliff. A visual cliff was created using a large glass table that was raised about a foot off the floor. Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a ‘shallow side.’

In order to create a ‘deep side,’ a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff. The placement of the checker pattern on the floor creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off. Researchers placed a foot-wide centerboard between the shallow side and the deep side. Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the centerboard.
• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.
• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.
• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

What this study helped demonstrate is that depth perception is likely an inborn train in humans.

Among these experiments and psychological tests, we see boundaries pushed and theories taking on a life of their own. It is through the endless stream of psychological experimentation that we can see simple hypotheses become guiding theories for those in this field. The greater field of psychology became a formal field of experimental study in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Since 1879, psychology has grown into a massive collection of:

• methods of practice

It’s also a specialty area in the field of healthcare. None of this would have been possible without these and many other important psychological experiments that have stood the test of time.

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After earning a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology from Rutgers University and then a Master of Science in Clinical and Forensic Psychology from Drexel University, Kristen began a career as a therapist at two prisons in Philadelphia. At the same time she volunteered as a rape crisis counselor, also in Philadelphia. After a few years in the field she accepted a teaching position at a local college where she currently teaches online psychology courses. Kristen began writing in college and still enjoys her work as a writer, editor, professor and mother.

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20 Famous Psychologists and Their Theories

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Some of the most well-known psychologists in history have played a key role in shaping our understanding of the human mind and behavior. Many of them were also philosophers, educators, and therapists, contributing to multiple areas of study. Some introduced theories that are considered controversial, but their ideas have had a lasting influence on the field of psychology.

These psychologists helped us better understand how people think, feel, and act, contributing to our academic knowledge and leading to new theories and methods in mental health treatment.

Explore the lives, ideas, and major contributions of these influential figures who helped define psychology as we know it today.

Table of Contents

The following are just some of the eminent thinkers who have contributed to our modern understanding of the human mind and behavior.

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Important Contributions :

• Behaviorism
• Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner was a psychologist who developed the theory of operant conditioning . Inspired by Pavlov and Watson, his experiments revealed that reinforcement and punishment could be used to either increase or decrease the occurrence of a behavior.

He was one of the most important figures in the school of thought known as behaviorism . Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be understood in terms of conditioning processes.

In one survey of psychologists, Skinner was identified as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Important Contributions

• Structuralism
• Introspection
• Experimental Psychology

If you’ve ever taken an introductory psychology class, you probably have spent at least a little time learning about Wilhelm Wundt. This German psychologist, physician, and philosopher, is best known for establishing the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany, officially marking the beginning of psychology as a field of science distinct from philosophy and physiology.

In addition to being considered one of the founders of contemporary psychology, Wundt is also frequently referred to as the father of experimental psychology.

Originally a professor of physiology, Wundt wanted to apply the same experimental methods used in science to the study of the human mind. Wundt also influenced his students, including Edward Titchener, who established a school of thought known as structuralism . Structuralism focused on studying human consciousness by breaking it down to the smallest possible elements.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

• Inferiority Complex
• Belongingness
• Individual Psychology

Alfred Alder was an Austrian psychiatrist who is often considered one of the most influential thinkers in psychology. He became one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society after Sigmund Freud extended an invitation, but he later became the first major figures to break away from Freud’s ideas.

Adler developed a perspective that he called Individual Psychology. Adler influenced other psychologists, including Karen Horney, Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow .

William James (1842-1910)

• Functionalism
• Radical Empiricism

The philosopher and psychologist William James is widely regarded as the father of American psychology. Among his famous accomplishments was the publication of the 1200-page text, The Principles of Psychology , which quickly became a classic.

Thanks to his teachings and writings, he helped establish psychology as a science. James also contributed to functionalism, and pragmatism, and influenced many psychology students during his 35-year teaching career.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

• Law of Effect
• Behavioral Modification
• Educational Psychology

Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist associated with the school of thought known as functionalism and other thinkers, including Harvey Carr, James Rowland Angell, and John Dewey. Thorndike is often called the father of modern-day educational psychology and published several important texts on the subject.

His accomplishments included being elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. In 1917, he was also one of the first psychologists to become a member of the National Academy of Sciences. Thorndike is also well-known for his puzzle box experiments with cats, his concept of the law of effect, and his contributions to educational psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• Psychoanalysis
• Id, Ego, Superego
• Unconscious and Conscious Mind
• Oedipus Complex
• Life and Death Instincts

No list of famous psychologists would be complete without an appearance by the eminent Sigmund Freud . Freud is often identified as one of psychology’s most famous psychologists but also seen as one of the most notorious.

While his ideas were often controversial, his concept of the unconscious mind has had a deep and lasting influence on psychology. His work gave rise to the field of psychoanalysis, which continues to be used in various forms as a treatment method to this day. Other important theories he introduced include the id, the ego, the superego , psychosexual development, and death instincts.

Read More : 28 Inspiring Sigmund Freud Quotes

Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916)

• Applied Psychology
• Forensic Psychology

Hugo Münsterberg was a German psychologist and early pioneer of applied fields, including industrial-organizational, forensic, and clinical psychology. Münsterberg was studying medicine, but after meeting Wilhelm Wundt, he turned his interest to the field of psychology.

William James later invited Münsterberg to take over the psychology lab at Harvard University, where he remained for three years before returning to Europe. He also served as the president of the American Psychological Association and taught many other prominent psychologists, including Mary Whiton Calkins and Edward C. Tolman.

Münsterberg died on December 16, 1916 after suffering a massive cerebral hemorrhage right before he was set to deliver the opening remarks of a lecture at Harvard’s Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

• Scientific Psychology

James McKeen Catell helped establish psychology as a legitimate science and became the first psychology professor in the United States. Cattell started out studying English literature but developed an interest in psychology after meeting German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. Cattell traveled to Germany to become Wundt’s assistant and later published the first psychology dissertation by an American.

After returning to the U.S., Cattell held several teaching positions and was influential in forming several major publications, including The Journal of Science and The Psychological Review . In addition to helping advance psychology in the United States, Cattell also influenced other prominent psychologists including Edward L. Thorndike.

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

• First Woman President of the APA
• Self-Psychology
• Paired-Association Technique

Mary Whiton Calkins is perhaps best known as the first woman president of the American Psychological Association, but she also made many more contributions to the field. Her experiences represent the difficulty and discrimination faced by many women in the early days of psychology.

Despite fulfilling the requirements of a doctoral degree and receiving unanimous approval from a thesis committee that included William James, Josiah Royce, and Hugo Munsterberg, Harvard refused to grant Calkins her degree because she was a woman.

Regardless, Calkins went on to have a successful and influential career in psychology. She invented the paired-associate technique, contributed to dream research, advocated self-psychology, and wrote more than 100 professional papers on topics in both psychology and philosophy.

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983)

• Research on Race
• Research on the Effects of Segregation

Mamie Phipps Clark was a pioneering female psychologist known for her important research on race and self-concept . Her work with her husband, psychologist Kenneth Clark, played a pivotal role in the Supreme Court’s ruling that segregation was unconstitutional in the famous Brown vs. the Board of Education case.

While she is often overlooked or mentioned only in passing in psychology textbooks, her contributions to psychology are simply too important to ignore.

Anna Freud (1895-1982)

• Defense Mechanisms
• Child Psychoanalysis

Anna Freud was the youngest of Sigmund Freud’s six children. While she began her career influenced by her father’s theories, she was far from living in his father’s shadow. She made significant contributions of her own to psychology, including founding child psychoanalysis, and summarizing the ego’s defense mechanisms in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936).

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• The Zone of Proximal Development
• More Knowledgeable Other
• Sociocultural Theory
• Scaffolding

Lev Vygotsky has only become one of the most famous psychologists in recent years. He is considered a seminal thinker in psychology, and much of his work is still being discovered and explored today.

While he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov, Freud, and Piaget, his work never attained their level of eminence during his lifetime. Part of this was because his work was often criticized by the Communist Party in Russia, and so his writings were largely inaccessible to the Western world. His premature death at age 37 also contributed to his obscurity.

Despite this, his work has continued to grow in influence since his death, particularly in the fields of developmental psychology and educational psychology. He is best known for his sociocultural theory and concepts of the zone of proximal development and guided practice.

John Bowlby (1907-1990)

• Attachment Theory

John Bowlby was a British psychologist perhaps best known for developing attachment theory . His research on attachment and child development left a lasting impression on psychology, education, child care, and parenting.

Researchers extended his research to develop clinical treatment techniques and prevention strategies. His work also influenced other eminent psychologists, including his colleague Mary Ainsworth, who made major contributions to attachment theory.

Harry Harlow (1905-1981)

• Maternal Deprivation
• Social Isolation
• Monkey Studies

American psychologist Harry Harlow is known for his infamous social isolation research on rhesus monkeys during the late 1950s and early 1960s. At his primate lab located at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Harlow performed a series of psychological experiments in which infant monkeys were raised by surrogate “mothers.”

In different variations of the experiments, some of the mother monkeys were made entirely of wire, while others were covered in a soft terrycloth. At the time, some researchers suggested feeding was the force behind the mother-child bond. The main idea behind this was that children love their caregivers because they provide food.

Harlow and his fellow researchers found that contact comfort was the vital factor underlying an infant’s love for its mother. The infant monkeys in Harlow’s experiments preferred the soft terrycloth mothers over the wire mothers, even when the latter served as the source of food.

Harlow’s experiments played an important role in changing our understanding of attachment but were also extremely controversial. The experiments were shocking and cruel, particularly his later experiments that involved placing young monkeys in total social isolation.

Most of his experiments are considered unethical by today’s standards, and the nature of his research contributed to concern and ethical regulations over how laboratory animals are treated.

Stanley Milgram (1933-1984)

• Obedience Experiments

Stanley Milgram’s name is forever associated with his famous obedience experiment that demonstrated how far people would go to obey an authority figure. During his graduate years, he had spent some time working as a research assistant for psychologist Solomon Asch. As you might remember, Asch conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated how people conform in social groups.

The research helped spark an interest in obedience and conformity , ultimately leading Milgram to perform his controversial experiment.

Milgram and psychologist Philip Zimbardo (of the Stanford Prison Experiment fame) were high school classmates.

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

• 16 Personality Factors
• Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell was an American psychologist whose work influenced psychology in many ways. Not only did he introduce the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence , he is also well-known for his 16-factor model of personality .

Perhaps his greatest achievement was his work pioneering factor analysis and multivariate analysis. In one 2002 review, Cattell was ranked as the 16th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.

Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927)

Edward B. Titchener was an influential figure in the formative years of psychology. As one of Wundt’s students, Titchener is perhaps best remembered for establishing the school of thought known as structuralism. This early viewpoint in psychology focused on breaking down human consciousness into the smallest possible elements.

Researchers utilized a method known as introspection, which involved having trained observers describe the mental processes that occurred when they were presented with different stimuli.

Titchener is also known for coining the term empathy and supervising the graduate studies of Margaret Floy Washburn, the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology. While Titchener served as a powerful force in psychology, the school of thought he helped establish did not survive long following his death in 1927.

Clark L. Hull (1884-1952)

• Drive Theory of Motivation
• Goal Gradient

Despite facing considerable adversity, Clark Leonard Hull managed to overcome struggles with his health and finances to become one of the most important American psychologists of the 20th century. His early life was marked by bouts of illness, including a severe case of typhoid fever.

After polio left him paralyzed in his left leg, Hull decided to switch his career ambitions from engineering to psychology. While he found it necessary to halt his education several times due to a lack of money, he eventually earned his Ph.D. and embarked on a long career as a teacher and researcher.

Hull is best remembered for his influence on behaviorism and his drive-reduction theory, but is also notable for his research on hypnosis and his emphasis on rigorous scientific methods.

George Kelly (1905-1967)

• Cognitive Clinical Psychology
• Personal Construct Theory

George Kelly grew up poor and never actually graduated high school. Despite those obstacles, he went on to earn a doctorate in psychology and become an influential personality theorist. During the Great Depression, he set out to do something useful with his skills and started a traveling clinic that offered psychological services to people throughout his home state of Kansas.

During this time, he also formulated his personal construct theory of personality. According to Kelly, the differences between people result from the differing ways they interpret and predict events in the world around them. He believed that we act much like scientists, forming hypotheses and conducting “experiments” to test our ideas about the world.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned Reflexes

Ivan Pavlov had a major influence on psychology and is usually included in lists of famous psychologists, yet he wasn’t a psychologist at all. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on conditioned reflexes influenced the rise of behaviorism in psychology. His most famous contribution was his discovery of classical conditioning , which plays a major role in our understanding of psychology and behavior today.

Pavlov’s work played an integral role in making psychology a more scientifically rigorous discipline. Definition of Psychology by Famous Psychologists Many of the best-known thinkers in psychology approach the subject in different ways. Wilhelm Wundt defined psychology as the study of conscious experience. William James defined it as the science of mental life. John B. Watson famously defined psychology as the science of observable behavior. Sigmund Freud defined psychology as the exploration of the unconscious desires, wishes, and conflicts that affect thoughts and behaviors. Carl Rogers defined psychology from a humanist perspective, emphasizing the importance of free-will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

The 100 Most Influential Psychologists

Who were the most influential psychologists of the 20th century? One survey ranked them as follows:

• B.F. Skinner
• Jean Piaget
• Sigmund Freud
• Albert Bandura
• Leon Festinger
• Carl R. Rogers
• Stanley Schachter
• Neal E. Miller
• Edward Thorndike
• A.H. Maslow
• Gordon W. Allport
• Erik H. Erikson
• Hans J. Eysenck
• William James
• David C. McClelland
• Raymond B. Cattell
• John B. Watson
• Donald O. Hebb
• George A. Miller
• Clark L. Hull
• Jerome Kagan
• Carl G. Jung
• Ivan P. Pavlov
• Walter Mischel
• Harry F. Harlow
• J.P. Guilford
• Jerome S. Bruner
• Ernest R. Hilgard
• Lawrence Kohlberg
• Martin E.P. Seligman
• Ulric Neisser
• Donald T. Campbell
• Roger Brown
• R.B. Zajonc
• Endel Tulving
• Herbert A. Simon
• Noam Chomsky
• Edward E. Jones
• Charles E. Osgood
• Solomon E. Asch
• Gordon H. Bower
• Harold H. Kelley
• Roger W. Sperry
• Edward C. Tolman
• Stanley Milgram
• Arthur R. Jensen
• Lee J. Cronbach
• John Bowlby
• Wolfgang Köhler
• David Wechsler
• S.S. Stevens
• Joseph Wolpe
• D.E. Broadbent
• Roger N. Shepard
• Michael I. Posner
• Theodore M. Newcomb
• Elizabeth F. Loftus
• Robert J. Sternberg
• Karl S. Lashley
• Kenneth Spence
• Morton Deutsch
• Julian B. Rotter
• Konrad Lorenz
• Benton Underwood
• Alfred Adler
• Michael Rutter
• Alexander R. Luria
• Eleanor E. Maccoby
• Robert Plomin
• G. Stanley Hall
• Lewis M. Terman
• Eleanor J. Gibson
• Paul E. Meehl
• Leonard Berkowitz
• William K. Estes
• Eliot Aronson
• Irving L. Janis
• Richard S. Lazarus
• W. Gary Cannon
• Allen L. Edwards
• Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
• Robert Rosenthal
• Milton Rokeach
• John Garcia
• James J. Gibson
• David Rumelhart
• L.L. Thurston
• Margaret Washburn
• Robert Woodworth
• Edwin G. Boring
• Amos Tversky
• Wilhelm Wundt
• Herman A. Witkin
• Mary D. Ainsworth
• Orval Hobart Mowrer

The list intentially left the final spot, number 100, blank in order for readers to make their own case for who should have been included on the list.

Reasons to Learn More About Famous Psychologists

Studying the lives and theories of famous psychologists isn’t just important for understanding the history of psychology, it can also give insights into how the field got where it is today.

• Foundations of contemporary thought : Famous psychologists like Freud, Piaget, and Jung help lay the groundwork for many modern concepts. While their theories haven’t always stood the test of time, understanding their work can give us insights into how other theories emerged from those ideas.
• Historical development : Learning more about past thinkers can help us better appreciate the historical development of psychological thought.
• Inspiring further research : Looking to the past can be a way to find inspiration for future research.

This list represents just a sampling of some of the famous psychologists who have had a major impact on the field. In addition to historical figures, contemporary psychologists continue to leave their mark on the science of psychology.

Haggbloom SJ, Warnick R, Warnick JE, et al. The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century . Review of General Psychology . 2002;6(2):139-152. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139

The 11 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

The history of psychology is marked by groundbreaking experiments that transformed our understanding of the human mind. These 11 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History stand out as pivotal, offering profound insights into behaviour, cognition, and the complexities of human nature.

In this PsychologyOrg article, we’ll explain these key experiments, exploring their impact on our understanding of human behaviour and the intricate workings of the mind.

Table of Contents

Experimental psychology.

Experimental psychology is a branch of psychology that uses scientific methods to study human behaviour and mental processes. Researchers in this field design experiments to test hypotheses about topics such as perception, learning, memory, emotion, and motivation.

They use a variety of techniques to measure and analyze behaviour and mental processes, including behavioural observations, self-report measures, physiological recordings, and computer simulations. The findings of experimental psychology studies can have important implications for a wide range of fields, including education, healthcare, and public policy.

Experimental Psychology, Psychologists have long tried to gain insight into how we perceive the world, to understand what motivates our behavior. They have made great strides in lifting that veil of mystery. In addition to providing us with food for stimulating party conversations, some of the most famous psychological experiments of the last century reveal surprising and universal truths about nature.

Throughout the history of psychology, revolutionary experiments have reshaped our comprehension of the human mind. These 11 experiments are pivotal, providing deep insights into human behaviour, cognition, and the intricate facets of human nature.

1. Kohler and the Chimpanzee experiment

Wolfgang Kohler studied the insight process by observing the behaviour of chimpanzees in a problem situation. In the experimental situation, the animals were placed in a cage outside of which food, for example, a banana, was stored. There were other objects in the cage, such as sticks or boxes. The animals participating in the experiment were hungry, so they needed to get to the food. At first, the chimpanzee used sticks mainly for playful activities; but suddenly, in the mind of the hungry chimpanzee, a relationship between sticks and food developed.

The cane, from an object to play with, became an instrument through which it was possible to reach the banana placed outside the cage. There has been a restructuring of the perceptual field: Kohler stressed that the appearance of the new behaviour was not the result of random attempts according to a process of trial and error. It is one of the first experiments on the intelligence of chimpanzees.

2. Harlow’s experiment on attachment with monkeys

In a scientific paper (1959), Harry F. Harlow described how he had separated baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers at birth, and raised them with the help of “puppet mothers”: in a series of experiments he compared the behavior of monkeys in two situations:

Little monkeys with a puppet mother without a bottle, but covered in a soft, fluffy, and furry fabric. Little monkeys with a “puppet” mother that supplied food, but was covered in wire. The little monkeys showed a clear preference for the “furry” mother, spending an average of fifteen hours a day attached to her, even though they were exclusively fed by the “suckling” puppet mother. conclusions of the Harlow experiment: all the experiments showed that the pleasure of contact elicited attachment behaviours, but the food did not.

3. The Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth

Building on Bowlby’s attachment theory, Mary Ainsworth and colleagues (1978) have developed an experimental method called the Strange Situation, to assess individual differences in attachment security. The Strange Situation includes a series of short laboratory episodes in a comfortable environment and the child’s behaviors are observed.

Ainsworth and colleagues have paid special attention to the child’s behaviour at the time of reunion with the caregiver after a brief separation, thus identifying three different attachment patterns or styles, so called from that moment on. kinds of attachment according to Mary Ainsworth:

Secure attachment (63% of the dyads examined) Anxious-resistant or ambivalent (16%) Avoidant (21%) The Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth

In a famous 1971 experiment, known as the Stanford Prison, Zimbardo and a team of collaborators reproduced a prison in the garages of Stanford University to study the behaviour of subjects in a context of very particular and complex dynamics. Let’s see how it went and the thoughts on the Stanford prison experiment. The participants (24 students) were randomly divided into two groups:

“ Prisoners “. The latter were locked up in three cells in the basement of a University building for six days; they were required to wear a white robe with a paper over it and a chain on the right ankle. “ Guards “. The students who had the role of prison guards had to watch the basement, choose the most appropriate methods to maintain order, and make the “prisoners” perform various tasks; they were asked to wear dark glasses and uniforms, and never to be violent towards the participants of the opposite role. However, the situation deteriorated dramatically: the fake police officers very soon began to seriously mistreat and humiliate the “detainees”, so it was decided to discontinue the experiment.

4. Jane Elliot’s Blue Eyes Experiment

On April 5, 1968, in a small school in Riceville, Iowa, Professor Jane Elliot decided to give a practical lesson on racism to 28 children of about eight years of age through the blue eyes brown eyes experiment.

“Children with brown eyes are the best,” the instructor began. “They are more beautiful and intelligent.” She wrote the word “melanin” on the board and explained that it was a substance that made people intelligent. Dark-eyed children have more, so they are more intelligent, while blue-eyed children “go hand in hand.”

In a very short time, the brown-eyed children began to treat their blue-eyed classmates with superiority, who in turn lost their self-confidence. A very good girl started making mistakes during arithmetic class, and at recess, she was approached by three little friends with brown eyes “You have to apologize because you get in their way and because we are the best,” said one of them. The girl hastened to apologize. This is one of the psychosocial experiments demonstrating how beliefs and prejudices play a role.

5. The Bobo de Bbandura doll

Albert Bandura gained great fame for the Bobo doll experiment on child imitation aggression, where:

A group of children took as an example, by visual capacity, the adults in a room, without their behaviour being commented on, hit the Bobo doll. Other contemporaries, on the other hand, saw adults sitting, always in absolute silence, next to Bobo.

Finally, all these children were brought to a room full of toys, including a doll like Bobo. Of the 10 children who hit the doll, 8 were those who had seen it done before by an adult. This explains how if a model that we follow performs a certain action, we are tempted to imitate it and this happens especially in children who still do not have the experience to understand for themselves if that behaviour is correct or not.

6. Milgram’s experiment

The Milgram experiment was first carried out in 1961 by psychologist Stanley Milgram, as an investigation into the degree of our deference to authority. A subject is invited to give an electric shock to an individual playing the role of the student, positioned behind a screen when he does not answer a question correctly. An authorized person then tells the subject to gradually increase the intensity of the shock until the student screams in pain and begs to stop.

No justification is given, except for the fact that the authorized person tells the subject to obey. In reality, it was staged: there was absolutely no electric shock given, but in the experiment two-thirds of the subjects were influenced by what they thought was a 450-volt shock, simply because a person in authority told them they would not be responsible for it. nothing.

7. little Albert

We see little Albert’s experiment on unconditioned stimulus, which must be the most famous psychological study. John Watson and Rosalie Raynor showed a white laboratory rat to a nine-month-old boy, little Albert. At first, the boy showed no fear, but then Watson jumped up from behind and made him flinch with a sudden noise by hitting a metal bar with a hammer. Of course, the noise frightened little Albert, who began to cry.

Every time the rat was brought out, Watson and Raynor would rattle the bar with their hammer to scare the poor boy away. Soon the mere sight of the rat was enough to reduce little Albert to a trembling bundle of nerves: he had learned to fear the sight of a rat, and soon afterwards began to fear a series of similar objects shown to him.

8. Pavlov’s dog

Ivan Pavlov’s sheepdog became famous for his experiments that led him to discover what we call “classical conditioning” or “Pavlovian reflex” and is still a very famous psychological experiment today. Hardly any other psychological experiment is cited so often and with such gusto as Pavlov’s theory expounded in 1905: the Russian physiologist had been impressed by the fact that his dogs did not begin to drool at the sight of food, but rather when they heard it. to the laboratory employees who took it away.

He researched it and ordered a buzzer to ring every time it was mealtime. Very soon the sound of the doorbell was enough for the dogs to start drooling: they had connected the signal to the arrival of food.

9. Asch’s experiment

It is about a social psychology experiment carried out in 1951 by the Polish psychologist Solomon Asch on the influence of the majority and social conformity.

The experiment is based on the idea that being part of a group is a sufficient condition to change a person’s actions, judgments, and visual perceptions. The very simple experiment consisted of asking the subjects involved to associate line 1 drawn on a white sheet with the corresponding one, choosing between three different lines A, B, and C present on another sheet. Only one was identical to the other, while the other two were longer or shorter.

The experimentation was carried out in three phases. As soon as one of the subjects, Asch’s accomplice gave a wrong answer associating line 1 with the wrong one, the other members of the group also made the same mistake, even though the correct answer was more than obvious. The participants questioned the reason for this choice and responded that aware of the correct answer, they had decided to conform to the group, adapting to those who had preceded them.

psychotherapy definition types and techniques | Psychotherapy vs therapy Psychologyorg.com

10. Rosenbaum’s experiment

Among the most interesting investigations in this field, an experiment carried out by David Rosenhan (1923) to document the low validity of psychiatric diagnoses stands out. Rosenhan admitted eight assistants to various psychiatric hospitals claiming psychotic symptoms, but once they entered the hospital they behaved as usual.

Despite this, they were held on average for 19 days, with all but one being diagnosed as “psychotic”. One of the reasons why the staff is not aware of the “normality” of the subjects, is, according to Rosenhan, the very little contact between the staff and the patients.

11. Bystander Effect (1968)

The Bystander Effect studied in 1968 after the tragic case of Kitty Genovese, explores how individuals are less likely to intervene in emergencies when others are present. The original research by John Darley and Bibb Latané involved staged scenarios where participants believed they were part of a discussion via intercom.

In the experiment, participants were led to believe they were communicating with others about personal problems. Unknown to them, the discussions were staged, and at a certain point, a participant (confederate) pretended to have a seizure or needed help.

The results were startling. When participants believed they were the sole witness to the emergency, they responded quickly and sought help. However, when they thought others were also present (but were confederates instructed to not intervene), the likelihood of any individual offering help significantly decreased. This phenomenon became known as the Bystander Effect.

The diffusion of responsibility, where individuals assume others will take action, contributes to this effect. The presence of others creates a diffusion of responsibility among bystanders, leading to a decreased likelihood of any single individual taking action.

This experiment highlighted the social and psychological factors influencing intervention during emergencies and emphasized the importance of understanding bystander behaviour in critical situations.

The journey through the “11 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History” illuminates the profound impact these studies have had on our understanding of human behaviour, cognition, and social dynamics.

Each experiment stands as a testament to the dedication of pioneering psychologists who dared to delve into the complexities of the human mind. From Milgram’s obedience studies to Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment, these trials have shaped not only the field of psychology but also our societal perceptions and ethical considerations in research.

They serve as timeless benchmarks, reminding us of the ethical responsibilities and the far-reaching implications of delving into the human psyche. The enduring legacy of these experiments lies not only in their scientific contributions but also in the ethical reflections they provoke, urging us to navigate the boundaries of knowledge with caution, empathy, and an unwavering commitment to understanding the intricacies of our humanity.

What is the most famous experiment in the history of psychology?

One of the most famous experiments is the Milgram Experiment, conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s. It investigated obedience to authority figures and remains influential in understanding human behaviour.

Who wrote the 25 most influential psychological experiments in history?

The book “The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History” was written by Michael Shermer, a science writer and historian of science.

What is the history of experimental psychology?

Experimental psychology traces back to Wilhelm Wundt, often considered the father of experimental psychology. He established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, marking the formal beginning of experimental psychology as a distinct field.

What was the psychological experiment in the 1960s?

Many significant psychological experiments were conducted in the 1960s. One notable example is the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Philip Zimbardo, which examined the effects of situational roles on behaviour.

Who was the first experimental psychologist?

Wilhelm Wundt is often regarded as the first experimental psychologist due to his establishment of the first psychology laboratory and his emphasis on empirical research methods in psychology.

If you want to read more articles similar to  The 11 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History , we recommend that you enter our  Psychology  category.

I'm Waqar, a passionate psychologist and dedicated content writer. With a deep interest in understanding human behavior, I aim to share insights and knowledge in the field of psychology through this blog. Feel free to reach out for collaborations, queries, or discussions. Let's dig into the fascinating world of psychology together!

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The Society of Experimental Psychologists

The Society of Experimentalists was founded by  Edward Bradford Titchener  in 1904. Titchener’s design for his “Experimentalists” was that it be an ongoing workshop, with “members visiting labs, studying apparatus, and hearing and commenting on reports of ongoing research.”

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History of SEP

The first meeting of the Society of Experimental Psychologists – then called “The Experimental Psychologists”, or “The Experimentalists” for short – was held at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, on April 4 – 5, 1904. The meetings then, and for many years thereafter, were presided over by Edward Bradford Titchener. Researchers from universities including Cornell, Yale, Clark, Michigan, and Princeton attended these early meetings, with Chicago and Iowa soon joining. Research papers were read and discussed by established researchers and tyros alike. 

As the number of practicing experimental psychologists grew nationally, along grew discussions concerning the limits that should be placed on membership in the group: Should it be kept small to ensure a manageable series of conferences; or should it be open to all interested, practicing experimental psychologists? The decision was made to keep it small-to follow the so-called Academy model-and eventually Fellows of the society were instrumental in the founding of an alternative organization, called The Psychonomic Society, to serve the needs of broader representation and communication (see Dewsbury & Bolles, 1995 for details).  During these early years, the total membership in the Experimentalists ranged around 35 individuals.  Learn More

The Society of Experimentalists was founded by   Edward Bradford Titchener   in 1904. Titchener’s design for his “Experimentalists” was that it be an ongoing workshop, with “members visiting labs, studying apparatus, and hearing and commenting on reports of ongoing research.” 

The Society has continued to meet annually in the years since, except for the war year 1918 and the COVID pandemic years 2020 and 2021. Upon Titchener’s death in 1927 the club was reorganized into The Society of Experimental Psychologists. The Society typically holds meetings in the spring, scheduled and organized by a member, who serves on the Executive Committee of the Society for that year. The meetings are open to all members of the Society, and to students and faculty from the host university as invited by the organizer.

The meetings are plenary and involve papers from various members of the society. The society currently admits at least 6 new members annually from among the leading experimentalists in North America. It has a current membership of 281 individuals, about 5 – 10% of the practicing experimental psychologists. The mission of the society is “To advance psychology by arranging informal conferences on experimental psychology.”

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Congratulations to the 2024 sep fellows, 2024 early investigator award recipient, warren medal.

The Howard Crosby Warren Medal is given for the most significant advances in Experimental Psychology over the prior five years.

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Early investigator award, recent awardees and citations.

Dr. Robert L. Goldstone

Indiana University

Recipient of the 2024 Howard Crosby Warren Medal

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Northwestern University

Recipient of the 2024 Norman Anderson Lifetime Achievement Award

Dr. Marlene Behrmann

University of Pittsburgh

Recipient of the 2023 Howard Crosby Warren Medal

Dr. Morris Moscovitch

University of Toronto

Recipient of the 2023 Norman Anderson Lifetime Achievement Award

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7 Famous Psychology Experiments

Many famous experiments studying human behavior have impacted our fundamental understanding of psychology. Though some could not be repeated today due to breaches in ethical boundaries, that does not diminish the significance of those psychological studies. Some of these important findings include a greater awareness of depression and its symptoms, how people learn behaviors through the process of association and how individuals conform to a group.

Below, we take a look at seven famous psychological experiments that greatly influenced the field of psychology and our understanding of human behavior.

The Little Albert Experiment, 1920

A John’s Hopkins University professor, Dr. John B. Watson, and a graduate student wanted to test a learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning involuntary or automatic behaviors by association, and Dr. Watson thought it formed the bedrock of human psychology.

A nine-month-old toddler, dubbed “Albert B,” was volunteered for Dr. Watson and Rosalie Rayner ‘s experiment. Albert played with white furry objects, and at first, the toddler displayed joy and affection. Over time, as he played with the objects, Dr. Watson would make a loud noise behind the child’s head to frighten him. After numerous trials, Albert was conditioned to be afraid when he saw white furry objects.

The study proved that humans could be conditioned to enjoy or fear something, which many psychologists believe could explain why people have irrational fears and how they may have developed early in life. This is a great example of experimental study psychology.

Stanford Prison Experiment, 1971

Stanford professor Philip Zimbardo wanted to learn how individuals conformed to societal roles. He wondered, for example, whether the tense relationship between prison guards and inmates in jails had more to do with the personalities of each or the environment.

During Zimbardo’s experiment , 24 male college students were assigned to be either a prisoner or a guard. The prisoners were held in a makeshift prison inside the basement of Stanford’s psychology department. They went through a standard booking process designed to take away their individuality and make them feel anonymous. Guards were given eight-hour shifts and tasked to treat the prisoners just like they would in real life.

Zimbardo found rather quickly that both the guards and prisoners fully adapted to their roles; in fact, he had to shut down the experiment after six days because it became too dangerous. Zimbardo even admitted he began thinking of himself as a police superintendent rather than a psychologist. The study confirmed that people will conform to the social roles they’re expected to play, especially overly stereotyped ones such as prison guards.

“We realized how ordinary people could be readily transformed from the good Dr. Jekyll to the evil Mr. Hyde,” Zimbardo wrote.

The Asch Conformity Study, 1951

Solomon Asch, a Polish-American social psychologist, was determined to see whether an individual would conform to a group’s decision, even if the individual knew it was incorrect. Conformity is defined by the American Psychological Association as the adjustment of a person’s opinions or thoughts so that they fall closer in line with those of other people or the normative standards of a social group or situation.

In his experiment , Asch selected 50 male college students to participate in a “vision test.” Individuals would have to determine which line on a card was longer. However, the individuals at the center of the experiment did not know that the other people taking the test were actors following scripts, and at times selected the wrong answer on purpose. Asch found that, on average over 12 trials, nearly one-third of the naive participants conformed with the incorrect majority, and only 25 percent never conformed to the incorrect majority. In the control group that featured only the participants and no actors, less than one percent of participants ever chose the wrong answer.

Asch’s experiment showed that people will conform to groups to fit in (normative influence) because of the belief that the group was better informed than the individual. This explains why some people change behaviors or beliefs when in a new group or social setting, even when it goes against past behaviors or beliefs.

The Bobo Doll Experiment, 1961, 1963

Stanford University professor Albert Bandura wanted to put the social learning theory into action. Social learning theory suggests that people can acquire new behaviors “through direct experience or by observing the behavior of others.” Using a Bobo doll , which is a blow-up toy in the shape of a life-size bowling pin, Bandura and his team tested whether children witnessing acts of aggression would copy them.

Bandura and two colleagues selected 36 boys and 36 girls between the ages of 3 and 6 from the Stanford University nursery and split them into three groups of 24. One group watched adults behaving aggressively toward the Bobo doll. In some cases, the adult subjects hit the doll with a hammer or threw it in the air. Another group was shown an adult playing with the Bobo doll in a non-aggressive manner, and the last group was not shown a model at all, just the Bobo doll.

After each session, children were taken to a room with toys and studied to see how their play patterns changed. In a room with aggressive toys (a mallet, dart guns, and a Bobo doll) and non-aggressive toys (a tea set, crayons, and plastic farm animals), Bandura and his colleagues observed that children who watched the aggressive adults were more likely to imitate the aggressive responses.

Unexpectedly, Bandura found that female children acted more physically aggressive after watching a male subject and more verbally aggressive after watching a female subject. The results of the study highlight how children learn behaviors from observing others.

The Learned Helplessness Experiment, 1965

Martin Seligman wanted to research a different angle related to Dr. Watson’s study of classical conditioning. In studying conditioning with dogs, Seligman made an astute observation : the subjects, which had already been conditioned to expect a light electric shock if they heard a bell, would sometimes give up after another negative outcome, rather than searching for the positive outcome.

Under normal circumstances, animals will always try to get away from negative outcomes. When Seligman tested his experiment on animals who hadn’t been previously conditioned, the animals attempted to find a positive outcome. Oppositely, the dogs who had been already conditioned to expect a negative response assumed there would be another negative response waiting for them, even in a different situation.

The conditioned dogs’ behavior became known as learned helplessness, the idea that some subjects won’t try to get out of a negative situation because past experiences have forced them to believe they are helpless. The study’s findings shed light on depression and its symptoms in humans.

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The Milgram Experiment, 1963

In the wake of the horrific atrocities carried out by Nazi Germany during World War II, Stanley Milgram wanted to test the levels of obedience to authority. The Yale University professor wanted to study if people would obey commands, even when it conflicted with the person’s conscience.

Participants of the condensed study , 40 males between the ages of 20 and 50, were split into learners and teachers. Though it seemed random, actors were always chosen as the learners, and unsuspecting participants were always the teachers. A learner was strapped to a chair with electrodes in one room while the experimenter äóñ another actor äóñ and a teacher went into another.

The teacher and learner went over a list of word pairs that the learner was told to memorize. When the learner incorrectly paired a set of words together, the teacher would shock the learner. The teacher believed the shocks ranged from mild all the way to life-threatening. In reality, the learner, who intentionally made mistakes, was not being shocked.

As the voltage of the shocks increased and the teachers became aware of the believed pain caused by them, some refused to continue the experiment. After prodding by the experimenter, 65 percent resumed. From the study, Milgram devised the agency theory , which suggests that people allow others to direct their actions because they believe the authority figure is qualified and will accept responsibility for the outcomes. Milgram’s findings help explain how people can make decisions against their own conscience, such as when participating in a war or genocide.

The Halo Effect Experiment, 1977

University of Michigan professors Richard Nisbett and Timothy Wilson were interested in following up a study from 50 years earlier on a concept known as the halo effect . In the 1920s, American psychologist Edward Thorndike researched a phenomenon in the U.S. military that showed cognitive bias. This is an error in how we think that affects how we perceive people and make judgements and decisions based on those perceptions.

In 1977, Nisbett and Wilson tested the halo effect using 118 college students (62 males, 56 females). Students were divided into two groups and were asked to evaluate a male Belgian teacher who spoke English with a heavy accent. Participants were shown one of two videotaped interviews with the teacher on a television monitor. The first interview showed the teacher interacting cordially with students, and the second interview showed the teacher behaving inhospitably. The subjects were then asked to rate the teacher’s physical appearance, mannerisms, and accent on an eight-point scale from appealing to irritating.

Nisbett and Wilson found that on physical appearance alone, 70 percent of the subjects rated the teacher as appealing when he was being respectful and irritating when he was cold. When the teacher was rude, 80 percent of the subjects rated his accent as irritating, as compared to nearly 50 percent when he was being kind.

The updated study on the halo effect shows that cognitive bias isn’t exclusive to a military environment. Cognitive bias can get in the way of making the correct decision, whether it’s during a job interview or deciding whether to buy a product that’s been endorsed by a celebrity we admire.

How Experiments Have Impacted Psychology Today

Contemporary psychologists have built on the findings of these studies to better understand human behaviors, mental illnesses, and the link between the mind and body. For their contributions to psychology, Watson, Bandura, Nisbett and Zimbardo were all awarded Gold Medals for Life Achievement from the American Psychological Foundation. Become part of the next generation of influential psychologists with King University’s online bachelor’s in psychology . Take advantage of King University’s flexible online schedule and complete the major coursework of your degree in as little as 16 months. Plus, as a psychology major, King University will prepare you for graduate school with original research on student projects as you pursue your goal of being a psychologist.

15 Famous Experiments and Case Studies in Psychology

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Psychology has seen thousands upon thousands of research studies over the years. Most of these studies have helped shape our current understanding of human thoughts, behavior, and feelings.

The psychology case studies in this list are considered classic examples of psychological case studies and experiments, which are still being taught in introductory psychology courses up to this day.

Some studies, however, were downright shocking and controversial that you’d probably wonder why such studies were conducted back in the day. Imagine participating in an experiment for a small reward or extra class credit, only to be left scarred for life. These kinds of studies, however, paved the way for a more ethical approach to studying psychology and implementation of research standards such as the use of debriefing in psychology research .

Case Study vs. Experiment

Before we dive into the list of the most famous studies in psychology, let us first review the difference between case studies and experiments.

• It is an in-depth study and analysis of an individual, group, community, or phenomenon. The results of a case study cannot be applied to the whole population, but they can provide insights for further studies.
• It often uses qualitative research methods such as observations, surveys, and interviews.
• It is often conducted in real-life settings rather than in controlled environments.
• An experiment is a type of study done on a sample or group of random participants, the results of which can be generalized to the whole population.
• It often uses quantitative research methods that rely on numbers and statistics.
• It is conducted in controlled environments, wherein some things or situations are manipulated.

See Also: Experimental vs Observational Studies

Famous Experiments in Psychology

1. the marshmallow experiment.

Psychologist Walter Mischel conducted the marshmallow experiment at Stanford University in the 1960s to early 1970s. It was a simple test that aimed to define the connection between delayed gratification and success in life.

The instructions were fairly straightforward: children ages 4-6 were presented a piece of marshmallow on a table and they were told that they would receive a second piece if they could wait for 15 minutes without eating the first marshmallow.

About one-third of the 600 participants succeeded in delaying gratification to receive the second marshmallow. Mischel and his team followed up on these participants in the 1990s, learning that those who had the willpower to wait for a larger reward experienced more success in life in terms of SAT scores and other metrics.

This case study also supported self-control theory , a theory in criminology that holds that people with greater self-control are less likely to end up in trouble with the law!

The classic marshmallow experiment, however, was debunked in a 2018 replication study done by Tyler Watts and colleagues.

This more recent experiment had a larger group of participants (900) and a better representation of the general population when it comes to race and ethnicity. In this study, the researchers found out that the ability to wait for a second marshmallow does not depend on willpower alone but more so on the economic background and social status of the participants.

2. The Bystander Effect

In 1694, Kitty Genovese was murdered in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, New York. It was told that there were up to 38 witnesses and onlookers in the vicinity of the crime scene, but nobody did anything to stop the murder or call for help.

Such tragedy was the catalyst that inspired social psychologists Bibb Latane and John Darley to formulate the phenomenon called bystander effect or bystander apathy .

Subsequent investigations showed that this story was exaggerated and inaccurate, as there were actually only about a dozen witnesses, at least two of whom called the police. But the case of Kitty Genovese led to various studies that aim to shed light on the bystander phenomenon.

Latane and Darley tested bystander intervention in an experimental study . Participants were asked to answer a questionnaire inside a room, and they would either be alone or with two other participants (who were actually actors or confederates in the study). Smoke would then come out from under the door. The reaction time of participants was tested — how long would it take them to report the smoke to the authorities or the experimenters?

The results showed that participants who were alone in the room reported the smoke faster than participants who were with two passive others. The study suggests that the more onlookers are present in an emergency situation, the less likely someone would step up to help, a social phenomenon now popularly called the bystander effect.

3. Asch Conformity Study

Have you ever made a decision against your better judgment just to fit in with your friends or family? The Asch Conformity Studies will help you understand this kind of situation better.

In this experiment, a group of participants were shown three numbered lines of different lengths and asked to identify the longest of them all. However, only one true participant was present in every group and the rest were actors, most of whom told the wrong answer.

Results showed that the participants went for the wrong answer, even though they knew which line was the longest one in the first place. When the participants were asked why they identified the wrong one, they said that they didn’t want to be branded as strange or peculiar.

This study goes to show that there are situations in life when people prefer fitting in than being right. It also tells that there is power in numbers — a group’s decision can overwhelm a person and make them doubt their judgment.

4. The Bobo Doll Experiment

The Bobo Doll Experiment was conducted by Dr. Albert Bandura, the proponent of social learning theory .

Back in the 1960s, the Nature vs. Nurture debate was a popular topic among psychologists. Bandura contributed to this discussion by proposing that human behavior is mostly influenced by environmental rather than genetic factors.

In the Bobo Doll Experiment, children were divided into three groups: one group was shown a video in which an adult acted aggressively toward the Bobo Doll, the second group was shown a video in which an adult play with the Bobo Doll, and the third group served as the control group where no video was shown.

The children were then led to a room with different kinds of toys, including the Bobo Doll they’ve seen in the video. Results showed that children tend to imitate the adults in the video. Those who were presented the aggressive model acted aggressively toward the Bobo Doll while those who were presented the passive model showed less aggression.

While the Bobo Doll Experiment can no longer be replicated because of ethical concerns, it has laid out the foundations of social learning theory and helped us understand the degree of influence adult behavior has on children.

5. Blue Eye / Brown Eye Experiment

Following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, third-grade teacher Jane Elliott conducted an experiment in her class. Although not a formal experiment in controlled settings, A Class Divided is a good example of a social experiment to help children understand the concept of racism and discrimination.

The class was divided into two groups: blue-eyed children and brown-eyed children. For one day, Elliott gave preferential treatment to her blue-eyed students, giving them more attention and pampering them with rewards. The next day, it was the brown-eyed students’ turn to receive extra favors and privileges.

As a result, whichever group of students was given preferential treatment performed exceptionally well in class, had higher quiz scores, and recited more frequently; students who were discriminated against felt humiliated, answered poorly in tests, and became uncertain with their answers in class.

This study is now widely taught in sociocultural psychology classes.

6. Stanford Prison Experiment

One of the most controversial and widely-cited studies in psychology is the Stanford Prison Experiment , conducted by Philip Zimbardo at the basement of the Stanford psychology building in 1971. The hypothesis was that abusive behavior in prisons is influenced by the personality traits of the prisoners and prison guards.

The participants in the experiment were college students who were randomly assigned as either a prisoner or a prison guard. The prison guards were then told to run the simulated prison for two weeks. However, the experiment had to be stopped in just 6 days.

The prison guards abused their authority and harassed the prisoners through verbal and physical means. The prisoners, on the other hand, showed submissive behavior. Zimbardo decided to stop the experiment because the prisoners were showing signs of emotional and physical breakdown.

Although the experiment wasn’t completed, the results strongly showed that people can easily get into a social role when others expect them to, especially when it’s highly stereotyped .

7. The Halo Effect

Have you ever wondered why toothpastes and other dental products are endorsed in advertisements by celebrities more often than dentists? The Halo Effect is one of the reasons!

The Halo Effect shows how one favorable attribute of a person can gain them positive perceptions in other attributes. In the case of product advertisements, attractive celebrities are also perceived as intelligent and knowledgeable of a certain subject matter even though they’re not technically experts.

The Halo Effect originated in a classic study done by Edward Thorndike in the early 1900s. He asked military commanding officers to rate their subordinates based on different qualities, such as physical appearance, leadership, dependability, and intelligence.

The results showed that high ratings of a particular quality influences the ratings of other qualities, producing a halo effect of overall high ratings. The opposite also applied, which means that a negative rating in one quality also correlated to negative ratings in other qualities.

Experiments on the Halo Effect came in various formats as well, supporting Thorndike’s original theory. This phenomenon suggests that our perception of other people’s overall personality is hugely influenced by a quality that we focus on.

8. Cognitive Dissonance

There are experiences in our lives when our beliefs and behaviors do not align with each other and we try to justify them in our minds. This is cognitive dissonance , which was studied in an experiment by Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith back in 1959.

In this experiment, participants had to go through a series of boring and repetitive tasks, such as spending an hour turning pegs in a wooden knob. After completing the tasks, they were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell the next participants that the tasks were extremely fun and enjoyable. Afterwards, participants were asked to rate the experiment. Those who were given $1 rated the experiment as more interesting and fun than those who received $20.

The results showed that those who received a smaller incentive to lie experienced cognitive dissonance — $1 wasn’t enough incentive for that one hour of painstakingly boring activity, so the participants had to justify that they had fun anyway.

Famous Case Studies in Psychology

9. little albert.

In 1920, behaviourist theorists John Watson and Rosalie Rayner experimented on a 9-month-old baby to test the effects of classical conditioning in instilling fear in humans.

This was such a controversial study that it gained popularity in psychology textbooks and syllabi because it is a classic example of unethical research studies done in the name of science.

In one of the experiments, Little Albert was presented with a harmless stimulus or object, a white rat, which he wasn’t scared of at first. But every time Little Albert would see the white rat, the researchers would play a scary sound of hammer and steel. After about 6 pairings, Little Albert learned to fear the rat even without the scary sound.

Little Albert developed signs of fear to different objects presented to him through classical conditioning . He even generalized his fear to other stimuli not present in the course of the experiment.

10. Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage is such a celebrity in Psych 101 classes, even though the way he rose to popularity began with a tragic accident. He was a resident of Central Vermont and worked in the construction of a new railway line in the mid-1800s. One day, an explosive went off prematurely, sending a tamping iron straight into his face and through his brain.

Gage survived the accident, fortunately, something that is considered a feat even up to this day. He managed to find a job as a stagecoach after the accident. However, his family and friends reported that his personality changed so much that “he was no longer Gage” (Harlow, 1868).

New evidence on the case of Phineas Gage has since come to light, thanks to modern scientific studies and medical tests. However, there are still plenty of mysteries revolving around his brain damage and subsequent recovery.

11. Anna O.

Anna O., a social worker and feminist of German Jewish descent, was one of the first patients to receive psychoanalytic treatment.

Her real name was Bertha Pappenheim and she inspired much of Sigmund Freud’s works and books on psychoanalytic theory, although they hadn’t met in person. Their connection was through Joseph Breuer, Freud’s mentor when he was still starting his clinical practice.

Anna O. suffered from paralysis, personality changes, hallucinations, and rambling speech, but her doctors could not find the cause. Joseph Breuer was then called to her house for intervention and he performed psychoanalysis, also called the “talking cure”, on her.

Breuer would tell Anna O. to say anything that came to her mind, such as her thoughts, feelings, and childhood experiences. It was noted that her symptoms subsided by talking things out.

However, Breuer later referred Anna O. to the Bellevue Sanatorium, where she recovered and set out to be a renowned writer and advocate of women and children.

12. Patient HM

H.M., or Henry Gustav Molaison, was a severe amnesiac who had been the subject of countless psychological and neurological studies.

Henry was 27 when he underwent brain surgery to cure the epilepsy that he had been experiencing since childhood. In an unfortunate turn of events, he lost his memory because of the surgery and his brain also became unable to store long-term memories.

He was then regarded as someone living solely in the present, forgetting an experience as soon as it happened and only remembering bits and pieces of his past. Over the years, his amnesia and the structure of his brain had helped neuropsychologists learn more about cognitive functions .

Suzanne Corkin, a researcher, writer, and good friend of H.M., recently published a book about his life. Entitled Permanent Present Tense , this book is both a memoir and a case study following the struggles and joys of Henry Gustav Molaison.

13. Chris Sizemore

Chris Sizemore gained celebrity status in the psychology community when she was diagnosed with multiple personality disorder, now known as dissociative identity disorder.

Sizemore has several alter egos, which included Eve Black, Eve White, and Jane. Various papers about her stated that these alter egos were formed as a coping mechanism against the traumatic experiences she underwent in her childhood.

Sizemore said that although she has succeeded in unifying her alter egos into one dominant personality, there were periods in the past experienced by only one of her alter egos. For example, her husband married her Eve White alter ego and not her.

Her story inspired her psychiatrists to write a book about her, entitled The Three Faces of Eve , which was then turned into a 1957 movie of the same title.

14. David Reimer

When David was just 8 months old, he lost his penis because of a botched circumcision operation.

Psychologist John Money then advised Reimer’s parents to raise him as a girl instead, naming him Brenda. His gender reassignment was supported by subsequent surgery and hormonal therapy.

Money described Reimer’s gender reassignment as a success, but problems started to arise as Reimer was growing up. His boyishness was not completely subdued by the hormonal therapy. When he was 14 years old, he learned about the secrets of his past and he underwent gender reassignment to become male again.

Reimer became an advocate for children undergoing the same difficult situation he had been. His life story ended when he was 38 as he took his own life.

15. Kim Peek

Kim Peek was the inspiration behind Rain Man , an Oscar-winning movie about an autistic savant character played by Dustin Hoffman.

The movie was released in 1988, a time when autism wasn’t widely known and acknowledged yet. So it was an eye-opener for many people who watched the film.

In reality, Kim Peek was a non-autistic savant. He was exceptionally intelligent despite the brain abnormalities he was born with. He was like a walking encyclopedia, knowledgeable about travel routes, US zip codes, historical facts, and classical music. He also read and memorized approximately 12,000 books in his lifetime.

This list of experiments and case studies in psychology is just the tip of the iceberg! There are still countless interesting psychology studies that you can explore if you want to learn more about human behavior and dynamics.

You can also conduct your own mini-experiment or participate in a study conducted in your school or neighborhood. Just remember that there are ethical standards to follow so as not to repeat the lasting physical and emotional harm done to Little Albert or the Stanford Prison Experiment participants.

Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70 (9), 1–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093718

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63 (3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925

Elliott, J., Yale University., WGBH (Television station : Boston, Mass.), & PBS DVD (Firm). (2003). A class divided. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Films.

Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58 (2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041593

Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Review , 30 , 4-17.

Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10 (3), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570

Mischel, W. (2014). The Marshmallow Test: Mastering self-control. Little, Brown and Co.

Thorndike, E. (1920) A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology , 4 , 25-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0071663

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of experimental psychology , 3 (1), 1.

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An Introduction to Experimental Psychology: Principles, Applications, and Discoveries

Curious about the inner workings of the human mind? Experimental psychology delves into the complexities of human behavior and cognition through rigorous scientific methods.

In this article, we explore the goals and principles of experimental psychology, its diverse applications in fields such as clinical and educational psychology, and some of the groundbreaking discoveries that have shaped our understanding of human behavior.

Join us on a journey through the fascinating world of experimental psychology.

• Experimental psychology uses an empirical approach to study behavior and mental processes.
• Objectivity, control, and replication are essential principles in experimental psychology.
• This field has applications in clinical, educational, industrial, and forensic settings.
• Some famous discoveries in experimental psychology include classical and operant conditioning, obedience and eyewitness studies, and attachment research.
• 1.1 What Is the Goal of Experimental Psychology?
• 2.1 Empirical Approach
• 2.2 Objectivity
• 2.3 Control
• 2.4 Replication
• 3.1 Clinical Psychology
• 3.2 Educational Psychology
• 3.3 Industrial and Organizational Psychology
• 3.4 Forensic Psychology
• 4.1 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
• 4.2 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
• 4.3 Milgram’s Obedience Study
• 4.4 Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony Study
• 4.5 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
• 4.6 Harlow’s Attachment Study
• 5.1 What is experimental psychology?
• 5.2 What are the main principles of experimental psychology?
• 5.3 How is experimental psychology applied in real life?
• 5.4 What are some famous discoveries in experimental psychology?
• 5.5 What are some common research methods used in experimental psychology?
• 5.6 How can I get involved in experimental psychology?

What Is Experimental Psychology?

Experimental psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on understanding human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions through systematic research and studies.

One of the key goals of experimental psychology is to apply scientific methods to investigate various phenomena, such as memory, attention, decision-making, and motivation. Researchers in this field often employ controlled experiments to test hypotheses and gather empirical evidence. By manipulating variables in carefully designed studies, experimental psychologists aim to elucidate the underlying mechanisms that drive human behavior. Through these investigations, they can also uncover patterns and principles that contribute to the development of psychological theories and models.

What Is the Goal of Experimental Psychology?

The primary goal of experimental psychology is to uncover the underlying mechanisms that govern human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions through controlled scientific studies and rigorous experimentation.

By conducting carefully designed experiments and observing human responses in controlled settings, experimental psychologists aim to establish causal relationships between variables and outcomes, shedding light on the intricate workings of the human mind and behavior.

Scientific rigor is paramount in this field, ensuring that findings are reliable and valid, contributing to the cumulative knowledge base of psychology.

Through the systematic manipulation of independent variables and measurement of dependent variables, researchers in experimental psychology strive to elucidate the complexities of human cognition, emotion, and behavior.

What Are the Principles of Experimental Psychology?

The principles of experimental psychology are founded on key tenets such as an empirical approach , objectivity, control, and replication, which form the basis for conducting rigorous scientific investigations into human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions.

Experimental psychology’s reliance on an empirical approach ensures that research conclusions are based on observable evidence rather than subjective opinions. This emphasis on objectivity minimizes bias and strengthens the reliability of study outcomes. The control over variables allows researchers to isolate specific factors influencing behavior, aiding in the establishment of causal relationships. By replicating findings, psychologists verify the robustness and validity of their results, contributing to the advancement of knowledge within the field.

Empirical Approach

The empirical approach in experimental psychology emphasizes the reliance on direct observation, data collection, and experimentation to investigate and understand human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions in a systematic and scientific manner.

This approach is fundamental in gathering objective and quantifiable data that can be analyzed to draw meaningful conclusions about various aspects of human psychology. Utilizing controlled experiments, researchers can manipulate variables to observe the cause and effect relationships, which provides valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of behavior. Through meticulous experimental designs, such as within-subject and between-subject studies, researchers can compare different conditions and assess the impact of specific factors on human responses. Employing rigorous data collection techniques, including surveys, interviews, and physiological measurements, enables researchers to gather comprehensive data sets for in-depth analysis.

Objectivity

Objectivity is a crucial principle in experimental psychology, ensuring that researchers maintain a neutral and unbiased perspective when conducting studies, analyzing data, and interpreting results related to human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions.

It is essential for researchers to approach their experiments with a mindset free from personal biases, preconceptions, or preferences, as these can cloud judgment and impact the validity of their findings. By adhering to the principle of objectivity, psychologists strive to minimize the influence of their own beliefs, emotions, or expectations on the research process.

Impartiality in data collection and analysis is fundamental for drawing accurate and reliable conclusions. Researchers must gather information systematically, without favoring certain outcomes, and interpret results objectively to avoid skewing the findings in any particular direction.

Control is a fundamental principle in experimental psychology, enabling researchers to manipulate variables, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and minimize extraneous influences that could impact the study of human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions.

This principle of control plays a crucial role in the meticulous design of experiments. By carefully designing studies with controlled variables, researchers can precisely isolate the effects of the variables under investigation.

Through skilled manipulation of these variables, within a controlled setting, researchers can ascertain the causal relationships between them and the resulting outcomes observed.

This meticulous process not only allows for a deeper understanding of human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions but also contributes significantly to the advancement of knowledge in the field of experimental psychology.

Replication

Replication is a critical principle in experimental psychology that emphasizes the need to reproduce research findings consistently through repeated studies, enhancing the reliability and validity of conclusions related to human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions.

By replicating studies, researchers can verify the accuracy and generalizability of their results, ensuring that the observed effects are not merely due to chance or specific experimental conditions.

Replication also allows for the identification of potential errors or biases that may have influenced initial findings. The process of replication contributes to the cumulative nature of scientific knowledge, building a solid foundation of evidence that can withstand scrutiny and contribute to the advancement of the field.

What Are the Applications of Experimental Psychology?

Experimental psychology finds diverse applications in various subfields such as clinical psychology, educational psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and forensic psychology, where insights into human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions are utilized to address specific challenges and phenomena.

For instance, in clinical psychology, experimental findings help in understanding the mechanisms underlying mental disorders and developing effective therapeutic interventions. Educational psychology benefits from research on learning processes and memory retention to enhance teaching methods and curriculum designs.

In the industrial and organizational psychology domain, experimental studies play a crucial role in optimizing workplace environments, employee motivation, and leadership strategies. Forensic psychology relies on experimental investigations to analyze witness testimonies, jury decision-making, and offender behavior for legal proceedings.

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology utilizes insights from experimental psychology to understand and treat mental health disorders, behavioral issues, and emotional disturbances by applying evidence-based interventions and therapies rooted in scientific research on human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions.

By integrating the findings of experimental psychology into clinical practice, psychologists are able to enhance their understanding of the underlying mechanisms that drive various psychological conditions. For instance, research on memory, learning, and decision-making processes has greatly contributed to the development of effective therapeutic techniques for individuals dealing with trauma or addiction.

This interdisciplinary approach allows clinicians to tailor their treatment strategies to address the specific needs of each patient, leading to more personalized and successful outcomes in therapy. Experimental psychology informs the assessment methods used in diagnosing disorders and monitoring treatment progress, enabling psychologists to make data-driven decisions to optimize patient care.

Educational Psychology

Educational psychology integrates experimental research on learning , memory , motivation , and cognition to enhance teaching practices, curriculum design, and student outcomes, leveraging scientific insights into human behavior and cognition to optimize educational strategies and interventions.

Experimental psychology plays a pivotal role within educational settings by providing valuable empirical evidence that informs and shapes the methodologies and approaches used in teaching. Through rigorous experimentation and analysis, researchers in this field uncover patterns and trends in how individuals learn, process information, and engage with educational content.

By applying the findings from experimental psychology studies, educators can tailor their instructional techniques, adjust curricula, and enhance classroom environments to better suit the diverse learning needs of students. This evidence-based approach ensures that teaching practices are rooted in science and adapted to align with the cognitive processes and needs of learners.

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology employs experimental methods to investigate workplace behaviors, organizational dynamics, leadership styles, and employee motivation, utilizing scientific insights into human behavior, cognition, and emotions to enhance productivity, job satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness.

Through the lens of experimental psychology, organizations can gain valuable insights into how individuals interact within teams, respond to stressors, and make decisions in the workplace. By conducting controlled experiments and observational studies, researchers can uncover underlying psychological mechanisms influencing performance, communication patterns, and job satisfaction. These findings not only help in designing effective training programs and assessment tools but also provide a foundation for developing strategies to create a positive work environment, reduce conflicts, and foster leadership development.

Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology relies on experimental research to analyze criminal behavior, witness testimony, investigative techniques, and judicial decision-making, using scientific insights into human behavior, cognition, and emotions to inform legal proceedings, criminal investigations, and justice systems.

Experimental psychology plays a vital role in the field of forensic psychology by providing a scientific approach to understanding the complexities of human behavior in legal contexts. Through controlled experiments and research studies, psychologists can delve into the underlying factors that influence criminal conduct and witness testimonies.

The application of experimental findings in forensic contexts aids in assessing the credibility of witnesses, identifying patterns of deception, and enhancing investigative strategies to uncover crucial evidence for legal proceedings. By integrating empirical data and psychological theories, forensic psychologists can contribute valuable insights to the judicial system and law enforcement agencies.

What Are Some Famous Discoveries in Experimental Psychology?

Experimental psychology has witnessed several landmark discoveries that have shaped our understanding of human behavior, perception, cognition, and emotions, including Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, Milgram’s Obedience Study, Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony Study, Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment, and Harlow’s Attachment Study.

These experiments have significantly influenced the field by providing key insights into human learning, social behavior, memory, and attachment. For instance, Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning demonstrated how associations can be formed between stimuli and responses, laying the foundation for understanding various learned behaviors. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning further elucidated the role of consequences in shaping behavior, emphasizing the importance of reinforcement and punishment in learning processes.

Milgram’s Obedience Study shed light on the power of authority in influencing individuals’ actions, revealing the disturbing extent to which people may comply with unethical commands. Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony Study challenged the reliability of memory and highlighted how external factors can distort recollections of events.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment pioneered the concept of observational learning, showing how individuals can acquire new behaviors through modeling others, impacting our understanding of social learning processes. Harlow’s Attachment Study revolutionized our understanding of attachment in primates by demonstrating the importance of social and emotional bonds in development.

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning experiment demonstrated how associative learning occurs in response to stimuli, establishing a foundational principle in psychology that explains how behaviors can be modified through conditioning processes involving stimulus-response associations.

The groundbreaking study conducted by Ivan Pavlov involved ringing a bell before presenting food to dogs, initially causing them to salivate only at the sight and smell of food. Through repeated pairings of the bell and food, the dogs started associating the bell with the upcoming meal, eventually eliciting a salivary response even without food presence.

• The findings of Pavlov’s experiment showcased the phenomenon of conditioned response where previously neutral stimuli come to evoke specific behaviors due to repeated pairings with meaningful stimuli.

This essential insight into behavioral conditioning has led to a profound understanding of how learning and modification of behaviors can be achieved by manipulating environmental cues and responses.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning research elucidated how behaviors are influenced by consequences such as rewards and punishments, providing insights into operant behaviors and reinforcement principles that shape learning and behavior modification.

Skinner’s experiments involved studying how organisms learn through the consequences of their actions. He identified two main types of consequences: reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement, which includes positive reinforcement where a behavior is strengthened by a rewarding stimulus, and negative reinforcement, where a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus, plays a crucial role in shaping behavior. On the other hand, punishment involves the application of an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring. These concepts not only help understand how behaviors are learned but also provide effective tools for behavior modification in various fields such as education, psychology, and therapy.

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Milgram’s Obedience Study investigated the extent to which individuals comply with authority figures, revealing the powerful influence of situational factors on human behavior, obedience, and ethical considerations in social psychology.

The experimental setup of Milgram’s Obedience Study involved a simulated scenario where participants, who believed they were administering electric shocks to another person, were instructed by an authority figure to continue escalating the voltage despite hearing cries of pain. This controlled environment aimed to examine how ordinary individuals respond to perceived authority, shedding light on the psychological mechanisms underlying obedience.

The findings of the study were startling, indicating that a significant proportion of participants were willing to administer potentially harmful shocks to the ‘learner’ simply due to the influence of the authoritative instruction. This highlighted the profound impact of situational factors, such as the presence of an authority figure, on shaping behavior even against one’s moral compass.

Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony Study

Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony Study demonstrated how memory reconstruction can be influenced by leading questions, highlighting the malleability of memory and the impact of suggestion on eyewitness accounts in legal contexts.

Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer conducted a series of experiments where participants were shown a video of a car accident. They were then asked questions, with one group being asked how fast the cars smashed into each other while another was asked how fast they contacted each other. The study found that the language used significantly altered participants’ estimates of the speed of the cars, showcasing the power of wording on memory retrieval and perception.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment illustrated the concept of observational learning, showing how individuals acquire new behaviors by observing and imitating others, thereby contributing to our understanding of social learning processes and behavior modeling.

The experiment, conducted in 1961 by psychologist Albert Bandura, involved children observing an adult model behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The children were then placed in a room with toys, including the Bobo doll, and were observed to see if they would imitate the aggressive behaviors. Results showed that children who had witnessed the adult’s aggressive actions were more likely to replicate them, highlighting the power of observational learning in shaping behavior.

Harlow’s Attachment Study

Harlow’s Attachment Study with infant rhesus monkeys revealed the critical role of contact comfort in attachment formation, challenging prevailing beliefs about attachment theory and highlighting the significance of social bonding and emotional connections in developmental psychology.

The groundbreaking experiment conducted by Harlow involved separating infant monkeys from their biological mothers and providing them with two surrogate mothers – one made of wire with a feeding bottle and the other covered in soft cloth without a feeding mechanism. Most surprisingly, the baby monkeys chose to spend the majority of their time clinging to the cloth mother , emphasizing the importance of comfort and security in attachment relationships. This study reshaped the understanding of attachment dynamics by demonstrating that emotional closeness and comfort are fundamental for healthy social and emotional development, rather than just physical nourishment.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is experimental psychology.

Experimental psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on using scientific methods to study human behavior and mental processes.

What are the main principles of experimental psychology?

The main principles of experimental psychology include objectivity, control, and replicability. Objectivity involves using unbiased methods to collect and analyze data. Control refers to the ability to manipulate variables and isolate their effects. Replicability involves being able to repeat an experiment and obtain similar results.

How is experimental psychology applied in real life?

Experimental psychology has various applications, such as understanding and treating mental disorders, improving education and learning, and informing public policies and practices. It is also used in market research, product development, and advertising.

What are some famous discoveries in experimental psychology?

Some famous discoveries in experimental psychology include Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning, B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning, Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments, and Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment.

What are some common research methods used in experimental psychology?

Experimental psychologists use a variety of research methods, such as laboratory experiments, field experiments, surveys, and observational studies. These methods allow them to systematically test hypotheses and gather data on human behavior and mental processes.

How can I get involved in experimental psychology?

If you are interested in experimental psychology, you can pursue a degree in psychology and focus on experimental methods. You can also participate in research studies or volunteer at a psychology research lab. Additionally, you can stay updated on current research and attend conferences or workshops in the field.

Gabriel Silva is a cultural psychologist interested in how cultural contexts influence individual psychology and vice versa. His fieldwork spans multiple continents, studying the diversity of human experience through the lens of psychology. Gabriel’s writings reflect his journey, offering readers a global perspective on the ways culture shapes our identity, values, and interactions with the world.

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How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology

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The Experimental Process

Types of experiments, potential pitfalls of the experimental method.

The experimental method is a type of research procedure that involves manipulating variables to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. The results obtained through the experimental method are useful but do not prove with 100% certainty that a singular cause always creates a specific effect. Instead, they show the probability that a cause will or will not lead to a particular effect.

At a Glance

While there are many different research techniques available, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.

What Is the Experimental Method in Psychology?

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test a hypothesis.

For example, researchers may want to learn how different visual patterns may impact our perception. Or they might wonder whether certain actions can improve memory . Experiments are conducted on many behavioral topics, including:

The scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method. This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables—in this case, to explain human behavior .

Positivism is also important in the experimental method. It refers to factual knowledge that is obtained through observation, which is considered to be trustworthy.

When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.

History of the Experimental Method

The idea of using experiments to better understand human psychology began toward the end of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory in 1879.

Wundt is often called the father of experimental psychology. He believed that experiments could help explain how psychology works, and used this approach to study consciousness .

Wundt coined the term "physiological psychology." This is a hybrid of physiology and psychology, or how the body affects the brain.

Other early contributors to the development and evolution of experimental psychology as we know it today include:

• Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), who helped develop procedures for measuring sensations according to the size of the stimulus
• Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), who analyzed philosophical assumptions through research in an attempt to arrive at scientific conclusions
• Franz Brentano (1838-1917), who called for a combination of first-person and third-person research methods when studying psychology
• Georg Elias Müller (1850-1934), who performed an early experiment on attitude which involved the sensory discrimination of weights and revealed how anticipation can affect this discrimination

Key Terms to Know

To understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.

Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for extraneous variables.

Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics are subtle hints that indicate what an experimenter is hoping to find in a psychology experiment. This can sometimes cause participants to alter their behavior, which can affect the results of the experiment.

Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables. 

Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have played a role.

Psychologists, like other scientists, use the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.

The five basic steps of the experimental process are:

• Identifying a problem to study
• Devising the research protocol
• Conducting the experiment
• Analyzing the data collected
• Sharing the findings (usually in writing or via presentation)

Most psychology students are expected to use the experimental method at some point in their academic careers. Learning how to conduct an experiment is important to understanding how psychologists prove and disprove theories in this field.

There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might use when studying psychology. Each has pros and cons depending on the participants being studied, the hypothesis, and the resources available to conduct the research.

Lab Experiments

Lab experiments are common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The drawback of this research type is that what takes place in a lab is not always what takes place in the real world.

Field Experiments

Sometimes researchers opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, a social psychologist interested in researching prosocial behavior might have a person pretend to faint and observe how long it takes onlookers to respond.

This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavioral responses in realistic settings. But it is more difficult for researchers to control the many variables existing in these settings that could potentially influence the experiment's results.

Quasi-Experiments

While lab experiments are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a quasi-experiment. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.

A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation (personality traits). Participants also cannot be randomly assigned because they naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order.

So why would a researcher use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists are interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It's also beneficial if there are limits on research funds or time.

Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments.

Examples of the Experimental Method in Use

The experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use experiments to study many aspects of psychology.

A 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found that dividing attention between these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.

An experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts had higher power in their theta brain waves than novices, suggesting that they also had a higher cognitive load.

A study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chatbot changed the positive effects of emotional disclosure often received when talking with an actual human. It found that the effects were the same in both cases.

One experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants' short-term memory abilities.

Sometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.

A 2020 study set out to determine the role that sensation-seeking plays in political violence. This research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political group helps reduce this effect.

While the experimental method can be a valuable tool for learning more about psychology and its impacts, it also comes with a few pitfalls.

Experiments may produce artificial results, which are difficult to apply to real-world situations. Similarly, researcher bias can impact the data collected. Results may not be able to be reproduced, meaning the results have low reliability .

Since humans are unpredictable and their behavior can be subjective, it can be hard to measure responses in an experiment. In addition, political pressure may alter the results. The subjects may not be a good representation of the population, or groups used may not be comparable.

And finally, since researchers are human too, results may be degraded due to human error.

What This Means For You

Every psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it's also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.

At the same time, it's essential to be aware of this method's pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea of whether the results can be trusted or have limitations.

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Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A. Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs . Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol . 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Branches of Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

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Psychology is a science in which behavioral and other evidence is used to understand the mind and behavior of humans (Eysenck, 2004).

It encompasses various aspects of human behavior, such as thought, emotions, cognition, personality, social behavior, and brain function.

Throughout the years, people have used multiple research methods to understand this complicated subject, and have divided this subject into various branches to better study human behavior. So far, there can be as many as 22 branches of psychology.

To better categorize the branches of psychology, this article will be dividing the branches into basic and applied psychology (Guilford & Anastasi, 1950).

• Basic psychology, or theoretical psychology, aims to extend and improve human knowledge. Basic psychology aims to discover or establish instances of universal similarity and trace their origin or development to explain their causal connections.
• Applied psychology, or practical psychology, aims to extend and improve the condition and phases of human life and conduct. Its goal is to analyze responses and situations and create interventions to address real-life concerns and challenges individuals face (Thomas, 2022).

However, it is crucial to remember that psychology classification could vary, and many psychologists work in both basic and applied psychology sections throughout their careers.

Moreover, basic and applied fields of psychology complement one another, and together help form a deeper understanding of human mind and behavior.

Basic Psychology

Basic psychology seeks to understand the fundamental principles of behavior and mind, focusing on generating knowledge. It seeks to answer the question “Why does this occur?”.

1. Biological psychology

The origin of biological psychology is greatly influenced by “Origin of Species” written by Charles Darwin, whose views on evolution greatly impacted the psychological world.

Psychologists started analyzing the role of heredity in influencing human behavior. Biological psychology focuses on studying physiological processes within the human body, often including the study of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers that transmit messages from one neuron to the next) and hormones.

One approach used in biological psychology is studying how different sets of genes influence behavior, personality, and intelligence.

Twin studies – the study of monozygotic twins with the exact set of genes and the study of dizygotic twins who share half of each other’s genomes – are often used for this purpose.

The biological branch of psychology is especially important because processes studied by it are virtually involved in almost all human behavior (Eysenck, 2004).

2. Abnormal psychology

Abnormal psychology is also known as psychopathology . It focuses on understanding the causes, treatment, and nature of mental disorders, and helps produce effective therapy for patients who have mental disorders, such as Major Depressive Disorder, Autism, Schizophrenia, and much more (Hooley et al., 2019).

This is considered basic psychology because understanding the etiology of a mental health condition can help applied psychologists develop effective interventions.

In the past, the treatment of people who deviated from the norm involved brutal treatments such as trephination and exorcism that aimed to “drive away” the evil spirits that people claimed to be possessing the ill.

Patients were kept in the bedlams inside asylums, and most people with mental illness died tragically. The development of psychoanalysis , CBT , and mindfulness-based therapies , has led to improvements in therapy and reduced the pain and suffering of patients (Eysenck, 2004).

3. Cognitive Psychology

The study of cognitive psychology focuses on the process of thinking. It includes areas such as memory, problem-solving, learning, attention, and language.

This approach to psychology is important because the human brain is tied to multiple other branches of psychology, such as social, abnormal, and developmental psychology. 

Theoretical topics of cognitive psychology would include the study of memory, perception, attention, etc.

Moreover, the insights provided by cognitive psychologists have led to profound impacts on the development of practical applications across diverse fields, whereby professionals from unrelated domains effectively utilized this knowledge to create things such as computer and gaming systems that are easy for humans to use.

The study of cognitive psychology also benefited the well-being of many patients who experienced brain damage , and they were able to get surgery to regain back some of their lost cognitive skills (Eysenck, 2004).

4. Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how individuals change over time, especially during the childhood period.

Psychologists spend decades studying people’s childhood development of thinking processes and behavioral changes, looking at how childhood experiences may impact adult behavior.

It includes topics such as the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur from infancy to elderly life.

This branch is essential to helping children develop good social skills and address developmental challenges, as well as understanding factors influencing adult behaviors (Eysenck, 2004).

5. Behavioral Psychology

Behaviorism , also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli.

The behaviorist theory is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Some of the key figures of the behaviorist approach include B.F. Skinner, known for his work on operant conditioning, and John B. Watson, who established the psychological school of behaviorism.

6. Social Psychology

Social psychology covers numerous topics that focus on society as a whole, including the observation and study of social behavior and intergroup relations.

Topics would include things such as the study of attitudes , social influences , prejudice , etc. Humans are known to be social animals that interact with one another.

Every day we encounter different people and must use social knowledge to make sense of the social group that we are all living in and make decisions.

Social psychology is thus used to reveal the many biases and misconceptions humans have, as well as how people’s behaviors are deeply influenced by one another (Eysenck, 2004).

7. Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the study of similarities and differences between humans and animals. It is said to be originated by George Romanes, a British psychologist who wrote “Animal Intelligence” in 1882.

In short, it compares humans with other animals, including both qualitative and quantitative observations. 

It is especially useful to use animal models to study behaviors and psychological phenomena because they may otherwise be challenging or unethical to study in humans.

Animal models provide researchers with a way to examine the effects of stress, addiction, learning, and memory on behavior.

Since animals may function in similar ways as humans, psychologists study animals and draw analogies with human beings to arrive at conclusions (Greenberg, 2012). Famous studies of comparative psychology would include Harlow’s monkeys and Lorenz’s geese .

8. Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology encompasses the scientific research methods that other branches of psychology rely on. Psychologists use a scientific approach to understanding behavior, and their findings are based on scientific evidence accumulated through research.

Examples of what is involved in an experiment would be the different types of research methods (qualitative versus quantitative), the use of data analysis, correlation and causation, and hypothesis testing.

It is generally said to emerge as a branch of psychology in the 19 th century led by Wilhelm Wundt , who introduced mathematical expressions and calculations into the psychology field (Boring, 1950).

This is important because humans’ commonsense beliefs about behaviors are unreliable, and the explanations derived from them could be deceiving.

Experimental psychology ensures that psychological conclusions are not limited in their accuracy and generalizability (Myers & Hansen, 2011).

9. Child Psychology

Child psychology examines the developmental changes within the different domains of child development (Hetherington et al., 1999).

It first started with Jean Piaget , a French psychologist whose research interests were highly focused on child development, including how they think, acquire knowledge, and interact with those around them (Schwartz, 1972). 

It primarily focuses on the understanding of children’s emotional, cognitive, social, and behavioral development during these early stages of life.

Child psychology also assesses and diagnoses developmental disorders or psychological conditions that may affect children and provide interventions and treatments to support their psychological well-being and development.

10. Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-Cultural Psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how cultural factors influence human behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

It examines psychological differences and similarities across various cultures and ethnic groups, aiming to understand how cultural context can shape individual and group psychological processes.

11. Personality Psychology

The personality branch of psychology studies the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make an individual unique. It explores the traits and characteristics that define a person’s temperament, interactions, and consistent behaviors across various situations.

Theories in this field range from Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective to trait theories and humanistic approaches.

The goal is to understand the complexities of individual differences, the factors that shape personality development, and how personality influences life outcomes.

The Big Five and Myers-Briggs are both models used to describe and measure personality traits, but they differ significantly in their origins, components, and scientific validation:

• The Big Five : Often referred to as the Five-Factor Model, it identifies five broad dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (often remembered by the acronym OCEAN). This model is backed by extensive empirical research and is widely accepted in the academic community.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) : This typological approach categorizes individuals into 16 personality types based on four dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving.

Applied psychology

Applied psychology takes these foundational understandings and applies them to solve real-world problems, enhancing well-being and performance in various settings. Applied psychology asks “How can we use this knowledge practically?”.

12. Clinical Psychology

The American Psychological Association defines clinical psychology as a field of psychology that “integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and alleviate maladjustment, disability, and discomfort as well to promote human adaptation, adjustment, and personal development” (American Psychological Association, Division 12, 2012).

In simplified terms, it is a branch of psychology focusing on understanding mental illness and looking for the best ways of providing care for individuals, families, and groups.

Through strong research, clinical psychologists offer ongoing and comprehensive mental and behavioral healthcare for individuals, couples, families, and all sorts of different groups.

They also provide consultation services to agencies and communities, as well as training, education, supervision, and research-based practice.

The work of a clinical psychologist thus includes assessing patients’ health status, performing psychotherapy, teaching, researching, consulting, and more (Kramer et al., 2019). The branch would also understand the diagnostic criteria of mental illness.

13. Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on understanding how people learn and develop in educational settings.

It uses psychological science to enhance the learning process of students and applies psychological findings to promote educational success in a classroom (Lindgren & Suter, 1967).

Educational psychologists do things such as improve teaching techniques, develop specialized learning materials, and monitor educational outcomes.

Psychologists have argued that education is a tripolar process involving the interaction between the educator and the student, as well as the educator and the student understanding oneself and acting accordingly in an educational or social setting.

The social environment, on the other hand, provides subtle influences on both sides. Educational psychology aims to understand and enhance education through understanding these interactions (Aggarwal, 2010).

Under this branch of psychology, there is also school psychology. School psychology is defined as the general practice of psychology involving learners of all ages, and the process of schooling.

For instance, psychological assessments, interventions, and preventions, as well as mental health promotion programs focusing on the development processes of youth in the context of the school system are all considered to be part of school psychology.

School psychologists access the school environment to ensure and promote positive learning outcomes for youth, and ensure healthy psychological development of students.

Other than students, they also support the families, teachers, and other professionals who work to support the students (Merrell et al., 2011).

14. Counseling Psychology

Counseling psychology is defined as a holistic healthcare specialty that employs diverse information (such as culture) and methodologies (such as motivational interviewing and cognitive behavioral therapy) to enhance an individual’s mental well-being and reduce maladaptive behaviors.

The aim is to help individuals cope with various life challenges, emotions, mental health symptoms, etc. People who seek counseling explore their thoughts and behaviors with a counselor and seek to improve their wellbeing and develop coping strategies.

Counseling psychologists work with people of all cultural backgrounds, and conduct activities such as crisis intervention, trauma management, diagnosing mental disorders, treatment evaluation, and consulting (Oetting, 1967).

15. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the branch of applied psychology that focuses on collecting, examining, and presenting evidence for judicial purposes.

Psychologists in this branch work on court cases in assessing behavioral problems and psychological disorders in criminal profiles , determining the mental status of criminals, and whether or not compensation could be awarded for “psychological damage”.

Researchers in this branch also investigate false confessions and psychological vulnerabilities in criminals, together with methods of improving societal bias and police practice (Gudjonsson & Haward, 2016).

16. Health Psychology

Health psychology has been widely defined using Matarazzo’s definition, summarized as any activity of psychology that involves any aspect of health or the healthcare system.

It includes areas ranging from prevention to treatment of illness and the analysis and diagnosis of health-related dysfunctions. It often promotes healthy lifestyles and disease prevention.

Health psychology emphasizes the health system and how patients as well as psychologists interact within the system, having the goal of optimizing communication and treatment at the same time.

Health psychologists look at problems such as the cost of healthcare, chronic psychological illness, as well as political and economic needs (Feuerstein et al., 1986).

This is different from clinical psychology, which concentrates more on treating and diagnosing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, providing therapy and strategies for managing mental health issues.

17. Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is in general seen as a field of study where principles of psychology are used or applied to sport. In history, many different perspectives have been taken in determining the definition of sports psychology.

For example, when seen as a branch of psychology, this study focuses on understanding psychological theories when applied to sports.

When seen more as a subdiscipline of sport science, this branch of psychology focuses on enhancing and explaining behavior in the sports context (Horn, 2008).

Overall, sports psychology is crucial in optimizing athletes’ performance by addressing their sports’ emotional and physical aspects, such as arousal regulation, pre-performance routines, goal-setting techniques, etc.

18. Community Psychology

Community psychology focuses on thinking about human behavior within the context of a community.

It requires a shift in perspective since it operates to prevent a problem from occurring and promoting healthy functioning for the community rather than treating individual problems after they arise.

Research under this branch examines factors on the macro neighborhood and community level that either enhances or impedes the psychological health of a community rather than internal psychological processes of an individual (Kloos, 2012).

19. Industrial-organizational psychology

Industrial-organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that studies how principles of psychology act on human beings who are operating within the business and industry context.

The definition has evolved over time to include more wide-ranged work-related topics, and looks at interactions between people and institutions.

Psychologists in this field center around enhancing productivity, staff well-being, and organizational work performance.

They utilize scientific methodologies and concepts to tackle workplace predicaments such as staff recruitment, training, appraisal, inspiration, job contentment, and workplace culture (Forces, 2003).

20. Family Psychology

Family psychology is considered a clinical science that focuses on discovering the truth behind families and the individuals inside them while improving the well-being of families.

It includes research in biological systems such as how genetics contributes to mental disorders and larger scopes of how community resources could be used to strengthen family relationships.

Through understanding family dynamics and supporting family relationships, this branch of psychology helps families navigate the complexities that arise in their relationships, promoting healthy relationships and overall wellbeing (Pinsof & Lebow, 2005).

21. Media Psychology

Media psychology refers to the use of psychology in the usage and production of media.

It includes areas such as making new technologies more user-friendly, using media to enhance clinical psychology, and studying how media may contribute to sociological and psychological phenomena in society (Luskin & Friedland, 1998).

The field has also evolved to include more emerging technologies and applications, such as interactive media, internet, and video games.

22. Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology looks at the interrelationship between human behavior and environments. It examines how people’s behavior, emotions, and well-being are influenced by natural and built surroundings, such as homes, workplaces, urban spaces, and natural landscapes.

With models in the psychological field in mind, environmental psychologists work to protect, manage, and design environments that enhance human behavior, and diagnose any problems that occur in the process.

Some common topics have included the effects of environmental stress on human performance and how humans process information in an unfamiliar environment (De Young, 1999).

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11+ Psychology Experiment Ideas (Goals + Methods)

Have you ever wondered why some days you remember things easily, while on others you keep forgetting? Or why certain songs make you super happy and others just…meh?

Our minds are like big, mysterious puzzles, and every day we're finding new pieces to fit. One of the coolest ways to explore our brains and the way they work is through psychology experiments.

A psychology experiment is a special kind of test or activity researchers use to learn more about how our minds work and why we behave the way we do.

It's like a detective game where scientists ask questions and try out different clues to find answers about our feelings, thoughts, and actions. These experiments aren't just for scientists in white coats but can be fun activities we all try to discover more about ourselves and others.

Some of these experiments have become so famous, they’re like the celebrities of the science world! Like the Marshmallow Test, where kids had to wait to eat a yummy marshmallow, or Pavlov's Dogs, where dogs learned to drool just hearing a bell.

Let's look at a few examples of psychology experiments you can do at home.

What Are Some Classic Experiments?

Imagine a time when the mysteries of the mind were being uncovered in groundbreaking ways. During these moments, a few experiments became legendary, capturing the world's attention with their intriguing results.

The Marshmallow Test

One of the most talked-about experiments of the 20th century was the Marshmallow Test , conducted by Walter Mischel in the late 1960s at Stanford University.

The goal was simple but profound: to understand a child's ability to delay gratification and exercise self-control.

Children were placed in a room with a marshmallow and given a choice: eat the marshmallow now or wait 15 minutes and receive two as a reward. Many kids struggled with the wait, some devouring the treat immediately, while others demonstrated remarkable patience.

But the experiment didn’t end there. Years later, Mischel discovered something astonishing. The children who had waited for the second marshmallow were generally more successful in several areas of life, from school achievements to job satisfaction!

While this experiment highlighted the importance of teaching patience and self-control from a young age, it wasn't without its criticisms. Some argued that a child's background, upbringing, or immediate surroundings might play a significant role in their choices.

Moreover, there were concerns about the ethics of judging a child's potential success based on a brief interaction with a marshmallow.

Pavlov's Dogs

Traveling further back in time and over to Russia, another classic experiment took the world by storm. Ivan Pavlov , in the early 1900s, wasn't initially studying learning or behavior. He was exploring the digestive systems of dogs.

But during his research, Pavlov stumbled upon a fascinating discovery. He noticed that by ringing a bell every time he fed his dogs, they eventually began to associate the bell's sound with mealtime. So much so, that merely ringing the bell, even without presenting food, made the dogs drool in anticipation!

This reaction demonstrated the concept of "conditioning" - where behaviors can be learned by linking two unrelated stimuli. Pavlov's work revolutionized the world's understanding of learning and had ripple effects in various areas like animal training and therapy techniques.

Pavlov came up with the term classical conditioning , which is still used today. Other psychologists have developed more nuanced types of conditioning that help us understand how people learn to perform different behaviours.

Classical conditioning is the process by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus , leading to the same response. In Pavlov's case, the neutral stimulus (bell) became associated with the meaningful stimulus (food), leading the dogs to salivate just by hearing the bell.

Modern thinkers often critique Pavlov's methods from an ethical standpoint. The dogs, crucial to his discovery, may not have been treated with today's standards of care and respect in research.

Both these experiments, while enlightening, also underline the importance of conducting research with empathy and consideration, especially when it involves living beings.

What is Ethical Experimentation?

The tales of Pavlov's bells and Mischel's marshmallows offer us not just insights into the human mind and behavior but also raise a significant question: At what cost do these discoveries come?

Ethical experimentation isn't just a fancy term; it's the backbone of good science. When we talk about ethics, we're referring to the moral principles that guide a researcher's decisions and actions. But why does it matter so much in the realm of psychological experimentation?

An example of an experiment that had major ethical issues is an experiment called the Monster Study . This study was conducted in 1936 and was interested in why children develop a stutter.

The major issue with it is that the psychologists treated some of the children poorly over a period of five months, telling them things like “You must try to stop yourself immediately. Don’t ever speak unless you can do it right.”

You can imagine how that made the children feel!

This study helped create guidelines for ethical treatment in experiments. The guidelines include:

Respect for Individuals: Whether it's a dog in Pavlov's lab or a child in Mischel's study room, every participant—human or animal—deserves respect. They should never be subjected to harm or undue stress. For humans, informed consent (knowing what they're signing up for) is a must. This means that if a child is participating, they, along with their guardians, should understand what the experiment entails and agree to it without being pressured.

Honesty is the Best Policy: Researchers have a responsibility to be truthful. This means not only being honest with participants about the study but also reporting findings truthfully, even if the results aren't what they hoped for. There can be exceptions if an experiment will only succeed if the participants aren't fully aware, but it has to be approved by an ethics committee .

Safety First: No discovery, no matter how groundbreaking, is worth harming a participant. The well-being and mental, emotional, and physical safety of participants is paramount. Experiments should be designed to minimize risks and discomfort.

Considering the Long-Term: Some experiments might have effects that aren't immediately obvious. For example, while a child might seem fine after participating in an experiment, they could feel stressed or anxious later on. Ethical researchers consider and plan for these possibilities, offering support and follow-up if needed.

The Rights of Animals: Just because animals can't voice their rights doesn't mean they don't have any. They should be treated with care, dignity, and respect. This means providing them with appropriate living conditions, not subjecting them to undue harm, and considering alternatives to animal testing when possible.

While the world of psychological experiments offers fascinating insights into behavior and the mind, it's essential to tread with care and compassion. The golden rule? Treat every participant, human or animal, as you'd wish to be treated. After all, the true mark of a groundbreaking experiment isn't just its findings but the ethical integrity with which it's conducted.

So, even if you're experimenting at home, please keep in mind the impact your experiments could have on the people and beings around you!

Let's get into some ideas for experiments.

1) Testing Conformity

Our primary aim with this experiment is to explore the intriguing world of social influences, specifically focusing on how much sway a group has over an individual's decisions. This social influence is called groupthink .

Humans, as social creatures, often find solace in numbers, seeking the approval and acceptance of those around them. But how deep does this need run? Does the desire to "fit in" overpower our trust in our own judgments?

This experiment not only provides insights into these questions but also touches upon the broader themes of peer pressure, societal norms, and individuality. Understanding this could shed light on various real-world situations, from why fashion trends catch on to more critical scenarios like how misinformation can spread.

Method: This idea is inspired by the classic Asch Conformity Experiments . Here's a simple way to try it:

• Assemble a group of people (about 7-8). Only one person will be the real participant; the others will be in on the experiment.
• Show the group a picture of three lines of different lengths and another line labeled "Test Line."
• Ask each person to say out loud which of the three lines matches the length of the "Test Line."
• Unknown to the real participant, the other members will intentionally choose the wrong line. This is to see if the participant goes along with the group's incorrect choice, even if they can see it's wrong.

Real-World Impacts of Groupthink

Groupthink is more than just a science term; we see it in our daily lives:

Decisions at Work or School: Imagine being in a group where everyone wants to do one thing, even if it's not the best idea. People might not speak up because they're worried about standing out or being the only one with a different opinion.

Wrong Information: Ever heard a rumor that turned out to be untrue? Sometimes, if many people believe and share something, others might believe it too, even if it's not correct. This happens a lot on the internet.

Peer Pressure: Sometimes, friends might all want to do something that's not safe or right. People might join in just because they don't want to feel left out.

Missing Out on New Ideas: When everyone thinks the same way and agrees all the time, cool new ideas might never get heard. It's like always coloring with the same crayon and missing out on all the other bright colors!

2) Testing Color and Mood

We all have favorite colors, right? But did you ever wonder if colors can make you feel a certain way? Color psychology is the study of how colors can influence our feelings and actions.

For instance, does blue always calm us down? Does red make us feel excited or even a bit angry? By exploring this, we can learn how colors play a role in our daily lives, from the clothes we wear to the color of our bedroom walls.

• Find a quiet room and set up different colored lights or large sheets of colored paper: blue, red, yellow, and green.
• Invite some friends over and let each person spend a few minutes under each colored light or in front of each colored paper.
• After each color, ask your friends to write down or talk about how they feel. Are they relaxed? Energized? Happy? Sad?

Researchers have always been curious about this. Some studies have shown that colors like blue and green can make people feel calm, while colors like red might make them feel more alert or even hungry!

Real-World Impacts of Color Psychology

Ever noticed how different places use colors?

Hospitals and doctors' clinics often use soft blues and greens. This might be to help patients feel more relaxed and calm.

Many fast food restaurants use bright reds and yellows. These colors might make us feel hungry or want to eat quickly and leave.

Classrooms might use a mix of colors to help students feel both calm and energized.

3) Testing Music and Brainpower

Think about your favorite song. Do you feel smarter or more focused when you listen to it? This experiment seeks to understand the relationship between music and our brain's ability to remember things. Some people believe that certain types of music, like classical tunes, can help us study or work better. Let's find out if it's true!

• Prepare a list of 10-15 things to remember, like a grocery list or names of places.
• Invite some friends over. First, let them try to memorize the list in a quiet room.
• After a short break, play some music (try different types like pop, classical, or even nature sounds) and ask them to memorize the list again.
• Compare the results. Was there a difference in how much they remembered with and without music?

The " Mozart Effect " is a popular idea. Some studies in the past suggested that listening to Mozart's music might make people smarter, at least for a little while. But other researchers think the effect might not be specific to Mozart; it could be that any music we enjoy boosts our mood and helps our brain work better.

Real-World Impacts of Music and Memory

Think about how we use music:

• Study Sessions: Many students listen to music while studying, believing it helps them concentrate better.
• Workout Playlists: Gyms play energetic music to keep people motivated and help them push through tough workouts.
• Meditation and Relaxation: Calm, soothing sounds are often used to help people relax or meditate.

4) Testing Dreams and Food

Ever had a really wild dream and wondered where it came from? Some say that eating certain foods before bedtime can make our dreams more vivid or even a bit strange.

This experiment is all about diving into the dreamy world of sleep to see if what we eat can really change our nighttime adventures. Can a piece of chocolate or a slice of cheese transport us to a land of wacky dreams? Let's find out!

• Ask a group of friends to keep a "dream diary" for a week. Every morning, they should write down what they remember about their dreams.
• For the next week, ask them to eat a small snack before bed, like cheese, chocolate, or even spicy foods.
• They should continue writing in their "dream diary" every morning.
• At the end of the two weeks, compare the dream notes. Do the dreams seem different during the snack week?

The link between food and dreams isn't super clear, but some people have shared personal stories. For example, some say that spicy food can lead to bizarre dreams. Scientists aren't completely sure why, but it could be related to how food affects our body temperature or brain activity during sleep.

A cool idea related to this experiment is that of vivid dreams , which are very clear, detailed, and easy to remember dreams. Some people are even able to control their vivid dreams, or say that they feel as real as daily, waking life !

Real-World Impacts of Food and Dreams

Our discoveries might shed light on:

• Bedtime Routines: Knowing which foods might affect our dreams can help us choose better snacks before bedtime, especially if we want calmer sleep.
• Understanding Our Brain: Dreams can be mysterious, but studying them can give us clues about how our brains work at night.
• Cultural Beliefs: Many cultures have myths or stories about foods and dreams. Our findings might add a fun twist to these age-old tales!

5) Testing Mirrors and Self-image

Stand in front of a mirror. How do you feel? Proud? Shy? Curious? Mirrors reflect more than just our appearance; they might influence how we think about ourselves.

This experiment delves into the mystery of self-perception. Do we feel more confident when we see our reflection? Or do we become more self-conscious? Let's take a closer look.

• Set up two rooms: one with mirrors on all walls and another with no mirrors at all.
• Invite friends over and ask them to spend some time in each room doing normal activities, like reading or talking.
• After their time in both rooms, ask them questions like: "Did you think about how you looked more in one room? Did you feel more confident or shy?"
• Compare the responses to see if the presence of mirrors changes how they feel about themselves.

Studies have shown that when people are in rooms with mirrors, they can become more aware of themselves. Some might stand straighter, fix their hair, or even change how they behave. The mirror acts like an audience, making us more conscious of our actions.

Real-World Impacts of Mirrors and Self-perception

Mirrors aren't just for checking our hair. Ever wonder why clothing stores have so many mirrors? They might help shoppers visualize themselves in new outfits, encouraging them to buy.

Mirrors in gyms can motivate people to work out with correct form and posture. They also help us see progress in real-time!

And sometimes, looking in a mirror can be a reminder to take care of ourselves, both inside and out.

But remember, what we look like isn't as important as how we act in the world or how healthy we are. Some people claim that having too many mirrors around can actually make us more self conscious and distract us from the good parts of ourselves.

Some studies are showing that mirrors can actually increase self-compassion , amongst other things. As any tool, it seems like mirrors can be both good and bad, depending on how we use them!

6) Testing Plants and Talking

Have you ever seen someone talking to their plants? It might sound silly, but some people believe that plants can "feel" our vibes and that talking to them might even help them grow better.

In this experiment, we'll explore whether plants can indeed react to our voices and if they might grow taller, faster, or healthier when we chat with them.

• Get three similar plants, placing each one in a separate room.
• Talk to the first plant, saying positive things like "You're doing great!" or singing to it.
• Say negative things to the second plant, like "You're not growing fast enough!"
• Don't talk to the third plant at all; let it be your "silent" control group .
• Water all plants equally and make sure they all get the same amount of light.
• At the end of the month, measure the growth of each plant and note any differences in their health or size.

The idea isn't brand new. Some experiments from the past suggest plants might respond to sounds or vibrations. Some growers play music for their crops, thinking it helps them flourish.

Even if talking to our plants doesn't have an impact on their growth, it can make us feel better! Sometimes, if we are lonely, talking to our plants can help us feel less alone. Remember, they are living too!

Real-World Impacts of Talking to Plants

If plants do react to our voices, gardeners and farmers might adopt new techniques, like playing music in greenhouses or regularly talking to plants.

Taking care of plants and talking to them could become a recommended activity for reducing stress and boosting mood.

And if plants react to sound, it gives us a whole new perspective on how connected all living things might be .

7) Testing Virtual Reality and Senses

Virtual reality (VR) seems like magic, doesn't it? You put on a headset and suddenly, you're in a different world! But how does this "new world" affect our senses? This experiment wants to find out how our brains react to VR compared to the real world. Do we feel, see, or hear things differently? Let's get to the bottom of this digital mystery!

• You'll need a VR headset and a game or experience that can be replicated in real life (like walking through a forest). If you don't have a headset yourself, there are virtual reality arcades now!
• Invite friends to first experience the scenario in VR.
• Afterwards, replicate the experience in the real world, like taking a walk in an actual forest.
• Ask them questions about both experiences: Did one seem more real than the other? Which sounds were more clear? Which colors were brighter? Did they feel different emotions?

As VR becomes more popular, scientists have been curious about its effects. Some studies show that our brains can sometimes struggle to tell the difference between VR and reality. That's why some people might feel like they're really "falling" in a VR game even though they're standing still.

Real-World Impacts of VR on Our Senses

Schools might use VR to teach lessons, like taking students on a virtual trip to ancient Egypt. Understanding how our senses react in VR can also help game designers create even more exciting and realistic games.

Doctors could use VR to help patients overcome fears or to provide relaxation exercises. This is actually already a method therapists can use for helping patients who have serious phobias. This is called exposure therapy , which basically means slowly exposing someone (or yourself) to the thing you fear, starting from very far away to becoming closer.

For instance, if someone is afraid of snakes. You might show them images of snakes first. Once they are comfortable with the picture, they can know there is one in the next room. Once they are okay with that, they might use a VR headset to see the snake in the same room with them, though of course there is not an actual snake there.

8) Testing Sleep and Learning

We all know that feeling of trying to study or work when we're super tired. Our brains feel foggy, and it's hard to remember stuff. But how exactly does sleep (or lack of it) influence our ability to learn and remember things?

With this experiment, we'll uncover the mysteries of sleep and see how it can be our secret weapon for better learning.

• Split participants into two groups.
• Ask both groups to study the same material in the evening.
• One group goes to bed early, while the other stays up late.
• The next morning, give both groups a quiz on what they studied.
• Compare the results to see which group remembered more.

Sleep and its relation to learning have been explored a lot. Scientists believe that during sleep, especially deep sleep, our brains sort and store new information. This is why sometimes, after a good night's rest, we might understand something better or remember more.

Real-World Impacts of Sleep and Learning

Understanding the power of sleep can help:

• Students: If they know the importance of sleep, students might plan better, mixing study sessions with rest, especially before big exams.
• Workplaces: Employers might consider more flexible hours, understanding that well-rested employees learn faster and make fewer mistakes.
• Health: Regularly missing out on sleep can have other bad effects on our health. So, promoting good sleep is about more than just better learning.

9) Testing Social Media and Mood

Have you ever felt different after spending time on social media? Maybe happy after seeing a friend's fun photos, or a bit sad after reading someone's tough news.

Social media is a big part of our lives, but how does it really affect our mood? This experiment aims to shine a light on the emotional roller-coaster of likes, shares, and comments.

• Ask participants to note down how they're feeling - are they happy, sad, excited, or bored?
• Have them spend a set amount of time (like 30 minutes) on their favorite social media platforms.
• After the session, ask them again about their mood. Did it change? Why?
• Discuss what they saw or read that made them feel that way.

Previous research has shown mixed results. Some studies suggest that seeing positive posts can make us feel good, while others say that too much time on social media can make us feel lonely or left out.

Real-World Impacts of Social Media on Mood

Understanding the emotional impact of social media can help users understand their feelings and take breaks if needed. Knowing is half the battle! Additionally, teachers and parents can guide young users on healthy social media habits, like limiting time or following positive accounts.

And if it's shown that social media does impact mood, social media companies can design friendlier, less stressful user experiences.

But even if the social media companies don't change things, we can still change our social media habits to make ourselves feel better.

10) Testing Handwriting or Typing

Think about the last time you took notes. Did you grab a pen and paper or did you type them out on a computer or tablet?

Both ways are popular, but there's a big question: which method helps us remember and understand better? In this experiment, we'll find out if the classic art of handwriting has an edge over speedy typing.

• Divide participants into two groups.
• Present a short lesson or story to both groups.
• One group will take notes by hand, while the other will type them out.
• After some time, quiz both groups on the content of the lesson or story.
• Compare the results to see which note-taking method led to better recall and understanding.

Studies have shown some interesting results. While typing can be faster and allows for more notes, handwriting might boost memory and comprehension because it engages the brain differently, making us process the information as we write.

Importantly, each person might find one or the other works better for them. This could be useful in understanding our learning habits and what instructional style would be best for us.

Real-World Impacts of Handwriting vs. Typing

Knowing the pros and cons of each method can:

• Boost Study Habits: Students can pick the method that helps them learn best, especially during important study sessions or lectures.
• Work Efficiency: In jobs where information retention is crucial, understanding the best method can increase efficiency and accuracy.
• Tech Design: If we find out more about how handwriting benefits us, tech companies might design gadgets that mimic the feel of writing while combining the advantages of digital tools.

11) Testing Money and Happiness

We often hear the saying, "Money can't buy happiness," but is that really true? Many dream of winning the lottery or getting a big raise, believing it would solve all problems.

In this experiment, we dig deep to see if there's a real connection between wealth and well-being.

• Survey a range of participants, from those who earn a little to those who earn a lot, about their overall happiness. You can keep it to your friends and family, but that might not be as accurate as surveying a wider group of people.
• Ask them to rank things that bring them joy and note if they believe more money would boost their happiness. You could try different methods, one where you include some things that they have to rank, such as gardening, spending time with friends, reading books, learning, etc. Or you could just leave a blank list that they can fill in with their own ideas.
• Study the data to find patterns or trends about income and happiness.

Some studies have found money can boost happiness, especially when it helps people out of tough financial spots. But after reaching a certain income, extra dollars usually do not add much extra joy.

In fact, psychologists just realized that once people have an income that can comfortably support their needs (and some of their wants), they stop getting happier with more . That number is roughly $75,000, but of course that depends on the cost of living and how many members are in the family.

Real-World Impacts of Money and Happiness

If we can understand the link between money and joy, it might help folks choose jobs they love over jobs that just pay well. And instead of buying things, people might spend on experiences, like trips or classes, that make lasting memories.

Most importantly, we all might spend more time on hobbies, friends, and family, knowing they're big parts of what makes life great.

Some people are hoping that with Artificial Intelligence being able to do a lot of the less well-paying jobs, people might be able to do work they enjoy more, all while making more money and having more time to do the things that make them happy.

12) Testing Temperature and Productivity

Have you ever noticed how a cold classroom or office makes it harder to focus? Or how on hot days, all you want to do is relax? In this experiment, we're going to find out if the temperature around us really does change how well we work.

• Find a group of participants and a room where you can change the temperature.
• Set the room to a chilly temperature and give the participants a set of tasks to do.
• Measure how well and quickly they do these tasks.
• The next day, make the room comfortably warm and have them do similar tasks.
• Compare the results to see if the warmer or cooler temperature made them work better.

Some studies have shown that people can work better when they're in a room that feels just right, not too cold or hot. Being too chilly can make fingers slow, and being too warm can make minds wander.

What temperature is "just right"? It won't be the same for everyone, but most people find it's between 70-73 degrees Fahrenheit (21-23 Celsius).

Real-World Implications of Temperature and Productivity

If we can learn more about how temperature affects our work, teachers might set classroom temperatures to help students focus and learn better, offices might adjust temperatures to get the best work out of their teams, and at home, we might find the best temperature for doing homework or chores quickly and well.

Interestingly, temperature also has an impact on our sleep quality. Most people find slightly cooler rooms to be better for good sleep. While the daytime temperature between 70-73F is good for productivity, a nighttime temperature around 65F (18C) is ideal for most people's sleep.

Psychology is like a treasure hunt, where the prize is understanding ourselves better. With every experiment, we learn a little more about why we think, feel, and act the way we do. Some of these experiments might seem simple, like seeing if colors change our mood or if being warm helps us work better. But even the simple questions can have big answers that help us in everyday life.

Remember, while doing experiments is fun, it's also important to always be kind and think about how others feel. We should never make someone uncomfortable just for a test. Instead, let's use these experiments to learn and grow, helping to make the world a brighter, more understanding place for everyone.

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Are Psychologically Rich Lives Good Lives?

What We Still Do Not Know

• Research Paper
• Published: 22 August 2024
• Volume 25 , article number  88 , ( 2024 )

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• Scott M. James 1  

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Recent experimental findings suggest that a life full of interesting, challenging, and emotionally heightened experiences—what psychologists now refer to as psychologically rich experiences —is valued, not for the happiness it produces (if any) or the sense of meaning it might bestow on our lives, but for its own sake. A psychologically rich life is, as Besser, L., & Oishi, S. ( 2020 ). The psychologically rich life. Philosophical Psychology , 33 , 1053–1071.) argue, “valuable and choice-worthy on its own,” independent of its relations to other conceptions of prudential value. The hypothesis then represents an implicit challenge to traditional conceptions of well-being, like hedonism, desire satisfaction theory, and even some forms of objective list theory, since such theories deny that psychological richness is “fundamentally” valuable. Since the authors ground their hypothesis on the empirical data, it should be the case that the data indicate that respondents deny that the value they assign to psychological richness rests on its relation to all plausible conceptions of well-being. The data, I argue, do not show this. Moreover, the term ‘experience’—as it figures in the experimental design—is ambiguous. Consequently, we cannot (yet) determine if the objects of respondents’ judgments refer to their psychological reactions to events or the events themselves.

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Happiness, Meaning, and Psychological Richness

Taking pleasure in the good and well-being: the harmless pleasures objection, is pleasure all that is good about experience.

I will not be defending any formal (or, for that matter, substantive) theory of well-being in the present work.

There is, to be fair, a further subtlety that future empirical investigations should attempt to keep separate, viz., what one intends (when seeks out a PRE, say) vs. what one merely foresees . For some cases of taking pleasure in a PRE that one finds valuable might represent false negatives vis-à-vis Besser and Oishi’s hypothesis, since the fact that one happens to take pleasure in it is a mere side-effect or by-product of what one was really seeking in pursuing it. In such cases, subjects, when queried, would agree that they would have pursued the experience even if there was no chance they would have taken pleasure in it.

How happiness fits into Haybron’s account of well-being is a much longer story, the retelling of which is not critical for our purposes. Suffice it to say, happiness plays a central role in his “eudaimonistic, and non-subjectivist, conception of well-being,” where the sort of eudaimonia Haybron has in mind “centers on the idea of self-fulfillment” ( 2008 : 178).

This is not to assert that, as a matter of psychological fact, no individual can find happiness in the attunement mode; this is an empirical matter that only further research can settle. Among the candidates who, I would submit, might defy expectations here are combat veterans and seasoned emergency room clinicians. At least some of these individuals express feeling “at home” in what most of us would hasten to characterize as highly stressful situations. Unlike the rest of us, these individuals find “inner surety” and confidence performing in high stakes conditions. See https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/01/02/trapped-in-the-trenches-in-ukraine .

The gap separating psychologists and philosophers on this point is on display most strikingly in the admission that “meaning in life, on its own, does not fully reflect all elements of eudaimonic well-being” (Oishi et al. 2021: 3). It does not occur to the authors that meaning in life may not reflect any significant element of eudaimonia. If all forms of eudaimonia are committed to the idea that it is “a form of well-being that consists in the active process of living well, where living well is understood in objective terms of human flourishing” (Besser-Jones, 2016 : 189), then the idea that living a meaningful life is partly constitutive of a flourishing life is a substantive claim that requires considerable defense; it is certainly not contained in our conception of flourishing.

The following objection is related to—but not directed at—what is variously referred to as “the experience requirement” (Griffin 1986 ) or experientialism , according to which “only experiential states can be bearers of intrinsic welfare value” (Hawkins ( 2015 : 356). While the science of well-being is not explicitly committed to experientialism (it is, after all, a philosophical hypothesis), according to Anna Alexandrova’s (2017) exhaustively researched review of the popular new science, “the implicit consensus is that studying well-being requires studying experience…It is fair to ascribe to the science of well-being some form of such commitment, though it is realised in very different methodologies” (ibid.: XXIV). My concern is how such a commitment leads researchers to potentially artificially inflate the rate of subjects who desire PREs and, more broadly, misunderstand subjects’ attitudes.

The following are not of course drawn from the rating scales researchers deployed. This exercise is an oversimplification intended to illuminate a flawed inference that, in my view, distorts the empirical results. For discussion of some of the actual findings from Oishi et al. (2021), see below.

If this were the only reason to resist the Experience Machine, then Nozick’s thought experiment does not pose a serious threat to hedonism, since the truth of hedonism is consistent with the claim that moral reasons might sometimes outweigh prudential reasons; that is, promoting our own well-being (net happiness, say) may not be the only thing we have reason to promote. Cf. Hawkins 2015 .

This, coincidentally, is how Nozick diagnosed our resistance to the Experience Machine. According to Nozick ( 1989 : 106), “We care about more than just how things feel to us from the inside…We care about what is actually the case. We want certain situations we value, prize, and think important to actually hold and be so…We want to be importantly connected to reality, not to live in a delusion. We desire this not simply in order to more reliably acquire pleasures or other experiences…[for such things] also can be provided by the experience machine. What we want and value is an actual connection to reality.”

Presumably, it was made clear to participants that it was not the regret per se that was being undone (through some exotic neuro-affective intervention? ), but, rather, the state of affairs that gave rise to the regret. After all, we can imagine doing the same things all over again but not feeling any remorse.

There is, I believe, a further concern worth noting; however, since it is unrelated to the concerns discussed above, I will not carve out further space to develop it. Instead, I will characterize it as a request for clarification: How could those PREs that, under a different description, are instances of trauma be fundamentally good for us? Since some forms of trauma do irreparable harm to individuals and since ex hypothesi PREs are fundamentally good for us, in what sense can something that harms us be good for us? The authors suggest “tragedy, adversity, and other challenges” can be “an ingredient for psychological richness” (Oishi & Westgate, 2021 ) that their “negative valences” contribute to “their engagement” (Besser & Oishi, 2020 : 1065), but acknowledge (without explanation) there may be “a point at which an experience might become so painful that its negative valence prevents one from experiencing its richness” (Besser and Oishi 2020 ): n. 9). This latter acknowledgment, however, raises more questions than it answers.

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James, S.M. Are Psychologically Rich Lives Good Lives?. J Happiness Stud 25 , 88 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00783-2

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Accepted : 30 June 2024

Published : 22 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00783-2

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